[From the U.S. Government Printing Office, www.gpo.gov]









                NATiONAL WATER SUMMARY
                      9.,-N WETLAND RES.OURCES
















                 United States Geological Survey
                       IA later-Supply Paper 2425
                GB
                624
                .N37
                1996

















































                                                                      National Water Summary Series


                                               1983-Hydrologic Events and Issues (U.S. Geological Survey Water-Supply
                                                        Paper 2250)
                                               1984- Hydrologic Events, Selected Water-Quality Trends, and Ground Water
                                                        Resources (U.S. Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper 2275)
                                               1985-Hydrologic Events and Surface-Water Resources (U.S. Geological Survey
                                                        Water-Supply Paper 2300)
                                               1986-Hydrologic Events and Ground-Water Quality (U.S. Geological Survey
                                                        Water-Supply Paper 2325)
                                               1987- Hydrologic Events and Water Supply and Use (U.S. Geological Survey
                                                        Water-Supply Paper 2350)
                                               1988-89- Hydrologic Events and Floods and Droughts (U.S. Geological Survey
                                                        Water-Supply Paper 2375)
                                               1990-91- Hydrologic Events and Stream Water Quality (U.S. Geological
                                                        Survey Water-Supply Paper 2400)


                                       Suggestions and comments on this or any other U.S. Geological Survey publication are most welcome.
                                 Remarks should be addressed to: Chief Hydrologist, U.S. Geologocal Survey, 409 National Center, Reston VA 22092

                                                 Front Cover. Wetlands along the Homosassa River, at Homosassa, Florida.
                                                         (Photograph byludy D. Fretwell, U.S. Geological Survey.)














                                    NATiONAL WATER SUMMARY
                                    all
                                         ON WETLAND RESOURCES
    -D





                                                 7






                                       2,
            in



                                                                 81,
                                                                                                     6A










                                                                                    By U.S. Geological Survey

                                                                          Judy D.  Fretwell, John S. Williams,
                                                                             and Phillip J. Redman, Compilers




                                                                              United States Geological Survey
                                                                                    Water-Supply Paper 2425



















                                   U.S. DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR
                                   BRUCE BABBITT, Secretary

                                   U.S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY                                          :3
                                   Gordon P Eaton, Director
                                                                                                           CH  3

































                                   UNITED STATES GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: 1996

                                   For sale by the U.S. Government Printing Office
                                   Superintendent of Documents, M.S. SSOP, Washington, D.C. 20402-9328







                                   United States Geological Survey
                                   National Water Summary
                                   ISBN 0-607-85696-3








                   Foreword

                        National Water Summary on Wetland Resources is the eighth in a series of reports that describes the condi-
                   tions, trends, availability, quality, and use of the water resources of the United States. This volume describes an
                   often-overlooked water resource-wetlands. It gives a broad overview of wetland resources and includes discus-
                   sions of the scientific basis for understanding wetland functions and values; legislation that regulates the uses of
                   wetlands; wetland research, inventory, and evaluation; and issues related to the restoration, creation, and recovery
                   of wetlands. In addition, it presents more-specific information-types and distribution, hydrologic setting, trends,
                   and conservation-on the wetland resources of each State, the District of Columbia, Puerto Rico, the U.S. Virgin
                   Islands, and several Pacific islands over which the United States has jurisdiction.
                        Wetlands serve as a transitional environment between water bodies and dry land and represent a significant
                   part of the Natiotfs natural resources. They contain economically important timber, fuel, and food sources;
                   provide esthetic and recreational opportunities; and influence the quantity, quality, and ecological status of water
                   bodies, which include rivers, aquifers, lakes, reservoirs, and estuaries. Wetlands owe their existence, in part, to
                   precipitation, streams, lakes, ground water, and oceans and, in return, perform important functions that affect the
                   quantity and quality of these water resources. Although wetlands are best known for their function as habitat for
                   birds, fish, and other wildlife, their less well known hydrologic and water-quality functions provide such benefits
                   as reducing the severity of flooding and erosion by modifying the flow of water or improving water quality by
                   filtering out contaminants.
                        Public and scientific views of wetlands have changed greatly over time. Only a few decades ago, wetlands
                   were generally considered to be of little or no value. Those who eliminated wetlands through draining or filling
                   were thought of as performing a public service. The role of the wetlands as a breeding ground for disease (prima-
                   rily malaria) and their inability to be exploited for agricultural production caused them to be viewed as an eco-
                   nomic "bad" rather than as a public "good," as they are viewed today. Because of new scientific knowledge, as well
                   as a change in values (as manifested in our Natioifs environmental laws), efforts to eliminate wetlands are viewed
                   in a negative light by many. In fact, government and private citizens are making investments in the preservation,
                   remediation, or creation of wetlands.
                        Although we now understand some of the benefits of wetlands and government agencies have established
                   programs to protect them, wetland-protection policies remain a controversial public issue. In keeping with its mis-
                   sion, the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) has prepared this report with the intent of informing public officials,
                   scientists, and the general public about wetlands. Our purpose is to increase and help improve the understanding of
                   this valuable resource and to provide the scientific information base upon which wise decisions regarding the clas-
                   sification, use, modification, or restoration of wetlands can be made. The hydrologic, biological, and economic
                   consequences of these decisions are substantial and often politically contentious. The USGS takes no position on
                   these issues but hopes to make a positive contribution to the process whereby these decisions are made.
                        The USGS is an earth science information agency. It collects, manages, and disseminates data; conducts inter-
                   pretive scientific studies and research; and publishes the results of these efforts in many forms. The work of the
                   USGS is organized into four thematic areas-resources, hazards, environment, and information management.
                   Wetlands are addressed in each of these areas. For example, some wetlands play an integral role in water-resource
                   availability because they are major discharge areas for some aquifers. Some wetlands relate to the hazards theme
                   through their role in the mitigation of floods. Wetlands are affected by environmental changes, such as changes in
                   the source or distribution of water, and, in turn, cause changes in the environment, such as shifts in vegetation or in
                   habitat for birds, fish, and other animals; studies of these changes tie into the environmental theme. And, finally,
                   with respect to the information management theme, the process of classifying, monitoring, and understanding
                   wetlands is dependent upon the hydrologic, geologic, and topographic data collected by the USGS.
                        The USGS has taken this opportunity to draw on the expertise of the many agencies and organizations that
                   have missions directly or indirectly related to wetlands to provide a broad background for government officials,
                   water-resource managers, and the general public. You will note that many of the chapters of this volume have
                   authors from other agencies with key roles in research, classification, or management of wetlands. Production of
                   this volume was a team effort, just as management of wetlands is a team effort. We thank our colleagues in the
                   many other agencies that helped make this report possible. I would like to pay special tribute to the late Dr. Edward
                   T. LaRoc of the National Biological Service, coauthor of the chapter on research. He was a leading wetland re-
                   searcher and played a pivotal role in the evolution of all biological research in the U.S. Department of the Interior.
                        Though this volume merely touches on the many and varied aspects of wetlands, it provides a starting place for
                   further study and a base upon which to begin to understand the values of wetlands to the Nation. We hope it is
                   useful, and we welcome your comments on this volume, as well as on our other products.








                                                                                                                             DIRECTOR











































                                                                                             'J4





















                                   Hidden River near Hornosassa Springs, Florida. (Photograph byjudy D.        Fretwell,
                                                                                             U.S. Geological Survey.)





                               There has been a lot said about the sacredness of our land which is our body,
                               and the values of our culture which is our soul. But water is the blood of our
                               tribes, and if its life-giving flow is stopped, or it is polluted, all else will die and
                               the many thousands of years of our communal existence will come to an end.

                                                                   Frank Tenorio, Governor, San Felipe Pueblo, 1978







               IV








                                                                                                                                                                     National Water Summary -Wetland Resources: CONTENTS                                                   V



                                                  Contents

                                                  Foreword              ....................................................................................................


                                                  Executive Summary, State Summary Highlights, and Introduction                                                                         ...............                      I
                                                        Executive summary                    .............................................................................................                                   3
                                                        State summary highlights                      .....................................................................................                                  7
                                                        Introduction             ........................................................................................................                                15


                                                  Overview of Wetland Resources                                       .................................................................                                  17
                                                        Technical aspects of wetlands-
                                                                   History of wetlands in the conterminous United States
                                                                                     Thomas E. Dahl and Gregory]. Allord                                    .........................................                    19
                                                                   Wetland definitions and classifications in the United States
                                                                                     Ralph W. Tiner              ............................................................................                            27
                                                                   Wetland hydrology, water quality, and associated functions
                                                                                     Virginia Carter             .............................................................................                           35
                                                                   Wetlands as bird habitat
                                                                                     Robert E. Stewart, Jr               . ....................................................................                          49
                                                        Wetland management and research-
                                                                   Wetland protection legislation
                                                                                     Todd H. Votteler and Thomas A. Muir                                    ........................................                     57
                                                                   Wetland research by Federal agencies
                                                                                     Richard E. Coleman, Edward T. LaRoe, and Russell F. Theriot                                                       .....             65
                                                                   Wetland mapping and inventory
                                                                                     Bill 0. Wilen, Virginia Carter, and]. RonaldJones                                            ......................                 73
                                                                   Wetland functions, values, and assessment
                                                                                     Richard P. Novitzki, R. Daniel Smith, and Judy D. Fretwell                                                   .........              79
                                                        Restoration, creation, and recovery of wetlands-
                                                                   Wetland restoration and creation
                                                                                     Mary E. Kentula               ...........................................................................                           87
                                                                   Effects of Hurricane Andrew (1992) on
                                                                         wetlands in southern Florida and Louisiana
                                                                                     John K. Lovelace and Benjamin J. McPherson                                           .............................                  93
                                                                   Effects of the Great Midwest Flood of 1993 on wetlands
                                                                                     James R. Kolva              ............................................................................                            97


                                                  State Summaries of Wetland                                     Resources          .......................................................                              99

                                                  Alabama          .........................   101               Maine     .............................    213           Oklahoma           .......................     315
                                                  Alaska           ............................. 107             Maryland and District                                    Oregon         ...........................     321
                                                  Arizona          ........................... 115               of Columbia           .................    219           Pennsylvania           ...................     327
                                                  Arkansas         .........................   121               Massachusetts         .................    225           Puerto Rico          .....................     333
                                                  California       ........................    127               Michigan       ........................    231           Rhodelsland            ...................     339
                                                  Colorado         .........................   135               Minnesota       .......................    237           South Carolina            ................     345
                                                  Connecticut           ....................   141               Mississippi      ......................    243           South Dakota            ..................     351
                                                  Delaware         ...............   ........  147               Missouri     ..........................    249           Tennessee          .......................     357
                                                  Florida          ............................ 153              Montana       .........................    255           Texas       ..............................     363
                                                  Georgia          ........................... 161               Nebraska       ........................    261           U.S. Virgin Islands              ..........    369
                                                  Hawaii           ............................ 167              Nevada      ...........................    267           Utah      ...............................      375
                                                  Idaho            .............................. 173            New Hampshire             ..............   273           Vermont         ..........................     381
                                                  Illinois         ............................. 179             New Jersey       ......................    279           Virginia       ...........................     387
                                                  Indiana          ........................... 185               New Mexico          ...................    285           Washington            ....................     393
                                                  Iowa             ............................... 191           New York        .......................    291           West Virginia           ..................     399
                                                  Kansas           ............................ 195              North Carolina          ................   297           Western Pacific Islands                 ...    405
                                                  Kentucky         .........................   201               North Dakota         ..................    303           Wisconsin          .......................     411
                                                  Louisiana        ........................    207               Ohio    ...............................    309           Wyoming           ........................     417









                                                  V1     National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: CONTENTS





                                                         Supplemental Information                    ...........................................................................          423
                                                              Conversion factors           ...............................................................................................  424
                                                               Glossary    ..............................................................................................................  425

                                                          Figures
                                                               1-13. Maps showing-
                                                                                  I .  Distribution of wetlands and cleepwater habitats in the
                                                                                           United States       .........................................................................       5
                                                                                  2.   States with notable wetland loss, I 780's to mid-1 980's                       .............        19
                                                                                  3.   Extent of wetlands in Washington County, N. C.,
                                                                                           circa 1780 and 1900           ..............................................................    20
                                                                                  4.   States with notable wetland loss, early I 600's to 1800                       ..............        20
                                                                                  5.   Major United States land acquisitions between 1800 and 1860                                         21
                                                                                  6.   States with notable wetland loss, 1800 to 1860                       .......  ................      21
                                                                                  7.   Confederate States of America with wetlands depicted for
                                                                                           strategic rather than natural resources value                 ...........................       22
                                                                                  8.   Location, estimated original acreage, and drainage of Ohio's
                                                                                           historic wetlands       ....................................................................    22
                                                                                  9.   Wetlands of the Central Valley of California, circa 1850 and
                                                                                           1990  .......................................................................................   23
                                                                                10.    States with notable wetland loss, 1860 to 1900                       ........................       23
                                                                                11.    States with notable wetland loss, 1900 to 1950                       ........................       24
                                                                                12.    States with notable wetland loss, 1950 to 1990                       ........................       24
                                                                                13.    Evolution of Horicon Marsh, Wis., from original marsh,
                                                                                           to lake, to swamp, to wildlife refuge              .......................................      25
                                                                  14. Cross sections of selected wetland landscapes showing typical positions
                                                                           of wetlands relative to topographic features                    ..........................................  27-28
                                                                  15.    Diagram showing classification hierarchy of wetlands and cleepwater
                                                                           habitats showing systems, subsystems, and classes                         ...............................       30
                                                                  16.    Photographs of some wetlands in the United States and chart showing
                                                                           examples of their classification             ............................................  ................     33
                                                                  17.    Map showing major wetland areas in the United States                            ...........................       35
                                                                  18.    Diagram showing components of the wetland water budget                                ....................        36
                                                                  19.    Diagram of water budgets for selected wetlands in the
                                                                           United States and Canada               .....................................................................    37
                                                                  20.    Cross section showing percentage of transpiration and evaporation
                                                                           from various wetland components                    ........................................................     38
                                                                  21.    Graph showing monthly streannflow from two wetlands in northern
                                                                           Minnesota       .............................................................................................   39
                                                                  22.    Cross section showing ground-water flow systems                         ...................................       39
                                                                  23.    Diagrams showing seasonal changes in storage capacity and
                                                                           evapotranspiration (ET) in wetlands                  ......................................................     40
                                                                  24.    Cross sections showing principal hydrogeologic settings for wetlands                                              42
                                                                  25.    Map showing continuous, discontinuous, and sporadic permafrost areas
                                                                           of Alaska       ....................  .......................................................................... 43
                                                                  26.    Simplified diagram of the nitrogen cycle in a wetland                         .............................       45
                                                                  27.    Diagram showing movement of the freshwater-saltwater interface in
                                                                           an estuary during periods of high flow and low flow                         .............................       46
                                                             28-33.      Photographs showing-
                                                                                28. A wetland that is habitat for migrating snow geese                         ....................        49








                                                                                                                                              National Water Summary - Wetland Resources: CONTENTS                                      VIII






                                           Figures-Continued
                                                                   29. A petroglyph and a clay pot                        ......................................................             49
                                                                   30. A baby heron in a wetland environment                                  ...................................            50
                                                                   31.     Raccoons         ..................................................................................               50
                                                                   32.     An American alligator                ...............................................................              50
                                                                   33.     An American bittern hidden in vegetation                             .................................            50
                                                    34.     Map showing major flyway corridors for migrating birds in the
                                                              Western Hemisphere                   ............................................................................              51
                                                    35.     Photograph showing a prothonotary warbler feeding on insects                                            ..............           54
                                                    36.     Graph showing the relation of pond density increase to number
                                                              of ducks       ................................................................................................                54
                                                    37.     Photograph showing duck stamps                          ...........................................................              55
                                                    38.     Map showing the location of National Fish and Wildlife Refuge
                                                              System reserves and Ramsar sites in the United States                                   ...........................            56
                                                    39.     Schematic diagram showing a typical U.S. Army Corps of Engineers
                                                              review process for Section 404 dredge-and-fill permit request                                         ..............           60
                                             40-41.         Graphs showing-
                                                                   40. Status of 40 wetland mitigation projects in south Florida                                       ...........           63
                                                                   41. Cost of Federal agency wetland research, per State, during
                                                                             fiscal year 1992            ......................................................................              65
                                             42-43. Graphs and charts showing-
                                                                   42. Summary of Federal agency wetland research expenditures by
                                                                             research category during 1992                       ...............................................             66
                                                                   43. Summary of Federal agency wetland research expenditures by
                                                                             wetland type during 1992                     ......................................................             67
                                             44-46. Maps showing-
                                                                   44. Areas of the United States that have been mapped by the
                                                                             National Wetlands Inventory program, and status of those
                                                                             maps, 1996            ............................................................................              73
                                                                   45. Areas of the conterminous United States and Hawaii where
                                                                             wetland data have been digitized by the National Wetlands
                                                                             Inventory program, 1996                    ........................................................             74
                                                                   46. Wetlands depicted by unbounded symbols                                     ...............................            75
                                                    47. Aerial photograph and map showing wetland features                                           ............................            76
                                                    48. Photographs and chart detailing the sequence of steps in producing
                                                              National Wetlands Inventory maps                           .......................................................             77
                                                    49. Photograph showing flooding in the Upper Mississippi River Basin,
                                                              summer 1993             ........................................................................................               79
                                             50-51. Diagrams showing-
                                                                   50. Wetland functions relative to the location of the wetland
                                                                             within a watershed              ............   ....................................................             80
                                                                   51. Wetland functions and internal and external values                                       ..................           81
                                                    52. Photograph showing a view of a restored salt marsh in the Salmon River
                                                              Estuary on the Oregon coast                     .................................................................              87
                                                    53. Diagram showing the relative position of a basin substrate, the water
                                                              table, and differences in vegetation resulting from the degree of basin
                                                              slope    .....................................................................................................                 88
                                                    54. Photograph of a scientist checking to see if a soi I sample has the
                                                              unique coloration typical of wetland (hydric) soils                                ................................            89
                                                    55. Graph showing a typical performance curve illustrating the comparison
                                                              of groups of natural wetlands and restored wetlands of the same
                                                              type and similar size in the same land-use setting                                .................................            90








                                              Vill    National Water Sum mary-Wetland Resources: CONTENTS





                                                     Figures-Continued

                                                            56. Photograph of a restored wetland in Portland, Oreg                   . ...............................   91
                                                        57-58. Maps showing-
                                                                        57. Storm path and areal extent of tropical-storm- and hurricane-
                                                                                force winds produced by Hurricane Andrew, August 1992                        .....       93
                                                                        58. Storm-surge elevations at selected points along the coast
                                                                                of Florida    ................................................................................ 94
                                                            59. Map and graphs showing storm-surge elevations at selected points along
                                                                    the coast of Louisiana         ........................................................................... 94
                                                        60-61. Photographs showing-
                                                                        60. Hammock and pine forests in Everglades National Park, Fla.,
                                                                                after Hurricane Andrew, September 1992                 ...............................   95
                                                                        61. Dead fish in the Atchafalaya River Basin, La., September 2,
                                                                                 1992    ...................................................................................... 96
                                                            62. Map showing areal extent of flooding in the Upper Mississippi River
                                                                    Basin during the Great Midwest Flood of 1993                  .....................................  97

                                                    In "State Summaries of Wetland Resources"-
                                                            Each State summary has photographs and maps showing-
                                                              1. A well-known wetland in the State.
                                                              2. Wetland distribution and physiography.
                                                        Some State summaries have other maps, diagrams, or photographs showing related
                                                        wetland resources information.



                                                     Tables

                                                              1. Acreage granted to the States under the authority of the Swamp Land
                                                                    Acts of 1849, 1850, and 1860             .............................................................. 21
                                                              2.  Examples of wetland definitions used by Federal and State agencies in
                                                                    the United States       ................................................................................... 29
                                                              3.  Classes and subclasses of wetlands and deepwater habitats as defined by
                                                                    Cowardin and others (1979)             ................................................................. 31
                                                              4.  Water regime modifiers as defined by Cowardin and others (1979)                        .........       32
                                                              5.  Wetland-dependent breeding birds of the conterminous United States
                                                                    including federally endangered or threatened species and subspecies                       ...    52-53
                                                              6.  Federal programs that have significant effects on wetlands in the
                                                                    United States      .........................................................................................  58-59
                                                              7.  Methods of altering wetlands           ................................................................... 61


                                                    In "State Summaries of Wetland Resources"-
                                                        Each State summary has a table that lists the wetland-related activities of Federal, State,
                                                        and local government agencies and private organizations in the State,












                                                                           Executive Summary,
                                        State Highlights and Introduction













                                            Wetland in Bridgeport Valley, California; Sierra Nevada Mountains in the background.
                                                                    (Photograph by Steve Van Denburgh, U.S. Geological Survey.)























                                    IIIE J





                                                                7%,

                                                                                 A"

                                                                                                              J"





                                                                                This wetland is part of a local park near Madison, Wisconsin.
                                                                                                          (Photograph by Patricia S. Greene.)
















                 2







                                                                                   National Water Surnmary-Wetland Resources: EXECUTIVE SUMMARY             3


                Executive Summary

                    This National Water Summary on Wetland Resources documents wetland resources in the United States.
                It presents an overview of the status of our knowledge of wetlands at the present time-what they are, where
                they are found, why they are important, and the controversies surrounding them, with an emphasis on their
                hydrology. The "State Summaries of Wetland Resources" part of this National Water Summary describes
                wedand resources in each State, the District of Columbia (combined with Maryland), Puerto Rico, the U.S.
                Virgin Islands, and the Western Pacific Islands. The following discussion is a summary of the two parts of
                this book-"Overview of Wetland Resources" and "State Summaries of Wetland Resources."


                OVERVIEW OF WETLAND RESOURCES
                    The Overview of Wetland Resources part of this National Water Summary consists of three sections-
                "Technical Aspects of Wetlands," "Wetland Management and Research," and "Restoration, Creation, and
                Recovery of Wetlands"-that contain 11 articles providing information on many technical and societal as-
                pects of wetland resources. The following text summarizes the many facts about wetland resources that these
                articles report.

                Technical Aspects Of Wetland Resources
                    Wetlands began disappearing soon after permanent European colonization of the United States. More
                than one-half of the 221 million acres of wetlands that existed at that time have disappeared; only 103 mil-
                lion acres remain today. Early in this Natiorfs history, it was believed that wetlands presented obstacles to
                development and that wetlands should be eliminated. Federal laws provided incentives for "reclaiming" wet-
                lands. Only recently people have begun to recognize wetland values and attempted to find ways to preserve
                them, including changing Federal laws. These attempts have slowed the rate of wetland loss, but losses con-
                tinue today. The history of wetland losses in the conterminous United States from the time of the first perma-
                nent European settlement and changes in societal attitudes toward wetlands are documented in "History of
                Wetlands in the Conterminous United States."
                    Although there is controversy over the precise, legal definition of a wetland, wetlands are scientifically
                defined by their hydrology, vegetation, and soils. The many different types of wetlands, found in many dif-
                ferent geographic settings, have different functions. Wetlands can be grouped according to these differences
                using a nationally consistent terminology (Cowardin and others, 1979) to identify mapping units for Federal
                and State wetland inventories and to determine wetland status and trends that can aid in planning and man-
                agement of the resource. The different types of wetlands and the classification systems describing them are
                presented in "Wetland Definitions and Classifications in the United States."
                    An understanding of the basic hydrologic processes that control the formation, persistence, size, and
                functions of wetlands is necessary for determining appropriate protective measures for particular wetlands
                and for determining the success of those measures. The source and distribution of water is a major factor in
                the differences in wetland types and distribution across the country. Both a favorable geologic setting and an
                adequate and persistent supply of water are necessary for the existence of a wetland. Different wetlands re-
                ceive water from different sources; ground water, streams, lakes, tides, snow, and rain. The source of water
                largely determines its quality, which in turn is largely responsible for wetland vegetation. The wetland veg-
                etation affects the value of the wetland to animals and people. Wetlands provide many beneficial water-re-
                lated functions. Some wetlands provide flood control, some provide water for aquifers, others feed streams,
                some modify climate, others improve water quality, some help maintain the salt balance necessary for estua-
                rine life, and still others control erosion. "Wetland Hydrology, Water Quality, and Associated Functions"
                describes the different water-related factors that determine what types of wetlands will be established and
                what functions each will perform.
                    One of the best known functions of wetlands is as habitat for birds. About one-third of the North Ameri-
                can bird species use wetlands for water, food, shelter, or breeding. About 138 of the 1,900 bird species in the
                conterminous United States are wetland dependent. For wetland- dependent birds, habitat loss or degrada-
                tion usually translates to population loss. Some international treaties-The Migratory Bird Treaty and the
                Ramsar Convention-are partly responsible for much of the formal wetland protection in this country. "Wet-
                lands as Bird Habitat" discusses the relation of birds and wetlands and the effects of wetland losses on birds,
                and describes some efforts to reduce wetland loss.

                Wetland Management And Research
                    Many of the benefits that wetlands provide accrue primarily to the general public instead of the private
                landowners. Landowners usually have few incentives to conserve wetlands that fulfill the needs of the gen-
                eral public. The Government, therefore, provides incentives and regulates and manages some wetland re-
                sources to protect the resources from degradation and destruction. Despite current recognition of wetland
                benefits, potentially conflicting interests still exist, and disagreement on how to protect wetlands has led to
                differences in local, State, and Federal guidelines. Current wetland-protection regulation commonly require's
                that wetland loss to development be offset by replacing wetlands by means of mitigation. Section 404 of the
                Clean Water Act and the "Swampbuster" program are two major Federal vehicles of wetland proteefion. Coastal








                  4     National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: EXECUTIVE SUMMARY



                                                 wetlands are provided some protection by the Coastal Zone Management Act and the Coastal Barriers Re-
                                                 sources Act. Major Federal legislation and initiatives that affect wetlands are discussed in "Wetland Protec-
                                                 tion Legislation."
                                                     The recent understanding of wetland values and the benefits that they provide has been broadened by the
                                                 research efforts. In 1992, wetland research was being done by 19 Federal agencies-12 of which had expen-
                                                 ditures of $1 million or more-as part of their mission or responsibilities defined by Congress. In 1992, Fed-
                                                 eral wetland research expenditures totaled about $63 million. Ecological processes and functions differ with
                                                 wetland type; therefore, research needs and techniques also differ. Types of Federal wetland research fall
                                                 into one of the following broad categories: wetland processes, wetland functions, human-induced stresses,
                                                 delineation and identification, and management. Research needs also differ among agencies; nevertheless,
                                                 efforts are coordinated to share information and to avoid duplication. Disappearing coastal and bottom-land
                                                 hardwood wetlands are among the major areas of research. These and other areas of research are discussed
                                                 in "Wetland Research by Federal Agencies."
                                                     Wetland mapping is a prerequisite for wetland inventory, regulation, management, protection, and res-
                                                 toration. Maps are used to analyze wetland trends and the effects of projecfs, policies, and activities on wet-
                                                 lands. The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service has a major responsibility for the mapping and inventory of the
                                                 Nation's wetlands as mandated by legislation enacted in the past 40 years. This responsibility is satisfied
                                                 through the agency's National Wetlands Inventory program by producing maps, establishing a wetland data
                                                 base, publishing and distributing reports on the status and trends of wetlands in this country, and by provid-
                                                 ing other products related to the identification, mapping, and inventory of wetlands. To date, the National
                                                 Wetlands Inventory has produced more than 43,300 maps, covering more than 83 percent of the contermi-
                                                 nous United States, 28 percent of Alaska, and all of Hawaii and the U.S. Territories. Other Federal agencies
                                                 with wetland mapping and inventory activities, specific to their missions, are the Natural Resources Conser-
                                                 vation Service (formerly known as the Soil Conservation Service)-freshwater wetlands with the potential
                                                 for agricultural conversion; the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration-coastal wetlands asso-
                                                 ciated with marine resources; and the U.S. Geological Survey-geographically significant wetlands. More
                                                 information can be found in "Wetland Mapping and Inventory."
                                                     Placing a value on wetlands facilitates decisions on which sites should be developed to ensure that the
                                                 most valuable wetlands are preserved. The value of a wetland lies in the benefits that its habitat, water-qual-
                                                 ity, and hydrologic functions provide to the environment or to people. Economic value can be placed on some
                                                 wetland products, but true value goes beyond money. Some wetland values extend beyond the perimeter of
                                                 the wetland and provide benefits on a local, regional, or global scale. Several systems of wetland evaluation
                                                 have been or are being developed to assign numerical values to wetland functions in order to allow for the
                                                 comparison of the worth of one wetland to another. The article "Wetland Functions, Values, and Assessment"
                                                 discusses three different wetland evaluation methods-the Federal Highway Administratiorfs "Weiland
                                                 Evaluation Technique," the U. S. Environmental Protection Agency's "Environmental Monitoring Assessment
                                                 Program-Wetlands," and the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers@ "Hydrogeomorphic Approach."

                                                 Restoration, Creation, And Recovery
                                                     For the past few centuries wetlands have been drained or altered to accommodate human needs. This
                                                 continues to happen, although at a slower rate than in the past. As people have begun to recognize what is
                                                 lost when wetlands are destroyed, efforts have been made to restore lost wetlands or to create new ones.
                                                 Restoration and creation of wetlands can help maintain the quality of wetlands and their surrounding eco-
                                                 systems, and at the same time accommodate the human need for development. Although indications are that
                                                 some replacement can be successful, full functional replacement has not yet been demonstrated. This is, in
                                                 part, because ofthe youth ofmost restoration and creation projects and, in part, because ofthe lack offollowup
                                                 on most projects. Scientific knowledge about wetland restoration and creation differs by wetland type, func-
                                                 tion, and location. We know most about intertidal salt marshes and know much less about replacing forested
                                                 wetlands because of the time needed for woody vegetation to mature. The more complex the hydrology and
                                                 ecology of a system, the more difficult it is to restore the system; complete restoration might be impossible
                                                 in some systems. The ecosystems least likely to be replaced are bogs and fens that have developed over thou-
                                                 sands of years. "Wetland Restoration and Creation" discusses what is involved in restoring and creating
                                                 wetlands and chances of being successful.
                                                     In August 1992, Hurricane Andrew caused massive destruction in southern Florida and in Louisiana-
                                                 two States with some of the largest wetland acreages in the country The storm passed directly over the Florida
                                                 Everglades-the largest wetland complex in the United States and the Atchafalaya River Basin, La., which
                                                 contains the largest hardwood swamp in the United States. Although there were some immediate detrimen-
                                                 tal effects on plants and animals, the long-term effects seem to have been minimal in Florida. In Louisiana,
                                                 the hurricane may have hastened the coastal erosion and wetland deterioration processes that were already at
                                                 work. "Effects of Hurricane Andrew (1992) on Wetlands in Southern Florida And Louisiana" describes the
                                                 effects of this major hurricane on these wetlands.
                                                     The Great Midwest Flood of 1993, in the Mississippi and Missouri River Basins, was the most devastat-
                                                 ing flood in United States'history. The areal extent, intensity, and long duration makes this flood unique in
                                                 the 20th century. Effects of the flood were both detrimental and beneficial to wetlands. Trees were uprooted,
                                                 islands were eroded, many wetland plants were destroyed, and several bird species fledged few young. Massive
                                                 sedimentation buried mussels; marnmals displaced from the flood plain suffered higher than normal mor-








                                                                                                        National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: EXECUTIVE SUMMARY                                   5



                    talities on highways and railroads; the floodwaters transported large amounts of contaminants and nutrients
                    into and down streams; nuisance plants replaced native vegetation; and turbidity made it difficult for some
                    fish to feed. Nevertheless, some fish spawn and feed on inundated flood plains when temperature rise
                    accompanies flooding-which was the case in this flooding. Also, some fish habitat was improved by the
                    creation of deep scour holes and massive underwater debris piles that provide cover. Effects of the flooding
                    are discussed in "Effects of the Great Midwest Flood of 1993 on Wetlands."


                    STATE SUMMARIES OF WETLAND RESOURCES

                         State Summaries of Wetland Resources in this National Water Summary provides an overview of the
                    wetland resources of the 50 States, the District of Columbia (combined with Maryland), Puerto Rico, the
                    U.S. Virgin Islands, and several Pacific islands over whose wetlands the United States has some form of
                    jurisdiction. (The term "State" is used in the following discussion for all these geographic areas.) The State
                    summaries contain the following sections:

                    Types and Distribution
                         Wetlands in the United States are of many types. Some of the more familiar names for different kinds of
                    wetlands are swamp, marsh, bog, playa, tideflat, prairie pothole, and pond. Examples of lesser known, local
                    names for different wetland types are cienega, pocosin, muskeg, wet pine flatwoods, and willow carrs. The
                    "Types and Distribution" section of each State summary contains a brief discussion of the wetland types in
                    the State and relates the common, locally known wetland names to the classification system used by Federal
                    agencies to identify and delineate wetlands (see the article "Wetland Definitions and Classifications in the
                    United States" in this volume for an extensive discussion of wetland types and classification).









                            "'A -




                                       V
                                                                           r
                                 W






                                                                                                                                                                            A
                                                                                                                                             J
                                                                                                                                             J



                                                                                                            np






                                                                                                                                               le
                       ALASKA






                                                                                                                                0            200 MILES

                                                                                                                                0     200    KILOMETERS




                                                                                                          HAWAII                             WETLANDS AND DEEPWATER HABITATS
                                                                                                                                             Distribution of wetlands and deepwater habitats-
                                                                                                                                               This map shows the approximate distribution of large
                                                                                                                                               wetlands in the Nation. Because of limitations of scale
                       0     250     500 MILES                                                                                                 and source material, some wetlands are not shown
                       i   I     I                                                                                                                  Predominantly wetland
                       0  250 500 KILOMETERS                                           0      100 MILES                                      M
                                                                                       0   100 KILOMETERS                                           Predominantly deepwater habitat
                                                                                                                                             F01    Area typified by a high density of small wetlands









                        6      National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: EXECUTIVE SUMMARY



                                                                      The -1@pes and Distribution" section of each State summary also contains a brief discussion of wetland
                                                                      distribution in the State and a map that shows the general distribution of major wetlands. The State maps
                                                                      were derived from a national map that was compiled by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (fig. 1). Because
                                                                      the data used to compile the map differ in reliability from State to State, the distribution of wetlands shown
                                                                      should be considered approximate. Also, because small areas physically cannot be represented at the scale at
                                                                      which the map was compiled, only relatively large wetlands are shown.

                                                                                                                              Hydrologic Setting
                             Example of table I used in each State summary (in this case                                           Wetlands can form almost anywhere that water remains on
                             Maryland and the District of Columbia) showing selected wetland-
                             related activities of government agencies and private organiza-                                  or near the land surface for an extended period. Some wetlands
                             tions within the State.                                                                          are ephemeral, containing water for only a few weeks in spring,
                             [Source: Classification of activities is generalized from information provide I by               whereas others are permanently inundated. In and regions,
                                 agencies and organizations. o, agency or organization participates in Wcet-                  some wetlands are wet only in years when rainfall is much
                                 land-related activity; ... , agency or organization does not participate in wet-             above normal.
                                 land-related activity. MAN, management; REG, regulation; R&C, restoration and                     The factors that determine where and when wetlands form
                                 creation; LAN, land acquisition; R&D, research and data collection; D&I, delin-              include precipitation amount and timing, evaporation and tran-
                                 eation and inventory]                                                                        spiration rates, topography, and geologic characteristics (see
                                                                                              @>                              "Wetland Hydrology, Water Quality@ and Associated Functions"
                             Agency or organization                                  le 0       0 4, 0,                       in this volume for a discussion of wetland hydrology). The "Hy-
                             FEDERAL                                                                                          drologic Setting" section of the State summaries provides an
                             Department of Agriculture
                               Consolidated Farm Service Agency       ........................... ...0                        overview of the factors that determine wetland hydrology in
                               Natural Resources Conservation Service       ................. ...e                            each State.
                             Department of Commerce
                               National Oceanic and                                                                           Trends
                               Atmospheric Administration     ........................................00
                             Department of Defense                                                                                 The area of wetlands in the conterminous United States has
                               Army Corps of Engineers        ..............................................0*                decreased by about one-half since the founding of the Nation
                             Department of the Interior                                                                       in the late 1700's (Dahl, 1990), and the decline is continuing.
                               Fish and Wildlife Service      ............ .......................  .........#0 o0 0
                               Geological Survey    .......................................................... ... ... ... ...0The "Trends" section of each State summary contains a brief
                               National Biological Service    .......... ......................  ....... ... ... ... ...0     accounting of wetland losses and gains and lists the major
                               National Park Service          ....................................................00 000      causes of wetland loss. (For a national perspective of wetland
                             Environmental Protection Agency...       ............................... ...a                    trends, see "History and Trends of Wetlands in the Contermi-
                             STATE                                                                                            nous United States" in this volume.)
                             Department of the Environment
                               Water Management Administration        ...........................e*o
                             Department of Natural Resources                                                                  Conservation
                               Chesapeake Bay and Watershed Programs          ............*                   0
                               Natural Heritage Program       ..............................  .............*                       Wetland-conservation efforts are carried out by Federal,
                               Program Open Space             ....................................................            State, and local government agencies; many private organiza-
                             Office of State Planning         .................................................... ... ... ... ... ...0tions also work to conserve wetlands. The "Conservation" see-
                             State Highway Administration     ......................................... ..._0 ..._ ...        tion of each State summary provides an account of the
                             University of Maryland           .......................................  .............. ... ... ... ... wetland-conservation activities on each of those levels. In-
                             DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA
                             Department of Consumer and                                                                       cluded are primary Federal, State, and local regulations affect-
                             Regulatory Affairs   .............................................................. ...0         ing wetlands, as well as a discussion of other aspects of wetland
                             Department of Public Works               .......................  .............*                 conservation, such as management, land acquisition, planning,
                             Metropolitan Council of Governments      ........................... ...o                        mitigation, research, restoration and creation, delineation, in-
                             Soil and Water Conservation District     ............................e0o                         ventory, education, and many more. (For a discussion of regu-
                             SOME COUNTY AND LOCAL GOVERNMENTS                          e     o   o
                             PRIVATE ORGANIZATIONS                                                                            latory legislation pertaining to wetlands, see "Wettand
                             Chesapeake Bay Foundation        ........................................... ...0. ... ...       Protection Legislation" in this volume.)
                             Environmental Concern, Inc       . ............................................ ... ...               Each State summary contains a table (such as the accom-
                             Maryland Land Trust Alliance     .....................  ....................                     panying table for Maryland and the District of Columbia) that
                             The Nature Conservancy           ................ .......................                        lists selected wetland-related activities of Federal, State, and
                                                                                                                              local government agencies and private organizations in the
                                                                                                                              State. The information contained in the table and in the "Con-
                                                                      serva6on" section was compiled in 1993; because of the often dynamic nature of government bureaucracies
                                                                      and agency responsibilities, the names of agencies and the activities listed for them can be considered reli-
                                                                      able as of that date and no later.


                                                                      References Cited

                                                                      Cowardin, L.M., Carter, Virginia, Golet, F.C., and LaRoe, E.T., 1979, Classification of wetlands and deepwater habitats of
                                                                      the United States: U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Report FWSIOBS-79131, 131 p.
                                                                      Dahl, T.E., 1990, Wetlands-Losses in the United States, 1780's to 1980's: Washington, D.C., U.S. Fish and Wildlife
                                                                      Service, 13 p.



                                                                                                         U.S. Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper 2425








                                                                                               National Water Surnmary-Wetland Resources: HIGHLIGHTS          7



                 State Summary Highlights
                 Following are a few notable facts about the wetlands of the 50 States, the District of Columbia, Puerto Rico,
                 the Virgin Islands, and several islands of the Pacific Ocean, as reported in the State summaries:

                 Alabama
                 Wetlands cover about 10 percent of Alabama and range in size from small areas of less than an acre to the
                 100,000-acre forested tract in the Mobile-Tensaw River Delta. Most of the State's forested wetlands are
                 bottom-land forests in alluvial flood plains. Coastal waters support extensive salt marshes. Wetland acreage
                 in the area that is now Alabama has been reduced by about one-half in the last two centuries. Major causes of
                 wetland loss or alteration have been agricultural and silvicultural conversions in the interior; dredging on the
                 coast; industrial, commercial, and residential development; erosion; subsidence; and natural succession of
                 vegetation.

                 Alaska
                 Alaska has more area covered by wetlands-about 170 million acres-than the other 49 States combined.
                 More than 70,000 swans, I million geese, 12 million ducks, and 100 million shorebirds depend on Alaskan
                 wetlands for resting, feeding, or nesting. Freshwater Alaskan wetlands include bogs, fens, tundra, marshes,
                 and meadows; brackish and saltwater wetlands include flats, beaches, rocky shores, and salt marshes. Most
                 of the Stat&s freshwater wetlands are peatlands (wetlands that have organic soils), and cover as many as 110
                 million acres. Alaska's coastal wetlands are cooperatively protected and managed by local governments, rural
                 regions, and the State.

                 Arizona
                 Less than 1 percent ofArizona's landscape has wetlands. Since the late 1800's, streams and wetlands through-
                 out Arizona have been modified or drained, resulting in the loss of more than one-third of the State7s original
                 wetlands. The most extensive Arizona wetlands are in riparian zones and include oxbow lakes, marshes,
                 cienegas, and bosques. Nonriparian wetlands include tinajas, playas, and caldera lakes. Extreme aridity and
                 seasonally varying precipitation are the climatic characteristics that most significantly influence wetland
                 formation and distribution in Arizona. Recreational use of wetlands provides economic benefits to the State.

                 Arkansas
                 About 8 percent of Arkansas is wetland. The most extensive areas are forested wetlands (swamps and
                 bottom-land forests) along major rivers. Arkansas wetlands, especially those in the Mississippi River Valley,
                 are a critical component of the series of wetlands along the Mississippi Flyway. Wetlands in the Cache-Lower
                 White River system have been designated as one of nine "Wetlands of Inter national Importance" in the United
                 States. Arkansas has lost more wetland acres than any other inland State; most of the loss has been due to
                 conversion to farmland. Arkansas has adopted a program that applies an antidegradation policy to substan-
                 tial alteration of water bodies, including adjacent wetlands.

                 California
                 California's wetlands have significant economic and environmental value, providing benefits such as water-
                 quality maintenance, flood and erosion attenuation, prevention of saltwater intrusion, and wildlife habitat.
                 The Sacramento-San Joaquin Delta regularly harbors as much as 15 percent of the waterfowl on the Pacific
                 Flyway. California has lost as much as 91 percent of its original wetlands, primarily because of conversion
                 to agriculture. Flooded rice fields, which are converted wetlands, covered about 658,600 acres in the mid-
                 1980's. Rice farmers, State and university researchers, and private organizations are cooperatively studying
                 the feasibility of managing rice fields for migratory waterfowl habitat. Wetland protection is identified as a
                 goal of The California Environmental Quality Act of 1970.

                 Colorado
                 Wetlands cover about I million acres of Colorado-1.5 percent of the State's area. Wetlands occur in all life
                 and climatic zones, from the high mountains to the and plains and plateaus. Wetland types in Colorado
                 include forested wetlands, willow carrs, fens, marshes, alpine snow glades, and wet and salt meadows. Wet-
                 lands are vital to wildlife in the State, particularly in the and regions. Colorado's wetland area has decreased
                 by about one-half in the last two centuries, and losses are continuing due to a variety of land- development
                 pressures; however, irrigation and changes in land-use practices have resulted in new wetlands, principally
                 in the San Luis Valley and near Boulder.








                 8     National Water Surnmary-Wetland Resources: HIGHLIGHTS




                                                 Connecticut
                                                 Wetlands cover about 173,000 acres of Connecticut-5 percent of the States land surface. Connecticut has
                                                 lost an estimated one-third to three-fourths of its original wetlands over the 200-year period between the
                                                 1780's and 1980's. Forested wetlands, primarily red maple swamps, are the predominant wetland type, con-
                                                 stituting 54 percent of the State's wetlands. Salt marshes, tidal flats, and beaches are the primary coastal
                                                 wetlands. Wetland protection in Connecticut is carried out at the Federal, State, and (or) local government
                                                 level, depending on the type and location of the wetland resource.

                                                 Delaware
                                                 Wetlands cover about 17 percent of Delaware. Wetlands in Delaware are diverse. Extensive estuarine wet-
                                                 lands line Delaware Bay and the Atlantic Ocean. Delmarva bays, which are seasonally flooded depressions
                                                 in the Coastal Plain, contain marsh, shrub, and forest vegetation. More than one-half of Delaware's wetlands
                                                 have been converted to nonwetland uses or otherwise altered since the 1780's. The State Wetlands Act con-
                                                 trols development in tidal wetlands, and a proposed statute would establish a State-run nontidal-wetlands
                                                 regulatory program. Delaware has established its own wetland classification, which has five categories that
                                                 are based on a wetland's functions and values.

                                                 District of Columbia
                                                 The District of Columbia has about 250 acres of wetlands; all are palustrine or riverine. Most occur along
                                                 the tidal reaches of the Potomac and Anacostia Rivers. About 87 percent of the District's wetlands have been
                                                 drained or filled since the District was established in the 1790's. The National Park Service owns and main-
                                                 tains most wetlands in the District of Columbia. To alter wetlands, permits must be obtained from the U.S.
                                                 Army Corps of Engineers and the Department of Consumer and Regulatory Affairs. Weiland conservation is
                                                 accomplished on Federal and local levels and through the activities of private organizations.

                                                 Florida
                                                 Florida has about 11 million acres of wetlands, more than any of the other 47 conterminous States. The abun-
                                                 dance of wetlands in Florida is due primarily to the low, flat terrain and plentiful rainfall. Most of Florida's
                                                 wetlands are forested freshwater habitats on stream flood plains, in small depressions and ponds, and cover-
                                                 ing wet flatwoods. The Everglades, in southern Florida, is a large freshwater marsh that once received surface-
                                                 and ground-water flows from the Kissimmee River-Lake Okeechobee Basin but which now depends on water
                                                 releases from canals and water-retention areas. Florida has lost nearly one-half of its wetlands, primarily to
                                                 agricultural drainage. The State protects wetlands by regulating development in wetland areas, acquiring
                                                 wetlands and land adjacent to wetlands, and requiring local governments to produce long-range plans for
                                                 wetland protection.

                                                 Georgia
                                                 Georgia has more than 7.7 million acres of wetlands. Georgia's wetlands are diverse, ranging from mountain
                                                 seepage areas to estuarine tidal flats. This diversity is primarily due to the wide variety of landforms present,
                                                 each of which can have different geologic and hydrologic characteristics. The greatest acreages of wetlands
                                                 are in the coastal plain, where flood-plain wetlands are most extensive and tidal freshwater swamps and
                                                 estuarine marshes meet. Most of Georgia's wetlands are forested freshwater habitats associated with streams.
                                                 The Okefenokee Swamp in Georgia, one of the largest freshwater wetlands in the United States, is a mosaic
                                                 of emergent marshes, aquatic beds, forested and scrub-shrub wetlands, and forested uplands.

                                                 Hawaii
                                                 Wetlands constitute less than 3 percent of the State, but they have had a major economic effect on Hawaiian
                                                 society both before and after European contact. Wetlands are habitats for several species of birds and plants
                                                 endemic to the Hawaiian Islands. Wetland formation in Hawaii is influenced by climate, topography, and
                                                 geology; wetlands form where local hydrologic conditions favor water retention near the land surface.
                                                 Although rainfall is high in many areas of the islands, steep topography and the high permeability of the
                                                 volcanic rock that forms the islands result in rapid discharge of storm runoff to the ocean as surface-water
                                                 and ground-water flow. Coastal wetland losses have been greatest on Oahu, where wetlands have been drained
                                                 and filled for resort, industrial, and residential development.

                                                 Idaho
                                                 Most of Idahds 386,000 acres of wetlands are in flood plains and riparian areas along streams and other
                                                 water bodies. Since about 1860, when mining and farming began in the State, wetland acreage has decreased
                                                 by 56 percent. The Idaho State Water Plan states that, insofar as is possible, the State should assume respon-
                                                 sibility for wetland management and protection. Policy plans made by the Idaho Department ofFish and Game
                                                 for 1991 to 2005 focus land-acquisition efforts on wetland areas where habitat protection is critical. Many
                                                 private organizations and groups have participated in projects involving wetland acquisition and restoration.








                                                                                               National Water Surnmary-Wetland Resources: HIGHLIGHTS           9




                 Illinois
                 Wetlands cover about 3.5 percent of Illinois. The largest acreage of wetlands is in the bottom-land forests
                 and swamps along the State's major rivers. Northeastern Illinois also has a large concentration of wetlands.
                 Illinois has lost as much as 90 percent of its original wetlands over the last 200 years; most of the losses have
                 been due to drainage for conversion to agricultural and other uses. The primary State law governing wetlands
                 is the Interagency Wetland Policy Act of 1989, which sets a goal of no net loss of wetlands due to projects
                 funded by the State. Wetlands can be owned and protected by the public as County Forest Preserve Districts.

                 Indiana
                 About 85 percent of Indiana's wetlands have been lost since the 1780's, primarily because of conversion to
                 agricultural land. The current rate of wetland loss is about I to 3 percent of the remaining wetlands per year.
                 Most of the wetlands remaining in Indiana, about 813,000 acres, are in the northeastern part of the State,
                 including extensive wetlands in and near the Indiana Dunes National Lakeshore. The Department of Natural
                 Resources is developing a State wetland conservation plan under a grant from the U.S. Environmental Pro-
                 tection Agency. Several River Basin Commissions are encouraging or pursuing wetland restoration as a flood-
                 control measure with an added benefit of recreation potential.

                 Iowa
                 Iowa has diverse wetlands that include prairie-pothole marshes, swamps, sloughs, bogs, fens, and ponds.
                 Wetlands cover about 1.2 percent of Iowa, but about 200 years ago more than 11 percent of the States area
                 was wetland. Conversion of wetlands to agricultural lands, largely in the prairie-pothole region, has been the
                 primary cause of wetland loss. Wetland acreage has been slowly increasing since 1987 as a result of the Prai-
                 rie Pothole Joint Venture, a cooperative Federal, State, county, and private-organization program. The Wet-
                 land Reserve Program of the 1990 Food, Agriculture, Conservation, and Trade Act has the potential to add a
                 substantial number of additional acres.


                 Kansas
                 Kansas has about 435,000 acres of wetlands, which include sandhill pools along the Arkansas River, playa
                 lakes in western Kansas, freshwater marshes such as those in Cheyenne Bottoms, and salt marshes such as
                 those in Quivira National Wildlife Refuge. Kansas wetlands are important to migrating waterfowl and shore-
                 birds, which depend on the few remaining wetlands in the Central Flyway. Kansas has lost about one-half its
                 wetlands during the last 200 years, mostly due to conversion to cropland and depletion of surface and ground
                 water due to irrigation withdrawals. Wetland preservation and restoration are being accomplished through
                 cooperation among Federal and State agencies and private organizations.

                 Kentucky
                 Wetlands compose less than 2.5 percent of Kentucky's land area, but they have considerable environmental,
                 socioeconomic, and esthetic value. Most Kentucky wetlands lie shoreward of rivers, lakes, and reservoirs
                 and include cypress swamps, bottom-land hardwood forests, marshes, and ponds. More than one-half of
                 Kentucky's original wetlands have been lost, primarily as a conversion to cropland and pastureland; most
                 conversions have been in western Kentucky. The State fosters protection of wetlands through a system of
                 registry and dedication agreements with private entities. Most of Kentucky's wetlands are privately owned.

                 Louisiana
                 Wetlands are a major source of income for the people of Louisiana, providing revenues from harvesting of
                 fish and shellfish, trapping, and recreation. Most of the State's wetlands are freshwater swamps, but the area
                 of coastal marsh is substantial: Louisiana's coastal marshes represent as much as 40 percent of the coastal
                 marshes in the United States. Wetlands once covered more than one-half of the area that is now Louisiana,
                 but wetland acreage has declined to less than one-third of the Stat&s land surface over the last 200 years.
                 The Louisiana Coastal Wetlands Conservation and Restoration Program implements specific projects to
                 conserve, enhance, restore, and create coastal wetlands.

                 Maine
                 Maine!s wetlands are diverse, ranging from inland swamps and peatlands to coastal salt marshes and mud
                 flats. One-fourth of the State is wetland, and most wetlands are owned by individuals, timber companies, or
                 other private landowners. Land-use changes have led to wetland losses. Early in Maine's history, expansion
                 of fishing and farming communities along the coast resulted in the filling of many coastal wetlands. Wet-
                 lands along inland waterways were converted to agricultural use. Recent losses have been due to urbaniza-
                 tion and other development. Wetland conservation in Maine is a combined effort by Federal, State, and local
                 governments and private organizations and landowners.








                  10     National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: HIGHLIGHTS


                                                  Maryland
                                                  Maryland has about 59 1,000 acres of wetlands, one-half of which are tidal and one-half nontidal. Extensive
                                                  estuarine wetlands exist on both sides of the Chesapeake Bay. The Delmarva Peninsula has many wetlands
                                                  in Delmarva bays, topographic depressions whose wetness is controlled by the water table. About 64 percent
                                                  of Maryland's wetlands have been converted to nonwetland uses since the 1780's. To obtain permits for
                                                  altering wetlands in Maryland, a single State-Federal application is submitted to the Maryland Department
                                                  of the Environment. Wetland conservation in Maryland is accomplished on the Federal, State, and local level
                                                  and through the activities of private organizations.

                                                  Massachusetts
                                                  Wetlands cover about 590,000 acres of Massachusetts, about 12 percent of the Stat&s area. Massachusetts
                                                  has lost about 28 percent of its original wetlands since the 1780's. Agricultural and urban expansion have
                                                  caused most of the losses. Forested wetlands, primarily red maple swamps, comprise more than one-half of
                                                  the State's wetlands; estuarine and marine wetlands account for about one-fifth. Regulatory functions of
                                                  wetland conservation in Massachusetts are performed at the Federal, State, and local government level, and
                                                  private organizations are active in land acquisition and management, research, education, and policy review
                                                  and planning.

                                                  Michigan
                                                  Wetlands cover about 15 percent of Michigan. They provide many benefits, including flood and erosion
                                                  attenuation, water-quality maintenance, recreation, and wildlife habitat. Michigarfs wetlands are largely
                                                  associated with surface features that are the result of glaciation. Most Michigan wetlands are vegetated by
                                                  forest or shrubs, but fresh marsh is abundant in coastal and inland areas. About one-half of the State's wet-
                                                  lands have been converted to other uses, primarily agriculture. The Goemaere-Anderson Wetland Protection
                                                  Act of 1980 (Public Law 203) and other State statutes are the basis for Michigarfs wetland-conservation
                                                  program. The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency has oversight of the State program.

                                                  Minnesota
                                                  Minnesota has about 9.5 million acres of wetlands, about one-half the wetland acreage present in
                                                  predevelopment times. Most wetland losses have been due to drainage for agriculture. Minnesota's wetlands
                                                  are diverse, ranging from extensive northern peatlands to small prairie potholes. Minnesota has about 150,000
                                                  to 200,000 acres of wild rice beds. The centerpiece of Minnesota's efforts to protect wetlands is the Wetland
                                                  Conservation Act of 1991, which sets a goal of no net wetland loss. The law fills the gap in wetland protec-
                                                  tion between larger, deepwater habitats that are already protected by Minnesota statute and agricultural wet-
                                                  lands that are addressed by the Federal "Swampbuster" provisions.

                                                  Mississippi
                                                  Wetlands occupy more than 13 percent of Mississippi. Bottom-land forests, swamps and freshwater marshes
                                                  account for most of Mississippi's wetland acreage; coastal marshes also are extensive. Wetlands in Missis-
                                                  sippi are a key part of the Lower Mississippi Valley Joint Venture program for the restoration of Mississippi
                                                  Flyway waterfowl populations. Nearly three-fifths of the State's wetlands have been converted to nonwetland
                                                  uses, primarily agriculture. Mississippi wetlands have been and continue to be a source of timber, and the
                                                  cleared, fertile lands have become productive farmland. The Natural Heritage Program identifies and inven-
                                                  tories priority wetlands.

                                                  Missouri
                                                  Missouri's wetlands occupy 643,000 acres, about 1.4 percent of the State's area. Swamps and other forested
                                                  wetlands, marshes and fens, and shrub swamps constitute most of the wetland acreage. Missouri's location
                                                  on the Mississippi Flyway makes the State a favored wintering area for hundreds of thousands of waterfowl
                                                  and other birds, including bald eagles. Missouri has lost as much as 4.2 million acres (87 percent) of its original
                                                  wetlands. Most wetland loss has been due to agricultural conversions, urban development, and flood-control
                                                  measures. The State has developed a wetland-management plan to guide its efforts in the restoration and
                                                  management of wetlands until the year 2000.

                                                  Montana
                                                  Wetlands cover only a small part of Montana, but their ecological and economic importance far outweighs
                                                  their relative size. About 27 percent of the wetlands present before 1800 have been converted to other land
                                                  uses, primarily cropland. Losses to cropland have been particularly great in north-central and eastern Mon-
                                                  tana, an area that is part of the Natiotfs most valuable waterfowl production area, the prairie pothole region
                                                  of the northern Great Plains. Montana has no comprehensive wetland-protection program; however, the Water
                                                  Quality Bureau of the Montana Department of Health and Environmental Sciences is developing enforce-
                                                  able water-quality and biological standards specific to Montana wetlands.









                                                                                            National Water Surnmary-Wetland Resources: HIGHLIGHTS



                 Nebraska
                 Nebraska has three wetland complexes recognized as being of international importance as migrational and
                 breeding habitat for waterfowl and nongame birds: the Rainwater Basin wetlands in south-central and south-
                 eastern Nebraska, the Big Bend reach of the Platte River (directly north of the Rainwater Basin), and the
                 Sandbills wetlands in north-central and northwestem Nebraska. Nebraska has lost about 1 million acres of
                 wetlands in the last 200 years-about 35 percent of the State's original wedand acreage. Conversion to
                 agricultural use was the primary cause for most of the losses, but urbanization, reservoir construction, high-
                 way construction, and other activities also contributed.

                 Nevada
                 Wetlands cover less than I percent of Nevada but are some of the most economically and ecologically valu-
                 able lands in the State. Benefits of wetlands include flood attenuation, bank stabilization, water-quality
                 improvement, and fish and wildlife habitat. Desert wetlands include marshes in playa lakes, Donvegetated
                 playas, and riparian wetlands; mountain wetlands include fens and other wetlands that form in small glacial
                 lakes. More than one-half of Nevada's original wetlands have been lost, primarily due to conversion of wet-
                 lands to cropland and diversion of water for agricultural and urban use; many others have been seriously
                 degraded by human activities. Some wetlands have been created by rnine dewatering and sewage treatment.

                 New Hampshire
                 Wetlands occupy as much as 10 percent of New Hampshire and are an integral part of its natural resources.
                 Swamps and peatlands comprise most of the State's wetlands. Many wetlands have been converted to
                 nonwetland uses such as crop or pastureland. Others have been altered or degraded by urbanization, peat
                 mining, timber harvesting, road building, all-terrain vehicle use, and other causes. New Hampshire regulates
                 wetlands primarily through State law and the rules of the Wetlands Board; local conservation commissions
                 have an advisory role in local wetland protection. During 1987 to 1993, the State acquired diverse wetlands
                 by purchase and donation or protected wetlands through conservation easements.

                 New Jersey
                 New Jersey has about 916,000 acres of wetlands, most of which are in the coastal plain. Forested wetlands
                 are the most common and widely distributed wetlands in the Stat   'e. Salt marshes are the most common wet-
                 lands in coastal areas. Wetlands are ecologically and economically valuable to the State. Cranberry growing
                 is a significant industry in New Jersey; more than 3,000 acres of cranberry bog wetlands were under private
                 management in 1992. Between the 1780's and 1980's, New Jersey lost about 39 percent of its wetlands. Wet-
                 lands have been drained primarily for crop production and pasturage and filled for housing, transportation,
                 industrialization, and landfills.


                 New Mexico
                 Wetlands cover about 482,000 acres (0.6 percent) of New Mexico; most are in the eastern and northern areas
                 of the State. New Mexico's wetlands include forested wetlands, bottom-land shrublands, marshes, fens,
                 alpine snow glades, wet and salt meadows, shallow ponds, and playa lakes. Riparian wetlands and playa
                 lakes are especially valuable to migratory waterfowl and wading birds. New Mexico has lost about one-third
                 of its wetlands, mostly due to agricultural conversion, diversion of water to irrigation, overgrazing, and
                 urbanization. Other causes of loss or degradation have been mining, clear cutting, road construction,
                 strearnflow regulation, and invasion by normative plants.

                 New York
                 New York has about 2.4 million acres of wetlands. One-half of the 160 species identified as endangered or
                 threatened by the Department of Environmental Conservation are wetland dependent. Counties in the
                 Adirondack Mountains and those south and east of Lake Ontario have the largest percentages of wetland
                 area; counties that make up New York City and Long Island, along the border with Pennsylvania, and in the
                 Catskills have the smallest percentages. From the 1780's to 1980's, about 60 percent of New York's wetland
                 area was lost, primarily because of conversion to agriculture and other land uses. Counties may facilitate
                 wetland acquisition through the funding of bond acts.

                 North Carolina
                 About 5.7 million acres of North Carolina-17 percent of the State-is wetland. The Coastal Plain contains
                 95 percent of the State7s wetlands. Before colonization by Europeans, North Carolina had about I I million
                 acres of wetlands. Nearly one-third of the wetland alterations in the Coastal Plain have occurred since the
                 1950's; most have resulted from conversion to managed forests and agriculture. The Roanoke River flood
                 plain has one of the largest intact and least disturbed bottom-land hardwood forests in the mid-Atlantic
                 region. About 70 percent of the rare and endangered plants and animals in the State are wetland dependent.








                 12     National Water Surnmary-Wetland Resources: HIGHLIGHTS



                                                 North Dakota
                                                 Wetlands once covered about 4.9 million acres of North Dakota- 11 percent of the State. By the 1980's, the
                                                 acreage had decreased to about 2.7 million acres, a loss of about 45 percent. Most of the losses have been
                                                 caused by drainage for agricultural development. The rate of agricultural conversions in the future will likely
                                                 depend on crop prices and other economic factors. Most of North Dakota's wetlands are prairie potholes,
                                                 which provide nesting and feeding habitat for migratory waterfowl and wading birds. About one-half the
                                                 Nations duck population originates in the Prairie Pothole Region of North Dakota and other prairie States.

                                                 Ohio
                                                 Ohio's wetlands cover about 1.8 percent of the State. Swamps, wet prairies, coastal and embayment marshes,
                                                 peatlands, and wetlands along stream margins and backwaters are the most common Ohio wetlands. Wet-
                                                 land area in Ohio has declined by 90 percent during the last 200 years, from about 5,000,000 acres to about
                                                 483,000 acres. Drainage of wetlands for agriculture has been the primary cause of wetland loss, but recre-
                                                 ational use, fluctuating water levels, urban development, mining, logging, and fire also have contributed.
                                                 Ohio designates all wetlands as State Resource Waters. As such, wetland water quality is protected from
                                                 degradation that may interfere with designated uses.

                                                 Oklahoma
                                                 Wetlands cover about 950,000 acres (2 percent) of Oklahoma. Wetlands in Oklahoma include bottom-land
                                                 hardwood forests and swamps; marshes and wet meadows; aquatic-bed wetlands characterized by submersed
                                                 or floating plants in ponds, lakes, rivers, and sloughs; and sparsely vegetated wetlands such as intermittently
                                                 flooded playa lakes. Most forested wetlands are in eastern Oklahoma, where precipitation is highest and
                                                 evaporation lowest. Riparian wetlands and playa lakes in drier western Oklahoma are especially valuable to
                                                 wildlife. Nearly two-thirds of Oklahoma's original wetlands have been lost as a result of agricultural conver-
                                                 sions, channelization, impoundment, strearnflow regulation, and other causes.

                                                 Oregon
                                                 Wetlands are economically and ecologically valuable to Oregon and can be found statewide. Oregon had
                                                 nearly 1.4 million acres of wetlands as of the mid-1980's, a decline of more than one-third over the previous
                                                 200 years. Most of the losses were due to conversion to agricultural uses, primarily in the Willamette River
                                                 Valley and Upper Klamath Basin. To improve the effectiveness and efficiency of Oregolys efforts to con-
                                                 serve, restore, and protect wetlands, the State has developed the Wetland Conservation Strategy. The strat-
                                                 egy is based on the recommendations of advisory committees representing Federal, State, and local agencies
                                                 and interest groups.

                                                 Pennsylvania
                                                 About 1.4 percent (404,000 acres) of Pennsylvania is covered by wetlands. Deciduous and forested wetlands
                                                 are the most common types, followed by open water, marshes, shrub wetlands, and others. Wetlands are most
                                                 densely distributed in the glaciated northwestern and northeastern parts of the State. Wetland area in Penn-
                                                 sylvania has decreased by more than one-half in the last 200 years. The primary causes of wetland loss or
                                                 degradation have been conversion to cropland, channelization, forestry, mining, urban development, and the
                                                 construction of ponds and impoundments. About 50 private conservancy organizations in the State work to
                                                 protect and preserve natural lands, including wetlands, on a local level.

                                                 Puerto Rico
                                                 Wetlands in Puerto Rico are diverse, ranging from interior montane wetlands of the rain forest to intertidal
                                                 mangrove swamps along the coast. Puerto Ricds wetlands are valuable natural resources that provide habitat
                                                 for wildlife and a water supply for several large cities. Nearly all of Puerto Ricds wetlands have been modified
                                                 by man-historically for sugar cane agriculture and more recently for housing development, transportation,
                                                 tourist facilities, and other types of development. Wetland restoration efforts are underway at several locations
                                                 throughout Puerto Rico; an example is the freshwater wetlands of Laguna Cartagena, once one of the most
                                                 important waterfowl habitats on the island.

                                                 Rhode Island
                                                 Wetlands cover about 65,000 acres of Rhode Island, about 10 percent of the State's area. Forested wetlands,
                                                 primarily red maple swamps, are the most abundant wetland type and account for nearly three-quarters of
                                                 the Statds wetlands. Once more common in Rhode Island, Atlantic white cedar wetlands are now found mostly
                                                 in the southwestern part of the State. Wetlands are regulated primarily at the State-government level in Rhode
                                                 Island; different agencies regulate coastal and freshwater wetlands. Local land-use controls are an additional
                                                 wetland-protection measure. Many of Rhode Island's natural resources have been acquired and protected
                                                 through cooperative efforts of private and public entities.








                                                                                              National Water Surnmary-Wetland Resources: HIGHLIGHTS           13



                 South Carolina
                 Nearly one-quarter of South Carolina is wetland-about 4.6 million acres. South Carolina's wetlands provide
                 flood attenuation, erosion control, water-quality maintenance, recreational opportunities, and fish and wildlife
                 habitat. South Carolina wetlands are important wintering areas for migratory waterfowl on the Atlantic Flyway.
                 Wetlands in the State include wet pine flatwoods, pocosins, Carolina bays, beaver ponds, bottom-land forests,
                 swamps, fresh and salt marshes, and tidal flats. About 80 percent of the wetlands are freshwater and forested.
                 Welland acreage in South Carolina has declined by more than one-quarter since the late 1700's, primarily as
                 a result of human activities.


                 South Dakota
                 Wetlands occupy about 1.8 million acres (3.6 percent) of South Dakota. These wetlands are of great economic
                 and esthetic value because they provide important habitat for wildlife (especially migratory waterfowl),
                 hydrologic benefits that include water retention and flood attenuation, and numerous recreational opportunities.
                 By far the most common wetland type in South Dakota is the prairie pothole, which occurs in glaciated eastern
                 South Dakota. Wetland area in South Dakota has decreased by about 35 percent during the last 200 years-
                 from about 2.7 million to about 1.8 million acres. Agricultural conversions, notably in the prairie pothole
                 region, have accounted for most wetland losses.

                 Tennessee
                 Estimates of Tennessee's wetland area range from 640,000 to 1,400,000 acres. Although wetlands constitute
                 a small percentage of Tennessee, they are ecologically and economically valuable to the State. Bottom-land
                 forests are the most common Tennessee wetlands; they are most abundant in the flood plains of rivers in the
                 western part of the State. Nearly three-fifths of Rnnessee's original wetlands have been lost; major causes
                 of loss or degradation in Rnnessee have included agricultural conversions, logging, reservoir construction,
                 channelization, sedimentation, and urbanization. The Tennessee Wetlands Acquisition Act of 1986 autho-
                 rizes the acquisition of wetlands by use of real estate transfer taxes.

                 Texas
                 Wetlands cover about 7.6 million acres of T@xas, 4.4 percent of the State's area. The most extensive wetlands
                 are the bottom-land hardwood forests and swamps of East Texas; the marshes, swamps, and tidal flats of the
                 coast; and the playa lakes of the High Plains. Wetlands provide flood attenuation, bank stabilization, water-
                 quality maintenance, fish and wildlife habitat, and opportunities for hunting, fishing, and other recreational
                 activities. Commercial fisheries benefit directly from coastal wetlands. Texas has lost about one-half of its
                 original wetlands as a result of agricultural conversions, overgrazing, urbanization, channelization, water-
                 table declines, construction of navigation canals, and other causes.

                 Utah
                 Wetlands cover only a small part of Utah but provide critical aquatic habitat in an and environment as well
                 as economic and other benefits. Utah wetlands include the shallows of small lakes, reservoirs, ponds, and
                 streams; riparian wetlands; marshes and wet meadows; mud and salt flats; and playas. The largest wetlands
                 in the State surround Great Salt Lake. Because of the importance of Great Salt Lake and its associated wet-
                 lands to migratory waterfowl and shorebirds, in 1991 the lake was designated a Hemispheric Reserve in the
                 Western Hemisphere Shorebird Reserve Network. Streamflow regulation and agricultural, residential,
                 industrial, and ski-area development have resulted in widespread wetland losses.

                 Vermont
                 Estimates of the area covered by wetlands in Vermont range from 4 to 6 percent of the State's total area. The
                 largest wetlands are in the valleys of the northeast and in river flood plains and deltas in the Lake Champlain
                 Valley. Vermont's wetlands provide flood and erosion control, water-quality maintenance, timber, and
                 recreational opportunities. As much as 35 percent of Vermont's wetlands have been lost; major causes have
                 been conversion to agriculture and residential and recreational development. The State is undertaking the
                 Vermont Wetlands Conservation Strategy, a comprehensive review of current wetland conservation programs
                 that will recommend actions to improve wetland conservation in Vermont.
                 U.S. Virgin Islands
                 Wetlands in the U.S. Virgin Islands comprise about 3 percent of the land surface. Wetlands are habitat for
                 fish, shellfish, and birds, including endangered species such as the peregrine falcon and brown pelican. Fresh-
                 water is scarce in the islands, and wetlands there are mainly estuarine and marine types such as salt ponds,
                 mangrove forests, sea grass beds, and coral reefs. Shoreline wetlands are vulnerable to destruction from
                 construction of tourist facilities and water-dependent developments like marinas and to degradation by sedi-
                 mentation and septic tank leachate. The Territorial Legislature adopted the Indigenous and Endangered Spe-
                 cies Act of 1990, which establishes a policy of "no net loss of wetlands" to the maximum extent possible.








                 14     National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: HIGHLIGHTS



                                                Virginia
                                                Virginia has about 1 million acres of wetlands; one-quarter are tidal and three-quarters are nontidal. Forested
                                                wetlands (swamps) are the most common wetlands in the State. Both shores of the Chesapeake Bay have
                                                extensive estuarine wetlands. Conversion to nonwetland uses (agricultural, urban, industrial, and recreational),
                                                channelization and ditching, and other causes have resulted in the loss of about 42 percent of Virginia's
                                                wetlands since the 1780's. Development in wetlands is regulated in part by means of the Virginia Water
                                                Protection Permit. Local governments may adopt prescribed zoning ordinances and form citizen wetland
                                                boards to regulate their own tidal wetlands; the State retains an oversight and appellate role.

                                                Washington
                                                Wetlands cover only about 2 percent (939,000 acres) of Washington, but they benefit the State both ecologi-
                                                cally and economically. Wetlands are nursery and feeding areas for anadromous fish such as salmon and
                                                steelhead trout. About 75 percent of the Statels wetlands contain freshwater and include forested and shrub
                                                swamps, bogs, fens, marshes, wet prairies and meadows, vernal pools, and playas. About 25 percent are
                                                estuarine or marine and include marshes, tidal flats, beaches, and rocky shores. Estimates of wetland loss in
                                                Washington range from 20 to 50 percent; causes of loss or degradation include agricultural conversion,
                                                urban expansion, siting of ports and industries, logging, and invasion of normative plants and animals.

                                                West Virginia
                                                Wetlands constitute less than 1 percent ofWest Virginia's surface area but contribute significantly to the State!s
                                                economic development and ecological diversity. Common West Virginia wetlands include swamps, peat bogs,
                                                marl wetlands, marshes, wet meadows, and ponds. The Canaan Valley and Meadow River wetlands together
                                                contain about 14 percent of the State's wetlands. The Canaan Valley wetland complex is the largest in the
                                                central Appalachian Mountains. West Virginia has lost about one-fourth of its original wetlands; primary
                                                causes have been agricultural conversions, channelization, pond and reservoir construction, and urbaniza-
                                                tion. Some wetlands have been created as a result of beaver activity.

                                                Western Pacific Islands
                                                Most of the wetlands in the Mariana, Samoan, Caroline, and Marshall Islands (referred to as the Western
                                                Pacific Islands in this report) are in coastal areas. Wetlands on the islands include mangrove swamps, marshes,
                                                and coral reefs. Wetlands are of economic importance on many islands because the staple food, taro, is grown
                                                in converted or constructed wetlands. On the larger islands, wetlands are important wildlife habitat. Avail-
                                                able trend information indicates that on many islands there has been wetland loss or degradation due to
                                                agricultural conversion, urban expansion, or firewood cutting. Wetland activities on islands under United
                                                States jurisdiction are subject to Federal regulation.

                                                Wisconsin
                                                Wetlands cover more than 5 million acres (15 percent) of Wisconsin. Common wetlands include swamps
                                                and marshes in southern Wisconsin and peatlands in northern Wisconsin. Wetlands are most numerous in
                                                glaciated parts of the State; the unglaciated. "driftless" section of southwestern Wisconsin has few wetlands,
                                                except in stream valleys filled with unconsolidated outwash and alluvium. Wetland acreage has decreased
                                                by nearly one-half over the last 200 years, primarily owing to agricultural development. In 1991 the State
                                                became the first to adopt water-quality standards for wetlands; the standards allow the State to control wet-
                                                land development under section 401 of the Clean Water Act.

                                                Wyoming
                                                Wetlands cover about 1.25 million acres (2 percent) of Wyoming and are the most diverse ecosystems in the
                                                State's semiarid environment. The Laramie Plain Lakes wetland complex is home to the Wyoming toad, an
                                                endangered species. Trend information indicates that wetland acreage in Wyoming has decreased over time,
                                                primarily due to agricultural and urban development. However, agricultural diversions, whose original pur-
                                                pose was to flush salts and increase hay-meadow production, have enhanced wetlands along the Bear River;
                                                the Bear River wetland is one of the most productive and diverse bird habitats in Wyoming. The Wyoming
                                                Wetlands Act is the basis for wetland program development by the State.










                                                                                U.S. Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper 2425








                                                                                      National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: INTRODUCTION           15



                Introduction

                    This volume, National Water Summary on Wetland Resources, is ofganized into two parts, a
                somewhat different format than the seven previous volumes (see inside front cover for previous
                volumes) in the National Water Summary series. (The "Hydrologic Conditions and Water-Related
                Events" included in the previous volumes are published sepaxately, as U.S. Geological Survey Open-
                File Reports Numbers 96-107 and 96-145.)
                    This volume is the result of a coordinated effort to compile the most up-to-date information available
                on wetland resources. Although much has been written about the biological aspects of wetlands, much
                less has been written about the hydrology and the non-habitat functions of wetlands. This volume
                presents an overview of wetland resources from many different perspectives.
                    The first part of this volume, "Overview of Wetland Resources," discusses wetland resources from
                a national perspective and provides background information for the State summaries section. This
                section contains articles on the technical, management and research, and restoration, creation, and
                recovery aspects of wetland resources. These articles relate the history of wetlands in the United States;
                the definition of wetlands and a description of the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Classification System
                (Cowardin and others, 1979); hydrologic and water-quality factors that affect the distribution of
                wetlands and related functions commonly attributed to wetlands; the role of wetlands as habitat for
                birds; the roles of Federal agencies in wetland protection legislation and research; progress in inventory
                and mapping of wetlands; techniques for evaluating wetlarids; human attempts to restore damaged
                wetlands and create new ones; and the recovery of wetlands following natural disasters.
                    The second part, "State Summaries of Wetland Resources," describes wetlands of each State, the
                District of Columbia (combined with Maryland), Puerto Rico, the U.S. Virgin Islands, and the Western
                Pacific Islands. Each State summary discusses wetlands in terms of value, types and distribution,
                hydrologic setting, and trends in acreage from
                predevelopment to modem times. Each State summary
                also provides an overview of public- and private-sector
                wetland-conservation efforts in that State and a table
                showing the wetland-related responsibilities of principal
                government agencies and private organizations within
                the State. Illustrations include a map depicting the areal
                distribution of principal wetlands and selected related
                features such as ecoregions, physiography, precipitation,
                runoff, evaporation, or other physical or climatic features
                that influence the presence or distribution of wetlands
                in that State. Some of the State summaries include a map
                or cross section depicting the hydrologic setting of
                wetlands and (or) a map showing predevelopment
                wetland distribution.
                    To supplement the information provided in this                                X,
                volume, bibliographic references are listed at the end of
                each article and State summary. An extensive list of
                suggested references for more information about topics
                d
                  iscussed in the "Overview of Wetland Resources" is
                available in U.S. Geological Survey Open-File Report                         "X
                96-169. This report also is available online at http:ll
                h2o.usgs.govlpubliclnwsunVbibl'bib.htmL Most technical
                terms are defined in the glossary at the end of this
                                                                                Horicon Marsh, Wisconsin, provides
                volume, and a conversion table of water measurements            recreational opportunities. (Photograph by
                precedes the glossary.                                          Phillipj. Redman, U.S. Geological Survey.)








                   16     National Water Summary---Wetiand Resources: INTRODUCTION



                                                    Acknowledgments
                                                         Preparation of the National Water Summary requires compiling information from many individuals within
                                                    the U.S. Geological Survey and various Federal and State agencies. The National Water Summary on Wetland
                                                    Resources is the eighth in this series of U.S. Geological Survey Water-Supply Papers and it was prepared
                                                    under the direction of Robert M. Hirsch, Chief Hydrologist, The report compilers gratefully acknowledge
                                                    the assistance of water-resources agencies in each State in preparing and reviewing the State summaries of
                                                    wetland resources. In addition, the following Federal agencies and other organizations contributed articles
                                                    for this report:
                                                         ï¿½ ManTech Environmental Technology, Incorporated
                                                         ï¿½ U.S. Department Of Defense
                                                               Army Corps Of Engineers
                                                         ï¿½ U.S. Department Of the Interior
                                                               Fish And Wildlife Service
                                                               National Biological Service
                                                         ï¿½ U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
                                                         ï¿½ University OfTexas
                                                    In addition, the following Federal agencies and other organizations provided materials for this report:
                                                         ï¿½ American Indian Resources Institute
                                                         ï¿½ National Aeronautics and Space Administration
                                                         ï¿½ U.S. Department of Commerce
                                                               National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
                                                         ï¿½ U.S. Department of the Interior
                                                               National Park Service

                                                         Although individual acknowledgment of all reviewers, managers, illustrators, and typists who partici-
                                                    pated in the preparation of this report is not feasible, their cooperation and many contributions made this
                                                    report possible. The following persons, however, deserve special mention:
                                                         The authors of the individual articles and the State summaries, who adhered to strict guidelines and whose
                                                    names appear on the articles; David W. Moody and Richard W. Paulson, who had the vision for this report,
                                                    made the contacts, and got it started; Virginia Carter, who provided technical guidance and reviewed every
                                                    article; Katherine Walton-Day, Martha A. Hayes, Helen M. Light, Melanie R. Darst, and Benjamin F.
                                                    McPherson, who prepared prototype State summaries, and D. Briane Adams, and Marcus C. Waldron, who
                                                    helped coordinate the effort; Kenneth J. Lanfear, who provided managerial assistance; Jo Ann Macy, who
                                                    provided managerial assistance and editorial review; Jack H. Green and Chester Zenone, who provided tech-
                                                    nical editorial review; Edith B. Chase, Elizabeth A. Ciganovich, and Mary A. Kidd, who provided editorial
                                                    review and editorial assistance; Hyla Strickland, who provided editorial review and editorial assistance in
                                                    the preparation of the State summaries; John M. Watson, who provided editorial review of the State summa-
                                                    ries; and Susan Tufts-Moore, who provided editorial review for several Overview articles; Patricia S. Greene,
                                                    Robert J. Olmstead, and Gregory J. Allord, who assisted with the design, coordination, and layout of the
                                                    report and its illustrations; James 0. Whitmer, Gina P. Barker, Timothy D. Covington, John M. Watermolen,
                                                    Joel J. Skalet, and Alan M. Duran, who assisted with the graphics;'Jamaica Pettit, who did typesetting and
                                                    layout for the State summaries; Kimberley L. Fry, who provided general assistance with review and prepa-
                                                    ration of articles in the front part (Introduction and Overview sections) of the book; Helen R lpsaro, and vol-
                                                    unteer Judy G. Fry, who proofread the front-part articles; volunteers Katie Green, Joyce lpsaro, and Uma
                                                    Rao, who helped keep us organized.





                                                    References Cited

                                                    Cowardin, L.M., Carter, Virginia, Golet, F.C., and LaRoe, E.T., 1979, Classification of wetlands and deepwater habitats of
                                                         the United States: U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Report FGWS/OBS-79/31, 131 p.
                                                    Fry, K.L., comp., 1996, Supplemental reference list for the National Water Summary on Wetland Resources: U.S. Geological
                                                         Survey Open-File Report, No. 96-169, 39 p.
                                                    McCabe, G.J., Crowe, Michael, Brown, W.O., and Fretwell, J.D., 1996, Hydrologic conditions and water-related events-
                                                         Water Year 1992: U.S. Geological Survey Open-File Report No. 96-107, 1 sheet.
                                                    McCabe, G.J., Crowe, Michael, Brown, W.O., Fretwell, J.D., and Fry, K.L., 1996, Hydrologic conditions and water-related
                                                         events-Water Year 1993: U.S. Geological Survey Open-File Report, No. 96-145, 1 sheet.




                                                                                     U.S. Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper 2425

















                                         Overview of Wetland Resources

















                                           A restored wetland near Blackfoot River, Montana. (Photograph by Kenneth    Lanfear,
                                                                                                       U.S. Geological Survey.)












                                                                                                                                      17
























                                                     Overview of Wetland Resources

                                                     Technical aspects of wetlands-
                                                              History of wetlands in the conterminous United States
                                                                            Thomas E. Dahl and Gregory]. Allord                     .........................................      19
                                                              Wetland definitions and classifications in the United States
                                                                            Ralph W Tiner          ............................................................................    27
                                                              Wetland hydrology, water quality, and associated functions
                                                                            Virginia Carter       .............................................................................    35
                                                              Wetlands as bird habitat
                                                                            ,Robert E Stewart, Jr       . ....................................................................     49
                                                     Wetland management and research-
                                                              Wetland protection legislation
                                                                            Todd H. Votteler and Thomas A. Muir                     ........................................       57
                                                              Wetland       research by Federal agencies
                                                                            Richard E, Coleman, Edward T. LaRoe, and Russell F. Theriot                              .....         65
                                                              Wetland mapping and inventory
                                                                            Bill 0. Wilen, Virginia Carter, andj. RonaldJones                        ......................        73
                                                              Wetland functions, values, and assessment
                                                                            Richard P. Novitzki, R, Daniel Smith, andludy D. Fretwell                            .........         79
                                                     Restoration, creation, and recovery of wetlands-
                                                              Wetland restoration and creation
                                                                            Mary E Kentula          ...........................................................................    87
                                                              Effects of Hurricane Andrew (1992) on
                                                                   wetlands in southern Florida and Louisiana
                                                                            John K. Lovelace and Benjamin J. McPherson                         .............................       93
                                                              Effects of the Great Midwest Flood of 1993 on wetlands
                                                                            James R. Kolva         ............................................................................    97















                           18







                                                                                                                                            National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: TECHNICAL ASPECTS                                                             19


                            Technical Aspects of Wetlands
                            History of Wetlands in the Conterminous
                            United States

                            By Thomas E. Dahl' and Gregory J. Allord'


                                   At the time of European settlement in the early                                            EARLY 1600'S TO 1800--COLONIAL
                            1600's, the area that was to become the conterminous                                              SETTLEMENT
                            United States had approximately 221 million acres of
                            Wetlands. About 103 mi flion acres remained as of the                                                 Wetland drainage began with permanent settle-
                            mid-1980's (Dahl and Johnson, 1991). Six States lost                                              ment of Colonial America. Throughout the 1600's and
                            85 percent or more of their original wetland acreage-                                             1700's, colonization was encouraged by European
                            twenty-two lost 50 percent or more (Dahl, 1990) (fig.                                             monarchs to establish footholds in North America.
                            2). Even today, all of the effects of these losses might                                          The effects of this colonization on the landscape be-                                            Interest in the
                            not be fully realized.                                                                            came obvious in the early to mid-1700's.                                                         preservation of
                                   Historical events, technological innovations, and                                              Much of our knowledge of early wetlands comes                                                wetlands has
                            values of society sometimes had destructive effects                                               from maps and other documents that survived over                                                 .
                            on wetlands. By examining the historical backdrop of                                              time. The origins of settlers influenced both where                                              increased as the
                            why things happened, when they happened, and the                                                  people settled and how they mapped and used natu-                                                value of wetlands
                            consequences of what happened, society can better                                                 ral resources. Few records exist because the original
                            appreciate the importance of wetlands in water-re-                                                English, French, and Spanish settlements were estab-                                             has become more
                            source issues. Society's views about wetlands have                                                lished before the land was surveyed. Settlements in                                              fully understood.
                            changed considerably-especially in the last half                                                  the North tended to be clustered, whereas communi-
                            century. Interest in the preservation of wetlands has                                             ties in the South were more widely scattered because
                            increased as the value of wetlands to society has be-                                             of the predominance of agriculture. Many different
                            come more fully understood. From a cultural stand-                                                land surveying systems resulted in an incomplete
                            point, it is interesting to understand how changes in                                             patchwork of ownership that ultimately caused many
                            opinions and values came about, and what effects                                                  legal problems due to boundary errors and overlap-
                            these changes had on wetland resources. From an eco-                                              ping claims (Garrett, 1988). It was not until 1785 that
                            logical perspective, it is important to understand how                                            the Land Ordinance Act established the United States
                            the loss of wetlands affects fish, wildlife, and the                                              Public Land Survey, which required surveying and
                            environment as a whole.                                                                           partitioning of land prior to settlement. Although not




                                             Washi gton                                                                                       RED LAKE
                                                                                    Montana                                                                       PERIO
                                                                                                                                                             V, S                                                                at e
                                                                                                             North akota                                                                             ERIE
                                                                                                                                                                                                  CANAL
                                            Oregon                                                        . . . ......              1_.                                                                          ve mo I
                                                                                                                                      innes a                                                                         co       Ne
                                                                Idaho                                                                                W sco si                                    L -@Alli                      .,amp@hire
                                                                                                               sou       .6-                                                                                                   assai its
                                                                                           y                                                         R                                                e York                   hN.Island
                                                                                           orning                                                 M      H               Michigan                                              C;Cticut
                                                                                                                                            Iowa                                                   nsylvani         New
                                                   Nevada                                                          Nebraska                                                                                           e 'ey
                                                                                                                                                                        diana         Ohio                            aware
                                                                        Utah                       ado                                                      Ilinoi                          @V@s@                 'I d             EXPLANATION
                                                                                                                         Kansas                                                             irgini                                 Percent of wetlands
                                     California                                                                                                                             n uc y                         irginia                    lost, 1780's to mid-1 980's
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  = Less than 50
                                                                                                                                                                                                     North
                                                                                                                                                                            ssee                   Carolina                                50 -85 (16 States)
                                                                  Arizona                                                       a orn         Arkan                                            So h                                        More than 85 (6 states)
                                                                                      N w Mexi                                                                                                 Car ' a

                                                                                                                                                          Mississip                  Georgia
                                                                                                                                                                        laba a                         OKEFENOKEE
                                                                                                                     Texas                         isl                                                SWAMP



                                                                                                                                                                                                Florida
                                                               0                                500 MILES
                                                               I     I      I       I      I      I
                                                                  I    I I      I I                                                                                                                   J'         THE
                                                               0                  500 KILOMETERS                                                                                                                 EVERGLADES


                            Figure 2. States with notable wetland loss, I 780's to mid-1 980's. (Source: Modified from Dahl, 1990.)

                                   1 U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service.
                                   2 U.S. Geological Survey.








                                      20 National Water Surnmary-Wetland Resources: OVERVIEW OF WETILAND RESOURCES





                                                                                          The original extent of wetland acreage and the effect of widespread drainage is evident in
                                                                                          Washington County, N.C. Originally, wetlands covered over 186,000 acres or about 85
                                                                                          percent of the land area of Washington County@ Large-scale drainage began as early as 1788
                                      VIRGINIA                                   Great    with the construction of a canal 6 miles long and 20 feet wide to drain the wetlands north and
                                         Chowan Ri r                             Dismal   east of Phelps Lake (Washington County Historical Society, 1979). A system of cross ditches
                                                                                 Swamp    I ead i n g i nto the ma i n cana I was des i gned to d ra i n up to 100, 000 acres of wed a nd s so th at ri ce
                                      NORTH  Albemarle                                    and corn could be grown Jant, 1981). Today, about 34 percent of Washington County's
                                      CAROLINA Sound                                      original wetland acreage remains in scattered tracts.
                                             Washington
                                             County               Lake                                                          les U    nd _.                                  Berfle                               'n   Id
                                      SOUTH                       Mattamuskeel                    Bertie            Albernor                                                                     Albemcirie So
                                      CAROL" \@                                                  County                                                                         County
                                      Cacaw
                                      Swamp

                                                                    100 MILES
                                                                                                                       W 'Ington                                                                      Washingtorf
                                                        0     100 KILOMETERS                                             C;ounty                        mell                                             C8unly-
                                                                                                                                                    TY                                          r/-                               Tyrrell
                                                                                               Martin                                 '"I            County                  Martin                                               County
                                                                                                                                         h
                                                                                               County                                                                                                                plp@
                                                                                                                                       Lake                                 County                                 1_!i@  k.
                                                                                                                                                                                                             Pungo

                                                                                                         Beaufort                          Hyde           EXPLANATION                  Beaufort                           Hyde
                                                                                                          County                          County                                       County                             County
                                                                                                                                                                 Wetlands



                                                                                 Figure 3. Extent of wetlands in Washington County, N. C., circa 1780 (left) and 1990 (right). (Source: U.S. Fish
                                                                                 and Wildlife Service, Status and Trends, unpub. data,                        1994.)


                                                                                 established to provide information on natural re-                                 lina were surveyed in 1763 so that land could be re-
                                                                                 sources, surveys do provide some information about                                claimed for water transportation routes. Farming on
                                                                                 the distribution and location of wetlands.                                        large plantations was common practice in the South
                                                                                 During the 1700's, wetlands were regarded as                                      and necessitated some drainage or manipulation of
                                                                                 swampy lands that bred diseases, restricted overland                              wetlands.
                                      Technical advances                         travel, impeded the production of food and fiber, and                                   By the 1780's, immigrants had settled along the
                                      facilitated wetland                        generally were not useful for frontier survival. Set-                             fertile river valleys of the Northeast and as far south
                                                                                 ders, commercial interests, and governments agreed                                as present-day Georgia. Wetlands in these river val-
                                             conversion.                         that wetlands presented obstacles to development, and                             leys suffered losses with this settlement (fig. 4). Small
                                                                                 that wetlands should be eliminated and the land re-                               towns and farms were established in the valleys along
                                                                                 claimed for other purposes. Most pioneers viewed                                  the rivers of Massachusetts, Connecticut, New York,
                                                                                 natural resources from wetlands as things to be used                              and Pennsylvania. Settlement extended to the valleys
                                                                                 without limit (Tebeau, 1980). The most productive                                 beyond the Appalachian Mountains in Virginia and
                                                                                 tracts of land in fertile river valleys in parts of Vir-                          followed the major rivers inland through the Caroli-
                                                                                 ginia had been claimed and occupied before 1700.                                  nas by 1800.
                                                                                 The resulting shortage of choice land stimulated colo-
                                                                                          nists to move south to the rich bottom lands
                                                                                          along the Chowan River and Albemarle
                                                                                          Sound of North Carolina on the flat Atlan-

                                      . .........
                                                                                          tic coastal plain. Initially, settlements con-
                                                                                          sisted primarily of shelters and subsistence
                                                                                          farms on small tracts of land. To extend the
                                                                                          productive value of available land, wetlands
                                                                                          on these small tracts were drained by small
                                                                                          hand-dug ditches. During the mid- to late
                                                                                          1700's, as the population grew, land clear-
                                                                                          ing and farming for profit began to affect
                                                                                          larger tracts of land; many coastal plain wet-                             Figure 4. States with notable wetland loss,
                                                                                          lands were converted to farmland (fig. 3).                                 early 1600's to 1800.
                                                                                          Once drained, these areas provided produc-
                                      VIR    "NA                                          tive agricultural lands for growing cash                                 1800 TO 1860-WESTWARD
                                             6

                                         C,owan Rve
                                                        r


                                                   art.
                                                   d
                                                                                 G
                                                                                 D
                                                                                 S
                                                                                 W
                                                                                 r
                                                                                 S
                                                                                 a
                                                                                 m
                                                                                 a
                                                                                 a'
                                                                                 a
                                                                                 m
                                                                                 p

                                      NR@    Alba
                                      0
                                      C
                                      AR'I-  Su.
                                             Was,
                                             Count,

                                      SoT
                                      UH                          Me  @_--k..,
                                      I
                                      L" A
                                      R
                                      C._w
                                      Swamp


                                                              11. K",.".s









































                                      Oil-powered dredge digging a                        crops.                                                                   EXPANSION
                                      30-foot-wide ditch to drain                               Widespread wetland drainage was most
                                      wetlands near Carroll, Iowa.                        prevalent in the southern colonies. In 1754,                                   The period between 1800 and 1860 was a time
                                      (Photograph courtesy of National                    South Carolina authorized the drainage of                                of growth in the United States. During these decades,
                                      Archives, 8-D-2214-2570.)                           Cacaw Swamp for agricultural use (Beau-                                  numerous land acquisitions-the Louisiana Purchase
                                                                                          champ, 1987). Similarly, areas of the Great                              (1803); Florida and eastern Louisiana ceded by Spain
                                                                                          Dismal Swamp in Virginia and North Caro-                                 (1819); annexation ofTexas (1845); the Oregon Corn-








                                                                                                       National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: TECHNICAL ASPECTS                            21


                                         Red River Basin                  Claimed area-                in the Midwest (Ross, 1956). These inno-
                                                                          became part of
                                               (1818)                     State of Maine               vations ultimately took a toll on wetlands
                          Oregon                                               (1842)                  as more land was drained, cleared, and
                      Compromise
                          (1846)                                              -                        plowed for fartriing.
                                                                                                            Wetland drainage continued. In the
                                                    Louisiana                                          Midwest, the drainage of the Lake Erie
                          Mexican                   Purchase                                           marshes of Michigan and Ohio probably
                          Cession                    (1803)                                            started about 1836. Cotton and tobacco
                          (1848)                                        States and                     farming continued to flourish in the South-
                                                                         Territories                   ern States and precipitated the additional
                                                                          J 1800)                      drainage of thousands of acres of wetlands
                                                    Texas                                 Florida      for conversion to cropland.
                     Gadsden                     Annexation                               Cession
                     Purchase                       (1845)                                (18               Wetlands also were being modified in
                     (1853)                                      Claimed area-               19)       other ways. The Horicon Marsh in Wiscon-
                                                                 became part   of                      sin was dammed and flooded in 1846 for a
                                                                State of Louisiana                     transportation route and to provide com-
                                                                     (1812)
                                                                                                       mercial fishing. Toward the middle of the
                     Figure 5. Major United States land acquisitions between 1800                      century, lumbering was an important in-
                     and 1860. (Source: U.S. Geological Survey, 1970.)                                 dustry in the Midwest, supplying wood for
                                                                                                       construction and fuel for stoves and fire-
                     promise (1846); and lands ceded from Mexico                          places. Much of the Nations timber came from the
                     (I 848)-greatly expanded the land area of the United                 swamp forests of Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois, which
                     States (Garrett, 1988) (fig. 5). With this land expan-               typically contained a mix of birch, ash, elm, oak, cot-
                     sion, the population grew from 7.2 million in 1810                   tonwood, poplar, maple, basswood, and hickory.
                     to 12.8 million in 1830 (U.S. Bureau of the Census,                       In 1849, Congress passed the first of the Swamp
                     1832). Land speculation increased with this rapid                    Land Acts, which granted all swamp and overflow
                     growth and marked a period when land and resources                   lands in Louisiana to the State for reclamation. In
                     seemed to be available for the taking. It was a time of              1850, the Act was made applicable to 12 other States,
                     rapid inland movement of settlers westward into the                  and in 1860, it was extended to include lands in two                    Table 1. Acreage granted to
                     wetland-rich areas of the Ohio and Mississippi River                 additional States (Shaw and Fredine, 1956) (table 1).                   the States under the
                     Valleys (fig. 2). Large-scale conversion of wetlands                 Although most States did not begin immediate large-                     authority of the Swamp
                     to farmlands started to have a real effect on the dis-               scale reclamation projects, this legislation clearly set                Land Acts of 1849, 1850,
                     tribution and abundance of wetlands in the United                    the tone that the Federal Government promoted wet-                      and 1860
                     States. Areas where notable wetland loss occurred be-                land drainage and reclamation for settlement and de-                    YEAR       STATE     I ACRES
                     tween 1800 and 1860 are shown in figure 6.                           velopment. This tone pervaded policy and land-use                       1849     Louisiana      9,493,456
                                                                                          trends for the next century.                                                     Alabama          441,289
                                                                                                                                                                           Arkansas       7,686,575
                                                                                          1860 TO 1900-AGRICULTURE MOVES                                                   California     2,192,875
                                                                                          WEST                                                                             Florida       20,325,013
                                                                                                                                                                           Illinois       1,460,164
                                                                                               The American Civil War (1861-65) affected wet-                     1850     Indiana        1,259,231
                                                                                          lands because traversing swamps and marshes with                                 Iowa           1,196,392
                                                                                          heavy equipment presented major logistical problems                              Michigan       5,680,310
                                                                                          for both armies. The design, engineering, and con-                               Mississippi    3,347,860
                                                                                          struction of transportation and communication net-                               Missouri       3,432,481
                                                                                          works were stimulated. Attention became focused on                               Ohio              26,372
                                                                                          the development of routes around, through, or over                               Wisconsin      3,360,786
                          Figure 6. States with notable wetland loss,                     water bodies and wetlands, and on production of ac-                              Minnesota      4,706,503
                          1800 to 1860.                                                   curate maps (fig. 7). These maps provided an early                      1860     Oregon           286,108
                          Technical advances throughout the 1 800's greatly               glimpse of some of the Nation7s wetlands.
                     facilitated wetland conversions. The opening of the                       After the war, the Natiorfs attention focused on                            TOTAL         64,895A15
                     Erie Canal in 1825 provided settlers with an alterna-                westward expansion and settlement. Railroads were
                     tive mode and route of travel from New York to the                   important in the initial development of transportation
                     Great Lakes States, increasing migration of farmers                  routes. The railroads not only opened new lands, in-
                     to the Midwest. The canal also provided low-cost                     cluding wetlands, to development, but the railroad in-
                     transportation of timber and agricultural products                   dustry also was a direct consumer of wetland forest
                     from the Natiorfs interior to eastern markets and sea-               products. In the 1860's, more than 30,000 miles of
                     ports (McNall, 195 2). Another innovation, the steam-                railroad track existed in the United States (Stover,
                     powered dredge, allowed the channelizing or clear-                   1961). The railroads of Ohio consumed I million
                     ing of small waterways at the expense of adjacent wet-               cords of wood annually just for fuel (Gordon, 1969).
                     lands. Between 1810 and 1840, new agricultural                       The additional quantity of wood used for ties is not
                     implements-plows, rakes, and cultivators--enabled                    known. From 1859 to 1885, intense timber cutting
                     settlers to break ground previously not considered for               and land clearing eliminated many of Ohio7s wetlands,
                     farming (McManis, 1964). Mechanical reapers intro-                   including the Black Swamp (fig. 8).
                     duced in the 1830's stimulated competition in, and                        The Black Swamp was in the northwestern cor-
                     furthered refinements of, farm equipment marketed                    ner of Ohio and was a barrier to travel and settlement.









                    22      National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: OVERVIEW OF WETLAND RESOURCES



                                                                                                                               As new kinds of machinery increased the ability
                                                                                                                          to till more land, the conversion of wetlands to farm-
                                                                                                                          lands increased rapidly. Huge wheat farms, or "Bo-
                                                                                                                          nanza Farms," were operating in the Dakota Territory
                                                                                                                          (present-day North and South Dakota) by 1875. New
                                                                                                                          mechanical seeders, harrowers, binders, and thresh-
                                                                                                                          ers, designed specifically for wheat production, were
                                                                                                                          used to cultivate large tracts of land for these farms
                                                                                                                          (Knue, 1988). Many wetlands were lost as a result of
                                                                                                                          these operations.
                                                                                                                               Improvements in drainage technology greatly
                                                                                                                          affected wetland losses in the East and the Midwest.
                                                                                                                          As the use of steam power expanded, replacing hand
                                                                                                                          labor for digging ditches and manufacturing drainage
                                                                                                                          tiles, the production and installation of drainage tiles
                                                                                                                          increased rapidly. By 1880, 1,140 factories located
                                                                                                                          mainly in Illinois, Indiana, and Ohio manufactured
                                                                                                                          drainage tiles that were used to drain wetlands for
                                                                                                                          farming (Pavelis, 1987). By 1882, more than 30,000
                                                                                                                          miles of tile drains were operating in Indiana alone.
                                                                                                                          By 1884, Ohio had 20,000 miles of public ditches de-
                      Figure 7. Confederate States of America map of Southeastern United States with                      signed to drain I I million acres of land (Wooten and
                     wetlands depicted for strategic rather than natural resources value. (Source:                        Jones, 1955).
                      National Archives, Record Group 94, Civil War Atlas, Plate CXLIV)                                        Wetland conversion in the Central Valley of Cali-
                                                                                                                          fornia began in the mid- I 800's, when farmers began
                                                                                                                          diking and draining the flood-plain areas of the val-
                                                       This forested wetland was estimated to have been 120               ley for cultivation (fig. 9). Other States had notable
                                                       miles long and 40 miles wide, covering an area nearly              losses of wetlands between 1860 and 1900 (fig, 10).
                                                       equal in size to Connecticut (Gordon, 1969; Ohio De-
                                                       partment of Natural Resources, 1988). The swamp,                   1900 TO 1950-CHANGING
                                                       which was an elm-ash forested wetland typical of the               TECHNOLOGY
                                                       region, contained a variety of commercially valuable
                                                       trees (Eyre, 1980). Nothing was left of the Black                       The first half of the twentieth century was a time
                                                       Swamp by the end of the nineteenth century.                        of ambitious engineering and drainage operations.
                                                              During the mid- to late 1880's, agriculture ex-             Two World Wars, a rapidly growing population, and
                                                       panded rapidly westward along the major river sys-                 industrial growth fueled the demand for land as in-
                                                       tems. Several regions of abundant wetlands lay di-                 dustry and agriculture propelled the United States to
                                                       rectly in the path of this expansion (Wooten and Jones,            the status of a world leader. Technology was increas-
                                                       1955), including:                                                  ingly important in manipulation of the Nation's
                                                         - The prairie pothole wetlands of western Minne-                 water resources. Two of the most notable projects that
                                                              sota, northern Iowa, and North and South Dakota             affected wetlands were California's Central Valley
                                                         - The bottom lands of Missouri and Arkansas in the               Project and the lock and dam system on the Missis-
                                                              lower Mississippi River alluvial plain                      sippi River.
                                                         - The delta wetlands of Mississippi and Louisiana                     Although draining had begun one-half century
                                                         - The gulf plains of Texas                                       earlier, wetland modification in the Central Valley
                                                              By the 1860's, settlers started to farm and drain           accelerated early in the 20th century. By the 1920's,
                                                       the prairie pothole region. At first, only a modest                about 70 percent of the original wetland acreage had
                                                       number ofpotholes were drained. By the late 1800's,                been modified by levees, drainage, and water-diver-
                                                       however, the numbers had increased significantly.                  Sion projects (Frayer and others, 1989). In the 1930's,


                                 ICHIGAN                                 Lake Erie
                                                                                 I
                                                                           Marshe
                                                                                                                                      AREA        DATE
                                                                                                                                    IN ACRES    DRAINED
                                                                                                      HISTORIC WETLANDS                                          SOURCE
                                                                                 k M @
                                                              1
                                                               7                                     Black Swamp                     3,072,000  1859-1885  Ohio Dept. Nat. Res., 1988
                                                              -1-, @`            aIT-
                              LINOIS                   '1@j_                                         Pickaway Plains                     4,800    1821     Gordon, 1969
                                                                                 marms
                                                                         ff6                         Scioto Marsh                       16,000  1859,1883  Gordon,1969
                                   KENTUCKY                              rdiii   U@_..               Other marshes, Hardin County        9,000    1860's   Howe, 1900
                          0        200 MILES                                                         Hog Creek Marsh                     8,DOD  1868-1874  Gorclon,1969
                          0    200 KILOMETERS                       D u . an,s                       Cranberry Marsh                     1,000  Unknown    Gordon, 1969
                                                                       ine                           Lake Erie Marshes                 300,000  1936-1974  Bednarik, 1984
                                                              Pick
                                                                ,@a
                                                                PZR                                  Dougan's Prairie                Unknown      1827     Middleton, 1917
                                                                L                                                         TOTAL     3A10,800
                                           0       50 MILES   i
                                                                                 L
                                                                                             Figure 8. Location, estimated original acreage, and drainage date of Ohio's
                                           0   50 KILOMETERS
                                                                                             historic wetlands.








                                                                                           National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: TECHNICAL ASPECTS                   23




                                                                        AREA OF INTEREST
                                                                   C)                1990
                                  AREA OF INTEREST                                   CENTRAL          Originally the Central Valley of California
                                                                                                                different than it is now. Tulare
                                               1820                                  VALLEY           was very
                                                                                                      Lake held water in a basin with a surface
                                               CENTRAL                            Lake                        proximately four times the surface
                                                                                                      area ap
                                                                                 Tahoe
                                               VALLEY
                                                                                                      area of Lake Tahoe. Buena Vista and Kern
                                             Lake                                                     Lakes also held water as runoff accumulated
                                            Tahoe
                                                                                                      from the Sierra Nevada. The rivers and
                                                                                                      streams that flowed into the Central Valley
                                                                                                      were lined with bottom-land forests com-
                                                                                                           posed of willow, sycamore, oak, elder,
                                                                                                               poplar, and alder; lush stands of wet-
                                                                       ulare                                     land grasses and tules dominated
                                                                    La bed
                                 Tulare                                   Buena                                      the valley floors and prairies
                                                                          V, a          Kern
                                  Lake                                   La eb"ed       Lake                           (Hundley, 1992). Prior to
                                    Buena                                                                              the mid-l 800's, about 4 million
                                     Vista         Kern
                                     Lake          Lake                                                                of the 13 m i I I ion acres that
                                                                EXPLANATION                                            made up California's Central
                                                                     Wetlands         _ul                              Valley were estimated to be
                       0                    200 MILEI                                                                  wetland.

                       0           200 KILOMETERS


                  Figure 9. Wetlands of the Central Valley of California, circa 1820 (left) and 1990 (right). (Source: U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service,
                  Status and Trends, unpub. data, 1994.)

                  large-scale flood-control projects, diversion dams,           exchanged for another. Although some pools of the
                  and water-control structures were being built on the          Upper Mississippi River have problems with silt depo-
                  tributary rivers entering the valley.                         sition and restricted water circulation, these "created"
                       Wetland modification also continued farther east.        wetland areas provide habitat for fur-bearing animals,
                  Before the installation of the lock and dam system in         waterfowl, and fish.
                  1924, the bottom lands of the Mississippi River cor-               In other parts of the country, this era was marked
                  ridor were primarily wooded islands separated by              by urban and agricultural expansion projects that
                  deep sloughs (Green, 1984). Hundreds of small lakes           drained both large and small wetlands. Some of the
                  and ponds were scattered throughout extensive                 most ambitious projects were attempts to drain and
                  wooded areas. The river channel was subject to shift-         cultivate Horicon Marsh in Wisconsin in 1904; com-
                  ing sands and shallows, and changed constantly. Lake          mercial timber harvesting in southern Georgia, which
                  and dam structures were built to create a permanent           began in 1908 as a precursor to attempts to drain the
                  navigable waterway. The water depth increased be-             Okefenokee Swamp (Trowell, 1988); and in 1914, the
                                                                                                                                                         ,:' 77
                  hind each dam to create a pool that extended upstream         draining of North Carolina's largest natural lake, Lake                             7,
                  to the next dam. The first pool was filled in 1935 and        Mattamuskeet, to create farmland (U.S. Fish and
                                                                                                                                                                   id
                  the system was completed when the last pool was               Wildlife Service, undated). Early in the century, land
                  filled in 1959. The resulting changes to the river sys-       developers dug drainage ditches in an attempt to drain
                  tem eliminated large water-level fluctuations and             a huge area for development in the vast peatlands
                  helped stabilize water depth and flooding. Bottom             north of Red Lake, Minn. (Glaser, 1987). On July 29,
                  lands no longer dried out in summer, and former hay           1917, the Minneapolis Sunday Tribune ran a full page
                  meadows and wooded areas were converted to marsh-             advertisement to attract homesteaders to the Red Lake
                  lands surrounding the pools. One type of wetland was          area-"perhaps the last of the unsettled, uncut tim-
                                                                                berland in the middle of the country" (Wright, 1984).
                                                                                By 1930, nearly all of the prairie wetlands in Iowa,
                                                   PRAIRIE POTHOLE
                                                   WETLANDS                     the southern counties of Minnesota, and the Red
                                                                                River Valley in North Dakota and Minnesota were
                                                                                drained (Schrader, 1955).
                                                                                     Attempts were underway to drain and farm large
                                                                                parts of The Everglades (a huge expanse of wetlands            Drainage tile operation,
                                                                                in southern Florida). By the 1930's, more than 400             circa 1940's. Tiles provide
                                                                                miles of drainage canals were already in place (Lord,          a conduit for moving water
                                                                                1993). (See article "Wetland Resources of Florida"             from a wetland. (Photo-
                                                                                                                                               graph courtesy of U.S.
                                                                                in the State Summaries section of this volume.) With           Department of Agriculture.)
                                               Ilk -Ir                          the passage of the Sugar Act of 1934, additional wet-
                                            q DELTA                             lands in southern Florida were drained and put into
                                                 WETLANDS                       sugarcane production. Sugarcane yields more than
                       Figure 10. States with notable wetland loss,             doubled from 4 10,000 to 873,000 tons between 1931
                       1860 to 1900.                                            and 1941 (Clarke, 1977), largely at the expense of








                 24     National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: OVERVIEW OF WETLAND RESOURCES



                                                  wetland acreage. Severe flooding in southern Florida       wetland losses averaging 550,000 acres each year
                                                  in the 1920's and again in the 1940's prompted the         from the mid-1950's to the mid-1 970's (Office of'kch-
                                                  U.S. Army Corps of Engineers to build the Central          nology Assessment, 1984). Agriculture was respon-
                                                  and Southern Florida Project for flood control. This       sible for more than 80 percent of these losses (Frayer
                                                  massive undertaking, which required levees, water-         and others, 1983). Figure 12 shows States with no-
                                                  storage areas, channel improvements, and large             table wetland losses between 1950 and 1990.
                                                  pumps, caused additional large modification to The
                The Migratory Bird                Everglades7 environment (Light and Dineen, 1994).
                                                      Mechanized farm tractors had replaced horses
                Hunting Stamp Act                 and mules for farm labor during this half century The
                was one of the first              tractors could be used more effectively than animals
               pieces of legislation              for drainage operations, and the old pasture land then
                                                  became available for improvement and production of
                         to initiate the          additional crops. In the Midwest and the North-cen-
                              process of          tral States, the use of tractors probably contributed
                                                  to the loss of millions of acres of small wetlands and
                        acquiring and             prairie potholes.
                restoring America,@                   In the 1930's, the U.S. Government, in essence,
                                wetlands.         provided free engineering services to farmers to drain          Figure 12. States with notable wetland loss,
                                                  wetlands; and by the 1940's, the Government shared              1950 to 1990.
                                                  the cost of drainage projects (Burwell and Sugden,
                                                  1964). Organized drainage districts throughout the              Since the 1970's, there has been increasing
                                                  country coordinated efforts to reniove surface water       awareness that wetlands are valuable areas that pro-
                                                  from wetlands (Wooten and Jones, 1955). Figure 11          vide important environmental functions. Public
                                                  shows areas of notable wetland losses between 1900         awareness of, and education about, wetlands has in-
                                                  and 1950.                                                  creased dramatically since the early 1950's. Federal
                                                                                                             policies, such as the "Swampbuster," have eliminated
                                                                                                             incentives and other mechanisms that have made the
                                                                                                             destruction of wetlands technically and economically
                                                                                                             feasible. New laws, such as the Emergency Wetland
                                                                                                             Resources Act of 1986, also curtail wetland losses.
                                                                                                             (See article "Wetland Protection Legislation" in this
                                                                                                             volume for information on legislation affecting wet-
                                                                                                             lands.) Some of the more ambitious drainage projects
                                                                                                             of earlier years have been abandoned. Now, places
                                                                                                             like Lake Mattamuskeet, Horicon Marsh, and the
                                                                                                             Okefenokee Swamp, which once were targeted for
                                                                                                             drainage, have become National Wildlife Refuges that
                                                     Figure 11. States with notable wetland loss,            provide wetland habitat for a variety of plants and ani-
                                                     1900 to 1950.                                           mals.
                                                                                                                  The effects of the Federal policy reversal on the
                                                      In 1934, in stark contrast to these drainage ac-       rate of wetland loss are not clear. Estimates indicate
                                                  tivities, Congress passed the Migratory Bird Hunt-         that wetland losses in the conterminous United States
                                                  ing Stamp Act. This Act was one of the first pieces of     from the mid4970's to the mid-1980's were about
                                                  legislation to initiate the process of acquiring and re-   290,000 acres per year (Dahl and Johnson, 1991).
                                                  storing America's wetlands.                                This is about one-half of the losses that occurred each
                                                                                                             year in the 1950's and '60's. The preceding numbers
                                                  1950 TO PRESENT-CHANGING                                   do not include degraded or modified wetlands. Al-
                                                  PRIORITIES AND VALUES                                      though the estimate above reflects a declining rate of
                                                                                                             loss, land development continues to destroy wetlands.
                                                      By the 1960's, most political, financial, and in-           From about 1987 to the present, Federal efforts
                                                  stitutional incentives to drain or destroy wetlands        to restore wetlands have increased. Although there is
                                                  were in place. The Federal Government encouraged           no precise number for all of the wetland acres re-
                                                  land drainage and wetland destruction through a            stored, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (1991) es-
                                                  variety of legislative and policy instruments. For         timated that between 1987 and 1990 about 90,000
                                                  example, the Watershed Protection and Flood Pre-           acres were added to the Natiorfs wetland inventory.
                                                  vention Act (1954) directly and indirectly increased            Attempts are underway now to restore some of
                                                  the drainage of wetlands near flood-control projects       The Everglades. The remaining Everglades comprise
                                                  (Erickson and others, 1979). The Federal Government        about 2,300 square miles, three-fifths of which is
                                                  directly subsidized or facilitated wetland losses          impounded in managed water-conservation areas
                                                  through its many public-works projects, technical          (Lord, 1993). This wetland system currently is expe-
                                                  practices, and cost-shared drainage programs admin-        riencing mercury contamination and other water-
                                                  istered by the U.S. Department of Agriculture              quality problems, water-supply and diversion contro-
                                                  (Erickson, 1979). Tile and open-ditch drainage were        versies, declining wildlife populations, increasing
                                                  considered conservation practices under the Agricul-       pressure from tourism, urban and agricultural expan-
                                                  ture Conservation Program-whose policies caused            sion, and influx of nuisance plants.







                                                                                          National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: TECHNICAL A0ECTS                    25


                       The magnitude of environmental alter-
                  ations in Florida, with numerous conflict-             Horicon Marsh     1846                            Horicon Lake 1853
                                                                             1 ;         , , . , .'            4, @'!!
                  ing interests, exemplifies the dilemma of
                  managing water resources and wetlands.
                  What initially seemed to be a matter of
                  water removal turned into an extremely                                                                                              V
                  complex and costly issue involving water-
                  use objectives at all levels of government
                  (Tebeau, 1980).
                       Today there are more than 100 dams
                  within the California Central Valley drain-
                  age basins and thousands of miles of                                                                                    xi
                  water-delivery canals. Water is diverted for
                  irrigation, hydroelectric power, and munici-                                                oil
                  pal and industrial water supplies. Only 14
                  percent of the original wetland acreage re-
                  mains. The Tulare Lake Basin has been
                                                                                                    -.4
                  virtually drained, leaving only remnant
                                                                                                ',,jtJt L II KU
                                                                                                                                                  7
                  wetland areas and a dry lakebed, and Buena
                  Vista and Kern Lakes rarely contain water
                  (fig. 9).                                              Horicon Swamp 1881                                Horicon Wildlife Refuge 1984
                       Currently (1994), manipulation of
                  water levels in wetlands rather than the               H1        T E
                  complete removal of water as in the past,
                  is a trend that affects wetlands. Partial
                  drainage or lowering of the water levels to
                  allow for certain uses is becoming preva-
                  lent in some parts of the country. Effects of
                  this type of management are uncertain.
                                                                                                                                                                       'dd


                                                                                                                                                                   OR
                  EXAMPLE OF CHANGING                                                                                                                                   T_
                  ATTITUDES-HORICON
                  MARSH

                       The history of the Horicon Marsh in
                  Wisconsin is an example of how people's at-
                  titudes toward wetlands have changed
                  through time (fig. 13). Horicon Marsh was
                  dammed, flooded, and renamed Lake                      Figure 13. Horicon Marsh, Wis., evolved from original marsh 0 846), to lake (1853), to
                  Horicon in 1846. At that time, it was the              swamp (11881), to wildlife refuge (11984). (Source: Sequence is left to right, top to bottom,
                  largest manmade lake in the world (about               Historical Society of Wisconsin negative number WHi (X3) 50111, WHi (X3) 50212, WHI
                  4 miles wide by 14 miles long) (Wisconsin              @X3) 50113; U.S. Geological Survey, 1984.)
                  Department of Natural Resources, 1990).
                  Lake Horicon was used for commercial
                  transportation and for commercial fishing. In 1869,               Estimates indicate that today slightly more than
                  the dam was removed and the land returned to marsh.           100 million acres of wetlands remain in the conter-
                  In 1883, two sportsmeifs clubs, which leased the              minous United States. Although the rate of wetland
                  marsh area, reported that 500,000 ducks hatched an-           conversion has slowed in recent years, wetland losses
                  nually in the marsh. They also reported that 30,000           continue to outdistance wetland gains.
                  muskrats and mink were trapped in the southern half
                  of the marsh. Huge flocks of geese also were reported
                  (Freeman, 1948). In 1904, attempts were made to               References Cited
                  drain the marsh and sell the reclaimed land for truck         Beauchamp, K.H., 1987, A history of drainage and drain-
                  farms. Lawsuits resulting from inadequate drainage                age methods, in Pavelis, G.A., ed., Farm drainage in
                  halted the reclamation effort.                                    the United States-History, status, and prospects:
                       In 1921, local conservationists began efforts to             Washington, D.C., Economic Research Service, U.S.
                  protect Horicon Marsh as a game refuge, and the State             Department of Agriculture, Miscellaneous Publication
                  of Wisconsin created the Horicon Marsh Wildlife Ref-              no.1455,p.13-29.
                  uge in July 1927. Later, to avoid legal confrontations        Bednarik@ K.E., 1984, Saga of the Lake Erie marshes, in
                  with the local farmers, the State bought property and             Hawkins, A.S., Hanson, R.C., Nelson, H.K., and
                  (or) water rights to the southern half of the refuge and          Reeves, H.M., eds., Flyways-Pioneering waterfowl
                                                                                    management in North America: Washington, D.C., U.S.
                  the Federal Government purchased rights to the                    Fish and Wildlife Service, p. 423-430.
                  northern half. In 1990, Horicon Marsh was added to            Burwell, R.W., and Sugden, L.G., 1964, Potholes-Going,
                  the sites recognized by the Convention on Wetlands                going..., in Linduska, J.P., ed., Waterfowl tomorrow:
                  of International Importance especially as Waterfowl               Washington, D.C., U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service,
                  Habitat.                                                          p.369-380.








                     26       National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: OVERVIEW OF WETLAND RESOURCES



                                                            Clarke, M.J., 1977, An economic and environmental assess-                     Valley, 1790-1860: Philadelphia, Pa., University of
                                                                  ment ofthe Florida Everglades sugarcane industry: Bal-                  Pennsylvania Press, 276 p.
                                                                  timore, Md., Johns Hopkins University, 140 p.                     Middleton, E.P., 1917, History of Champaign County, Ohio,
                                                            Dahl, T.E., 1990, Wetlands-Losses in the United States,                       its people, industries and institutions: Indianapolis,
                                                                  1780's to 1980's: Washington, D.C., U.S. Fish and                       Ind., B.E. Bowen and Co., Inc., 116 p.
                                                                  Wildlife Service Report to Congress, 13 p.                        Office of Technology Assessment, 1984, Wetlands-Their
                                                            Dahl, T.E., and Johnson, C.E., 1991, Wetlands-Status and                      use and regulation: Washington, D.C., U.S. Congress,
                                                                  trends in the conterminous United States, mid-1970's                    OTA-0-206, 208 p.
                                                                  to mid4980's: Washington, D.C., U.S. Fish and Wild-               Ohio Department of Natural Resources, 1988, Ohio wet-
                                                                  life Service, 22 p.                                                     lands priority conservation plan-An addendum to the
                                                            Erickson, R.E., 1979, Federal programs influencing wet-                       1986 Ohio statewide comprehensive outdoor recreation
                                                                  lands, Seventh Annual Michigan Landuse Policy Con-                      plan: Office of Outdoor Recreation Services, 67 p.
                                                                  ference: East Lansing, Mich., Michigan State Univer-              Pavelis, G.A., ed., 1987, Farm drainage in the United
                                                                  sity, 246 p.                                                            States-History, status, and prospects: Economic
                                                            Erickson, R.E., Linder, R.L., and Harmon, K.W., 1979,                         Research Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture,
                                                                  Stream channelization (p.l. 83-566) increased wetland                   Miscellaneous Pub. No. 1455, 170 p.
                                                                  losses in the Dakotas: Wildlife Society Bulletin, v. 7,           Ross, E.D., 1956, Retardation in farm technology before the
                                                                  no. 2, p. 71-78.                                                        power age: Agricultural History 30, p. 11-18.
                                                            Eyre, RH., 1980, Forest cover types of the United States and            Schrader, T.A., 1955, Waterfowl and the potholes of the
                                                                  Canada: Washington, D.C., Society of American For-                      north central states, in The yearbook of agriculture
                                                                  esters, 148 p.                                                          1955: Washington, D.C., U.S. Department ofAgricul-
                                                            Frayer, W.E., Monahan, T.J., Bowden, D.C., and Graybill,                      ture, 84th Congress, I st Session, House Document no.
                                                                  F.A., 1983, Status and trends ofwetlands anddeepwater                   32, p. 596-604.
                                                                  habitats in the conterminous United States, 1950's to             Shaw, S.P., and Fredine, C.G., 1956, Wetlands of the United
                                                                  1970's: Fort Collins, Colo., Colorado State University,                 States-Their extent and their value to waterfowl and
                                                                  31 p.                                                                   other wildlife: Washington, D.C., U.S. Fish and Wild-
                                                            Frayer, W.E., Peters, D.D., and Pywell, H.R., 1989, Wetlands                  life Service Circular 39, 67 p.
                                                                  of the California Central Valley-Status and Trends-               Stover, J.F., 1961, American railroads: Chicago, Ill., Uni-
                                                                  1939 to mid 1980's: Portland, Oreg., U.S. Fish and                      versity of Chicago Press, 3 10 p.
                                                                  Wildlife Service, 28 p.                                           Tant, P.L., 198 1, Soil survey of Washington County, North
                                                            Freeman, A.E., and Bussewitz, W.R., 1948, History of                          Carolina: Washington, D.C., U.S. Soil Conservation
                                                                  Horicon: Horicon, Wis., undated, 126 p.                                 Service, 99 p.
                                                            Garrett, W.E., ed., 1988, Historical atlas ofthe United States:         'kbeau, C.W., 1980, Ahistory ofFlorida: Coral Gables, Fla.,
                                                                  Washington, D.C., National Geographic Society, 289 p.                   University of Miami Press, 527 p.
                                                            Glaser, P.H., 1987, The ecology of patterned boreal                     'Rowell, C.T., 1988, Exploring the Okefenokee-Roland M.
                                                                  peatlands of northern Minnesota-A community pro-                        Harper in the Okefenokee Swamp, 1902 and 1919:
                                                                  file: U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Report 85 (7.14),                 Douglas, Ga., North Georgia College, Research Paper
                                                                  98 p.                                                                   no. 2, 89 p.
                                                            Gordon, R.B., 1969, The natural vegetation of Ohio in pio-              U.S. Bureau of the Census, 1832, Return of the whole num-
                                                                  neer days: Columbus, Ohio, Bulletin of the Ohio Biologi-                ber of persons within the several districts of the U.S.,
                                                                  cal Survey, v. 111, no. 2, Ohio State University, 113 p.                1830: Washington, D.C.
                                                            Green, W.E., 1984, The great river refuge, in Hawkins, A.S.,            U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 1991, United States Depart-
                                                                  Hanson, R.C., Nelson, H.K., and Reeves, H.M., eds.,                     ment of the Interior budget justification-Fiscal year
                                                                  Flyways-Pioneering waterfowl management in North                        1992: Washington, D.C., 121 p.
                                                                  America: Washington, D.C., U.S. Fish and Wildlife                 _Undated, Mattamuskeet National Wildlife Refuge:
                                                                  Service, p. 431-439.                                                    Swan Quarter, N.C., (Brochure).
                                                            Howe, Henry, 1900, Historical collections of Ohio: Cincin-              U.S. Geological Survey, 1984, Wisconsin State base map:
                                                                  nati, Ohio, Ohio centennial edition, Published by the                   U.S. Geological Survey, scale 1:500,000.
                                                                  State of Ohio, v. 1, p. 8 8 1.                                    Washington County Historical Society, 1979, Historic Wash-
                                                            Hundley, Norris, Jr., 1992, The great thirst-Californians                     ington County: Plymouth, N.C., 31 p.
                                                                  and water, 1700's-1990's: Berkeley, Calif., University            Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources, 1990, Wet-
                                                                  of California Press, 551 p.                                             lands/wonderlands-Wisconsin natural resources:
                                                            Knue, Joseph, 1988, Of time and prairie-100 years of                          Madison, Wis., Wisconsin Department of Natural
                                                                  people and wildlife in North Dakota-Observations in                     Resources, 16 p.
                                                                  change: Bismarck, N. Dak., North Dakota State Game                Wooten, H.H., and Jones, L.A., 1955, The history of our
                                                                  and Fish Department, 106 p.                                             drainage enterprises, in The yearbook of agriculture,
                                                            Light, S.S., and Dineen, J.W., 1994, Water control in The                     1955: Washington, D.C., U.S. Department of Agricul-
                                                                  Everglades-A historical perspective, in Davis, S.M.,                    ture, 84th Congress, I st Session, House Document no.
                                                                  and Ogden, J.C., eds., Everglades-The ecosystem and                     32,p.478-498.
                                                                  its restoration: Delray Beach, Fla., St. Lucie Press,             Wright, H.E., Jr., 1984, Red Lake peatland-Its past and
                                                                  p.47-84.                                                                patterns: Minneapolis, Minn., University of Minnesota,
                                                            Lord, L.A., 1993, Guide to Florida environmental issues and                   James Ford Bell Museum of Natural History, v. 1, 7 p.
                                                                  information: Winter Park, Fla., Florida Conservation
                                                                  Foundation, 364 p.
                                                            McManis, D.R., 1964, The initial evaluation and utilization             FOR ADDITIONAL INFORMATION: Thomas E. Dahl,
                                                                  of the Illinois prairies, 1815-1840: Chicago, Ill., Uni-          National Wetlands Inventory, 9720 Executive Center Drive,
                                                                  versity of Chicago, Department of Geography Research              Suite 101 - Monroe Building, St. Petersburg, FL 33702;
                                                                  Paper no. 94, 109 p.                                              Gregory J. Allord, U.S. Geological Survey, 505 Science
                                                            McNall, N.A., 1952, An agricultural history of the Genesee              Drive, Madison, WI 53711




                                                                                               U.S. Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper 2425








                                                                                           National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: TECHNICAL ASPECTS                  27


                    Technical Aspects of Wetlands
                    Wetland Definitions and                                                                    r
                                                                                                                                         ACALM @_Mpl
                    Classifications in the United States                                                       'V

                    By Ralph W. Tinerl

                        "Welland" is a generic term for all the different kinds of wet habitats-
                    implying that it is land that is wet for some period of time, but not necessarily
                    permanently wet. Wetlands have numerous definitions and classifications in
                    the United States as a result of their diversity, the need for their inventory, and        Isolated depressions
                    the regulation of their uses. This article provides an overview of wetland defi-
                    nitions and classification systems of major wetland types in the United States.
                    It also introduces the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (FWS) classification sys-
                    tem (Cowardin and others, 1979) that is used throughout this volume.
                        Wetlands typically occur in topographic settings where surface water
                    collects and (or) ground water discharges, making the area wet for extended
                    periods of time. Examples of some of these topographic settings, and some
                    common names for wetland types associated with them are:
                    ï¿½ Depressions (swales, sloughs, prairie potholes, Carolina bays, playas, ver-
                        nal pools, oxbows, and glacial kettles)
                    ï¿½ Relatively flat depositional areas that are subject to flooding (intertidal flats
                        and marshes, coastal lowlands, sheltered embayments, shorelines, deltas,                                  Oceank
                        and flood plains)                                                                                                    ...... ......
                    ï¿½ Broad, flat areas that lack drainage outlets (interstream divides and per-                             7
                        mafrost muskegs)
                    ï¿½ Sloping terrain associated with springs, seeps, and drainageways; and rela-              Sheltered embayments
                        tively flat or sloping areas adjacent to bogs and subject to expansion by
                        accumulation of peat
                    ï¿½ Open water bodies (floating mats and submersed beds)
                    Cross sections of some typical wetland landscapes and the position of the wet-
                    land relative to specific topographic features are shown in figure 14.
                        All areas considered to be wetlands must have enough water at some time                .NW
                    during the year to stress plants and animals that are not adapted to life in wa-
                    ter or saturated soils. A variety of wetland plant communities and soil types
                    have developed in the United States because of regional differences in hydro-                                                 ir
                    logic regimes, climate, soil-forming processes, and geologic settings. Conse-                                            V  @_amp
                    quently, many terms, such as "marsh," "bog," fen,' swamp," "pocosin,"
                    pothole," "playa," "Salina," "vernal pool," "bottom-land hardwood swamp,"
                    river bottom," "lowland," and others are applied to different types of wet-
                    lands across the country.

                    WETLAND DEFINITIONS                                                                        Flood plains

                        Wetlands have been defined for specific purposes, such as research stud-
                    ies, general habitat classification, natural resource inventories, and environ-
                    mental regulations. Before the beginning of wetland-protection laws in the
                    1960's, wetlands were broadly defined by scientists working in specialized
                    fields (Lefor and Kennard, 1977). A botanisfs definition would emphasize
                    plants; a soil scientist would focus on soil properties; and a hydrologist's defi-
                    nition would emphasize fluctuations of the water table.

                    Nonregulatory Definition
                        The FWS developed a nonregulatory, technical definition that could have
                    several uses, ranging from wetland protection to scientific investigations. This
                    definition emphasizes three important attributes of wetlands: (1) hydrology-
                                                                                                                                      11 ty






                    the degree of flooding or soil saturation; (2) vegetation-plants adapted to grow
                    in water or in a soil or substrate that is occasionally oxygen deficient due to            Relatively flat interstrearn divides (including pocosins)
                    saturation (hydrophytes); and (3) soils-those saturated long enough during
                    the growing season to produce oxygen- deficient conditions in the upper part               Figure 14. Cross sections of selected wetland
                    of the soil, which commonly includes the major part of the root zone of plants             landscapes showing typical positions of
                    (hydric soils) (Cowardin and others, 1979; Tiner, 1991). To supplement this                wetlands relative to topographic features.

                        I U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service.









                    28     National   Water Summary-Wetland Resources: OVERVIEW OF WETLAND RESOURCES



                                                                                                 definition and to help identify wetlands in the United States, the FWS pre-
                                                                                                 pared a list of wetland plants (Reed, 198 8). In addition, the Soil Conserva-
                                                                                                 tion Service' (SCS) developed a list of hydric soils (U.S. Soil Conservation
                                                                                                 Service, 1991).
                                                                                                    On the basis of plant and soil conditions, wetlands typically fall into one
                                  ...                                                            of three categories: (1) areas with hydrophytes and hydric soils (marshes,
                                                                                                 swamps, and bogs); (2) areas without soils but with hydrophytes (aquatic
                                                                                                 beds and seaweed-covered rocky shores); and (3) areas without soil and
                                                                                                 without hydrophytes (gravel beaches and tidal flats) that are periodically
                                                                                                 flooded. The FWS definition generally does not include permanent deep-
                                                                                                 water areas as wetlands. However, permanent shallow waters that commonly
                                                                                                 support aquatic beds and emergent plants (erect, rooted, nonwoody plants
                                Seepage areas and springs                                        that are mostly above water) are classified as wetlands.
                                                                                                 Regulatory Definitions as Compared to Nonregulatory
                                                                                                 Definitions
                                                                                                    In the 1960's and 1970's, State and Federal environtriental laws gave some
                                                                                                 protection to wetlands. On the basis of different interests to be protected,
                                                                                                 however, each governing body developed a different definition of wetlands.
                                                                                                 Examples of some of these definitions are given in table 2. Only wet soils
                                                                                                 vegetated with hydrophytes are considered as wetlands by the three Federal
                                            Nll%%@                                               agencies involved with regulation-the SCS, the U.S. Environmental Pro-
                                             '"A
                                                                                                 tection Agency (EPA), and the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (Corps). The
                                                                                                 FWS uses a nonregulatory definition that is broader and includes aquatic beds
                                                                                                 in shallow freshwater and naturally nonvegetated areas. In the context of veg
                                                                                                 elated wetlands, all four agency definitions are conceptually the same in that
                                                                                                 they include hydrology, vegetation, and soils.
                                Basins with streams                                                 Most States have developed regulatory definitions to protect certain wet-
                                                                                                 lands from exploitation. Therefore, State definitions are much broader than
                                                                                                 any of the Federal definitions. The State definitions tend to emphasize the
                                                                                                 presence of certain plants for identification purposes (table 2). However, the
                                                               A&                                States did not produce a comprehensive list of "wetland plant species,"
                                                                                                 making it difficult to use vegetation consistently to identify the limits of wet-
                                                                                                 lands (Tiner, 1989 and 1993a).

                                                                                                 WETLAND CLASSIFICATION
                                                                                                    "Wetland classification," as used in this article, refers to the designa-
                                                                                                 tion of different wetland types on the basis of hydrology, vegetation, and soils.
                                                                                                 The Federal Government's early attempts to classify wetlands were motivated
                                                                                                 largely by agricultural interests that sought to convert wetlands to cropland.
                                                                                                 The first classification systems put wetlands into a few general categories
                                                                                                 on the basis of location-river swamps, lake swamps, and upland swamps
                                Blanket bogs in boreal and arctic regions                        (Wright, 1907). Other classification systems were related to the degree of
                                                                                                 inundation-permanent swamps, wet grazing land, periodically overflowed
                                                                                                 land, and periodically swampy land (Dachnowski@ 1920).
                                                                                                    Later wetland classifications developed from a need to differentiate wet-
                                                                                                 lands from other land-cover types for regional and national planning purposes,
                                                           A@ A --tmog                           or because of ecological interest. Martin and others (195 3) developed a " Clas-
                                                                                                 sification of Wetlands in the United States " to serve as a framework for the
                                                                                                 1954 national inventory to assess the amount and types of wetland water-
                                11!U  ,JP,
                                                                                                 fowl habitat. Although this system is still in use, the inadequate definition
                                                                                                 of wetland types has led to inconsistencies in application across the country
                                                                                                 (Cowardin and others, 1979).
                                                                                                    When the FWS began a review of existing wetland inventories in 1974,
                                                             ks
                                                              .00M                               they found more than 50 classification schemes (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Ser-
                                                                                                 vice, 1976). The only one of these that was nationally based was that of Martin
                                                                                                 a
                                                                                                 d others (1953). Subsequently, the FWS worked with several prominent
                                                                                                 n
                                                                                                 weLland scientists and mapping experts to identify necessary elements for a
                                Open water bodies with floating mats and                         new classification system based on the concept of ecosystems (Sather, 1976).
                                submersed beds                                                   Four key objectives were established:
                                                                                                 - Identify ecologically similar habitat units
                                                                                                 - Classify these units systematically to facilitate resource-management
                                Figure 14. Cross sections of selected wetland                       decisions
                                landscapes showing typical positions of                          - Identify units for inventory and mapping purposes
                                wetlands relative to topographic features.                       - Provide uniformity in concept and terminology throughout the country
                                -Continued.

                                                                                                    'The SCS became the Natural Resources
                                                                                                          Conservation Service in 1994.








                                                                                                   National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: TECHNICAL ASPECTS                             29


                  Table 2. Examples of wetland definitions used by Federal and State agencies in the United States
                                        Organization (reference)                                               Wetland definition

                                                        FEDERAL

                                  U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service     "Wetlands are lands transitional between terrestrial and aquatic systems where the water table is usually at or
                                   (Cowardin and others, 1979)       near the surface or the land is covered by shallow water. For the purposes of this classification wetlands must
                                                                     have one or more of the following three attributes: (1) at least periodically, the land supports predominantly
                                                                     hydrophytes; (2) the substrate is predominantly undrained hydric soil; and (3@ the substrate is nonsoil and is
                                                                     saturated with water or covered by shallow water at some time during the growing season of each year."
                                 U.S. Army Corps of Engineers        "Wetlands are those areas that are inundated or saturated by surface or groundwater at a frequency and duration
                                                  (33 CFR 328-3)     sufficient to support, and that under normal circumstances do support, a prevalance of vegetation typically
                         U.S. Environmental Protection Agency        adapted for life in saturated soil conditions. Wetlands generally include swamps, marshes, bogs, and similar
                                                  (40 CFR 230.3)     areas.'

                                 U.S. Soil Conservation Service      "Wetlands are defined as areas that have 9 predominance of hydric soils and that are inundated or saturated by
                     (National Food Security Act Manual 1988)        surface or ground water at a frequency and duration sufficient to support, and under normal circumstances do
                               (The Act is commonly known as         support, a prevalence of hydrophytic vegetation typically adapted for life in saturated soil conditions, except
                                           the 'Swampbuster")        lands in Alaska identified as having high potential for agricultural development and a predominance of
                                                                     permafrost soils."

                                                           STATE
                                                    Connecticut      "Wetlands mean land, including submerged land which consists of any of the soil types designated as poorly
                   (CT General Statutes, Sections 22a-36 to 45,      drained, very poorly drained, alluvial, and floodplain by the National Cooperative Soils Survey, as may be
                                           inclusive, 1972, 1987)    amended from time to time, by the Soil Conservation Service of the United States Department of Agriculture.
                                                                     Watercourses are defined as rivers, streams, brooks, waterways, lakes, ponds, marshes, swamps, bogs, and all
                                                                     other bodies of water, natural or artificial, public or private."

                                                    Connecticut      "Wetlands are those areas which border on or lie beneath tidal waters, such as, but not limited to banks, bogs,
                                          (CT General Statutes,      salt marshes, swamps, meadows, flats or other low lands subject to tidal action, including those areas now or
                                         Sections 22a-28 to 35,      formerly connected to tidal waters, and whose surface is at or below an elevation of one foot above local extreme
                                                  inclusive 1969)    high water." (Also includes a list of plants capable of growing in tidal wetlands.)

                                                   Rhode Island      "Coastal wetlands include salt marshes and freshwater or brackish wetlands contiguous to salt marshes. Areas of
                       Coastal Resources Management Council          open water within coastal wetlands are considered a part of the wetland. Salt marshes are areas regularly
                            (RI Coastal Resources Management         inundated by salt water through either natural or artificial water courses and where one or more of the following
                                                         Program     species predominate:" (8 indicator plants listed). "Contiguous and associated freshwater or brackish marshes are
                                    as amended June 28, 1983)        those where one or more of the following species predominate:" (9 indicator plants listed).

                                                   Rhode Island      Fresh water wetlands are defined to include, "but not be limited to marshes; swamps; bogs; ponds; river and
                                  Department of Environmental        stream flood plains and banks; areas subject to flooding or storm flowage; emergent and submergent plant
                                 Management A General Law,           communities in any body of fresh water including rivers and streams and that area of land within fifty feet (501 of
                                        Sections 2-1-18 et seq.)     the edge of any bog, marsh, swamp, or pond." Various wetland types are further defined on the basis of
                                                                     hydrology and indicator plants, including bog (15 types of indicator plants), marsh (21 types of indicator plants),
                                                                     and swamp (24 types of indicator plants plus marsh plants).
                                                    New Jersey       "Wetlands are those lands which are inundated or saturated by water at a magnitude, duration and frequency
                                      (Pinelands Protection Act,     sufficient to support the growth of hydrophytes. Wetlands include lands with poorly drained or very poorly
                                                N.J. STAT. ANN.      drained soils as designated by the National Cooperative Soils Survey of the Soil Conservation Service of the
                                      Section 13:18-1 to 13:29.)     United States Department of Agriculture. Wetlands include coastal wetlands and inland wetlands, including
                                                                     submerged lands."
                                                                     "Coastal wetlands are banks, low-lying marshes, meadows, flats, and other lowlands subject to tidal inundation
                                                                     which support or are capable of supporting one or more of the following plants:' (29 plants are listed), "Inland
                                                                     wetlands" are defined as including, but not limited to, Atlantic white cedar swamps (15 plants listed), hardwood
                                                                     swamps (19 plants specified), pitch pine lowlands (10 plants listed), bogs (12 plants identified), inland marshes (6
                                                                     groups of plants listed), lakes and ponds, and rivers and streams.
                                                    New Jersey       "Coastal wetlands" are "any bank, marsh, swamp, meadow, flat or other low land subject to tidal action in the
                              (Coastal Wetland Protection Act -      Delaware Bay and Delaware River, Raritan Bay, Sandy Hook Bay, Shrewsbury River including Navesink River,
                                                N.J. STAT. ANN.      Shark River, and the coastal inland waterways extending southerly from Manasquan Inlet to Cape May Harbor, or
                                   Section 13:18-1 to 13:9A-10)      at any inlet, estuary, or those areas now or formerly connected to tidal areas whose surface is at or below an
                                                                     elevation of 1 foot above local extreme high water, and upon which may grow or is capable of growing some, but
                                                                     not necessarily all, of the following:" (19 plants are listed.) Coastal wetlands exclude "any land or real property
                                                                     subject to the jurisdiction of the Hackensack Meadowlands Development Commission         ......
                                                  Massachusetts      "The term 'freshwater wetlands' shall mean wet meadows, marshes, swamps, bogs, areas where groundwater,
                                              (MA General Law        flowing or standing surface water or ice provides a significant part of the supporting substrate for a plant
                                       Chapter 131, Section 40)      community for at least five months of the year; emergent and submergent plant communities in inland waters;
                                                                     that portion of any bank which touches any inland waters." Various wetland types are further defined on the basis
                                                                     of hydrology and indicator plants and include bogs (19 types of indicator plants), swamps (22 types of plants),
                                                                     wet meadows (12 types of plants), and marshes (22 types of indicator plantsI.









                 30     National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: OVERVIEW OF WETLAND RESOURCES


                                System                  Subsystem              Class                             On the basis of these objectives, the FWS devel -
                                                                                                            oped a new wetland classification system. The sys-
                                                                               Rock bottom                  tem was extensively field tested and reviewed by pub-
                                                                               Unconsolidated bottom        lic and private sectors before being published as
                                                        Subtidal -             Aquatic bed                  "Classification of Wetlands and Deepwater Habitats
                                Marine                                         Reef                         of the United States" (Cowardin and others, 1979).
                                                                               Aquatic bed                  Since its publication, the system has become the na-
                                                                               Reef                         tional and international standard for identifying and
                                                 Elntertidal-                  Rocky shore                  classifying wetlands (Mader, 199 1; Gopal and others,
                                                                               Unconsolidated shore         1982).

                                                                               Rock bottom
                                                 -Subtidal                     Unconsolidated bottom        THE U.S. FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE
                                                                               Aquatic bed                  WETLAND CLASSIFICATION SYSTEM
                                                                               Reef
                                                                                                                 A synopsis of the FWS wetland classification
                         -Estuarine-                                           Aquatic bed                  system is presented here. Each of the State summa-
                                                                               Reef                         fies in this volume gives a general summary of the
                                                                               Streambed
                                                        Interticlal            Rocky shore                  system, and a more comprehensive discussion can be
                                                                               Unconsolidated shore         foundinCowardin andothers (1979).The systemde-
                                                                               Emergent wetland             scribed here proceeds from general to specific, as
                                                                               Scrub-shrub wetland          shown in figure 15.
                                                                               Forested wetland                  System- Each system represents "a complex of
                     rn                                                                                     wetlands and deepwater habitats, that share the influ-
                     F-                                                        Rock bottom                  ence of similar hydrologic, geomorphologic, chemi-
                     <                                                         Unconsolidated bottom
                                                                                                            cal, or biological factors" (Cowardin and others, 1979,
                     ca                                                        Aquatic bed
                                                        Tidal                  Streambed                    p. 4). Five systems are defined:
                                                                               Rocky shore                   - Marine-open ocean and its associated coastline
                     cc                                                        Unconsolidated shore          - Estuarine-tidal waters of coastal rivers and
                     Lu                                                        Emergent wetland                  empayments, salty tidal marshes, mangrove
                                                                               Rock bottom                       swamps, and tidal flats
                                                                               Unconsolidated bottom         - Riverine-rivers and streams
                     Lu                                 Lower Perennial        Aquatic bed                   - Lacustrine-lakes, reservoirs, and large ponds
                     Lu                                                        Rocky shore                   - Palustrine-marshes, wet meadows, fens, playas,
                         -Riverine                                             Unconsolidated shore
                                                                               Emergent wetland                  potholes, pocosins, bogs, swamps, and small
                     Z                                                                                           shallow ponds
                                                                               Rock bottom                       The overwhelming majority of the Nation's wet-
                                                                               Unconsolidated bottom
                                                        Upper Perennial        Aquatic bed                  lands fall within the Palustrine System; most of the
                     Z                                                         Rocky shore                  remaining wetlands are in the Estuarine System.
                     <                                                         Unconsolidated shore              Subsystem.-Each system, except the Palustrine,
                                                        Intermittent -         Streambed                    is divided into subsystems (fig. 15). The Marine and
                     LU                                                                                     Estuarine Systems have two subsystems that are de-
                                                 -Limnetic-                    Rock bottom                  fined by tidal water levels: subtidal-contin uou sly
                                                        (deepwater habitat     Unconsolidated bottom        submersed areas; and intertidal-alternately flooded
                                Lacustrine              only)                  Aquatic bed                  and exposed to air. The Lacustrine System has two
                                                                                                            subsystems that are defined by water depth: littoral-
                                                                               Rock bottom                  the shallow-water zone where wetlands extend from
                                                                               Uncon oliclated bottom
                                                        Littoral               Aquatisc bed                 the lakeshore to a depth of 6.6 feet below low water
                                                                               Rocky shore                  or to the extent of noripersistent emergent plants such
                                                                               Unconsolidated shore         as arrowheads, pickerelweed, wild rice, or bulrush, if
                                                                               Emergent wetland             they grow beyond that depth; and limnetic-the
                                                                                                            deepwater zone where low water is deeper than 6.6
                                                                               Rock bottom                  feet (deepwater habitat). The Riverine System has
                                                                               Unconsolidated bottom        four subsystems that represent different reaches of a
                                                                               Aquatic bed                  flowing freshwater system: tidal-water levels sub-
                         -Palustrine                                           Unconsolidated shore
                                (wetlands only)                                Moss-lichen wetland          Ject to tidal fluctuations; lower perennial-perma-
                                                                               Emergent wetland             nent, slow-flowing waters having a well-developed
                                                                               Scrub-shrub wetland          flood plain; upper perennial-permanent, fast-flow-
                                                                               Forested wetland             ing waters having very little or no flood plain; and in-
                                                                                                            termittent-strearnbeds with flowing water for only
                         Figure 15. Classification hierarchy of wetlands and deepwater habitats             part of the year.
                         showing systems, subsystems, and classes. (Source: Cowardin and                         Classes.-Each subsystem is divided into
                         others, 1979).                                                                     classes, which describe the general appearance of the
                                                                                                            wetland or deepwater habitat in terms of the domi-
                                                                                                            nant vegetative form, or composition of the substrate
                                                                                                            (table 3). For areas where vegetation covers 30 per-
                                                                                                            cent or more of the surface, five vegetative classes are








                                                                                                         National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: TECHNICAL ASPECTS                                31



                             Table 3. Classes and subclasses of wetlands and deepwater habitats as defined by Cowardin
                             and others (11979)


                                                 Class                    Brief description                               Subclasses

                                         Rock bottom       Generally permanently flooded areaswith bottom sub-            Bedrock; rubble
                                                           strates consisting of at least 75 percent stones and
                                                           boulders and less than 30 percent vegetative cover.

                             Unconsolidated bottom         Generally permanently flooded areaswith bottom sub-            Cobble-gravel; sand;
                                                           strates consisting of at least 25 percent particles smaller    mud; organic
                                                           than stones and less than 30 percent vegetative cover.
                                         Aquatic bed       Generally permanently flooded areas that are veg-              Algal; aquatic; rooted
                                                           etated by plants growing principally on or below the           vascular; floating vascular
                                                           water surface.

                                                   Reef    Characterized by elevations above the surrounding              Coral; mollusk; worm
                                                           substrate and interference with normal waveflow;they
                                                           are primarily subticlal.
                                           Streambed       Channel whose bottom is completely dewatered at low            Bedrock; rubble; cobble-gravel;
                                                           water periods.                                                 sand; mud; organic; vegetated

                                         Rocky shore       Wetlands characterized by bedrock stones or boulder            Bedrock; rubble
                                                           with areal coverage of 75 percent or more and with less
                                                           than 30 percent coverage by vegetation.
                              Unconsolidated shore         Wetlands having unconsolidated substrates with less            Cobble-gravel; sand; mud;
                                                           than 75 percent coverage by stones, boulders, and bed-         organic; vegetated
                                                           rock and less than 30 percent native vegetative cover.

                               Moss-lichen wetland         Wetlands dominated by mosses or lichens where other            Moss; lichen
                                                           plants have less than 30 percent coverage.

                                 Emergent wetland          Wetlands dominated by erect, rooted, herbaceous hy-            Persistent; nonpersistent
                                                           drophytes.

                               Scrub-shrub wetland         Wetlands dominated by woody vegetation less than 20            Deciduous; evergreen;
                                                           feet (6 meters) tall.                                          dead woody plants
                                   Forested wetland        Wetlands dominated by woody vegetation 20 feet (6              Deciduous; evergreen;
                                                           meters) or taller.                                             dead woody plants





                     used-aquatic bed, moss-lichen wetland, emergent                        (red maple forested wetland and pin oak forested wet-
                     wetland, scrub-shrub wetland, and forested wetland.                    land, or a tussock-sedge-dominated emergent wetland
                     Aquatic beds may be either wetlands or deepwater                       and cattail- dominated emergent wetland). In this way,
                     habitats, depending on water depth.                                    individual wetlands can be grouped in ecologically
                           Six other classes are used where vegetation gen-                 similar units.
                     erally is absent and where substrate and degree of                           Modifiers.-The classification system also uses
                     flooding are distinguishing features-rock bottom,                      modifiers to describe hydrologic, chemical, and soil                     The FWS
                     unconsolidated bottom, reef, streambed, rocky shore,                   characteristics, and the effects of humans on the wet-
                     and unconsolidated shore. Areas that are nonvegetated                  lands. The four specific modifiers used are-water re-                    classification system
                     and permanently flooded are classed as either rock                     gime, water chemistry, soil, and special. These modi-                    has become the
                     bottom or unconsolidated bottom. Areas that are pe-                    fiers can be applied to classes, subclasses, and domi-
                     riodically flooded are classed as streambed, rocky                     nance types.                                                             national and
                     shore, or unconsolidated shore. Reefs are found in                           The water-regime modifiers describe flooding or                    international
                     both permanently flooded (deepwater habitats) and                      soil saturation and are divided into two main                            standard for
                     periodically flooded tidal areas (wetlands).                           groups-tidal and nontidal. Tidal modifiers can be
                          Subclass.-Each class is divided further into                      subdivided into two general categories-salt- and                         identifying and
                     subclasses (table 3) to define the substrate in non-veg-               brackish-water and freshwater. The nomidal modi-                         classifying wetlands.
                     etated areas or the dominant vegetation in vegetated                   fier-inland freshwater and saline-defines condi-
                     areas. In vegetated areas, the subclasses are-persis-                  tions where runoff, ground-water discharge or re-
                     tent or nonpersistent emergents, mosses and lichens,                   charge, evapotranspiration, wind, and lake seiches
                     or broad-leaved deciduous, needle-leaved deciduous,                    (oscillation of the water) cause water-level changes.
                     broad-leaved evergreen, needle-leaved evergreen, and                   Both tidal and nontidal modifiers are briefly defined
                     dead woody plants. In nonvegetated areas the sub-                      in table 4.
                     classes are-bedrock, rubble, cobble-gravel, mud,                             Water-chemistry modifiers are divided into two
                     sand, and organic.                                                     categories: salinity and pH. The salinity modifiers
                          Dominance Type.-Below the subclass, domi-                         have been further divided into two groups: haline for
                     nance type can be applied to specify the dominant                      estuarine and marine tidal areas dominated by sodium
                     plant or animal in the wetland. This level allows one                  chloride and saline for nontidal areas dominated by
                     to distinguish between distinct plant communities                      salts other than sodium chloride. The salinity and








                   32      National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: OVERVIEW OF WETLAND RESOURCES



                                                              Table 4. Water regime modifiers as defined by Cowardin and others (1979)

                                                               Group           Water type                        Water regime and definition

                                                                                               -   Subtidal - Permanently flooded tidal waters
                                                                               Salt- and           Irregularly exposed - Exposed less often than daily by tides
                                                                               brackish-
                                                                               water areas         Regularly flooded - Daily tidal flooding and exposure to air
                                                                                               -   Irregularly flooded - Flooded less often than daily and
                                                                                                          typically exposed to air
                                                                 Tidal
                                                                                               -   Permanently flooded - Permanently flooded by tides and river
                                                                                                          overflow but with tidal fluctuation in water levels
                                                                                                   Semipermanently flooded - Flooded most of the growing season
                                                                           L Freshwater                   by river overflow but with tidal fluctuation in water levels
                                                                                                   Regularly flooded - Daily tidal flooding and exposure to air

                                                                                                   Seasonally flooded - Flooded irregularly by tides and river overflow
                                                                                               -   Temporarily flooded - Flooded irregularly by tides and for brief
                                                                                                          periods during growing season by river overflow

                                                                                                   Permanently flooded - Flooded throughout the year in all years
                                                                                                   Intermittently exposed - Flooded year-round except during
                                                                                                          extreme droughts
                                                                                                   Semipermanently flooded - Flooded throughout the growing
                                                                                                          season in most years
                                                                                                   Seasonally flooded - Flooded for extended periods in the growing
                                                                               Inland fresh-              season, but surface water is usually absent by the end
                                                             Nontidal          water and                  of the growing season
                                                                               saline areas        Saturated - Surface water is seldom present, but the substrate
                                                                                                          is saturated to the surface for most of the growing season
                                                                                                   Temporarily flooded - Flooded for only brief periods during
                                                                                                          the growing season, with the water table usually
                                                                                                          well below the soil surface for most of the season

                                                                                                   Intermittently flooded - The substrate is usually exposed and only
                                                                                                          flooded for variable periods without detectable
                                                                                                          seasonal periodicity (may be upland in some situations)
                                                                                               - Artificially flooded - Duration and amount of flooding is controlled
                                                                                                          by pumps or siphons in combination with dikes or dams



                                                      fluctuations in salinity of water in a wetland and the           Mtsch and Gosselink (1986), Niering (1984), Tiner
                                                      type ofsalt causing the salinity determines whatplant            (1984, 1987, 1993b), and Wilen and Tiner (1993).
                                                      and animal species the wetland can support. The pH
                                                      modifiers identify waters that are acid (pH less than            CONCLUSIONS
                                                      5.5), circurnneutral (pH 5.5-7.4), and alkaline (pH
                                                      greater than 7.4).                                                     The FWS wetland classification system places
                     The FWS wetland                       Soil modifiers are divided into two categories              ecologically similar habitats into a hierarchal system
                classification system                 organic and mineral. In general, if a soil has 20 per-           that permits wetland classification down to domi-
                                                      cent or more organic matter by weight in the upper               nance types, which are based on dominant plants or
                          has provided a              16 inches, it is considered an organic soil. If it has           substrates. The system can be used to identify units
                            uniformity of             less than this amount, it is a mineral soil.                     for inventory and mapping for Federal and State wet-
                                                           Special modifiers are used to describe human or             land inventories. It also has provided a uniformity of
               wetiand terminology.                   beaver activities. These modifiers are: excavated, im-           wetland terminology. The FWS uses this classifica-
                                                                                                                                                                            -infor-
                                                      pounded (obstruct outflow of water), diked (obstruct             tion to determine wetland status and trends
                                                      inflow of water), partly drained, farmed, and artifi-            mation useful to resource managers and planners at
                                                      cial (materials deposited by humans to create or                 all levels of government.
                                                      modify a wetland).                                                     Since the 1954 inventory by the FWS, wetlands
                                                           Although an extensive treatment of wetlands is              have changed because of natural and human-related
                                                      beyond the scope of this article, it would be incom-             activities. Wetland characteristics and values have
                                                      plete without examples of the classification of some             become better defined, more widely known, and
                                                      of the different wedand types. In figure 16, some of             more appreciated. As a result, Federal and State leg-
                                                      the major wetland types are listed by their common               islation has been passed to protect wetlands, and
                                                      names and then classified by the FWS system. The                 some States have completed wetland surveys
                                                      variety of wetlands and their locations also are illus-          (Cowardin and others, 1979) to aid in protecting and
                                                      trated. For further information on wetland types, see            managing this resource.






                                                                                                                  National Water Summary-Wetland Resources:                      TECHNICAL ASF@ECTS                33








                                                   X                  P



                                                                                                                                                                                                PW7'
                                                                                                                 z   -:7,

                                                                                                                                 r






                                                                       12
                                                                                                                            13






















                                                                                           J







                     EXPLANATION

                    Number      General welland type           Location                                 System           Subsystem     Class           Subclass                            Water regime

                         1      Willow swamp                   Alaska Range east of Paxon, Alaska       Palustrine       -             Scrub-shrub     Broad-leaved deciduous              Seasonally flooded

                         2      Cattail marsh                  Near Brainerd, Minn.                     Palustrine       -             Emergent        Persistent                          Seasonally flooded

                         3      Inland lakeshore marsh         Lake Durant, N.Y.                        Lacustrine       Littoral      Emergent        Nonpersistent                       Permanently flooded

                         4      Floating bog                   Adironclacks, N.Y.                       Palustrine       -             Scrub-shrub     Broad-leaved evergreen              Saturated

                         5      Salt marsh                     Nantucket, Mass.                         Estuarine        Interticlal   Emergent        Persistent                          Tidal, Irregularly flooded

                         6      Maple-ash swamp                Sussex County, N.J.                      Palustrine       -             Forested        Broad-leaved deciduous              Seasonally flooded

                         7      Brackish marsh                 Cedar Key, Fla.                          Estuarine        Interticlal   Emergent        Persistent                          Tidal, Irregularly flooded
                         8      Cypress-gum swamp              Francis Marion  National Forest, S.C.    Palustrine       -             Forested        Needle/broad-leaved deciduous       Semipermanently flooded
                         9      Pocosin                        Francis Marion  National Forest, S.C.    Palustrine       -             Scrub-shrub     Broad-leaved evergreen              Saturated

                         10     Cottonwood riparian forest     Near Reno, Nev.                          Palustrine       -             Forested        Broad-leaved deciduous              Temporarily flooded

                         11     Wet meadow                     Nisqually, Wash.                         Palustrine       -             Emergent        Persistent                          Seasonally flooded

                         12     Black spruce bog               Juneau, Alaska                           Palustrine       -             Forested        Needle-leaved evergreen             Saturated

                         13     Prairie pothole                Devil's Lake area, N. Dak.               Palustrine       -             Emergent        Nonpersistent                       Sernipermanently flooded


                   Figure 16. Examples of the classification for major wetland types in the United                               States, following Cowardin and others (1979). (Note that there
                   are no subsystems for the Palustrine System. Photograph I by David Dahl; 4 by Bill Zinni; 12 byJon Hall; all others by Ralph W. Tiner. All
                   photographers are with the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service.)







                    34      National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: OVERVIEW OF WETLAND RESOURCES



                                                         References Cited                                                    _1987,Afield guidetocoastal wetlandplants of the
                                                                                                                                  northeastern United States: Amherst, Mass., University
                                                         Cowardin, L.M., Carter, Virginia, Golet, F.C., and LaRoe,                of Massachusetts Press, 285 p.
                                                              E.T., 1979, Classification of wetlands and deepwater           -1989, Wetland boundary delineation, in Majumdar,
                                                              habitats of the United States: U.S. Fish and Wildlife               S.K., Brooks, R.P., Brenner, F.J., and Tiner, R.W., Jr.,
                                                              Service Report FWS/OBS-79/31, 131 p.                                eds., Wetlands ecology and conservation-Emphasis in
                                                         Dachnowski, A.P., 1920, Peat deposits in the United States               Pennsylvania: Easton, Pa., Pennsylvania Academy of
                                                              and their classification: Soil Science, v. 10, no. 6, p.            Sciences, p. 231-248.
                                                              453-456.                                                       -1991, The concept of a hydrophyte for wetland iden-
                                                         Gopal, Brij, Turner, R.E., Wetzel, R.G., and Whigham, D.F.,              tification: BioScience, v. 41, no. 4, p. 236-247.
                                                              1982, Wetlands-Ecology and management, in P--                  _1993a, Using plants as indicators of wetland: Phila-
                                                              ceedings of the First International Wetlands Confer-                delphia, Pa., Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadel-
                                                              ence, September 10-17,1980, New Delhi, India: Jaipur,               phia, Proceedings, v. 144, p. 240-253.
                                                              India, National Institute of Ecology and International         -1 993b, Field guide to coastal wetland plants of the
                                                              Scientific Publications, 514 p.                                     southeastern United States: Amherst, Mass., University
                                                         Lefor, M.W., and Kennard, W.C., 1977, Inland wetland defi-               of Massachusetts Press, 328 p.
                                                              nitions: Storrs, Conn., University of Connecticut., In-        U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 1976, Existing state and
                                                              stitute of Resources, Report 28, 63 p.                              local wetland surveys (1965-1975), v. H, Narrative:
                                                         Mader, S.F., 1991, Forested wetlands classification and                  Washington, D.C., U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service,
                                                              mapping-A literature review: New York, N.Y., Na-                    Office of Biological Services Report, 453 p.
                                                              tional Council of the Paper Industry forAir and Stream         U.S. Soil Conservation Service, 1991, Hydric soils of the
                                                              Improvement, Inc., Technical Bulletin no. 606, 99 p.                United States: Washington. D.C., in cooperation with
                                                         Martin, A.C., Hotchkiss, Neil, Uhler, EM., and Bourn, W.S.,              the National Technical Committee for Hydric Soils,
                                                              1953, Classification of wetlands of the United States:              U.S. Department of Agriculture, Miscellaneous publi-
                                                              Washington D.C., U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Spe-                cation 1491.
                                                              cial Scientific Report, Vvrildlife, no. 20, 14 p.              Wilen, B.O., and Tiner, R.W., 1993, Wetlands of the United
                                                         Mitsch, W.J., and Gosselink, J.G., 1986, Wetlands: New                   States, in Whigham, D.F., DykyjovA, Dagmar, and
                                                              York, N.Y., Van Nostrand Reinhold Co., Inc., 539 p.                 Hejny, Slavomil, eds., Wetlands of the world 1:
                                                         Niering, W.A., 1984, Wetlands: New York, N.Y., Alfred A.                 Dordfecht, Netherlands, Kluwer Academic Publishers,
                                                              Knopf, Inc., 638 p.                                                 p. 515-636.
                                                         Reed, P.B., Jr., 1988, National list of plant species that oc-      Wright, J.O., 1907, Swamp and overflowed lands in the
                                                              cur in wetlands-National summary: Washington,                       United States: Washington, D.C., U.S. Department of
                                                              D.C., U.S. Fish andWildlife Service Biological Report,              Agriculture, Office of Experiment Stations, Circular
                                                              v. 88, no. 24, 244 p.                                               76, 23 p.
                                                         Sather, J.H., ed., 1976, National wetland classification and
                                                              inventory workshop, July 20-23, 1975, College Park,
                                                              Md., University of Maryland, Proceedings: Washington,
                                                              D.C., U.S. Fish and Arildlife Service Report, 358 p.
                                                         Tiner, R.W., 1984, Wetlands of the United States-Current            FOR ADDITIONAL INFORMATION: Ralph W. Tiner,
                                                              status and recent trends: Washington, D.C., U.S. Fish          U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 300 Westgate Center Drive,
                                                              and Wildlife Service Report, 59 p.                             Hadley, MA 01035






























                                                                                             U.S. Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper 2425







                                                                                                           National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: TECHNICAL ASPECTS                                     35


                     Technical Aspects of Wetlands
                     Wetland Hydrology, Water Quality,
                     and Associated Functions

                     By Virginia Carter'

                          The formation, persistence, size, and function of wet-                     mountain valleys where rain and snowmelt are the primary
                     lands are controlled by hydrologic processes. Distribution                      sources of water. Marine wetlands (those beaches and
                     and differences in wetland type, vegetative composition,                        rocky shores that fringe the open ocean) are found in all
                     and soil type are caused primarily by geology, topogra-                         coastal States. Estuarine wetlands (where tidal saltwater
                     phy, and climate. Differences also are the product of the                       and inland freshwater meet and mix) are most plentiful in
                     movement of water through or within the wetland, water                          Alaska and along the southeastern Atlantic coast and the
                     quality, and the degree of natural or human-induced dis-                        gulf coast. Alaska has the largest acreage of estuarine
                     turbance. In turn, the wetland soils and vegetation alter                       wetlands in the United States, followed by Florida and
                     water velocities, flow paths, and chemistry. The hydrologic                     Louisiana.
                     and water-quality functions of wetlands, that is, the roles                           Inland (nontidal) wetlands are found in all States.
                     wetlands play in changing the quantity or quality of wa-                        Some States, such as West Virginia, have few large wet-
                     ter moving through them, are related to the wetland's physi-                    lands, but contain many small wetlands associated with
                     cal setting.                                                                    streams. Other States, such as Nebraska, the Dakotas, and
                          Wetlands are distributed unevenly throughout the                           Texas, contain many small isolated wetlands-the lakes of
                     United States because of differences in geology, climate,                       the Nebraska Sandhills, the prairie potholes, and the playa
                     and source of water (fig. 17). They occur in widely diverse                     lakes, respectively. Northern States such as Minnesota and
                     settings ranging from coastal margins, where tides and                          Maine contain numerous wetlands with organic soils
                     river discharge are the primary sources of water, to high                       (peatiands), similar in origin and hydrologic and veg-




                                                        A




                                                                                                                                            A.,
                                                                       4


                                                      4@
                                   ',A '7  r_`@      -
                                                 V
                                                                                                                                                                                    EXPLANATION-
                                                                                                                                                                                    Approximate distribution
                                                               9
                                                                                                                                                                                    of large wetlands and
                                                                                                            N
                                                                                                                                                                   r:-              cleepwater habitats
                                                                                                                                                                                          Predominantly
                                                                         1 'Z@   .4@                                  -Ke
                                                                                                                                                                                    M welland
                                                                                                            A

                                                                                                               2,                                                                         Predominantly
                                                                                                                                                                                          deepwater habitat
                                                                                       _7-                         J@                                                     2               High density of
                                                                                                                                5   6                                               F71 small wetlands
                                                                                                                                                                                    Selected locations
                                                                                                 7,`
                                                                                                                                                                                          Great Dismal Swamp

                                                                                                                                                                                          Albemarle-Pamlico
                                                                                                                                                                                          Sound
                                                                                                                                                4
                         ALASKA
                                                                                                                                                                                    4)    The Everglades

                                                                                                                                                                                          Barataria Basin

                                                                                                                                  4                                                       New Madrid


                                                                                                                                                                  3
                                                                                                                                                                                          Reelfoot Lake

                                                                                                                                                                                          Glacial Lake Agassiz
                                     V                       10
                                                                                                            HAWAII                                                                        Peatland
                                                                                                                                                0        200 MILES                        Nebraska Sandhills
                                                                                                                                                i                                         Great Salt Lake
                                                  0      250     500 MILES                 0     100MILES                                       0    200 KILOMETERS                 @     Copper River Delta
                                               A,




























                                                  0 250 500 KILOMETERS                     0   100 KILOMETERS                                                                             Sleetm ute



                     Figure 17. Major wetland areas in the United States and location of sites mentioned in
                     the text. (Source: Data from T E. Dahl, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, unpub. data, 199 1.)

                          I U.S. Geological Survey.








                   36     National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: OVERVIEW OF WETLAND                 RESOURCES



                                                                                                                etative characteristics to the classic bog and fen peat
                                                                                                                lands of northern Europe. However, peatlands are by
                                                                                                                no means limited to Northern States-they occur in
                                                                                                                the Southeastern and Midwestern United States wber-
                                                                                                                ever the hydrology and chemical environment are
                                                                                                                conducive to the accumulation of organic material.
                                                                                                                     Wetlands occur on flood plains-for example, the
                                                                                                                broad bottom-land hardwood forests and river swamps
                                                                                                                (forested wetlands) of southern rivers and many of the
                                                                                                                narrow riparian zones along streams in the Western
                                                                                                                United States. Wetlands are commonly associated
                                                                                                                with lakes or can occur as isolated features of the land-
                                                                                                                scape. They can form large complexes of open water
                                                                                                                and vegetation such as The Everglades of Florida, the
                                                                                                           V    Okefenokee Swamp of Georgia and Florida, the
                                                                                                                Copper River Delta of Alaska, and the Glacial Lake
                                               Typical prairie pothole wetland   in North Dakota. (Photo-       Agassiz peatland of Minnesota.
                                               graph by Virginia Carter U.S. Geological Survey.)
                                                                                                                HYDROLOGIC PROCESSES IN
                                                                                                                WETLANDS

                                                                                                                     Hydrologic processes occurring in wetlands are
                                                                                                                the same processes that occur outside of wetlands and
                                                                                                                collectively are referred to as the hydrologic cycle.
                                                                                                                Major components of the hydrologic cycle are pre-
                                                                                                                cipitation, surface-water flow, ground-water flow, and
                                                                                                                evapotranspiration (ET). Wetlands and uplands con-
                                                                                                                tinually receive or lose water through exchange with
                                                                                                                the atmosphere, streams, and ground water. Both a fa-
                                                                                                                vorable geologic setting and an adequate and persis-
                                                                                                                tent supply of water are necessary for the existence
                                                                                                                of wetlands.
                                                                                                                     The wetland water budget is the total of inflows
                                                                                                                and outflows of water from a wetland. The compo-
                                                                                                                nents of a budget are shown in the equation in figures
                                               Glacial Lake Agassiz peatland, Minnesota. (Photograph by         18 and 19. The relative importance of each compo-
                                               Virginia Carter U.S. Geological Survey.)                         nent in maintaining wetlands varies both spatially and




                                                                                                                                   ET                     H' h wate
                                                                                                                                                             table
                                                                                                                                                             AS
                                                                                                                                                           Low water
                                                                                                                                                             table















                                                         Figure 18. Components of the wetland water budget. (P + SWI + GWI               ET + SWO + GWO + AS,
                                                         where P is precipitation, SWI is surface-water inflow, SWO is surface-water outflow, GWI is ground-
                                                         water inflow, GWO is ground-water outflow, ET is evapotranspiration, and AS is change in storage.)








                                                                                               National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: TECHNICAL ASPECTS                          37
                                                                 8                                                                 23                   22


                                                                                                                    Ir. @7-
                  4                                                              Es@>         92

                                                                                                      70                                                                            71


                                                                                                                N
            89                                                                                           7                                                                         6


                                                  F-As I o                                                                                Fzsl     1
                                       Nevin Wetland, Wisconsin                                                     Heron Pond, Alluvial Cypress Swamp, Illinois
                                    (Photograph by Richard P. Novitzki,                                                     (Photograph by William J. Mitsch,
                                ManTech Environmental Technology, Inc.)                                                            Ohio State University)

                                             100

                                                                  67                                                             76
                                                                                                                                                      55










                                                                                                                                                       -.7


                                                                                              30
                                                                                                      23                                                                  E@>43
                                                                                           3
                                                                                                                                                                                   2
                                                                                   Okefenokee Swamp, Georgia
                                                     -
                                                            0                                                                             Fzs      -1
                                                     AS-1                                           Zlk
                                                   Upland                                                                                 Swamp
                                      (Photograph by John M. Hefner,                                                          (Photograph by Virginia Carter,
                                       U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service)                                                             U.S. Geological Survey)


                                              22                  27                 t    CA N    DA                                                  12






              52                                                                             40
                                                                                                     53E@@                         IP.    -0                                        35
                26 @:G::W:1>                                                                           36                                                                            @:'50
                                                             >32                                                                          FAS@ <3
                   Arctic Fen, west of Baker Lake, Northwest Territories, Canada                                        Hidden Valley Marsh, Ontario, Canada
                                     (Photograph by Nigel T. Roulet,                                                           (Photograph by Jim Gehrels,
                                       McGill University, Montreal)                                                     Ontario Ministry  of Environmental Energy)


                   Figure 19. Water budgets for selected wetlands in the United States and Canada. (P + SWI + GWI = ET + SWO + GWO + AS, where P is precipitation,
                   SWI is surface-water inflow, SWO is surface-water outflow, GWI is ground-water inflow, GWO is ground-water outflow, ET is evapotranspiration, and AS
                   is change in storage. Components are expressed in percentages. Abbreviations used: < = less than; > = greater than.) (Sources from left to right and top to
                   bottom: NoviLzki, 1978; Roulet and Woo, 7986,- Rykief, 1984,- Rykiel, 1984; Mit5ch and Gosselink, 1993; and Gehrels and Mulamoottil, 199D.)








                   38     National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: OVERVIEW OF WETLAND RESOURCES



                                                     temporally, but all these components interact to cre-      water flow to wetlands during spring snowmelt.
                                                     ate the hydrology of an individual wetland.                Snowmelt may also recharge ground water, sustain-
                                                        The relative importance of each of the compo-           ing ground-water discharge to wetlands during sum-
                                                     nents of the hydrologic cycle differs from wetland to      mer, fall, and winter.
                                                     wetland (fig. 19). Isolated basin wetlands, typified by        The distribution of precipitation across the
                                                     prairie potholes and playa lakes, receive direct pre-      United States is affected by major climatic patterns.
                                                     cipitation and some runoff from surrounding uplands,       In North America, maximum rainfall is found on the
                                                     and sometimes receive ground-water inflow. They            western slopes of mountain ranges in the West, along
                                                     lose water to ET; some lose water that seeps to ground     the east coast, and in Hawaii. Tropical areas such as
                                                     water, and some overflow during periods of excessive       Florida and Puerto Rico also receive large quantities
                                                     precipitation and runoff. These wetlands range from        of precipitation. By contrast, precipitation is minimal
                                                     very wet to dry depending on seasonal and long-term        in the continental interior where the atmosphere is
                                                     climatic cycles. Wetlands on lake or river flood plains    dry; the driest part of North America is the southwest-
                                                     also receive direct precipitation and runoff and com-      ern desert. Wetlands are most abundant in areas with
                                                     monly receive ground-water inflow. In addition, they       ample precipitation.
                                                     can be flooded when lakes or rivers are high. Water
                                                     drains back to the lake or river as floodwaters recede.    Evapotranspiration
                                                     Wet and dry cycles in these wetlands commonly are
                                                     closely related to lake and river water-level fluctua-         The loss of water to the atmosphere is an impor-
                                                     tions. Coastal wetlands, while also receiving direct       tant component of the wetland water budget. Water
                                                     precipitation, runoff, and ground-water inflow, are        is removed by evaporation from soil or surfaces of
                                                     strongly influenced by tidal cycles. Peatlands with        water bodies and by transpiration by plants (fig. 20).
                                                     raised centers may receive only direct precipitation       The combined loss of water by evaporation and tran-
                                                     or may be affected by ground-water inflow also.            spiration is termed evapotranspiration (ET). Solar
                                                     Surface-water inflows affect only the edges of these       radiation, windspeed and turbulence, relative humid-
                                                     wetlands.                                                  ity, available soil moisture, and vegetation type and
                                                        Detennining water budgets for wetlands is impre-        density affect the rate of ET. Evaporation can be mea-
                                                     c
                                                      e because as the climate varies from year to year         sured fairly easily, but ET measurements, which
                                                     is does the water balance. The accuracy of individual      require measuring how much water is being tran-
                         Water budgets               c"omponents depends on how well they can be mea_           spired by plants on a daily, weekly, seasonal, or yearly
                  provide a basis for                sured and the magnitude of the associated errors           basis,.are much more difficult to make. For this rea-
                                                     (Winter, 198 1; Carter, 1986). However, water budgets,     son scientists use a variety of formulas to estimate ET
                          understanding              in conjunction with information on the local geology       and there is some controversy regarding the best for-
                                hydrologic           provide a basis for understanding the hydrologic pro'      mula and the accuracy of these estimates (Gehrels and
                                                     cesses and water chemistry of a wetland, understand-       Mulamoottil, 1990; Carter, 1986; Dolan and others,
                         processes of a              ing its functions, and predicting the effects of natu-     1984-1 Idso, 1981).
                                   wetland-          ral or human-induced hydrologic alterations. Each of           Evapotranspiration is highly variable both sea-
                                                     the components is discussed below.                         sonally and daily (Dolan and others, 1984). ET losses
                                                                                                                from wetlands vary with plant species, plant density,
                                                                                                                and plant status (whether the plants are actively grow-
                                                     Precipitation                                              ing or are dormant). Seasonal changes in ET also
                                                        Precipitation is any form of water, such as rain,       relate to the water-table position (Ingram, 1983)
                                                     snow, sleet, hail, or mist, that falls from the atmo-      (more water evaporates from the soil or is transpired
                                                     sphere and reaches the ground. Precipitation provides      by plants when the water table is closer to land sur-
                                                     water for wetlands directly and indirectly. Water is       face) and also to temperature changes (more water
                                                     provided for a wetland directly when precipitation         evaporates or is transpired in hot weather than in
                                                     falls on the wetland or indirectly when precipitation      cold). Daily ET rates are controlled chiefly by the
                                                     falls outside the wetland and is transported to the wet-   energy available to evaporate water-there is gener-
                                                     land by surface- or ground-water flow. For example,        ally less at night and on cool, cloudy days.
                                                     snow that falls on wetland basins provides surface-
                                                                                                                Surface Water
                                                                                              95                    Surface water may be permanently, seasonally, or
                                                                                                                temporarily present in a wetland. Surface water is
                                                                                       5       T                supplied to wetlands through normal streamflow,
                                                                                                                flooding from lakes and rivers, overland flow, ground-
                           100                             50      50                  E                        water discharge, and tides. Ground water discharged
                                                                                                                into wetlands also becomes surface water. Surface-
                                                                 @T                                             water outflow from wetlands is greatest during the wet
                                                                                                                season and especially during flooding, Surface water
                                                                                                                may flow in channels or across the surface of a wet-
                                                                         water tabie                            land. Flow paths and velocity of water over the sur-
                                                                                                                face of a wetland are affected by the topography and
                                                                                                                vegetation within the wetland.
                                                                                                                    Strearnflow from wetlands that have a large com-
                   Figure 20. Percentage of transpiration and evaporation from various                          ponent of ground-water discharge tends to be more
                   wetland components. (E, evaporation; T, transpiration.)                                      evenly distributed throughout the year than stream-








                                                                                        National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: TECHNICAL ASPECTS                  39



                 flow from wetlands fed primarily by precipitation                   70
                 (fig. 21).This is because ground-water discharge                       A. Perched bog
                 tends to be relatively constant in quantity compared                60
                 with precipitation and snowmelt.                                 R:
                     In coastal areas, tides provide a regular and pre-              50
                 dictable source of surface water for wetlands, affect-
                                                                                  L< 40
                                                                                  U
                 ing erosion, deposition, and water chemistry. The                X
                                                                                  I'_
                 magnitude of daily high and low tides is affected by                30
                 the relative position of the sun and the moon-high-
                 est and lowest tides usually occur during full or new            Z  20
                                                                                  Z
                 moons. Where tidal circulation is impeded by bar-                <
                                                                                  0  10
                 rier islands (for example, in the Albemarle-Pamlico              UJ
                 Sound in North Carolina, where tides are primarily               g
                                                                                  l-
                 wind-driven) or dikes and levees, tidal circulation              Z      J F M A M J J A S 0 N D
                 may be small or highly modified. Strong winds an                 0U 20
                                                                          d       C
                                                                                  LU    0. Ground-water fen
                 storms can cause extreme changes in sea level, flood-            (L 10
                 ing both wetlands and uplands.
                                                                                     0
                                                                                         J F M A M J J A S 0 N D
                 Ground Water
                     Ground water originates as precipitation or as            Figure 21. Monthly strearnflow from two wetlands in
                 seepage from surface-water bodies. Precipitation              northern Minnesota; A, a perched bog whose inflow
                                                                               component is primarily precipitation, and 0, a fen
                 moves slowly downward through unsaturated soils               whose inflow component is primarily ground water.
                 and rocks until it reaches the saturated zone. Water          (Source: Modified from Boelter and Verry, 1977.)
                 also seeps from lakes, rivers, and wetlands into the
                 saturated zone. This process is known as ground-
                 water recharge and the top of the saturated zone is           ers of the wetland; the source of water (precipitation,
                 known as the water table. Ground water in the satu-           surface water, or ground water) controls the water
                 rated zone flows through aquifers or aquifer systems          chemistry and determines what nutrients are avail-
                 composed of permeable rocks or other earth materi-            able for plant growth. Ground-water flow in exten-           The hydrology of a
                 als in response to hydraulic heads (pressure). Ground         sive peatlands such as the Glacial Lake Agassiz              wetiand is largely
                 water can flow in shallow local aquifer systems where         peatland in Minnesota may be controlled by the de-
                 water is near the land surface or in deeper interme-          velopment of ground-water mounds (elevated water             responsible for the
                 diate and regional aquifer systems (fig. 22). Differ-         tables fed by precipitation) in raised bogs where            vegetation of the
                 ences in hydraulic head cause ground water to move            ground water moves downward through mineral soils
                 back to the land surface or into surface-water bod-           before discharging into adjacent fens (Siegel, 1983;         wetland.
                 ies; this process is called ground-water discharge. In        Siegel and Glaser, 1987). Movement of the ground
                 wetlands that are common discharge areas for differ-          water through mineral soils increases the nutrient
                 ent flow systems, waters from different sources can           content of the water.
                 mix. Ground-water discharge occurs through wells,                Coastal wetlands and shallow embayments repre-
                 seepage or springs, and directly through ET where the         sent the lowest point in regional and local ground-
                 water table is near the land surface or plant roots reach     water flow systems; ground water discharges into these
                 the water table. Ground-water discharge will influ-           areas, sometimes in quantities large enough to affect
                 ence the water chemistry of the receiving wetland             the chemistry of estuaries (Valiela and Costa, 1988;
                 whereas ground-water recharge will influence the
                 chemistry of water in the adjacent aquifer.
                     Wetlands most commonly are ground-water dis-                                                                                             LOCALAND
                                                                                                                                                               REGIONAL
                 charge areas; however, ground-water recharge also                                                                     LOCAL AND              RECHARGE
                 occurs. Ground-water recharge or discharge in wet-                                                                  INTERMEDIATE
                                                                                                                                       RECHARGE
                 lands is affected by topographic position, hydro-
                                                                                                               LOCAL                               LOCAL
                 geology, sediment and soil characteristics, season, ET,                   LOCAL             RECHARGE    LOCAL                   DISCHARGE
                 and climate and might not occur uniformly through-                       RECHARGE LOCALAND             DISCHARGE
                 out a wetland. Recharge rates in wetlands can be much         LOCAL AND          INTERMEDIATE
                                                                               REGIONAL            DISCHARGE
                 slower than those in adjacent uplands if the upland soils     DISCHARGE
                 are more permeable than the slightly permeable clays             E                                                               Locakilo",
                 or peat that usually underlie wetlands.
                     The accumulation and composition of peat in                                                    L...
                 wetlands are important factors influencing hydrology                                                         iloN
                 and vegetation. It was long assumed that the dis-                        Local fiOIN             tntermedlatO
                 charge of ground water through thick layers of well-                                                 RagiOOat
                 decomposed peat was negligible because of its low
                 permeability, but recent studies have shown that these        Figure 22.  Ground-water flow systems. Local ground-water flow systems are
                 layers can transmit ground water more rapidly than            recharged at topographic highs and discharged at immediately adjacent lows.
                 previously thought (Chason and Siegel, 1986).                 Regional ground-water flow systems are recharged at the major regional topographic
                 Peatland type (fen or bog) and plant communities are          highs and discharged at the major regional topographic lows. Intermediate flow
                 affected by the chemistry ofwater in the surface lay-         systems fie between the other two systems. (Source: Modified from Winter 1976.)








                   40     National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: OVERVIEW OF WETLAND RESOURCES



                                                                                                                 SOME EFFECTS OF HYDROLOGY ON
                                                                                                                 WETLAND VEGETATION

                                                                    Winter water table                               The hydrology of a wetland is largely responsible
                                                                                                                 for the vegetation of the wetland, which in turn affects
                                                                        o Low evapotranspiration
                                                            6",                                                  the value of the wetland to animals and people. The
                                                           .@A          0 Storage capacity limited to
                                                                                                                 duration and seasonality of flooding and (or) soil
                                                         e    j               surface water                      saturation, ground-water level, soil type, and drainage
                                                     t
                                                                        0 Plants, except evergreens,             characteristics exert a strong influence on the number,
                                                                              have no leaves
                                                                                                                 type, and distribution of plants and plant communities
                                                                                                                 in wetlands. Although much is known about flooding
                                                                                                                 tolerance in plants, the effect of soil saturation in the
                                                                                                                 root zone is less well understood. Golet and Lowry
                                                                                                                 (1987) showed that surface flooding and duration of
                                                                                                                 saturation within the root zone, while not the only
                                                                                                                 factors influencing plant growth, accounted for as
                                                                    Spring water table
                                                                    Summer water table                           much as 50 percent of the variation in growth of some
                                                                                                                  lants. Plant distribution is also closely related to
                                                                                                                 p
                                                                        al High evapotranspiration
                                         A-                                                                      wetland water chemistry; the water may be fresh or
                                                                        a Storage capacity increases             saline, acidic or basic, depending on the source(s).
                                               g',
                                                                              (surface and subsurface)
                                                                        0 Plants are actively growing            HYDROGEOLOGIC SETTINGS

                                                                                                                     The source and movement of water are very im-
                                                                                                                 portant for assessing wetland function and predicting
                                                                                                                 how changes in wetlands will affect the associated
                                                                                                                 basin. Linkages between wetlands, uplands, and
                                                                    Fall water table                             deepwater habitats provide a framework for protec-
                                                                                                                 tion and management of wetland resources. Water
                                                                        e Low evapotranspiration
                                                                                                                 moving into wetlands has chemical and physical char-
                                                     V                  a Storage capacity decreases             acteristics that reflect its source. Older ground water
                                                                                                                 generally contains chemicals associated with the
                                                                        0 Plants lose leaves and
                                                                              become dormant                     rocks through which it has moved; younger ground
                                                                                                                 water has fewer minerals because it has had less time
                                                                                                                 in contact with the rocks. Which processes can and
                                                                                                                 will occur within the wetland are determined by the
                                                     Figure 23. Seasonal changes in storage capacity             characteristics of the water entering and the charac-
                                                     and evapotranspiration (ET) in wetlands.                    teristics of the wetland itself-its size, shape, soils,
                                                                                                                 plants, and position in the basin.
                                                                                                                     Because wetlands occur in a variety of geologic
                                                                                                                 and physiographic settings, attempts have been made
                                                                                                                 to group or classify them in such a way as to identify
                                                     Valiela and others, 1990). The quantity of ground water     similarities in hydrology. For example, Novitzki
                                                     discharged varies throughout the tidal cycle, affecting     (1979, 1982) developed a hydrologic classification for
                                                     the water chemistry of the wetland soils (Harvey and        Wisconsin wetlands based on topographic position
                                                     Odum, 1990; Valiela and others, 1990).                      and surface water-ground water interaction; Gosse-
                                                                                                                 link and 1brner (1978) grouped freshwater wetlands
                                                     Storage                                                     according to hydrodynamic energy gradients; and
                                                                                                                 Brinson (1993) developed a hydrogeomorphic clas-
                                                        Storage in a wetland consists of surface water,          sification for use in evaluating wetland function. (See
                                                     soil moisture, and ground water. Storage capacity           the articles "Wetland Definitions and Classifications
                        The vegetation               refers to the space available for water storage-the         in the United States" and "Wetland Functions, Values,
                                                     higher the water table, the less the storage capacity       and Assessment" in this volume.) Wetlands, like lakes,
                               affects the           of a wetland. Some wetlands have continuously high          are associated with features where water tends to col-
                    value of the wet-                water tables, but generally, the water table fluctuates     lect. They are commonly found in topographic depres-
                                                     seasonally in response to rainfall and ET. Storage          sions, at slope breaks, in areas of stratigraphic change,
                       landto animals                capacity of wetlands is lowest when the water table         and in permafrost areas (fig. 24) (Winter and Woo,
                            and people.              is near or at the surface---during the dormant season       1990).
                                                     when plants are not transpiring, following snowmelt,
                                                     and (or) during the wet season (fig. 23). Storage           Topographic Depressions
                                                     capacity increases during the growing season as
                                                     water tables decline and ET increases. When storage             Most wetlands occur in or originate in topo-
                                                     capacity is high, infiltration may occur and the wet-       graphic depressions-these include lakes, wetland
                                                     land may be effective in retarding runoff. When water       basins, and river valleys (fig. 24A). Depressions may
                                                     tables are high and storage capacity is low, any addi-      be formed by movement of glaciers and water; action
                                                     tional water that enters the wetland runs off the wet-      of wind, waves, and tides; and (or) by processes as-
                                                     land rapidly.                                               sociated with tectonics, subsidence, or collapse.








                                                                                    National Water  Summary-Wetland Resources: TECHNICAL ASPECTS               41



                     Glacial movement.-Glaciers shaped the land-
                 scape of many of the Northern States and caused                            t
                 wetlands to form in mountainous areas such as the
                 Rocky Mountains and the northern Appalachians. As
                 the glaciers advanced over the Northern United States
                 they gouged and scoured the land surface, making
                 numerous depressions, depositing unsorted glacial
                 materials, and burying large ice masses. As the cli
                 mate warmed, the glaciers retreated, leaving behind
                                                                                                                                AA
                 the depressions and the large masses of buried ice. As
                 the temperatures continued to warm, the ice masses
                                                                                                                                      infrared color photograph of
                 melted to form kettle holes. In many cases, water                                                                    oxbow lakes in the drainage
                 filled the depressions and kettle holes, forming lakes.                                                              area of Hoholitna River near
                                                                        d                                                             Sleetmute, Alaska.
                 As the lakes filled with sediments, they were replace
                 by wetlands.                                                                                                         (Photograph courtesy of
                     Water movement.-Wetlands also are formed by                                                                      National Aeronautics and
                 the movement of water as it flows from upland areas                  All,                                            Space Administration.)
                 toward the coast. The flow characteristics of water are
                 partly determined by the slope of the streambed. On
                 steeply sloping land, water generally flows rapidly
                 through relatively deep, well-defined channels. As the
                 slope decreases, the water spreads out over a wider
                 area and channels usually become shallower and less
                 defined. Shallow channels tend to meander or move
                 back and forth across the flood plain. The changes in
                 flow path sometimes result in oxbow lakes and flood-
                 plain wetlands. When the river floods, the isolated
                 oxbow lakes begin to fill with sediment, providing an
                 excellent place for more wetlands to form. Obstruc-
                 tion to the normal flow of water also can cause the                                                                  Lotus in Reelfoot Lake,
                 water to change course and leave gouges in front Of                                                                  Tennessee.
                 or channels around the obstruction, or can cause water                                                               (Photograph by Virginia
                 to be impounded behind the obstruction. Many lakes                                                                   Carter, U.S. Geological
                 and wetlands are formed behind dams made by                                                                               ey)
                 humans or beavers.
                     Wind, wave, and tidal action.-Wetlands are com-
                 mon in areas of sand dunes caused by wind, waves,
                 or tides. Wetlands formed in the depressions between
                 sand dunes are found in the Nebraska Sandhills, along
                 the shoreline of the Great Lakes, and on barrier
                 islands and the seaward margins of coastal States. In
                 coastal States, tides, waves, and wind cause the move-
                 ment of sand barriers and the closing of inlets, which
                 often result in the formation of shallow lagoons with
                 abundant associated emergent wetlands.
                     Tectonic activities. -Rctonic activity is respon-
                                                                                                                                      Coastal marsh along San
                 sible for depression wetlands such as Reelfoot Lake                                                                  Francisco Bay, California.
                 on the Mississippi River flood plain in Tennessee                                                                    (Photograph by Virginia
                 caused by the 1812 New Madrid earthquake. Earth-                                                                     Carter U.S. Geological
                 quakes result when two parts of the Earth's crust move                                                               Survey.)
                 relative to each other, causing displacement of land.
                 When this occurs, depressions may result along the
                 lines of displacement or the flow paths of rivers may
                 be changed, leaving isolated bodies of water. When
                 a source of water coincides with these depressions,
                 wetlands can form.
                     Subsidence and collapsefeatures.-Land subsi-
                 dence and collapse also can form depressions in
                 which wetlands and lakes occur. In some areas, es-
                 pecially in the Southwest, pumping of ground water              Ott
                                                                                                         41,




                 has caused the land above an aquifer to sink, form-                                                                  This recently collapsed
                 ing depressions where water collects and wetlands                                                                    sinkhole, in central
                 develop. In karst topography (landscapes resulting                                                                   Florida, provides an ideal.
                 from the solution of carbonate rocks such as lime-                                                                   spot for a wetland to form.
                                                                                                                                      (Photograph by
                 stone), such as is found in Florida, wetlands form in                                                                Terry H. Thompson,
                 sinkholes. Collapse of volcanic craters produces
                                                                                                                                      U.S. Geological Survey.)








                      42       National Water Surnmary-Wetland Resources: OVERVIEW OF WETLAND RESOURCES


                                    A. Depressions and slope breaks                                                                 bottom of an ancient beach ridge that runs along the
                                              Slope break                                                                           western edge (Carter and others, 1994).
                                                      11
                                                      2                           Slope break
                                                                                                                                    Areas of Stratigraphic Change
                                                                                                              ression                     Where stratigraphic changes occur near land sur-
                                                                                                                                    face, the layering of permeable and less-permeable
                                                                                                          Dep
                                                                                                                                    rocks or soils affects the movement of ground water.
                                         Surficial sand aquifer                                                                     When water flowing through the more permeable rock
                                                                                                                                    encounters the less permeable rock, it is diverted along
                                                                                                                                    the surface of the less permeable rock to the land sur-
                                                                                                                                    face. The continual seepage that occurs at the surface
                                                                                                                                    provides the necessary moisture for a wetland (fig.
                                    B. Areas of stwatigraphic change                                                                24B). Fens in Iowa form on valley-wall slopes where
                                                                                                                                    a thin permeable horizontal layer of rock is sand-
                                                                                                                    Glacial till    wiched between two less permeable layers and con-
                                                                                                                                    tinual seepage from the permeable layer causes the
                                                                                                               Sand and gravel
                                                                                                                                    formation of peat (Thompson and others, 1992).

                                                                                                      Glacial oil
                                                                                                                                    Permafrost Areas
                                                                                     Sand and gravel                                      Permafrost is defined as soil material with a
                                                                                                                                    temperature continuously below 32'F (Fahrenheit)
                                                                                                                                    for more than I year (Brown, 1974); both arctic and
                                                                                                                                    subarctic wetlands in Alaska are affected by perma-
                                    C Permafrost areas                                                                              frost (figs. 24 C and 25). Permafrost has low perme-
                                                                                                                                    ability and infiltration rates. As a result, recharge
                                                                                                                                    through permafrost is extremely slow (Ford and
                                                                                                                                    Bedford, 1987). In areas covered by peat, organic silt,
                                                                                                                                    or dense vegetation, permafrost is commonly close to
                                                                                                                                    the surface. In areas covered by lakes, streams, and
                                        Permafrost                                                                                  ponds, permafrost can be absent or at great depth
                                                                                                                                    below the surface-water body. The surface or active
                                                                          Permafrost                              Soil material     layer of permafrost thaws during the growing season.
                                                                                                                                    In areas where permafrost is continuous, there is vir-
                                                                                                                                    tually no hydraulic connection between ground water
                                                                         EXPLANATION                                                in the surface layer and ground water below the per-
                                                                                                                                    mafrost zone. The imperviousness of the frozen soil
                                                       General dlirection of                Emergent vegetation                     slows drainage and causes water to stand in surface
                                                          ground-water flow                 Peat                                    depressions, forming wetlands and shallow lakes.
                                                       Average water table                  Glacial till                                  In discontinuous permafrost areas (fig. 25), un-
                                                                                               (low permeability)                   frozen zones on south-facing slopes (in the northern
                                                       Forest vegetation                    Sand and gravel                         hemisphere) and under lakes, wetlands, and large riv-
                                                                                               (high permeability)                  ers provide hydraulic connections between the surface
                                                       Scrub-shrub vegetation                                                       and the ground water below the permafrost zone.
                                                                                                                                    Ground-water discharge to wetlands from deeper
                                   Figure 24. Cross sections showing principal hydrogeologic settings for                           aquifers can occur through the unfrozen zone (Will-
                                   wetlands; A, slope break and depression, B, area of stratigraphic change,                        iams and Waller, 1966; Kane and Slaughter, 1973).
                                   and C, permafrost area.                                                                          In discontinuous permafrost regions, whether a slope
                                                                                                                                    faces away from or toward the sun can determine the
                                                                                                                                    presence or absence of permafrost and thus influence
                                                             calderas that fill with water and sediment and con-                    the location and distribution of wetlands (Dingman
                                                             tain takes or wetlands.                                                and Koutz, 1974). Permafrost is sensitive to factors
                                                                                                                                    that upset the thermal equilibrium. Thermokarst fea-
                                                             Slope Breaks                                                           tures (depressions in the land surface caused by thaw-
                                                                                                                                    ing and subsequent settling of the land) may be caused
                                                                  The water table sometimes intersects the land                     by regional climatic change or human activities. These
                                                             surface in areas where the land is sloping. Where there                depressions formed by local thawing of permafrost
                                                             is an upward break or change in slope, ground water                    are usually filled with wetlands.
                                                             moves toward the water table in the flatter landscape
                                                             (fig. 24A) (Roulet, 1990; Winter and Woo, 1990).                       WATER QUALITY IN WETLANDS
                                                             Where ground water discharges to the land surface,
                                                             wetlands form on the lower parts of the slope. Con-                          The water chemistry of wetlands is primarily a
                                                             stant ground-water seepage maintains soil saturation                   result of geologic setting, water balance (relative pro-
                                                             and wetland plant communities. The Great Dismal                        portions of inflow, outflow, and storage), quality of
                                                                          ,a
                                        P-1m.f'







































                                                             Swamp of Virginia and North Carolina is maintained                     inflowing water, type of soils and vegetation, and
                                                             by seepage of ground water at the slope break at the                   human activity within or near the wetland. Wetlands









                                                                                       National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: TECHNICAL ASPECTS                  43









                                                                                                          EXPLANATION

                                                                                                                Generally underlain by
                                            ALASKA                                                                continuous permatrost
                                                                                                                Underlain by discon-
                                                                                                                  tinuous permafrost
                                                                                                                Underlain br isolated
                                                                                                                  masses o permafrost
                                                                                                                Generally free from
                                                                                                                  permafrost
                                                                                                                Undefined






                                                                             0                 500 MILES
                                                                             i 1 11 11 1 11 1 _j
                                                                             0         500 KILOMETERS


                                Figure 25. Continuous, discontinuous, and sporadic permafrost areas of
                                Alaska. (Source: Modified from Ford and Bedford, 1987.)


                  dominated by surface-water inflow and outflow re-             - Type of soil
                  flect the chemistry of the associated rivers or lakes.        - The relative amounts of water flowing in and
                  Those wetlands that receive surface-water or ground-             water flowing out of the wetland
                  water inflow, have limited outflow, and lose water            - Local climate
                  primarily to ET have a high concentration of chemi-           - The hydrogeologic framework
                  cals and contain brackish or saline (salty) water. Ex-        - The geochernistry of surface and ground water
                  amples of such wetlands are the saline playas, wet-          Although broad generalizations regarding wetland
                  lands associated with the Great Salt Lake in Utah, and       functions can be made, effectiveness and magnitude
                  the permanent and semipermanent prairie potholes.            of functions differ from wetland to wetland.
                  In contrast, wetlands that receive water primarily              Natural functions of wetlands can be altered or
                  from precipitation and lose water by way of surface-         impaired by human activity. Although slow incremen-
                  water outflows and (or) seepage to ground water tend         tal changes in the natural landscape can lead to small
                  to have lower concentrations of chemicals. Wetlands          changes in wetlands, the accumulation of these small                ------ ---
                  influenced strongly by ground-water discharge have           changes can permanently alter the wetland function          The effectiveness
                  water chemistries similar to ground water. In most           (Brinson, 1988). Some of the major hydrologic and
                  cases, wetlands receive water from more than one             water-quality functions of wetlands-(1) floodstor-          and magnitude of
                  source, so the resultant water chemistry is a composite      age and storinflow modification, (2) ground-water           a function varies
                  chemistry of the various sources.                            recharge and discharge, (3) alterations of precipita-       from wetland to
                      Plants can serve as indicators of wetland chem-          tion and evaporation, (4) maintenance of water qual-
                  istry. In tidal wetlands, the distribution of salty          ity, (5) maintenance of estuarine water balance, and        Wetiand.
                  water influences plant communities and species               (6) erosion reduction-are discussed below.
                  diversity. In freshwater wetlands, pH (a measure of
                  acidity or alkalinity) and mineral and nutrient con-         Flood Storage and Stormflow Modification
                  tent influence plant abundance and species diversity.
                                                                                  Wetlands associated with lakes and streams store
                  HYDROLOGIC AND WATER-QUALITY                                 floodwaters by spreading water out over a large flat
                  FUNCTIONS OF WETLANDS                                        area. This temporary storage of water decreases run-
                                                                               off velocity, reduces flood peaks, and distributes
                      Wetland hydrologic and water-quality functions           stormflows over longer time periods, causing tribu-
                  are the roles that wetlands play in modifying or con-        tary and main channels to peak at different times.
                  trolling the quantity or quality of water moving             Wetlands with available storage capacity or those
                  through a wetland. An understanding of wedand func-          located in depressions with narrow outlets may store
                  tions and the underlying chemical, physical, and bio-        and release water over an extended period of time. In
                  logical processes supporting these functions facili-         drainage basins with flat terrain that contains many
                  tates the management and protection of wetlands and          depressions (for example, the prairie potholes and
                  their associated basins.                                     playa lake regions), lakes and wetlands store large
                      The hydrologic and water-quality functions of            volumes of snowmelt and (or) runoff. These wetlands
                  wetlands are controlled by the following:                    have no natural outlets, and therefore this water is
                    ï¿½ Landscape position (elevation in the drainage ba-        retained and does not contribute to local or regional
                       sin relative to other wetlands, lakes, and streams)     flooding.
                    ï¿½ Topographic location (depressions, flood plains,            A strong correlation exists between the size of
                       slopes)                                                 flood peaks and basin storage (percentage of basin
                    ï¿½ Presence or absence of vegetation                        area occupied by lakes and wetlands) in many drain-
                    ï¿½ Type of vegetation                                       age basins throughout the United States (Tice, 1968;








                  44     National Water Surnmary-Wetland Resources: OVERVIEW OF WETLAND RESOURCES



                                                   Hains, 1973; Novitzki, 1979, 1989; Leibowitz and             ing on nontidal freshwater wetlands on barrier islands
                                                   others, 1992). Novitzki (1979, 1989) found that ba-          may recharge the shallow freshwater aquifer overly-
                                                   sins with 30 percent or more areal coverage by lakes         ing the deeper salty water.
                                                   and wetlands have flood peaks that are 60 to 80 per-
                                                   cent lower than the peaks in basins with no lake or          Alterations of Precipitation and
                                                   wetland area. Wetlands can provide cost-effective            Evaporation
                                                   flood control, and in some instances their protection
                                                   has been recognized as less costly than flood-control            Wetlands can influence local or regional weather
                                                   measures such as reservoirs or dikes (Carter and oth-        and climate in several ways. Wetlands tend to moder-
                                                   ers, 1979). Loss of wetlands can result in severe and        ate seasonal temperature fluctuations. During the sum-
                                                   costly flood damage in low-lying areas of a basin.           mer, wetlands maintain lower temperatures because ET
                                                       Not all wetlands are able to store floodwaters or        from the wetland converts latent heat and releases
                                                   modify storniflow; some, in fact, add to runoff. Down-       water vapor to the atmosphere. In the winter, the
                                                   stream wetlands, such as those along the middle and          warmer water of the wetland prevents rapid cooling at
                         Wetlands can              lower reaches of the Mississippi River and its tribu-        night; warm breezes from the wetland surface may
                                influence          taries, are more effective at reducing downstream            prevent freezing in nearby uplands. Wetlands also
                                                   flooding than are headwater wetlands, largely as a           modify local atmospheric circulation and thus affect
                          weather and              result of larger storage capacities (Ogawa and Male,         moisture convection, cloud formation, thunderstorms,
                                  CliMate.         1986). Runoff from wetlands is strongly influenced           and precipitation patterns. Therefore, when wetlands
                                                   by season, available storage capacity, and soil perme-       are drained or replaced by impermeable materials, sig-
                                                   ability. Wetlands in basin headwaters are commonly           nificant changes in weather systems can occur.
                                                   sources of runoff because they are ground-water dis-
                                                   charge areas. Wetlands in Alaska that are underlain by       Maintenance of Water Quality
                                                   permafrost have little or no available storage capac-
                                                   ity; runoff is rapid and flood peaks are often very high.        Ground water and surface water transport sedi-
                                                                                                                ments, nutrients, trace metals, and organic materials.
                                                   Ground-Water Recharge and Discharge                          Wetlands can trap, precipitate, transform, recycle, and
                                                                                                                export many of these waterborne constituents, and
                                                       Ground-water recharge and discharge are hydro-           water leaving the wetland can differ markedly from
                                                   logic processes that occur throughout the landscape          that entering (Mitsch and Gosselink, 1993; Elder,
                                                   and are not unique functions of wetlands. Recharge           1987). Wetlands can maintain good quality water and
                                                   and discharge in wetlands are strongly influenced by         improve degraded water.
                                                   local hydrogeology, topographic position, ET, wet] and           Water-quality modification can affect an entire
                                                   soils, season, and climate. Ground-water discharge           drainage basin or it may affect only an individual
                                                   provides water necessary to the survival of the wet-         wetland. Water chemistry in basins that contain a
                                                   land and also can provide water that leaves the wet-         large proportion of wetlands is usually different from
                                                   land as strearnflow. Most wetlands are primarily dis-        that in basins with fewer wetlands. Basins with more
                                                   charge areas; in these wetlands, however, small              wetlands tend to have water with lower specific con-
                                                   amounts of recharge can occur seasonally.                    ductance and lower concentrations of chloride, lead,
                                                       Recharge to aquifers can be especially important         inorganic nitrogen, suspended solids, and total and
                                                   in areas where ground water is withdrawn for agri-           dissolved phosphorus than basins with fewer wet-
                                                   cultural, industrial, and municipal purposes. Wetlands       lands. Generally, wetlands are more effective at re-
                                                   can provide either substantial or limited recharge to        moving suspended solids, total phosphorus, and
                                                   aquifers. Much of the recharge to the Ogallala aqui-         ammonia during high-flow periods and more effec-
                                                   fer in West Texas and New Mexico is from the 20,000          five at removing nitrates at low-flow periods (John-
                                                   to 30,000 playa lakes rather than from areas between         ston and others, 1990). Novitzki (1979) reported that
                                                   lakes, ephemeral streams, and areas of sand dunes            streams in a Wisconsin basin, which contained 40 per-
                                                   (Wood and Osterkamp, 1984; Wood and Sanford,                 cent wetland and lake area, had sediment loads that
                                                   1994). Recharge takes place through the bottoms of           were 90 percent lower than in a comparable basin with
                                                   some streams, especially in karst topography and in          no wetlands. Wetlands may change water chemistry
                                                   the and West. Some recharge also takes place when            sequentially; that is, upstream wetlands may serve as
                                                   floodwater moves across the flood plain and seeps            the source of materials that are transformed in down-
                                                   down into the water-table aquifer. Cypress domes in          stream wetlands. Estuaries and tidal rivers depend on
                                                   Florida and prairie potholes in the Dakotas also are         the flow of freshwater, sediments, nutrients, and other
                                                   thought to contribute to ground-water recharge               constituents from upstream.
                                                   (Carter and others, 1979). Ground-water recharge                 Wetlands filter out or transform natural and an-
                                                   from a wetland can be induced when aquifer water             thropogenic constituents through a variety of biologi-
                                                   levels have been drawn down by nearby pumping.               cal and chemical processes. Wetlands act as sinks
                                                       Most estuarine wetlands are discharge areas              (where material is trapped and held) for some mate-
                                                   rather than recharge areas, primarily because they are       rials and sources (from which material is removed)
                                                   on the low topographic end of local and regional             of others. For example, wetlands are a major sink for
                                                   ground-water flow systems. As the tide rises, water          heavy metals and for sulfur, which combines with
                                                   is temporarily stored on the surface of the wetland and      metals to form relatively insoluble compounds. Some
                                                   in the wetland soils, where it inixes with the discharg-     wetland mineral deposits (bog iron, manganese) are
                                                   ing freshwater. The water moves back into the estu-          or have been important metal reserves in the past. Or-
                                                   ary or tidal river as the tide ebbs. Precipitation fall-     ganic carbon in the form of plant tissues and peat








                                                                                                      National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: TECHNICAL ASPECTS                              45



                                                    ,..Gaseous Nitrogen                                                            EXPLANATION
                                                                                                                                 Bacteria change gaseous
                                                                                                                                 nitrogen (N2) to
                                                                                                                                 ammonia (NI-13).
                                                                                                                                 Bacteria change ammonia
                                                                                                 Living plant
                                                                                                                                 (NH3) to nitrate Moil
                                                                                                                                 (another form of nitrogen
                                                                                                                                 that the plant can use).
                                                                                                     Decaying
                                                                                                                          El     Plant roots absorb ammonia
                                             11                                                    plant material                an
                                                                                                                                 processes Band 6 and
                                                                                                     Detritus                       d (or) nitrate formed in
                                                                                                                                 incorporate nitrogen into
                                                                    0
                       Surface-                                      Z                                     Surface-              the plant proteins and
                          water                                                                              water               nucleic acids that nourish
                          inflow                              -0-                                          outflow               the plant.
                          (N H,)                                                                             (N H,)              Nitrogen compounds of
                                                                                                                                 decaying plants are broken
                                                                                                                                 down by bacteria and release
                                                                                                                                 ammonia that can be recycled
                        Ground-                                                                            Ground-               through steps 10 and El.
                                                                                            A                water
                          water                                                             4                             0      Bacteria change nitrate to
                          inflow                                                   (NO;-)                  outflow               gaseous nitrogen.
                          (N H,)                                      - - - - - - - -                        (N H,)
                                                                                                                                                                    Figure 26. Simplified
                                                                                                                                                                    diagram of the nitrogen
                                                                                                                                                                    cycle in a wetland.


                     accumulates in wetlands creating a source of water-                    them into plant tissue, which may later be recycled
                     borne dissolved and particulate organic materials.                     in the wetland through decomposition, stored as peat,
                     Some materials, for example nutrients, are changed                     or transported from the wetland as particulate mat-
                     from one form to another as they pass through the                      ter (Boyt and others, 1977; Tilton and Kadlec, 1979;
                     wetland (fig. 26). Most stored materials in wetlands                   Hammer, 1992).
                     are immobilized as a result of prevailing water chem-                       Microbes.-The microbial community, which
                     istry and hydrology, but any disturbance can result                    includes bacteria, algae, fungi, and protozoa, is re-
                     in release of those materials.                                         sponsible for most of the chemical transformations
                          The water purification functions of wetlands are                  that occur in wetlands. In order to meet their meta-
                     dependent upon four principal components of the wet-                   bolic needs, microbes use up oxygen; transform nu-
                     land-substrate, water, vegetation, and microbial popu-                 trients, manganese, and iron; and generate methane,
                     lations (Hammer, 1992; Hemond and others, 1987).                       hydrogen sulfide gas, and carbon dioxide.
                          Subs tra tes. -Wetland substrates provide a reac-                      Wetlands serve as short-term or long-term sedi-
                     tive surface for biogeochemical reactions and habi-                    ment sinks. Floodwater spreading out across a wet-
                     tat for microbes. Wetland soils are the medium in                      land decreases in velocity, and sediments settle out
                     which many of the wetland chemical transformations                     and are trapped within the wetland. Some of this sedi-
                     occur and the primary storage area of available                        ment may be transported out of the wetland during
                     chemicals for most plants (Mitsch and Gosselink,                       future flooding. Sediment deposition in estuarine
                     1993). Organic or peat soils differ from niineral soils                wetlands provides a constant input that is of special
                     in their biogeochernical properties, including their                   importance for maintenance of wetlands acreage dur-
                     ability to hold water and bind or immobilize mineral                   ing periods of sea-level rise (Bricker-Urso and oth-
                     constituents.                                                          ers, 1989).
                          Water.-Ground and surface waters transport                             The ability of wetlands to filter and transform
                     solid materials and gases to the microbial and plant                   nutrients and other constituents has resulted in the
                     communities, remove the by-products of chemical and                    construction and use of artificial wetlands in the
                     biological reactions from the wetlands, and maint              ain     United States and other countries to treat wastewater
                     the environment in which the essential biochemical                     and acid mine drainage (Hammer, 1989, 1992;
                     processes of wetlands occur. Flooding or soil satura-                  Wieder, 1989). However, individual wetlands have a
                     tion causes oxygen- deficient conditions that markedly                 limited capacity to absorb nutrients and differ in their
                     influence many biological transformations.                             ability to do so (Tiner, 1985). A wetland's effective-
                          Vegetation.-Wetland vegetation reduces the flow                   ness in improving water quality depends on hydro-
                     and decreases velocities of water, causing the depo-                   logic patterns, amount and type of vegetation, time
                     sition of mineral and organic particles and constitu-                  of year, and the constituent of concern (Zedler and
                     ents attached to them, such as phosphorus or trace                     others, 1985).
                     metals. Plants introduce oxygen to the generally oxy-
                     gen-deficient soil environment through their roots                '    Estuarine Water Balance
                     creating an oxidized root zone where bacteria] trans-
                     formations of nitrogenous and other compounds can                           Estuaries receive freshwater from precipitation,
                     occur (Good and Patrick, 1987). Plants also provide                    ground-water discharge, strearnflow, and overland
                     a surface for microbial colonization. Wetland plants                   flow. Ground water discharges through shallow-
                     remove small quantities of nutrients, trace metals, and                water sediments of the estuary or through marsh soils
                     other compounds from the soil water and incorporate                    and can affect the nutrient balance and salinity of the








                      46      National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: OVERVIEW OF WETLAND RESOURCES



                                                                                                                                       and shallow vegetated wetlands protect shorelines in
                                                                                                                                       moderate and small storms if the water does not carry
                                      High flow                                    Low flow                                            excessive amounts of abrasive floating debris. Wet-
                                                                                                                                       land vegetation decreases water velocities through
                                                                                                                                       friction and causes sedimentation in shallow water
                                                                                                                                       areas and flood-plain wetlands, thus decreasing the
                                                                                                                                       erosive power of the water and building up natural
                                                                                                                                       levees. Trees are excellent riverbank stabilizers and
                                                         151h-                                                                         have been planted to reduce erosion along United
                                                                                                                                       States shorelines. Other wetland plants such as bul-
                                      Alit                                                                                             rushes, reeds, cattails, cordgrass, and mangroves can
                                                                                                                                       also successfully withstand wave and current action.
                                                                                                                                            When vegetation is removed, streambanks col-
                                                                                                                                       lapse and channels widen and (or) deepen; removal
                                                                               @Ijt                                          lg        of wetland vegetation can turn a sediment sink into a
                                                                Estuary                                                                sediment source. The dissipation of erosive forces by
                                                                                                              Estuaiy                  vegetation differs from wetland to wetland and de-
                                                                                                                                       pends upon vegetative composition and root structure,
                                                                     EXPLANATION                                                       sediment type, and the frequency and intensity of
                                                     General direction of                      Freshwater                              water contact with the bank.
                                                         surface-water flow
                                                     Freshwaterilbrackish-water                Brackish water
                                                         interface                             Saltwater                               SUMMARY

                                                     Brackish-w ter/saltweter
                                                         interfaces                                                                         Wetlands are complex ecosystems in which
                                                                                                                                       ground water and surface water interact, but because
                      Figure 27. Movement of the freshwater-saltwater interface in an estuary during                                   ground water cannot be directly observed, its role in
                      periods of high flow and during periods of low flow.                                                             the hydrology of wetlands is sometimes more diffi-
                                                                                                                                       cult to understand than that of surface water. Many
                                                                                                                                       wetlands owe their existence not only to poor drain-
                                                             receiving waters (Valiela and others, 1978; Harvey                        age at the site but also to the discharge of ground water
                                                             and Odum, 1990). Estuarine salinity decreases dur-                        at the site. The hydrology of a wetland determines
                                                             ing periods of high streamflow as the freshwater- salt-                   what functions it will perform. Each wetland is
                                                             water interface moves down the estuary from the                           unique, but those with similar hydrologic settings
                                                             stream toward the sea (fig. 27). Estuarine salinity in-                   generally perform similar functions.
                                                             creases as streamflow decreases and the interface
                                                             moves up the estuary. Estuarine plants and animals
                                                             are well adjusted to these normal seasonal fluctua-                       References Cited
                                                             tions in salinity. Water temporarily stored in flood-
                                                             plain wetlands upstream from the estuary deposits                         Boelter, D.H., and Verry, E.S.. 1977, Peatland and water in
                                                             sediment and nutrients, and water leaving these wet-                           the northern Lake States: U.S. Department ofAgricul-
                                                             lands exports decomposition products and organic de-                           ture Forest Service General Technical Report NC-31,
                                                             tritus to the estuary. This temporary storage of water                         22 p@
                                                             and the concurrent decrease in flow velocity aid in                       Boyt, F.L., Bayley, S.E., and Zoltek, John, Jr., 1977, Removal
                                                             controlling the timing and size of the freshwater in-                          of nutrients from treated municipal wastewater by wet-
                                                             flux to the estuary. For example, the freshwater wet-                          land vegetation: Journal of Water Pollution Control
                                                                                                                                            Federation, v. 49, no. 5, p. 789-799.
                                                             lands of the Barataria Basin in Louisiana serve as a                      Bricker-Urso, Suzanne, Nixon, S.W., Cochran, J.K.,
                                        Wetlands             major freshwater reservoir for maintenance of favor-                           Hirschberg, D.J., and Hunt, C.D., 1989, Accretion rates
                                    reduce the               able salinities in the brackish zone, and the major                            and sediment accumulation in Rhode Island salt
                                            erosive          pul .se of materials to the estuary coincides with the                         marshes: Estuaries, v. 12, no. 4, p. 300-317.
                                                             arrival of migrant fish for growth and spawning.                          Brinson, M.M., 1988, Strategies for assessing the cumula-
                             forces of wind                  Leaves that fall in flood-plain wetlands are broken                            tive effects of wetland alteration on water quality: En-
                                     andWaVes.               down and enriched by microbial action and produce                              vironmental Management, v. 12, no. 5, p. 655-662.
                                                             high-quality food for detrital based food chains in the                   -1993, A hydrogeomorphic classification for wet-
                                                                                                                                            lands: U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Technical
                                                             estuary. Alterations in the timing and quality of                              Report WRP-DE-4, 79 p@
                                                             streamflow and associated suspended particulate and                       Brown, R. J. E., 1974, Distribution and environmental re-
                                                             dissolved material, caused by dams or artificial drain-                        lationships of permafrost: Canada National Commit-
                                                             age, can alter the chemistry of coastal waters and                             tee for the Hydrologic Decade, p. t-5.
                                                             affect the organisms that inhabit them.                                   Carter, Virginia, 1986, An overview of the hydrologic con-
                                                                                                                                            cerns related to wetlands in the United States: Cana-
                                                                                                                                            dian Journal of Botany, v. 64, no. 2, p. 364-374.
                                                             Erosion Reduction                                                         Carter, Virginia, Bedinger, M.S., Novitzki, R.P., and Wilen,
                                                                  Wetlands reduce shoreline erosion by stabilizing                          W.O., 1979, Water resources and wetlands, in Greeson,
                                                                                                                                            P.E., Clark, J.R. and Clark, J.E., eds., Wetland func-
                                                             sediments and absorbing and dissipating wave energy                            tions and values-The state of our understanding: Min-
                                                             (Hammer, 1992). The ability of wetlands to stabilize                           neapolis, Minnesota, Water Resources Association,
                                                             and protect shorelines depends on their capacity to                            p. 344-376.
                                                             reduce the erosive forces of wind and waves. Beaches                      Carter, Virginia, Gammon, P.T., and Garrett, M.K.,1994,








                                                                                                 National Water Summary-Wetland Resources:              TECHNICAL ASPECTS             47



                        Ecotone dynamics and boundary determination in the                 Hughes, L.E., Iris, J.T., 1992, A synoptic approach to
                        Great Dismal Swamp, Virginia and North Carolina:                   cumulative impact assessment-A proposed method-
                        Ecological Applications, v. 4, no. 1, p. 189-203.                  ology, in McCannell, S.G., and Hairston, A.R., eds.:
                   Chason, D.B., and Siegel, D.I., 1986, Hydraulic conductiv-              U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, EPA/600/R-
                        ity and related physical properties of peat, Lost River            92-167, 127 p.
                        Peatland, Northern Minnesota: Soil Science, v. 142,           Mitsch, W.J., and Gosselink, J.G., 1993, Wetlands: New
                        no. 2, p. 91-99.                                                   York, Van Nostrand Reinhold, 722 p.
                   Dingman, S.L., and Koutz, F.R., 1974, Relations among veg-         Novitzki, R.P., 1978, Hydrology of the Nevin Wetland near
                        etation, permafrost, and potential insolation in Central           Madison, Wisconsin: U.S. Geological Survey Water-
                        Alaska: Arctic and Alpine Research, v. 6,                          Resources Investigations 78-48, 25 p.
                        no.l,p.37-42.                                                 -1979, Hydrologic characteristics ofWsconsirfs wet-
                   Dolan, T.J., Hermann, A.J., Bayley, Suzanne, and Zoltek,                lands and their influence on floods, stream flow, and
                        John, 1984, Evapotranspiration of a Florida, U.S.A.,               sediment, in Greeson, P.E., and Clark, J.R., eds., Wet-
                        freshwater wetland: Journal of Hydrology, v. 74,                   land functions and values-The state of our under-
                        p.355-371.                                                         standing: Minneapolis, Minn., American Water Re-
                   Elder, IT., 1987, Factors affecting wetland retention of                sources Association, 674 p.
                        nutrients, metals, and organic materials, in Kusler, J.A.,    -1982, Hydrology of Wisconsin wetlands: Wisconsin
                        and Brooks, Gail, eds., Weiland hydrology: National                Geological Natural History Survey, Information Circu-
                        Wetland Symposium, 1987, Proceedings, p. 178-184.                  lar 40, 22 p.
                   Ford, Jesse, and Bedford, B.L., 1987, The hydrology of             ------   1989, Wetland hydrology, in Majumdar, S.K.,
                        Alaskan wetlands, USA-A review: Arctic and Alpine                  Brooks, R.P., Brenner, F.J., and Tiner, R.W., Jr., eds.,
                        Research, v. 19, no. 3, p. 209-229.                                Chapter Five, Wetlands ecology and conservation-
                   Gehrels, Jim, and Mulamoottil, George, 1990, Hydrologic                 Emphasis in Pennsylvania: The Pennsylvania Academy
                        processes in a southern Ontario wetland: Hydro-                    of Science, p. 47-64.
                        biologia, v. 208, p. 221-234.                                 Ogawa, Hisashi, and Male, J.W., 1986, Simulating of flood
                   Golet, F.C. and Lowry, D.J., 1987, Water regimes and tree               mitigation role of wetlands: Journal of Water Resources
                        growth in Rhode Island Atlantic white cedar swamps,                Planning and Management, v. 112, no. 1, p. 114-127.
                        in Laderman, A.D, ed., Atlantic white cedar wetlands:         Roulet, N.T., 1990, Hydrology of a headwater basin wet-
                        Boulder, Colo., Westview Press, p. 91-110.                         land-Groundwater discharge and wetland mainte-
                   Good, B.J., and Patrick, W.H., Jr., 1987, Root-water-sedi-              nance: Hydrological Processes, v. 4, p. 387-400.
                        ment interface processes, in Reddy, K.R., and Smith,          Roulet, N.T., and Woo, Ming-ko, 1986, Hydrology of a
                        W.H., eds., Aquatic plants for water treatment and re-             wetland in the continuous permafrost region: Journal
                        source recovery: Orlando, Fla., Magnolia Publishing                of Hydrology, v. 89, p. 73-9 1.
                        Company, p. 359-371.                                          Rykiel, E. J., 1984, General hydrology and mineral budgets
                   Gosselink, J.G., and lbrner, R.E., 1978, The role of hydrol-            for Okefenokee Swamp-Ecological significance, in
                        ogy in freshwater wetland ecosystems, in Good, R.E.,               Cohen, A.D., Casagrande, D.J., Andrejko, M.J., and
                        Whigham, D.F., and Simpson, R.L., eds., Freshwater                 Best, G.R., eds., The Okefenokee Swamp-Its natural
                        wetlands-Ecological processes and management po-                   history, geology, and geochemistry: Los Alamos, N.
                        tential: New York, Academic Press, p. 63-78.                       Mex., Wetland Surveys, p. 212-228.
                   Hains, C.F., 1973, Floods in Alabama-Magnitude and fre-            Siegel, D.I., 1983, Ground water and the evolution of pat-
                        quency, based on data through September 30, 1971:                  terned mires, glacial lake Agassiz peatlands, northern
                        U.S. Geological Survey and Alabama Highway Dept.,                  Minnesota: Journal of Ecology, v. 71, p. 913-921.
                        38 p.                                                         -1992, Groundwater hydrology, in Wright, H.E., Jr.,
                   Hammer, D.A., 1999, Constructed wetlands for waste water                Coffin, B.A., and Asseng, N.E., eds., The patterned
                        treatment: Chelsea, Mich., Lewis Publishers, Inc., 831             peatlands ofMinnesota: Minnesota, University ofMin-
                        P.                                                                 nesota Press, p. 163-172.
                   -1992, Creating freshwater wetlands: Chelsea, Mich.,               Siegel, D.I., and Glaser, P.H., 1987, Groundwater flow in a
                        Lewis Publishers, 298 p.                                           bog-fen complex, Lost River peatland, Northern Min-
                   Harvey, J.W., and Odum, W.E., 1990, The influence of tidal              nesota: Journal of Ecology, v. 75, p. 743-754.
                        marshes on upland groundwater discharge to estuaries:         Thompson, C.A., Bettis, E.A., 111, and Baker, R.G., 1992,
                        Biogeochemistry, v. 10, p. 217-236.                                Geology of Iowa Fens: Journal of Iowa Academy of
                   Hemond, H.F., Army, T.P., Nuttle, W.K., and Chen, D.G.,                 Science, v. 99, no. 2-3, p. 53-59.
                        1987, Element cycling in wetlands-Interactions with           Tice, R. H., 1968, Magnitude and frequency of floods in the
                        physical mass transport, in Hites, R.A., and Eisenreich,           United States: U.S. Geological Survey Water-Supply
                        S.J., eds., Sources and fates of aquatic pollutants: Wash-         Paper 1672, 13 p.
                        ington, D.C., American Chemical Society, Advances in          Tilton, D. L., and Kadlec, R. H., 1979, The utilization of a
                        Chemistry Series 216, p. 519-537.                                  fresh-water wetland for nutrient removal from second-
                   Tdso, S.B., 1981, Relative rates of evaporative water losses            arily treated waste water effluent: Journal of Environ-
                        from open and vegetation covered water bodies: Ameri-              mental Quality, v. 8, no. 3, p. 328-334.
                        can Water Resources Bulletin, v. 17, no. 1, p. 46-48.         Tiner, RX, Jr., 1985, Wetlands of New Jersey: Newton
                   Ingram, H.A.P., 1983, Hydrology, in Gore, A.J.P., ed., Eco-             Corner, Mass., U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, National
                        systems of the world, 4A, Mores-Swamp, bog, fen and                Wetlands Inventory, 117 p.
                        moor: New York, Elsevier Scientific Publishing Com-           Valiela, Ivan, and Costa, J.E., 1988, Eutrophication of But-
                        pany, p. 67-158.                                                   termilk Bay, a Cape Cod coastal embayment--Concen-
                   Johnston, C.A., Detenbeck, N.E., and Niemi, G.J., 1990,                 trations of nutrients and watershed nutrients and wa-
                        The cumulative effect of wetlands on stream water                  tershed nutrient budgets: Environmental Management,
                        quality and quantity-A landscape approach: Bio-                    v. 12, no. 4, p. 539-553.
                        geochemistry, v. 10, p. 105-141.                              Valiela, Ivan, Costa, J.E., Foreman, Kenneth, Teal, J.M.,
                   Kane, D.L., and Slaughter, C.W., 1973, Recharge of a cen-               Howes, Brian, and Aubrey, David, 1990, Transport of
                        tral Alaska lake by subpermafrost groundwater: Sec-                groundwater-borne nutrients from watersheds and their
                        ond International Conference on Permafrost, Siberia,               effects on coastal waters: Biogeochemistry, v. 10,
                        1973, Proceedings, p. 458-468.                                     p.177-197.
                   Leibowitz, S.G., Abbruzzese, Brooks, Adamus, P.R.,                 Valiela, Ivan, Teal, J.M., Volkmann, Susanne, Shafer,








                   48      National Water Surnmary-Wetland Resources: OVERVIEW OF WETLAND RESOURCES



                                                           Deborah, and Carpenter, E.J., 1978, Nutrient and par-           Ogallala aquifer from Playa Lake Basins on the
                                                           ticulate fluxes in a salt marsh ecosystem-Tidal ex-             Llano Estacado: Wetstone, G.A., ed., Ogallala Aquifer
                                                           changes and inputs by precipitation and groundwater:            Symposium IL Lubbock,'1xas, 1984, Proceedings, p.
                                                           Limnology and Oceanography, v. 23, no. 4, p. 708-812.           337-349.
                                                      Wieder, R.K., 1989, A survey of constructed wetlands for        Wood, W.W., and Sanford, W.E., 1994, Recharge to the
                                                           acid coal mine drainage treatment in the eastern United         Ogallala: 60 years after CX Theis'analysis, in Urban,
                                                           States: Wetlands, v. 9, no. 2, p. 299-315.                      LX, and Wyatt, A.W., eds., Playa Basin Symposium:
                                                      Williams, J.R., and Waller, R.M., 1966, Ground water oc-             Texas Tech University, Lubbock, Rxas, 1994, 324 p.
                                                           currence in permafrost regions of Alaska: National         Zedler, J.B., Huffman, Terry, Josselyn, Michael, eds., 1985,
                                                           Research Council, p. 159-164.                                   Pacific Regional Wetland Functions: Proceedings of a
                                                      Winter, T.C., 1976, Numerical simulation analysis of the             workshop held at Mill Valley, Calif., April 14-16,1985,
                                                           interaction of lakes and ground water: U.S. Geologi-            Amherst, Mass., The Environmental Institute, Univer-
                                                           cal Survey Professional Paper 1001, 45 p.                       sity of Massachusetts, Publication no. 90-3, 162 p.
                                                              198 1, Uncertainties in estimating the water balance
                                                           of lakes; Water Resources Bulletin, v. 17, no. 1,
                                                           p. 82-115.
                                                      Winter, T.C., and Woo, MiDg-Ko, 1990, Hydrology of lakes
                                                           and wetlands: Surface Water Hydrology: The Geologi-
                                                           cal Society of America, v. 0-1, p. 159-187.                FOR ADDITIONAL INFORMATION: Virginia Carter, U.S.
                                                      Wood, W.W., and Osterkamp, W.R., 1984, Recharge to the          Geological Survey, 430 National Center, Reston, VA 22092




















































                                                                                        U.S. Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper 2425







                                                                                         National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: TECHNICAL ASPECTS                  49


                  Technical Aspects of Wetlands
                  Wetlands as Bird Habitat
                  By Robert E. Stewart, Jr.'




                                 M,
                                                                                                                                        The value of a wet-
                                                                                                                                        land to a specific
                                                                                                                                        bird species is
                                                                                                                                        affected by the
                                                                                                                                                  ce of surface
                                                                                                                                        presen
                                                                                                                                        water and the
                                                                                                                                        duration and
                                                                                                                                        timing of flooding.
                                               S,

                                                                   7.,



                          Figure 28. This wetland in California is habitat for migrating snow geese.     (Photograph by
                          James R. Nelson, California Department of Fish and Game.)


                      One of the best known functions of wetlands is          pintail or the American widgeon, use wetlands only
                  to provide a habitat for birds (fig. 28). Humans have       during some parts of their lives.
                  known of the link between birds and wetlands for                Wetlands occupy only a small part of the land-
                  thousands of years. Prehistoric people drew pictures        scape that is now the conterminous United States-
                  of birds and wetlands on cave walls, scratched them         11 percent in 1780 and just 5 percent in 1980 (Dahl
                  onto rocks, and used them in the design of artifacts        and others, 1991). Nonetheless, they are important to
                  (fig. 29); and Native American lore provides accounts       birds. During the past 20 years, policies and programs
                  of bird hunts in wetlands. Wetlands are important bird      that encourage altering, draining, or filling of wet-
                  habitats, and birds use them for breeding, nesting, and     lands have decreased, and policies that encourage
                  rearing young (fig. 30). Birds also use wetlands as a       wetland conservation and restoration have increased.
                  source of drinking water and for feeding, resting,          (See article "Wedand Protection Legislation" in this
                  shelter, and social interactions. Some waterfowl, such      volume.) Among the wettand attributes society seeks
                  as grebes, have adapted to wetlands to such an extent       to protect and conserve are those that benefit wildlife,
                  that their survival as individual species depends on the    particularly migratory birds. This article discusses the
                  availability of certain types of wetlands within their      benefits that wetlands provide for birds and the effects
                  geographic range. Other species, such as the northern       of wetland losses on birds.




                                                                                                                                     Figure 29. The importance of
                                                                                                       Mq     0.1!                   wetland birds to ancient people is
                                                                                                       ;4g@                          portrayed in these two artifacts.
                                                                                                                                     The petroglyph at the left, created
                                                                                                                                     between A.D. 1300 and 1650, is
                                                          :%                                                                         located at Petroglyph National
                                                                                                                                     Monument near Albuquerque, N.
                                                                                                                                     Mex. The clay "duck pot" at the
                                                                                                                                     right, fired between 200 B.C. and
                                                                                                                                     A.D. 500, was unearthed at
                                                                                                                                     Hopewell Culture National
                                                                                                                                     Historical Park, Chillicothe, Ohio.
                                                                                                                                     (Photographs courtesy of the
                                                                                                                                     National Park Service.)
                                   ME Z

                       National Biological Service.








                  50      National Water Surnmary-Wetland Resources: OVERVIEW OF WETLAND RESOURCES



                                                                                                                   WETLAND FACTORS THAT AFFECT
                                                                                                                   BIRDS

                                                                                                                        The relation between wetlands and birds is
                                             . . . .. ....... ...
                                                                                                                   shaped by many factors. These include the availabil-
                           The geographic                                                                          ity, depth, and quality of water; the availability of
                       location of a wet-                                                                          food and shelter; and the presence or absence of
                                                                                                                   predators. Birds that use wetlands for breeding de-
                   land may determine
                                                                                                                   pend on the physical and biological attributes of the
                  how and when birds                                                                               wetland. Birds have daily and seasonal dependencies
                                   will use it.                                                                    on wetlands for food and other life-support systems.
                                                                                                                        The value of a wetland to a specific bird species
                                                                                                                   is affected by the presence of surface water or moist
                                                            Figure 30. This baby heron will be raised in a         soils and the duration and timing of flooding. Water
                                                            wetland environment. (Photograph courtesy              might be present during the entire year, during only
                                                            of Nationa   Biological Service.)                      one or more seasons, during tidal inundation, or only
                                                                                                                   temporarily during and after rainfall or snowmelt. At
                                                                                                                   times water might not be present at the land surface,
                                                                                                                   but might be close enough to the land surface to main-
                                                                                                                   tain the vegetation and foods that are needed by birds.
                                                                                                                   Birds may use wetlands located in depressions in an
                                                                                                                   otherwise dry landscape, along streams, or in tidally
                                                                                                                   influenced areas near shorelines.
                                                                                                                        The availability or influence of water is a very
                                                                                                                   important wetland feature to birds. It is not, however,
                                                                                                                   the only feature that determines if birds will be
                                                                                                                   present, how birds use the wetland, or how many
                                                                                                                   kinds or numbers of birds may use the wetland. Other
                                                                                                                   determining physical or biological factors include
                                                                                                                   water depth and temperature, presence or absence of
                                                            Figure 31.  The raccoon is a wetland predator          vegetation, patchiness or openness of vegetation, type
                                                            that eats eggs and preys on birds. (Photo-             of vegetation, foods, water chemistry, type of soils,
                                                            graph courtesy of National Biological                  and geographic or topographic location. Any varia-
                                                            Service.)                                              tions in any of these wetland features will cause
                                                                                                                   subtle, but distinct, differences in bird use.
                                                                                                                        Wetlands provide food for birds in the form of
                                                                                                                   plants, vertebrates, and invertebrates. Some feeders
                                                                                                                   forage for food in the wetland soils, some find food
                                                                                                                   in the water column, and some feed on the vertebrates
                                                                                                                   and invertebrates that live on submersed and emer-
                                                                                                                   gent plants. Vegetarian birds eat the fruits, tubers, and
                                                                                                                   leaves of wetlaDd plants. Water temperatures influ-
                                                                                                                   ence food production. Invertebrate production in the
                                                                                                                   water column may ultimately depend on water tem-
                                                                                                                   perature and the ability of a wetland to produce al-
                                                                                                                   gae. Cold water might not be a hospitable environ-
                                                                                                                   ment for small animals and plants that some wetland
                                             Figure 32. The American alligator is an effective and                 birds eat. However, water that is too warm also might
                                             voracious predator of wetland birds in the South. (Photo-             not produce foods that some birds prefer.
                                             graph courtesy of National Biological Service.)                            Wetland vegetation provides shelter from preda-
                                                                                                                   tors and from the weather. The presence or absence
                                                                                                                   of shelter may influence whether birds will inhabit a
                                                                                                                   wetland or a nearby upland area. Predators are likely
                                                                                                                   to abound where birds concentrate, breed, or raise
                                                                                                                   their young. Wetlands form an important buffer or
                                                                                                                   barrier to land-based predators and reduce the risk of
                                                                                                                   predation to nesting or young birds. However, some
                                                                                    _zt                            predators, such as the raccoon (fig. 31), are well
                                                                                                                   adapted to both wetland and upland environments,
                                                                                                                   and take large numbers of both young and nesting
                                                                                                                   birds. Mink forage for nesting or sleeping birds along
                                                                                                                   the edges and interiors of wetlands. Other animals,
                                                                                                                   such as the snapping turtle, the alligator (fig. 32), or
                                                                                                                   the large-mouthed bass, are effective water-based
                                             Figure 33. This American     bittern, with its protective             predators of young birds, particularly young water-
                                             coloration, is well hidden in the vegetation. (Photograph             fowl. Snakes take their toll as well. Many bird spe-
                                             by James Leopold, National Biological Service.)                       cies that are highly adapted to feeding in a wetland







                                                                                        National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: TECHNICAL ASPECTS                 51







                                                                                                0

                                                                   I%

                                                                       %
                                                             %%




                                                                                                 At lantic
                                                            NOR TH         AMERICA
                                                                                  Mississippi


                                                                       C
                                                                         entral
                                                           Pacific  I
                       PACIFIC OCEAN                   t            11


                                                                                                     ATLANTIC OCEAN






                                                                         CENT
                                                                         AMERICA


                                                                                         SOUTH AMERICA


                 Figure34. Major flyway corridors for migrating birds in the Western Hemisphere. (Source: From U.S. Fish
                 and Wildlife Service files.)



                 environment also have genetic adaptations that lower         - Water-level fluctuations throughout the year, in re-
                 their risk of becoming prey. One such example is the             sponse to rainfall and snowmelt, that maintain
                 bittern (fig. 33), which has excellent protective col-           wetland zones such as wet meadows and marshes
                 oration. The same vegetation that hides birds from           - Short-term (years) and long-term (decades) cli-
                 predators also provides some shelter from severe                 matic trends that cycle wetlands between a wet
                 weather. In spring, during cold and stormy weather,              and dry state
                 waterfowl such as canvasback ducks protect their             - Interaction of surface and ground water
                 young in the shelter of a marsh that is almost impen-        - Interaction of ground water with rocks and soils
                 etrable to wind.                                                 that influence salinity and other wetland water
                     The geographic location of a wetland may deter-              chemistry
                 mine how and when birds will use it or use adjacent
                 habitat. In the northern latitudes or at high altitudes,    THE IMPORTANCE OF WETLANDS TO
                 some wetlands are covered with ice in the winter and        BIRDS
                 are temporarily "out of service" for birds adapted to
                 a water environment, but emergent vegetation might               Because of the great variety of wetlands, bird
                 still offer shelter and food for some species. Birds that   adaptation to and use of wetland environments dif-
                 eat fish, aquatic invertebrates, or submersed vegeta-       fers greatly from species to species. Birds' use of
                 tion cannot forage for food because of the ice cover.       wetlands during breeding cycles ranges widely. Some
                 Some wetlands are on the migration path of water-           birds depend on wetlands almost totally for breeding,
                 fowl and other migratory birds and provide stopover         nesting, feeding, or shelter during their breeding
                 locations for traveling birds (fig. 34). These birds        cycles. Birds that need functional access to a wetland
                 might feed in agricultural fields during the day and        or wetland products during their life cycle, especially
                 return to the shelter of wetlands during the night.         during the breeding season, can be called "wetland
                     The "prairie potholes" are a special type of wet-       dependent" (table 5). Other birds use wetlands only
                 land, found in the north-central part of the United         for some of their needs, or they might use both wet-
                 States. These potholes are an example of a wetland          land and upland habitats. Of the more than 1,900 bird
                 type that is important to migrating waterfowl. Here         species that breed in North America, about 138 spe-
                 the timing and duration of inundation and the salin-        cies in the conterminous United States are wedand
                 ity of the water are important factors in the produc-       dependent (American Ornithologists'Union, 1983).
                 tion of plants and invertebrates used by birds. These,           Many bird species use forested wetlands as well
                 and many other wetland characteristics, are influ-          as forested uplands, feeding on the abundant insects
                 enced by a number of things:                                associated with trees (fig. 35). These birds are not de-








                   52     National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: OVERVIEW OF WETLAND RESOURCES

                   Table 5. Wetland-dependent breeding birds of the conterminous United States, including federally endangered or threatened species and subspecies','
                   [Source: Data from American Ornithologists' Union, 1983; Niering, 1988; Ehrlich and others, 19921













                                                                                          -VA                                                                   ,_7



                                                                            Green-backed heron. (Photograph by                     This brown pelican is an endangered
                                                                            Thomas A. Muir, National Biological                    species. (Photograph by Thomas A.
                                                                            Service.)                                              Muir, National Biological Service.)


                                                                              Cranes and their allies                            Loons
                                                                                   Yellow rail                                        Common loon
                                                                                   Black rail                                    Owls
                                    4@'                                               3 California black rail                         Short-eared owl
                                                                                   Clapper rail                                  Perching birds
                                                                                      4 Light-footed clapper rail                  Flycatchers
                                                                                      4 California clapper rail                       Alder flycatcher
                                                                                      4 Yuma clapper rail                             Willow flycatcher
                                                                                   King rail                                          Gray flycatcher
                   Roseate spoonbill at a
                                                                                   Virginia rail                                   Swallows
                   nesting rookery. (Photo-                                        Sora rail                                          Tree swallow
                   graph by Ronald F Paille,
                                                                                   Purple gallinule                                   Northern rough-winged swallow
                   U.S. Fish and Wildlife                                          Common moorhen                                     Bank swallow
                   Service.)
                                                                                   American coot                                   Wrens
                                                                                   Limpkin                                            Sedge wren
                                                                                   Sandhill crane (facultative)                       Marsh wren
                                                                                      4 Mississippi sandhill crane                 Dippers
                                                                                      4Whooping crane                                 American dipper
                                                                              Cuckoos                                              Vireos
                                                                                   Mangrove cuckoo                                    Black-whiskered vireo
                   V:
                                                                              Grebes                                               Warblers
                                                                                                                                     4
                                                                                   Least grebe                                        Bachman's warbler
                                                  @40                              Pied-billed grebe                                  Prothonotary warbler
                                                                                   Horned grebe                                       Swainson's warbler
                                                                                   Red-necked grebe                                   Northern waterthrush
                                                                                   Eared grebe                                        Louisiana waterthrush
                                                                                   Western grebe                                      Connecticut warbler
                                                                              Herons and their allies                                 Common yellowthroat
                                                                                   American bittern                                Sparrows
                                                                                   Least bittern                                      Savannah sparrow
                                                                                   Great blue heron                                     3 Belding's savannah sparrow
                                                                                      4 Florida great white heron                     LeConte's sparrow
                                     iF 0
                                                                                   Great egret                                        Sharp-tailed sparrow
                                                                                   Snowy egret                                        Seaside sparrow
                                                                                   Little blue heron                                    5 Dusky seaside sparrow
                                                                                   Tricolored heron                                     4 Cape sable sparrow
                                                                                   Reddish egret                                      Lincoln's sparrow
                   Snowy egret on the nest.
                                                                                   Cattle egret                                       Swamp sparrow
                   (Photograph by David Ha /1,
                   U.S. Fish and Wildlife                                          Green-backed heron                              Blackbirds
                   Service.)                                                       Black-crowned night heron                          Red-winged blackbird
                                                                                   Yellow-crowned night heron                         Tricolored blackbird
                                                                                   White ibis                                         Yellow-headed blackbird
                                                                                   Glossy ibis                                        Great-tailed grackle
                                                                                   White-faced ibis                                   Boat-tailed grackle
                                                                                   Roseate spoonbill                             Pelicans and their allies
                                                                                 4 Wood stork                                         American white pelican
                                                                              Kingfishers                                             Brown pelican
                                                                                   Belted kingfisher                                    4California brown pelican








                                                                                             National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: TECHNICAL ASPECTS                      53


















            The American     avocet. (Photograph                              Colony of sandwich terns on the
            courtesy of National Biologica I Service.)                        Chandeleur Islands, La. (Photograph
                                                                              courtesy of National Biological Service.)


                  Double-crested cormorant                           Vultures, Hawks, and Falcons
                  Olivaceous cormorant                                     Osprey
                  Anhinga                                                  American swallow-tailed kite
            Shorebirds, Gulls, and Alcids                                4 Everglacle snail kite
               Plovers, surfbirds, and turnstones                        4 Bald eagle
                  Snowy plover                                             Northern harrier                                                                 A
                  Wilson's plover                                          Peregrine falcon
                  4 Piping plover                                             4American peregrine falcon
                  Killdeer (facultative)                             Waterfowl
               Oystercatchers                                            Swans                                                                      These American wigeons
                  American oystercatcher                                   Trumpeter swan                                                           will spend part of their lives
                                                                                                                                                    in a
                  American black oystereatcher                           Geese                                                                           wetland habitat and part
               Avocets and stilts                                          Canada goose                                                             in an upland environment.
                  Black-necked stilt                                     Tree ducks                                                                 (Photograph courtesy of
                                                                                                                                                    National Biological Service.)
                  American avocet                                          Fulvous whistling duck
               Sandpipers and allies                                       Black-bellied whistling duck
                  Willet                                                 Surface feeding ducks
                  Spotted sandpiper                                        Wood duck
                  Marbled godwit                                           Green-winged teal
                  Common snipe                                             American black duck
                  American woodcock                                        Mottled duck
                  4Eskimo curlew                                           Mallard
               Phalarope                                                   Northern pintail
                  Wilson's phalarope                                       Blue-winged teal
               Gulls and terns                                             Cinnamon teal
                  Laughing gull                                            Northern shoveler                                                      .r
                  Franklin's gull                                          Gadwall
                  Little gull                                              American wigeon
                  Heerman's gull (facultative)                           Bay ducks
                  Ring-billed gull                                         Canvasback
                  California gull                                          Redhead
                  Herring gull                                             Ring-necked duck                                                       11 Male wood ducks. (Photo-
                  Western gull                                             Greater scaup                                                            graph by Thomas A. Muir
                  Great black-backed gull                                  Lesser scaup                                                             National Biological Service.)
                  Gull-billed tern                                       Sea ducks
                  Caspian tern                                             Harlequin duck
                  Royal tern                                               White-winged scoter
                  Elegant tern                                             Common goldeneye
                  Sandwich tern                                            Barrow's goldeneye                          Table arranged by group, species, and
                  4Roseate tern                                            Bufflehead                                  subspecies. To facilitate the use ofthis
                  Common tern                                            Mergansers                                    table, order of presentation differs
                                                                                                                       from that normally used.
                  Forster's tern                                           Hooded merganser
                                                                                                                     2 Does not include oceanic or pelagic
                  Leasttern                                                Common      merganser
                                                                                                                       birds.
                      4California    leasttern                             Red-breasted merganser                    I Candidate for placement on endan-
                  Sooty tern                                             Stiff-tailed ducks                            gered species list.
                  Black tern                                               Ruddy duck                                I Federally endangered or threatened
                                                                                                                       wetland-dependent bird species or
               Skimmers                                                                                                subspecies.
                                                                                                                                              iz @"AeZt4


                  Black skimmer                                                                                        Became extinct in 1987.









                       54    National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: OVERVIEW OF WETLAND RESOURCES



                                                        pendent on wetlands because they use both habitats               graphic areas, and nest at different times. The rela-
                                                        equally well. Some birds, such as wood ducks, are                tion of many other species of birds to wetlands are
                                                        found primarily in forested wetlands and are depen               undoubtedly just as complex.
                                                        dent on this wetland type.
                                                            many migratory birds are wetland dependent,
                                                                                                                         EFFECTS OF WETLAND LOSS AND
                                                                 etlands during their migration and breeding
                                                        using W
                                                        seasons. Migratory birds may spend the winter in wet-            DEGRADATION ON BIRDS
                                                        lands in the Southern United States, or farther south                 About one-third of North American bird species
                                                        (fig. 34). Throughout winter, these birds use south-             use  wetlands for food, shelter, and (or) breeding
                                                        em wetlands for food and nutrients to sustain them               (Kroodsma, 1979). Thus, widespread draining and al-
                                                        for their return trip north and the breeding season.             tering of wetlands has affected bird populations. Be-
                                                            Not all wetlands are of equal value to waterfowl             cause most of the wetland drainage and alteration oc-
                                                        and other birds. An inventory in the conterminous                curred between the 1930's and 1950, before scientific
                       Figure 35. Prothonotary          United States during the early 1950's showed that of             estimates of bird populations began, most estimates
                       warblers feed on insects of      74.4 million acres of wetlands, 8.8 million acres had            of population declines are inferred. Before the pas-
                       forested wetlands and            a high value for waterfowl, 13.6 million acres were              sage of the Migratory Bird Treaty Act in 1918, the
                       uplands alike. (Photo-           of moderate value, 24.1 million acres were of low
                       graph courtesy of National       value, and 27.9 million acres were of negligible value           reduction in waterfowl populations was blamed
                       Biological Service.)             (Shaw and Fredine, 1956, p. 17). These categories                largely on excessive hunting and wetland drainage
                                                                                                                were     (Day, 1959). However, since 1930 most of the reduc-
                                                        were identified on a State-by-State basis and                    tion has been attributed to the loss or degradation of
                                                        ranked according to use by waterfowl, with "high"                wetlands (Bellrose and Trudeau, 1988) and the loss
                                                        being most used. The primary focus of this inventory             of suitable upland habitats that surround wetlands.
                                                        was waterfowl; thus these rankings might not reflect                  For most wetland-dependent birds, habitat loss
                                                        wetland values for other birds. Also, the inventory              in breeding areas translates directly into population
                                                        was for only natural wetlands that had been little al-           losses. As wetlands are destroyed, some birds may
                                                        tered by human activities. The three areas of highest            move to other less suitable habitats, but reproduction
                                                        value are the Mississippi River corridor southward               tends to be lower and mortality tends to be higher.
                                                        from Cairo, Ill., and westward along the Texas gulf              Hence, the birds that breed in these poorer quality
                                                        coast; the entire east coast from Maine southward                habitats will not contribute to a sustainable popula-
                                                        through most of Florida; and the northern Midwest.               tion through the years (Pulliam and Danielson, 1991).
                                Widespread                                                                                    About one-half of the 188 animals that are fed-
                              draining and              THE INFLUENCE OF WETLANDS ON                                     erally designated as endangered or threatened are
                                                        WATERFOWL POPULATIONS                                            wetland dependent (Niering, 1988). Of these, 17 axe
                         altering of wet-                   Considerable research has increased the under-               bird species or subspecies (table 5). These birds are
                       lands has affected               standing of wetlands' influence on the numbers of                categorized as endangered or threatened because their
                                                        waterfowl that breed and their breeding success                  populations are so low that the risk of their extinc-
                       bird populations.                                                                             *   tion is real and immediate. The circumstances that
                                                        However, the relation between wetlands and the                   cause each species or subspecies to be endangered
                                                        population and propagation of various waterfowl                  differ greatly.
                                                        species is not well understood. This relation depends                 Wetland loss due to draining, filling, or altering
                                                        on: (1) the number of wetlands in the area; (2) the              of surface-water and ground-water flow is a concern
                                                        wetlands' size and water depth; (3) whether the wet-             to many people. Wetland degradation also has a sub-
                                                        lands hold open water in the early spring or through             stantial effect on birds. Although wetland degradation
                                                        late August; (4) the climate; and (5) the species of bird        .
                                                        and the bird's adaptations to wetlands.                          is a serious problem, it is one that is more subtle and
                                                            In the prairie pothole region in the late 1970's,            less understood than wetland losses. Degradation can
                                                        for example, as the number of wetlands in an area in-            take many forms:
                                                        creased, populations of dabbling ducks increased, but             - Amounts and periodicity of water supplies can be
                                                        at a ratio of less than 1: 1 (fig. 36). In the past 20 years,         altered
                                                        the duck-pothole ratio has decreased, possibly due to             - The quality of water flowing into and through a
                                                                                decreases in upland cover and                 wetland can be modified
                   110                                                          increases in predation. Bellrose          - The flows of sediments or freshwater to coastal
               LU 100  -                                                        (1977) also found waterfowl                   marshes can be reduced
                   90  -                                                        densities and propagation to be           - Water levels can be stabilized in wetlands that oth-
               LU  80  -                                                                                                      erwise would undergo beneficial drawdowns or
               X                                                                related to the number of wet-
                   70  -
                                                                                lands per square mile; gener-                 water-table fluctuations
               0   60  -                                                                                                      Wetland vegetation may be altered by harvesting
               0                                                                ally, waterfowl densities and
               Cc  50  -                      - Pralre pothole region      -    propagation increased as the                  or by introducing exotic species, making it of
               LU      -
               0.  40  -                      - ParkJands                  -    number of wetlands increased.                 little or no value to wetland-dependent birds
                                                     P'.'.e pothole  '.g
                                                    P-rw-nds
                                                     Mixed prairie         -
                   30                                                           However, he found that mallard                An example of wetland degradation is found in
                   20  -                      @E Shortgrass prairie        -
                                                                           -    production decreased when the            the Chesapeake Bay region. Nutrients and sediments
                   10  -                                                   -    number of wetlands exceeded              entering the bay from agricultural, urban, and indus-
                       0 @   L     L      L             L    J      I
                       0     5    10      15   20      25    30     35     40   12 per square mile.                      trial areas have caused increased algal blooms, de-
                                 PONDS PER SQUARE MILE                               Different waterfowl spe-            creased invertebrate production, and lowered oxygen
                   Figure 36. The relation of pond density      increase to     cies adapt to different wetland          levels. This degradation has reduced the acreage of
                   number of ducks. (5ource: After Bellrose, 1977.)             types, inhabit different geo-            seagrasses that form an important link in the food








                                                                                            National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: TECHNICAL ASPECTS                     55



                  chain for invertebrates, fish, and wetland- dependent
                  birds. The decline in the canvasback duck population               &U.S. DEPARTMENT OF THE                   "00
                  in this area is thought to be directly related to the de-
                  Cline in seagrasses.
                       Chemicals and sediments that move from agil-
                  cultural areas into wetlands are two of the most per-
                  vasive sources of degradation. The shift in human
                  populations from inland areas to coastal areas of the
                  United States has caused problems in coastal wet-
                  lands through overloaded sewage treatment systems.
                  The large and growing volume of industrial wastes
                  that enter ground- and surface-water supplies ah
                  threatens to degrade wetlands. These threats, com-                                              -Vi F14,51
                  bined with habitat destruction, have a net negative ef-           T -T-vvvwvvw-V.T1T                      1 7   v v V T v%
                  fect on the population of wetland birds. Thus, if the
                  amount and quality of wetland habitat is substantially                                   7,
                                                                                               ..........................
                  reduced, populations of wetland-dependent birds in
                  the area also can be expected to decrease.


                  SOME EFFORTS TO PRESERVE WETLAND
                                                                                                                                          rn
                  BIRD HABITATS

                       Many people believe that ownership or manage-
                  ment of wetlands by public conservation agencies,
                  such as the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, and by                                                          Red-hwasrod'.  ni
                  private organizations, such as the Nature Conser-
                  vancy or the National Audubon Society, offers the
                  best assurance that the highest value wetlands will be             MIGRATORY        HUNTING AND CONSERVATION STWID
                  maintained for future generations. (A discussion of
                  the agencies and organizations that participate in             Figure 37. The purchase of duck stamps provides
                  management and conservation of wetlands in each                funds for the acquisition or protection of wetlands
                  State can be found in the State Summaries section of           important to waterfowl. (Source: U.S. Fish and
                  this report.)                                                  Wildlife Service.)
                       A few early concerns for wetlands important to
                  waterfowl are reflected in the creation of the first
                  national wildlife refuge and in the establishment of           Importance especially as Waterfowl Habitat, more
                  the Federal Duck Stamp program. The first national             commonly known as the "Ramsar Convention" is an
                  wildlife refuge was created in 1903, by President              intergovernmental treaty for international cooperation
                  Theodore Roosevelt, to protect a wetland-Pelican               for the conservation of wetland habitats. The U.S. Fish
                  Island, Florida (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service,               and Wildlife Service is responsible for implementa-
                  [19951). Concern for the loss of waterfowl led to the          tion of the convention in the United States. A "List of
                  Federal Duck Stamp program that began in 1934                  Wetlands of International Importance" has been de-
                  (Mitsch and Gosselink, 1993) and continues today.              veloped by the convention. Sites on this list are known         About one-half of
                  Duck stamps are sold to waterfowl hunters to pro-              as "Rainsar Sites" and are wetlands that convention             the 188 animals
                  vide money for the purchase or preservation of wet-            members have a special obligation to preserve. There
                  lands (fig. 37).                                               are 15 Ramsar sites in this country (fig. 38).                  that are federally
                       Several international treaties are partly respon-                                                                         designated as
                  sible for much of the formal wetland protection in this        SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS                                         endangered or
                  country-the Migratory Bird Treaty and the Conven-
                  tion on Wetlands of International Importance espe-                  Human activities have caused shifts in wetland-            threatened are
                  cially as Waterfowl Habitat. "In 1918, the U[nited]            dependent bird populations since European settle-               wetland dependent.
                  S[tates] passed into law the Migratory Bird Treaty             ment of the United States, especially since the be-
                  Act, ratifying a treaty with Great Britain, on behalf          ginning of the 20th century. Many acres of wetlands
                  Of Canada, that recognized the conservation respon-            were drained between the 1930's and 1950, well be-
                  sibilities for more than 800 species of migratory birds        fore any of the national bird surveys were begun. As
                  shared by the two countries" (U.S. Fish and Wildlife           a result, it is not possible to accurately determine the
                  Service, [19951). Subsequent to that act, the United           effects of habitat destruction on long-term wetland
                  States developed the National Wildlife Refuge Sys-             bird populations.
                  tem consisting of 500 reserves-many of which are                    It is apparent that there have been many changes
                                                                                                                                      , ji







                  wetlands important to birds- comprising more than              in the distribution and numbers of wetland birds.
                  90 million acres (fig. 38). The system has the high-           Wetlands on breeding, migratory, or wintering areas
                  est ratio of wetlands to dry land in public ownership.         are all important to sustain bird populations. As the
                  The National Park Service manages the Everglades               wetland habitats in these areas are drained or altered,
                  National Park and several preserves that also have             the ability of these areas to sustain bird populations
                  high ratios of wetlands to dry lands.                          decreases. Each species of wetland-dependent bird
                       The Convention on Wetlands of International               has a unique and complex set of needs for wetland








                          56      National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: OVERVIEW OF WETLAND RESOURCES




                                                                                                                                                                                                          EXPLANATION
                                                                             00        (g 0           0                          0             .1                                             0           8 Ramsar site
                                                                                       0                         0              05)                                                                        0 Wildlife refuge
                                                                             0 0                                            0        0                                                                  Izembek Lagoon National Wildlife
                                                                       0                 0                     0                                             0                                               Refuge and State Game Area, Alaska
                                                                                                      co                                                                                                Forsythe National Wildlife Refuge,
                                                                                        0 (9                                                                           0                                     New Jersey
                                                                                                                                                                                                        Okefenokee National Wildlife Refuge,
                                                                                     0                0                                                                                                      Georgia and Florida
                                                                 0                                                                     0                                                                Ash meadows National Wildlife Refuge,
                                     HAWAII                                                                                                                                                                  Nevada
                                                                       &)    1 0                                          0 0                                                                           Everglades National Park,
                                                                       0                                                                     0                                                               Florida
                       0     100 MILES9.b                              0                                                                                                                                Chesapeake Bay Estuarine Complex,
                                                                             0                           0             0          0 0                                                                        Maryland and Virginia
                       0 100-KILOMFTERSD-                                    0                                           0                                                0                             Cheyenne Bottoms State Game Area,
                                                                                                   (9    0                                      0                                                            Kansas
                                                             00                                     0                                                        0   @3                                     Cache-Lower White Rivers Joint
                                                       0                                                                          0                                                                          Venture Area, Arkansas
                                                       0                                                                                                                                                Horicon Marsh,
                                                                                                                                             0                                                               Wisconsin
                                                                                                                                0                                                                       Catahoula Lake,
                                    ALASKA                                                                                                                                                                   Louisiana
                                                                                                                                                                                                        Delaware Bay Estuary, Delaware,
                                                                                   PUERTO RICO                                                                                                               New Jersey, and Pennsylvania
                             0          500 MILES                                                                                    0                           ILES                                   Pelican Island,
                             i 11 @ @                                            0                                                   i   11 11     11 1      J                                               Florida
                             0     500 KILOMETERS                                                                                    0            500 KILOMETERS                                             Texas
                                                                                    Z=7                                                                                                            M Caddo Lake,
                                                                                    0      50 MILES                                                                                                M    Cache River and Cypress Creek,
                                                                                                                                                                                                             Illino's
                                                                                     0 50 KILOMETERS                                                                                               13   Connecticut River Complex,
                                                                                                                                                                                                             Connecticut

                                                                       Figure 38. Location of National Fish and Wildlife Refuge System reserves and Ramsar sites in the United States.
                                                                       (Source: U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 1993, [19951.)


                                                                       habitats that makes it difficult to generalize about how                              Ehrlich, P.R., Dobkin, D.S., and Wheye, Darryl, 1992, Birds
                                                                       loss or degradation of wetlands affects bird popula-                                      in jeopardy: Stanford, Califor nia, Stanford University
                                                                       tions. It seems reasonable to expect, however, that as                                    Press, 260 p.
                                                                       the numbers of wetlands in a region decline, so too                                   Kroodsma, D. E., 1979, Habitat values for nongame wet-
                                                                       will the numbers of wetland-dependent birds.                                              land birds, in Greeson, P.E., Clark, JR., and Clark, J.E.
                                                                                                                                                                 eds., 1979, Wetland functions and values-The state
                                                                             In some parts of the United States, extensive                                       of our understanding: Minneapolis, Minn., American
                                                                       wetland losses have displaced birds from targe areas.                                     Water Resources Association, p. 32(@-343.
                                                                       Continued watland losses probably will cause con-                                     Mitsch, W.J., and Gosselink, J.G., 1993, Wetlands: New
                                                                       tinued losses of wetland birds. However, recent rec-                                      York, Van Nostrand Reinhold, 722 p.
                                                                       ognition of the wetland values, and the effects of their                              Niering, W.A., 1988, Endangered, threatened and rare wet-
                                                                       losses, have provided incentives to maintain and re-                                      land plants and animals of the continental United States,
                                                                       store wetlands.                                                                           in Hook, D.D., McKee, W.H., Jr., Smith, H.K., and oth-
                                                                                                                                                                 ers, 1988, The ecology and management of wetlands-
                                                                                                                                                                 Volume I-The ecology of wetlands: Portland, Oreg.,
                                                                       References Cited                                                                          Timber Press, 592 p.
                                                                                                                                                             Pulliam, H.R., and Danielson, B.J., 1991, Sources, sinks and
                                                                       American Ornithologists' Union, 1983, Check-list ofNorth                                  habitat selection-A landscape perspective on popu-
                                                                             American Birds: Lawrence, Kans., Allen Press, Inc.,                                 lation dynamics: The American Naturalist, v. 137,
                                                                             6th edition, 877 p.                                                                 p. 850-866.
                                                                       Bellrose, F.C., 1977, Species distribution, habitats, and                             Shaw, S.P., and Fredine, C.G., 1956, Wetlands of the United
                                                                             characteristics of breeding dabbling ducks in North                                 States-Their extent and their value to waterfowl and
                                                                             America, in Bookhout, T.A., 1977, Waterfowl and wet-                                other wildlife: U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Circu-
                                                                             lands-An integrated review: Proceedings of a sym-                                   lar 39, 67 p.
                                                                             posium hold at the 39th Midwest Fish and Wildlife                               U.S. Fish andWildlife Service, 1993,Amual reportof lands
                                                                             Conference, Madison, Wis., La Crosse Printing Co.,                                  under control of the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service as
                                                                             Inc, 152 p.                                                                         of September 30, 1993: Division of Realty, 43 p.
                                                                       Bellrose, R C., and'Rudeau, N.M., 1988, Wetlands and their                            U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, [1995], Wetlands of Inter-
                                                                             relationship to migrating and winter populations ofwa-                              national Importance-United States Participation in
                                                                             terfowl, v. 1: Portland, Oreg., Timber Press, p. 183-194.                           the "Rarnsar" Convention, Ramsar, Iran, 1971, It p.
                                                                       Dahl, T.E., and Johnson, C.E., 1991, Wetlands-Status and
                                                                             trends in the conterminous United States, mid-1970's
                                                                             to mid4980's: Washington, D.C., U.S. Fish and Wild-
                                                                             life Service, 22 p.                                                             FOR ADDITIONAL INFORMATION: Robert E. Stewart,
                                                                       Day, A.M., 1959, North American waterfowl: Harrisburg,                                Jr., National Biological Service, Southern Science Center,
                                                                             Pa., Stackpole Co., 363 p.                                                      700 Cajundome Boulevard, Lafayette, LA 70506




                                                                                                                    U.S. Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper 2425








                                                                              National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: MANAGEMENT AND RESEARCH                       57


                  Wetland Management and Research
                  Wetland Protection Legislation
                  By Todd H. Vottelerl and Thomas A.                         Muir'


                       The people of the United States have begun to           the general public and between developers and con-
                  recognize that wetlands have numerous and widespread         servationists. Belated recognition of wetland benefits
                  benefits. However, many of the goods and services            and disagreement on how to protect them has led to
                  wetlands provide have little or no market value. Be-         discrepancies in local, State, and Federal guidelines.
                  cause of this, the benefits produced by wetlands accrue      Discrepancies in Federal programs are apparent in
                  primarily to the general public. Therefore, the Govern-      table 6, which shows programs that encourage con-
                  ment provides incentives and regulates and manages           version of wetlands and those that discourage conver-
                  wetland resources to protect the resources from deg-         sion of wetlands. Conflicting interests are the source
                  radation and destruction. Other mechanisms for wet-          of much tension and controversy in current wetland             If the public
                  land protection include acquisition, planning, mitiga7       protection policy. Although attempts are being made
                  tion, disincentives for conversion of wetlands to other      to reconcile some of these differences, many policies          does not recog-
                  land uses, technical assistance, education, and research.    will have to be modified to achieve consistency.               nize the benefits
                       Although many States have their own wetland                   Despite all the government legislation, policies,        of wetiand
                  regulations, the Federal Government bears a major re-        and programs, wetlands will not be protected if the
                  sponsibility for regulating wetlands. The five Federal       regulations are not enforced. Perhaps the best way to          preservation,
                  agencies that share the primary responsibility for pro-      protect wetlands is to educate the public of their ben-        wetlands will not
                  tecting wetlands include the Department of Defense,          efits. If the public does not recognize the benefits of
                  U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (Corps); the U.S. En-           wetland preservation, wetlands will not be preserved.          be preserved.
                  vironmental Protection Agency (EPA); the Depart-             Protection can be accomplished only through the co-
                  ment of the Interior, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service         operative efforts of citizens.
                  (FWS); the Department of Commerce, National Oce-
                  anic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA); and              FEDERAL WETLAND PROTECTION
                  the Department of Agriculture, Natural Resources             PROGRAMS AND POLICIES
                  Conservation Service (NRCS) (formerly the Soil Con-
                  servation Service). Each of these agencies has a dif-              The Federal Government protects wetlands di-
                  ferent mission that is reflected in the implementation       rectly and indirectly through regulation, by acquisi-
                  of the agency's authority for wetland protection. The        tion, or through incentives and disincentives as de-
                  Corps' duties are related to navigation and water sup-       scribed in table 6. Section 404 of the Clean Water Act
                  ply. The EPA:s authorities are related to protecting         is the primary vehicle for Federal regulation of some
                  wetlands primarily for their contributions to the            of the activities that occur in wetlands. Other pro-
                  chemical, physical, and biological integrity of the          grams, such as the "Swampbuster" program and the
                  Nation's waters. The FWS's authorities are related to        Coastal Management and Coastal Barriers Resources
                  managing fish and wildlife-game species and threat-          Acts, provide additional protection. Coastal wetlands
                  ened and endangered species. Wetland authority of            generally benefit most from the current network of
                  NOAA hes in its charge to manage the Nation's coastal        statutes and regulations. Inland wetlands are more
                  resources. The NRCS focuses on wetlands affected by          vulnerable than coastal wetlands to degradation or loss
                  agricultural activities.                                     because current statutes and policies provide them less
                       States are becoming more active in wetland pro-         comprehensive protection. Several of the major Fed-
                  tection. As of 1993, 29 States had some type of wet-         eral policies and programs affecting wetlands are dis-
                  land law (Want, 1993). Many of these States have             cussed in the following few pages. Also discussed are
                  adopted programs to protect wetlands beyond those            some of the States' roles in Federal wetland policies.
                  programs enacted by the Federal Government. As
                  more responsibility is delegated from the Federal            The Clean Water Act
                  Government to the States, State wetland programs are
                  gaining in importance. Thus far, States have devoted               The Federal Government regulates, through Sec-
                  more attention to regulating coastal wetlands than in-       tion 404 of the Clean Water Act, some of the activi-
                  land wetlands. The most comprehensive State pro-             ties that occur in wetlands. The Section 404 program
                  grams include those of Connecticut, Rhode Island,            originated in 1972, when Congress substantially
                  New York, Massachusetts, Florida, New Jersey, and            amended the Federal Water Pollution Control Act and
                  Minnesota (Mitsch and Gosselink, 1993). Many of              created a Federal regulatory plan to control the dis-
                  these States regulate those activities affecting wetlands    charge of dredged or fill materials into wetlands and
                  that are exempt from the Clean Water Act, Section 404        other waters of the United States. Discharges are com-
                  program. (For more information on specific State wet-        monly associated with projects such as channel con-
                  land protection programs, see the State Summary sec-         struction and maintenance, port development, fills to
                  tion of this volume.)                                        create dry land for development sites near the water,
                       Despite the current recognition of wetland ben-         and water-control projects such as dams and levees.
                  efits, many potentially conflicting interests still exist,   Other kinds of activities, such as the straightening of
                  such as that between the interests of landowners and         river channels to speed the flow of water downstream

                        University of Texas.
                        National Biological Service.








                        58     National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: OVERVIEW OF WETLAND RESOURCES



                        Table 6. Federal programs that have significant effects on wetlands in the United States. A, Regulations encouraging wetland conversion.
                        0, Regulations discouraging or preventing wetland conversion. C, Acquisitions discouraging or preventing wetland conversion. 0, Other policies
                        and programs preventing or discouraging wetland conversion.

                        [Abbrevations: AFA, All Federal Agencies; ASCS, Agricultural Stabilization and Conservation Service; BLM, Bureau of Land Management; Corps, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers;
                        CWS,Canadian Wildlife Service; DOD, Department of Defense; DOE, Department of Energy; DOI, Department ofthe Interior; DOT, Department of Transportation;
                        A, ENCOURAGING WETLAND CONVERSION
                                                                      Program or Act       Implementing    Effect of program
                                                                                               agency
                                   Executive Order 12630, Constitutional Takings               AFA         Provides a review process for agencies to protect against unintentional 'takings" of
                                                                                                           private property.
                                                  Federal-Aid Highway Act of 1968              DOT         Highway construction can affect wetlands at every stage. Wetlands are often prime sites
                                                                                                           for highways.
                                                             Federal Crop Insurance            USDA        !ndirectly encourages farmers to place frequently inundated areas, including wetlands,
                                                                                                           into production.
                                                          Federal Livestock Grazing        USFS, BLm       Overgrazing promotes the loss of riparian habitat.
                                                           Flood Control Act of 1944           Corps       Authorized various flood-control projects resulting in wetland destruction.
                                                                         (P.L. 78-534)
                                                National Flood Insurance Program               FEMA        Encourages development in flood plains, which contain wetlands, by providing low-cost
                                                                                                           Federal insurance.
                                                    Payment-in-Kind (PIK) Program              USDA        !ndirectly encourages farmers to place previously unfarmed areas, including wetlands,
                                                                                                           into production.
                          Small Reclamation Projects Acts of 1956 (70 Stat. 1044)              DOI         Encourages State and local participation in small western reclamation projects, which
                                                                                                           can destroy riparian habitat.
                                     Surface Mining Control and Reclamation Act                DOI         Establishes a program for regulating surface mining and reclaiming coal-mined lands,
                                                                  (P.L. 95-87), (1977)                     including wetlands, under the Office of Surface Mining, Reclamation, and Enforcement.
                                              Surface Transportation Revenue Act               DOT         Transportation projects directly and indirectly destroy wetlands.
                                                               of 1991 (P.L. 102-240)
                                                                       U.S. Tax Code           IRS         Encourages farmers to drain and clear wetlands through tax deductions and credits for
                                                                                                           development activities.
                          Water Resources Development Act of 1976, 1986,1988,                  Corps       Water development projects directly and indirectly destroy wetlands.
                                  1990 (P. L.'s 94-587, 99-662, 100-676, 101-640)


                        8, DISCOURAGING OR PREVENTING WETLAND CONVERSION-Regulations
                                                                      Program or Act       Implementing Effect of program
                                                                                               agency
                        Comprehensive Environmental Response Compensation                      AFA         Establishes liability ofthe U.S. Government for damages to natural resources over which
                                and Liability Act (Superfund) (P.L. 96-510) (1980)                         the U.S. has sovereign rights. Requires the President to designate Federal
                                                                                                           officials to act as trustees for natural resources, and to conduct natural resource
                                                                                                           damage assessments.
                            ï¿½ Coastal Barriers Resources Act (P.L. 96-348) 0982)               NOAA        Designates various undeveloped coastal barrier islands for inclusion in the Coastal
                                                                                                           Barrier Resources System. Designated areas are ineligible for Federal financial assistance
                                                                                                           that may aid development.
                            ï¿½ Coastal Zone Management Act (P.L. 92-583) (1972)                 NOAA        Provides Federal funding for wetlands programs in most coastal States, including the
                                                                                                           preparation of coastal zone management plans.
                                       Estuary Protection Act (P.L. 90-454) (1968)             DOI         Authorized the study and inventory of estuaries, and the Great Lakes, and provided
                                                                                                           for management of designated estuaries between DOI and the States.
                                    Federal Water Pollution Control (P.L. 92-500)          Corps, EPA      Regulates many activities that involve the disposal of dredged and fill materials in
                                              (Clean Water Act) Section 404 (1972)         FWS, NMFS       waters of the United States, including many wetlands.
                          Federal Water Project Recreation Act IP.L. 89-72) (1965)         DOI, Corps      Recreation and fish and wildlife enhancement must be considered by Federal water
                                                                                                           projects. Authorizes Federal funds for acquiring land for waterfowl refuges.
                                       Fish and Wildlife Coordination Act of 1956              DOI         Authorizes the development and distribution of fish and wildlife information and the
                                                                                                           development of policies and procedures relating to fish and wildlife.
                          Migratory Bird Conservation Act (45 Stat. 1222) (1929)               FWS         Established a commission to approve the acquisition of
                                                                                                           migratory bird habitat.
                                   National Wildlife Refuge Acts (numerous Acts)               FWS         Numerous statutes establish refuges, many of which contain significant
                                                                                                           wetland acreage.
                          National Environmental Policy Act of 1969 (P.L. 91-190)              AFA         Requires the preparation of an environmental impact statement of all major Federal
                                                                                                           actions significantly affecting the environment.
                                      Ramsar Convention (Treaty), adopted 1973,                FWS         Convention maintains a list of wetlands of international importance and encourages the
                                                                 enforced from 1975                        wise use of wetlands.
                                     Rivers and Harbors Act of 1938 (52 Stat. 802)             Corps       Provides that "due regard" be given to wildlife conservation in planning Federal
                                                                                                           water projects.
                                   Rivers and Harbors Appropriation Act of 1899,               Corps       Prohibits the unauthorized obstruction or alteration of navigable waters.
                                                   Section 10 of the (30 Stat. 1151)
                                 Watershed Protection and Flood Prevention Act             FWS, NRCS       Authorizes the FWS to investigate wildlife conservation on NRCS small
                                                                 (68 Stat. 66611 (1954)                    watershed projects.
                                  Wild and Scenic Rivers Act, (P.L. 90-542) (1968)         DOI, USDA       Protects designated river segments from damming and other alterations without
                                                                                                           a permit.
                                             Wilderness Act of 1964 (78 Stat. 890)         DOI, USDA       Requires review of Federal lands for inclusion in the National Wilderness
                                                                                                           Preservation System.
                          Discussed in text.








                                                                                               National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: MANAGEMENT AND RESEARCH                                    59



                      Table 6 -Continued.


                      [Abbrevations-Continued. EPA, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency; FEMA, Federal Emergency Management Agency; FERC, Federal Energy Regulatory Commission; FmHA,
                      Farmer's Home Administration; FWS, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service; GSA, General Services Administration; IRS, Internal Revenue Service; NMFS, National Marine Fisheries Service;
                      NOAA, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration; NPS, National Park Service; NRCS, Natural Resources Conservation Service; USCG, U.S. Coast Guard; USDA, U.S.
                      Department of Agriculture; USFS, U.S. Forest Service]
                      C, DISCOURAGING OR PREVENTING WETLAND CONVERSION-Acquisitions
                                                                  Program or Act       Implementing  Effect of program
                                                                                          agency
                                     Coastal Wetland Planning, Protection and          Corps, FWS    Provides for interagency wetlands restoration and conservation planning and
                                           Restoration Act (P.L. 101-646) (1990)       EPA, NMFS     acquisition in Louisiana, other coastal States, and the Trust Territories.
                                  Emergency Wetlands Resources Act of 1986                FWS        Pays debts incurred by FWS for wetlands acquisition, and provides additional revenue
                                                                     (P.L. 99-645)                   sources.
                                  Federal Aid in Wildlife Restoration Act (1937)          FWS        Provides grants to States for acquiring, restoring, and maintaining wildlife areas.
                                                            (Ch. 899, 50 Stat.917)
                                             Fish and Wildlife Conservation Act           FWS        Identifies land and water in the Western Hemisphere critical for migratory nongame
                                                             (P.L. 96-366) J1980)                    birds.
                                Land and Water Conservation Fund Act 0964)             FWS, NPS      Acquires wildlife areas.
                                                                     (P.L. 88-578)
                                                    Lea Act( 62 Stat. 238) (1948)         FWS        Authorizes the acquiring and developing of various waterfowl management areas
                                                                                                     in California.
                      Migratory Bird Hunting and Conservation Stamps (1934)               FWS        Acquires wetland easements using revenues from fees paid by hunters for
                                                            (Ch. 71, 48 Stat. 452)                   duck stamps.
                         North American Waterfowl Management Plan (1986)               FWS, CWS      Establishes a plan for managing waterfowl resources by various methods, such as
                                                                                                     acquiring wetlands.
                            North American Wetlands Conservation Act (1989)               FWS        Encourages public/private partnerships by providing matching grants to organizations
                                                                   (P.L. 101-233)                    for protecting, restoring, or enhancing wetlands.
                                  Surface Transportation Revenue Act of 1991              DOT        Authorizes funding for wetland mitigation banks for State depart ants of
                                                                   (P.L. 102-240)                    transportation.
                                           Transfer of Certain Real Property for       GSA, DOI      Allows the GSA to transfer property to DOI, or States, for wildlife conservation.
                      Wildlife Conservation Purposes Act (62 Stat. 240) (1948)
                                         U.S. Tax Code Tax Reform Act of 1986             IRS        Provides deductions for donors of wetlands and to some
                                                                     I P. L. 99-514)                 nonprofit organizations.
                                                          Water Bank Act (1970)           ASCS       Leases wetlands and adjacent uplands from farmers for waterfowl habitat
                                                                     (P.L. 91-559)                   for 10-year periods.
                                                        Wetlands Loan Act (1961)          FWS        Provides interest-free loans for wetland acquisition and
                                                                     (P.L. 87-383)                   easements.


                      0, DISCOURAGING OR PREVENTING WETLAND CONVERSION-Other Policies and Programs
                                                                 Program or Act        Implementing  Effect of program
                                                                                          agency                                           ------
                                               Endangered Species Act of 1973             FWS        Provides for the designation and protection of wildlife, fish, and plant species
                                                                    (P.L. 93-205)                    that are in danger of extinction.
                                                         Executive Order 11990,           AFA        Requires Federal agencies to minimize impacts of Federal
                                                  Protection of Wetlands (19771                      activities on wetlands.
                                                        * Executive Order 11988,          AFA        Requires Federal agencies to minimize impacts of Federal activities
                                               Protection of Floodplains (1977)                      on flood plains.
                                                         Executive Order 12580,           DOI        Directs DOI to develop rules for assessing damages under CERCLA (Comprehensive
                                             Superfund Implementation (1987)                         Environmental Response Compensation and Liabilities Act) as a natural resource trustee.
                                                     Federal Noxious Weed Act          DOI, USDA     Authorizes controlling the spread of noxious weeds
                                                             (P.L. 93-629) (1975)      DOE, DOD      on Federal lands.
                                                              Federal Power Act           FERC       FERC will cooperate with other Federal agencies in assessing proposed power projects,
                                                           (41 Stat. 1063) (1920)                    such as dams. FERC must consider protection of fish and wildlife resources.
                                     Fish and Wildlife Coordination Act (1965)            FWS        Requires Federal agencies to consult with FWS before issuing permits for most
                                                                     (P.L. 89-721                    water-resource projects.
                      Food, Agriculture, Conservation, and Trade Act of 1990              NFICS      Wetland Reserve Program purchases perpetual nondevelopment easements on
                                                                   (P.L. 101-624)                    farmed wetlands. Subsidizes restoration of croplands to wetlands.
                                    Food Security Act of 1985 (Swampbuster)            ASCS, FWS,    "Swampbuster' program suspends agricultural subsidies for farmers who convert wet-
                                                                    (P.L. 99-198)                    lands to agriculture.
                                                                                          FmHA       Conservation Easements program allows FmHA to eliminate some farm debts in
                                                                                                     exchange for long-term easements that protect wetlands and other areas.
                              National Wildlife Refuge System Administration              DOI        Provides the guidelines for managing National Wildlife Refuges.
                                                        Act of 1966 (P.L. 89-669)
                                 Nonindigenous Aquatic Nuisance Prevention             FWS, USCG,    Created a Federal program to prevent and control the spread of species that are
                                         and Control Act of 1990 (P.L. 101-646)        EPA, Corps,   aquatic nuisances.
                                                                                          NOAA
                                                        Oil Pollution Act of 1990      DOE, DOI,     Enhanced the response to oil spills and required natural resource
                                                                   (P.L. 101-380)         NOAA       damage assessments.
                                 Tax Deductions for Conservation Easements                MS         Allows taxpayers to take a deduction for a qualified real property interest contributed to a
                                                        (Section 6 of P.L. 96-541)                   conservation organization for conservation purposes.
                                             U.S. Tax Code Reform Act of 1986             IRS        Eliminates incentives for clearing land. Deductible conservation expenditures must be con-
                                                                    (P.L. 99-514)                    sistent with wetlands protection. Capital gains on converted wetlands treated as income.
                            Water Resources Development Act of 1976, 1986,                Corps      States that future mitigation plans for Federal water projects should include "in kind'
                         1988, 1990, (P.L.'s 94-587, 99-662, 100-676, 101-640)                       mitigation for bottom-land hardwood forests.








                 60     National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: OVERVIEW OF WETILAND RESOURCES



                                                 and clearing land, are regulated as Section 404 dis-        Wetland mitigation is often required, and if required,
                                                 charges if they involve discharges of more than inci-       the permit applicant will need to develop a specific,
                                                 dental amounts of soil or other materials into wetlands     detailed plan.
                                                 or other waters.                                                  Through a public interest review, the Corps tries
                                                      The Corps and the EPA share the responsibility         to balance the benefits an activity may provide against
                                                 for implementing the permitting program under Sec-          the costs it may incur. The criteria applied in this pro-
                                                 tion 404 of the Clean Water Act. However, Section           cess are the relative extent of the public and private
                                                 404(c) of the Clean Water Act gives the EPA authority       need for the proposed structure or work and the ex-
                                                 to veto the permit if discharge materials at the selected   tent and permanence of the beneficial or detrimental
                                                 sites would adversely affect such things as municipal       effects on the public and private uses to which the area
                                                 water supplies, shellfish beds and fishery areas, wild-     is suited. Some of the factors considered in the public
                                                 life, or recreational resources. By 1991, the EPA had       interest review are listed in figure 39. Cumulative ef-
                                                 vetoed I I of several hundred thousand permits since        fects of numerous piecemeal changes are considered
                                                 the Act was passed (Schley and Winter, 1992).               in addition to the individual effects of the projects.
                                                      The review process for a Section 404 permit is               The FWS, NOAA, and State fish and wildlife
                                                 shown in figure 39. After notice and opportunity for a      agencies, as the organizations in possession of most
                                                 public hearing, the Corps' District Engineer may is-        of the country's biological data, have important advi-
                                                 sue or deny the permit. The District Engineer must          sory roles in the Section 404 program. The FWS and
                                                 comply with the EPA!s Section 404(b)(1) Guidelines          NOAA (if a coastal area is involved) provide the Corps
                                                 and must consider the public interest when evaluat-         and the EPA with comments about the potential envi-
                                                 ing a proposed permit. Four questions related to the        ronmental effects of pending Section 404 permits.
                                                 guidelines are considered during a review of an ap-         Other government agencies, industry, and the public
                                                 plication:                                                  are invited to participate through public notices of
                                                 1. Is the proposed discharge the least damaging prac-       permit applications, hearings, or other information-
                                                    tical alternative?                                       collecting activities. However, the public interest re-
                                                 2. Does the proposed discharge comply with other en-        view usually does not involve public comment unless
                                                    vironmental standards or regulations?                    the permit is likely to generate significant public in-
                                                 3. Will the proposed discharge significantly degrade        terest or if the potential consequences of the permit
                                                    wetlands?                                                are expected to be significant. All recommendations
                                                 4. Have all the appropriate and practical steps been        must be given full consideration by the Corps, but
                                                    taken to minimize potential harria to the wetlands?      there is no requirement that they must be acted upon.




                                 APPLICANT                  APPLICATION                   PUBLIC                   NORMAL
                                 SUBMITS                    RECEIVED,                     NOTICE                   30-DAY
                                 ENGINEER                   ACKNOWL-                      ISSUED                   COMMENT
                                 FORM 4345                  EDGED,AND                                              PERIOD
                                 TO DISTRICT                 R CESSED
                                 OFFICE                 J>


                                                                                                                   APPLICATION                 REVIEW AND
                                                            APPLICANT                  APPLICATION                 REVIEWED BY                 COMMENT BY
                                    REMY                    SIGNS AND                   APPROVED                   U.S. ARMY                   APPROPRIATE
                                    RSISUED                 RETURNS                                                CORPS OF                    FEDERAL AND
                                                                                                                   ENGINEERS                   STATE
                                                                                                                                               AGENCiEs
                                                                                                                                               (EPA, FWS,
                                                                                                                                               AND OTHERS)


                                                                                                                                     _Z


                                                                                                    APPLICATION                   PUBLIC
                                 Figure 39. Overiew of a typical                                    EVALUATED                     HEARING MAY
                                 U.S. Army Corps of Engineers                                        Esthefics - Recreation -     BE HELD
                                 review process for Section 404                                      Fish values - Land use -
                                                                                                       ife value -Economics-/
                                                                                                  -Wildl
                                                                                                 "AA T 1_0 IN
                                                                                                      PPLIC
                                                                                                    E


                                 dredge-and-fill permit request.         APPLICATION                  - Food production -
                                 (Source: Modified from ].A.                     DENIED             Flood-damage preventiom
                                 Kusler, Our National Wetland                                       - Safety . conservation
                                 Heritage: A Protection Guide-                                      Environmental concerns -
                                                                                                        Historic value
                                 book. Copyright (c) 1983 by the
                                 Environmental Law Institute.
                                 Reprinted with permission.)








                                                                                    National Water Surnmary-Wetland Resources: MANAGEMENT AND RESEARCH                            61



                    If the FWS or NOAA disagree with a permit approved                porary sedimentation basins on construction sites; and
                    by a District Engineer, they can request that the per-            construction or maintenance of farm roads, forest
                    mit be reviewed at a higher level within the Corps.               roads, or temporary roads for moving mining equip-
                    However, the Assistant Secretary of the Army has the              ment (Morris, 1991). In addition, the Corps' flood-
                    unilateral right to refuse all requests for higher level          control and drainage projects and other Federal
                    reviews. The Assistant Secretary accepted the addi-               projects authorized by Congress and planned, fi-
                    tional review of 16 of the 18 requested out of the total          nanced, and constructed by a Federal agency also are
                    105,000 individual permits issued between 1985 and                exempt from the Section 404 permitting requirements
                    1992 (Schley and Winter, 1992).                                   if an adequate environmental impact statement is pre-
                         Because many activities may cause the discharge              pared.
                    of dredged and fill materials, and the potential effects               Not all methods of altering wetlands are regulated
                    of these activities differ, the Corps has issued general          by Section 404. Common methods of altering wetlands
                    regulations to deal with a wide range of activities that          are listed in table 7. Unregulated methods include:               The Clean Water
                    could require a Section 404 permit. The Corps can                 wetland drainage, the lowering of ground-water lev-               Act regulates
                    forgo individual permit review by issuing general per-            els in areas adjacent to wetlands, permanent flooding             dredge and fill
                    mits on a State, regional, or nationwide basis. Gen-              of existing wetlands, deposition of material that is not
                    eral permits cover specific categories of activities that         specifically defined as dredged and fill material by the          activities that
                    the Corps determines will have minimal effects on the             Clean Water Act, and wedand vegetation removal (Of-               would adversely
                    aquatic environment, including wetlands. General                  fice of Technology Assessment, 1984).
                    permits are designed to allow activities with minimal                   State authority over the Federal Section 404 pro-           affect wetlands.
                    effects to begin with little, if any, delay or paperwork.         gram is a goal of the Clean Water Act. Assumption of
                    General permits authorize approximately 75,000 ac-                authority from the EPA has been completed only by
                    tivities annually that might otherwise require a per-             Michigan and New Jersey. Under this arrangement, the
                    mit (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 199 1);                EPA is responsible for approving State assumptions
                    however, most activities in wetlands are not covered              and retains oversight of the State Section 404 program,
                    by general permits (Morris, 1991).                                and the Corps retains the navigable waters permit pro-
                         Not all dredge and fill activities require a Section         gram (Mitsch and Gosselink, 1993). States cannot is-
                    404 permit. Many activities that cause the discharge              sue permits over EPA's objection, but EPA has the au-
                    of dredged and fill materials are exempt from Section             thority to waive its review for selected categories of
                    404. The areas specifically exempted from Section 404             permit applications. Few States have chosen to assume
                    include: normal farming, forestry, and ranching activi-           the program, in part because few Federal resources are
                    ties; dike, dam, levee, and other navigation and trans-           available to assist States and assumption does not in-
                    portation structure maintenance; construction of tem-             clude navigable waters (World Wildlife Fund, 1992).

                    Table 7. Methods of altering wetlands
                    [Source: The Conservation Foundation, 1988, p. 151

                                                                                  PHYSICAL
                                                      Filling adding any material to raise the bottom level of a wetland
                                                              or to replace the wetland with dry land
                                                   Draining   removing the water from a wetland by ditching, tiling,
                                                              pumping, and so forth
                                                 Excavating   dredging and removing soil and vegetation from
                                                              a wetland
                                     Diverting water away     preventing the flow of water into a wetland by removing water upstream,
                                                              lowering lake levels, or lowering ground-water tables
                                                   Clearing   removing vegetation by burning, digging, application of herbicide, scraping,
                                                              mowing, or otherwise cutting
                                                   Flooding   raising water levels, either behind dams, by pumping, or otherwise
                                                              channeling water into a wetland
                        Diverting or withholding sediment     trapping sediment by constructing dams, channels, or other types of projects,
                                                              thereby inhibiting wetland regeneration in natural deposition areas such as deltas
                                                   Shading    placing pile-supported platforms or bridges over wetlands,
                                                              causing vegetation to die because of a lack of adequate sunlight
                    Conducting activities in adjacent areas   disrupting the interactions between wetlands and adjacent land areas,
                                                              or incidentally affecting wetlands through activities at adjoining sites

                                                                                  CHEMICAL
                                  Changing nutrient levels    increasing or decreasing nutrient levels within the local water and or soil system,
                                                              forcing wetland plant community changes
                                         Introducing toxics   adding toxic compounds to a wetland either intentionally (for example, herbicide treatment to
                                                              reduce vegetation) or unintentionally, adversely affecting wetland plants and animals
                                                                                  BIOLOGICAL
                                                   Grazing    consumption and compaction of vegetation by
                                                              domestic or wild animals
                            Disrupting natural populations    reducing populations of existing species, introducing exotic species,
                                                              or otherwise disturbing resident organisms








                  62    National Water Surnmary-Wetland Resources: OVERVIEW OF WETLAND RESOURCES


                                                "Swampbuster"                                               agement plans, which can be more stringent than Fed-
                                                     The program that seeks to remove Federal incen-        eral standards (World Wildlife Fund, 1992, p. 87). A
                                                                                                            State also can require that design changes or mitiga-
                                                tives for the agricultural conversion of wetlands is part   tion requirements be added to Section 404 permits to
                                                of the Food Security Act of 1985 and 1990, and is           be consistent with the State coastal zone management
                                                known as "Swampbuster." Swampbuster renders farm-           plan. The Coastal Zone Management Act has provided
                                                ers who drained or otherwise converted wetlands for         as much as 80 percent of the matching-funds grants
                                                the purpose ofplanting crops after December 23, 1985,       to States to develop plans for coastal management that
                    "Swampbuster"               ineligible for most Federal farm subsidies. Through         emphasize wetland protection (Mitsch and Gosselink,
                  removes Federal               Swampbuster, Congress directed the U.S. Department          1993). Some States pass part of the grants on to local
                                                ofAgriculture (USDA) to slow wetland conversion by          governments. The Act's authorities are limited to wet-
                      incentives for            agricultural activities (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service,    lands within a State's coastal zone boundary, the defi-
                    the agricultural            1992). The government programs that Swampbuster             nition of which differs among States. As of 1990, 23
                                                specifically affects are listed in Section 1221 of the      States had federally approved plans.
                      conversion of             Food Security Act. If a farmer loses eligibility for              The 1982 Coastal Barriers Resources Act denies
                              wetlands.         USDA programs under Swampbuster, he or she may              Federal subsidies for development within undevel-
                                                regain eligibility during the next year simply by not       oped, unprotected coastal barrier areas, including
                                                using wetlands for growing crops. Swampbuster is ad-        wetlands, designated as part of the Coastal Barrier
                                                ministered by USDA's Consolidated Farm Service              Resources System. Congress designates areas for in-
                                                Agency. The NRCS and the FWS serve as technical             clusion in the Coastal Barriers Resource System on the
                                                consultants (World Wildlife Fund, 1992).                    basis of some of the following criteria (Watzin, 1990):
                                                     The Swampbuster was amended by the Food,                 .Size
                                                Agriculture, Conservation, and Trade Act of 1990 to           - Development status
                                                create the Wetland Reserve Program. The Wetland Re-           - Composition
                                                serve Program provides financial incentives to farm-          * Wind, wave, and tidal energies
                                                ers to restore and protect wetlands through the use of        - Associated aquatic habitat, including adjacent
                                                long-term easements (usually 30-year or permanent).            wetlands
                                                The program provides farmers the opportunity to of-              In addition, States, local governments, and con-
                                                fer a property easement for purchase by the USDA and        servation organizations owning lands that were "oth-
                                                to recieve cost-share assistance (from 50 to 75 percent)    erwise protected" could have their lands added to this
                                                to restore converted wetlands. Landowners make bids         system until May 1992. ("Otherwise protected" lands
                                                to participate in the program. The bids represent the       are areas within undeveloped coastal barriers that were
                                                payment they are willing to accept for granting an          already under some form of protection.) Once in the
                                                easement to the Federal Government. The Consoli-            Coastal Barriers Resources System, these areas are
                                                dated Farm Service Agency ranks the bids according          rendered ineligible for almost all Federal financial
                                                to the environmental benefit per dollar. Easements          subsidies for programs that might encourage develop-
                                                require that farmers implement conservation plans           ment. In particular, these lands no longer qualify for
                                                approved by the NRCS and the FWS. Enrollment in             Federal flood insurance, which discourages develop-
                                                the pilot program was authorized for nine States. The       ment because coastal lands are frequently subject to
                                                program's goal is to enroll I million acres by 1995         flooding and damage from hurricanes and other
                                                (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 1992). Funding for         storms. The FWS is responsible for mapping these
                                                this program is appropriated annually by Congress           areas and approves lands to be included in the system.
                                                (U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, 1994). Because 74            The purposes of the Coastal Barrier Resources Act are
                                                percent of United States'wetlands are on private land,      to minimize the loss of human life, to reduce damage
                                                programs that provide incentives for private landown-       to fish and wildlife habitats and other valuable re-
                                                ers to preserve their wetlands, such as the Wetland         sources, and to reduce wasteful expenditure of Fed-
                                                Reserve Program, are critical for protecting wetlands       eral revenues (Watzin, 1990). In the future, eligible
                                                (Council of Environmental Quality, 1989).                   surplus government land will be included if approved
                                                                                                            by the FWS. About 95 percent of the 788,000 acres
                          The Coastal           Coastal Wetlands Protection Programs                        added to the system in 1990 along the Atlantic and
                                                    The 1972 Coastal Zone Management Act and the            Gulf coasts consists of coastal wetlands and near-shore
                     Zone Manage-               1982 Coastal Barriers Resources Act protect coastal         waters (World Wildlife Fund, 1992).
                     ment Program               wetlands. The Coastal Zone Management Act encour-
                                                ages States (35 States and territories are eligible,  in-   Flood-Plain and Wetland Protection
                    Provides States             cluding the Great Lakes States) to establish voluntary      Orders
                            with some           coastal zone management plans under NOAA's
                                                Coastal Zone Management Program and provides                     Executive Orders 11988, Floodplain Manage-
                        control over            funds for developing and implementing the plans. The        ment, and 11990, Protection ofWetlands, were signed
                                wetland         NOAA also provides technical assistance to States for       by President Carter in 1977. The purpose of these
                             resources.         developing and implementing these programs. For             Executive Orders was to ensure protection and proper
                                                Federal approval, the plans must demonstrate enforce-       management of flood plains and wetlands by Federal
                                                able standards that provide for the conservation and        agencies. The Executive Orders require Federal agen-
                                                environmentally sound development of coastal re-            cies to consider the direct and indirect adverse effects
                                                sources. The program provides States with some con-         of their activities on flood plains and wetlands. This
                                                trol over wetland resources by requiring that Federal       requirement extends to any Federal action within a
                                                activities be consistent with State coastal zone man-       flood plain or a wetland except for routine mainte-







                                                                            National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: MANAGEMENT AND RESEARCH                      63



                 nance of existing Federal facilities and structures. The     ture wetland loss through development. It may be and
                 Clinton administration has proposed revising Execu-          usually is located somewhere other than near the site
                 tive Order 11990 to direct Federal agencies to consider      to be destroyed and built by someone other than the
                 wetland protection and restoration planning in the           developer. The currency of a mitigation bank is the
                 larger scale watershed/ecosystem context.                    mitigation credit. "Mitigation banks require systems
                                                                              for valuing the compensation credits produced and for
                                                                              determining the type and number of credits needed as
                 WETLAND DELINEATION STANDARDS                                compensation for any particular project. ***Mitiga-
                      The Corps published, in 1987, the Corps of En-          tion bank credit definitions are an attempt to identify        "Federal
                 gineers Wetland Delineation Manual, a technical              those features [of wetland] which allow reasonable ap-         Wetlands policy
                 manual that provides guidance to Federal agencies            proximations of replacemenf' (U.S. Army Corps of               should be based
                 about how to use wetland field indicators to ide             Engineers, 1994, p. 63). Wetland evaluation methods
                                                                      nt'fy   have been developed or are being developed to address          upon the best
                 and delineate wetland boundaries (U.S. Army Corps            the problem of evaluating two different wetlands so
                 of Engineers, 1987). In January of 1989, the EPA,            that the degradation of one can be offset by the resto-        science
                 Corps, SCS, and FWS adopted a single manual for de-          ration, enhancement, or creation of the other and to           available.
                 lineating wetlands under the Section 404 and                 assign either a qualitative or quantitative value to each
                 Swampbuster programs-The Federal Manual for                  wetland. When buying the credits, developers pay a
                 Identifying and Delineating Jurisdictional Wetlands          proportionate cost toward acquiring, restoring, main-
                 (commonly referred to as the "1989 Manual"). The             taining, enhancing, and monitoring the mitigation
                 "1989 Manual" establishes a national standard for            bank wetland. Banks cover their costs by selling cred-
                 identifying and delineating wetlands by specifying the       its to those who develop wetlands, or by receiving a
                 technical criteria used to determine the presence of the     taxpayer subsidy.
                 three wetland characteristics: wetland hydrology, wa-              Several problems are associated with wetland
                 ter-dependent vegetation, and soils that have devel-           . .   .
                 oped under anaerobic conditions (U.S. Environmen-            nutigation. The concept of wetland compensation may
                 tal Protection Agency, 199 1).                               actually encourage destruction of natural wetlands if
                      In 1991, the President's Council on Competitive-        people believe that wetlands can be easily replaced. A
                 ness proposed revisions to the 1989 Manual because           1990 Florida Department of Environmental Regula-
                 of some concern that nonwetland areas were regularly         tion study examined the success of wetland creation
                 being classified as wetlands (Environmental Law Re-          projects and found that the success rate of created tidal
                 porter, 1992a). The proposed 1991 Manual was char-           wetlands was 45 percent, whereas the success rate for
                 acterized by many wetland scientists as politically          created freshwater wetlands was only 12 percent.
                 based rather than scientifically based. In September         (Redmond, 1992). Figure 40 shows the relative success
                 of 1992, Congress authorized the National Academy            of wetland mitigation projects overall in south Florida.
                 of Science to conduct a $400,000 study of the meth-          The apparent factor controlling the lower success rate
                 ods used to identify and delineate wetlands (Environ-        for freshwater wetlands was the difficulty in duplicat-
                 mental Law Reporter, 1992b). On August 25, 1993,             ing wetland hydrology, that is, water-table fluctua-
                 the Clinton administration's wetland policy, pro-            tions 'frequency and seasonality of flooding, and
                 claimed that, "Federal wetlands policy should be             ground-water/surface-water interactions.
                 based upon the best science available" (White House                A study of wetland mitigation practices in eight
                 Office of Environmental Policy, 1993) and the 1987           States revealed that in most of the States, more wet-            15
                 Corps Manual is the sole delineation manual for the          land acreage was destroyed than was required to be
                                                                              created or restored, resulting in a net loss of acreage        U)
                 Federal Government until the National Academy of                                                                            I.-       -
                                                                              when mitigation was included in a wetlands permit              0
                 Sciences completes its study (White House Office of                                                                         W
                                                                              (Kentula and others, 1992). Less than 55 percent of            ') 10 -
                 Environmental Policy, 1993).                                                                                                0
                                                                              the permits included monitoring of the project by site         cc
                                                                                                                                             CL
                                                                              visit. A limited amount of information exists about the        U.
                 MITIGATION                                                   number of acres of wetlands affected by mitigation or          0
                                                                                                                                             cc
                                                                              the effectiveness of particular mitigation techniques          LU 5
                                                                              because of the lack of followup. Several studies in
                      Mitigation is the attempt to alleviate some or a
                 of the detrimental effects arising from a given action.      Florida reported that as many as 60 percent of the re-         Z
                 Wetland mitigation replaces an existing wetland or its       quired mitigation projects were never even started
                 functions by creating a new wetland, restoring a             (Lewis, 1992). In addition, the mitigation wetland                0
                 former wetland, or enhancing or preserving an exist-         commonly was not the same type of wetland that was                 EXPLANATION
                 ing wetland. This is done to compensate for the au-          destroyed, which resulted in a net loss of some wet-               F-1 All goals met
                 thorized destruction of the existing wetland. Mitiga-        land types. (See article "Weiland Restoration and Cre-             E:3 Some goals met
                 tion commonly is required as a condition for receiv-         ation" in this volume.)                                            E:] Few goals met
                 ing a permit to develop a wetland.                                                                                              E Incomplete
                      Weiland mitigation can be conducted directly on         RECENT PRESIDENTIAL WETLAND                                    Figure 40. Status of 40
                 a case-by-case onsite basis, or through a banking sys-       PROTECTION INITIATIVES                                         wetland mitigation
                 tem. Onsite mitigation requires that a developer cre-                                                                       projects in south Florida.
                 ate a wetland as close as possible to the site where a             In his 1988 Presidential address and in his 1990         The average age of the
                 Weiland is to be destroyed. This usually involves a one-     budget address to Congress, President Bush echoed              projects was less than 3
                 to-one replacement.                                          the recommendations of the National Wetland Policy             years. (Source: Modified
                      A mitigation bank is a designated wetland that          Forum. The Forum was convened in 1987 by the Con-              from Mitsch and
                 is created, restored, or enhanced to compensate for fu-      servation Foundation at the request of EPA. The short-         Cosselink, 1993.)








                    64      National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: OVERVIEW OF WETLAND RESOURCES



                                                     term recommendation of the forum was to decrease                  Environmental Law Reporter, 1992a, Agencies working to
                                                     wetland losses and increase wetland restoration and                    resolve controversy, official says: Washington, D.C.,
                                                     creation -the concept of "no net loss"- as a national                  Bureau of National Affairs, v. 23, no. 13, p. 924.
                                                     goal. This implied that when wetland loss was un-                 -       1992b, Reilly favors return to 1987 manual, cites
                                                     avoidable, creation and restoration should replace de-                 emerging consensus on delineation: Washington, D.C.,
                                                                                                                            Bureau of National Affairs, v. 23, no. 17, p. 1,260.
                                                     stroyed wetlands (Mitsch and Gosselink, 1993).                    Kentula, Mary, Sifneos, Jean, Brooks, Robert, Gwin,
                                                           On August 25, 1993, President Clinton unveiled                   Stephanie, Holland, Cindy, and Sherman, Arthur, 1992,
                                                     his new policy for managing America's wetland re-                      An approach to decisionmaking in wetland restoration
                                                     sources. The program was developed by the Inter-                       and creation: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency,
                                                     agency Working Group on Federal Wetlands Policy, a                     EPA/600/R-92/150,151 p.
                       "No net loss" of              group chaired by the White House Office on Environ-               Kusler, J.A., 1983, Our national wetland heritage-A pro-
                                                     mental Policy with participants from the EPA, the                      tection guidebook: Washington, D.C., Environmental
                           wetlands is a             Corps, the Office of Management and Budget, and the                    Law Institute, p. 62.
                          nationalg0al.              Departments of Agriculture, Commerce, Energy, In-                 L,ewis, Roy, 1992, Why Florida needs mitigation banking:
                                                                                                                            National Wetlands Newsletter, v. 14, no. 1, p. 7.
                                                     terior, Justice, and Transportation. The Admin-                   Mitsch, W.J., and Gosselink, J.G., 1993, Wetlands: NewYork,
                                                     istration's proposals mix measures that tighten restric-               Van Nostrand Reinhold Company, 722 p.
                                                     tions on activities affecting wetlands in some cases and          Morris, Marya, 199 1, Wetland protection-A local govern-
                                                     relax restrictions in other areas. The Clinton policy en-              ment handbook: Chicago, Ill., American Planning As-
                                                     dorses the goal of "no net loss" of wetlands; however,                 sociation, 31 p.
                                                     it clearly refers to "no net loss" of wetland acreage             Office of Technology Assessment, 1984, Wetlands-Their
                                                     rather than "no net loss" of wetland functions.                        use and regulation: Washington, D.C., OTA-0-206,
                                                           The President's wetland proposal would expand                    p. 168-169.
                                                     Federal authority under the Section 404 program to                Redmond, Ann, 1992, How successful is mitigation?: Wash-
                                                                                                                            ington, D.C., National Wetlands Newsletter, v. 14, no.
                                                     regulate the draining of wetlands in addition to regu-                 1, p. 5-6.
                                                     lating dredging and filling of wetlands. Other proposed           Schley, Terry, and Winter, Linda, 1992, New 404(q) MOA-
                                                     changes to the Federal permitting program include the                  diluting EPKs role: Washington, D.C., National Wetlands
                                                     requirement that most Section 404 permit applications                  Newsletter, Environmental Law Institute, v. 14, no. 6,
                                                     be approved or disapproved within 90 days, and the                     p. 8.
                                                     addition of an appeal process for applicants whose                U.S. Army Corps ofEngineers, 1987, Corps ofEngineers wet-
                                                     permits are denied. The EPA and the Corps are di-                      lands delineation manual: Vicksburg, Miss., U.S. Army
                                                     rected to relax regulatory restrictions that cause only                Corps of Engineers Technical Report Y-87- 1, p. 1.
                                                     minor adverse effects to wetlands such as activities              -       1994, National wetland mitigation banking study-
                                                                                                                            Wetland mitigation banking: Washington, D.C., Environ-
                                                     affecting very small areas.                                            mental Law Institute, IWR Report 94-WMB-6, 178 p.
                                                           The Clinton policy calls for avoiding future wet-           U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 199 1, Proposed re-
                                                     land losses by incorporating4efland protection into                    visions to the Federal manual for delineating wetlands:
                                                     State and local government watershed-management                        Washington, D.C., Office ofWetlands, Oceans, and Wa-
                                                     planning. This new policy also significantly expands                   tersheds, p. 1-4.
                                                     the use of mitigation banks to compensate for feder-              U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 1992, Digest of Federal re-
                                                     ally approved wetland development or loss.                             source laws ofinterest to the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Ser-
                                                           Clinton's proposals relaxed some of the current                  vice: Washington, D.C., U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service,
                                                     restrictions on agricultural effects on wetlands and in-               Office of Legislative Services, p. 26.
                                                                                                                       Want, William, 1993, Law of wetlands regulation: Deerfield,
                                                     creased funding for incentives to preserve and restore                 Ill., Clark Boardman Callaghan, p. 13-2.
                                                     wetlands on agricultural lands. The administration                Watzin, M.C., 1990, Coastal Barrier Resources System map-
                                                     policy excluded 53 million acres of "prior converted                   ping process, in Federal coastal wetland mapping pro-
                                                     croplands" from regulation as wetlands. Also, author-                  gram: Washington, D.C., U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service
                                                     ity over welland programs affecting agriculture was                    Biological Report 90 (18), p. 21-26.
                                                     shifted from the FWS to the NRCS and proposed in-                 White House Office of Environmental Policy, 1993, Protect-
                                                     creased funding for the Wetlands Reserve Program,                      ing America's wetlands-A fair, flexible, and effective
                                                     which pays farmers to preserve and restore wetlands                    approach: the White House, Office of Environmental
                                                     on their property.                                                     Policy, P. 15.
                                                                                                                       World Wildlife Fund, 1992, Statewide wetlands strategies-
                                                                                                                            A guide to protecting and managing the resource: Wash-
                                                     References Cited                                                       ington, D.C., Island Press, 268 p.
                                                     Conservation Foundation, 1988, Protecting America's wet-
                                                         lands-An action agenda: Washington, D.C., The Con-
                                                         servation Foundation, p. 15.                                  FOR ADDITIONAL INFORMATION: Todd H. Votteler,
                                                     Council of Environmental Quality, 1989, Environmental             4312 Larchmont Avenue, Dallas, TX 75205; Thomas A. Muir,
                                                         trends: Washington, D.C., Office ofthe President, Coun-       U.S. Geological Survey, 413 National Center, Reston, VA
                                                         cil of Environmental Quality, p. 152.                         22092








                                                                                        U.S. Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper 2425








                                                                             National Water Surnmary-Wetland Resources: MANAGEMENT AND RESEARCH                   65


                  Wetland Management and Research
                  Wetland Research by Federal Agencies
                  By Richard E. Coleman', Edward T LaRoel, and Russell F. Theriot'


                      Because wetlands were drained and filled for           THE REASONS FOR FEDERAL
                  farming and building purposes during the last several      INVOLVEMENT IN WETLAND
                  hundred years, more than half of the original wetlands     RESEARCH
                  in the United States have been lost (Frayer and oth-
                  ers, 1983). Only during the last quarter century has           Scientists from many organizations, including
                  society begun to understand the value of wetlands and      those in the private sector, those from colleges and
                  the particular benefits that they provide. (See the ar-    universities, and those from public institutions, are
                  ticle "History of Wetlands in the Conterminous Uni_        engaged in wetland research. Typically, each organi-
                  ted States" in this volume.) This understanding has        zation has its own reasons for being involved in wet-
                  been broadened by the concerted efforts of many            land research. Federal wetlan  d research may be done
                  public and private researchers. This article addresses     because it is part of an agency's mission, is part of an
                  the research contributions of Federal agencies: which      agency's responsibilities as outlined by the Congress,
                  agencies are involved in wetland research, why they        or is otherwise in the national interest.
                  are involved, and the nature of their research.                When research is mission oriented, it is part of
                      In an effort to develop a strategy for preventing      the basic work of an agency. Mission-oriented Fed-
                  the further loss of wetlands, the Committee on Earth       eral agency wetland research generally is done for one
                  and Environmental Sciences established a Wetlands          of five reasons:
                  Research Subcommittee to determine the status of           I .Ownership-The agency owns and is responsible
                  wetland research being conducted by Federal agen-             for managing wetlands. The agency is the stew-
                  cies. These efforts resulted in an unpublished report         ard of its land.
                  that presented a national inventory and data base of       2. Public trust responsibilities-An agency may be
                  ongoing research and addressed future research needs          responsible for ensuring the long-term survival of
                  (Wetlands Research Subcommittee, unpub. data,                 certain fish and other wildlife resources, which are
                  1992). Data presented in the following few pages are
                  drawn largely from these findings.
                      During 1992, Federal wetland research expendi-
                  tures were about $63 million. A total Federal invest-
                  ment of more than $250 million is distributed over the
                  lifetime of the existing projects. The amount of Fed-
                  eral research spending per State is
                  depicted in figure 41.











                                                        Z                       E3




                                                                                                                           "IX







             EXPLANATION
                    2                                                                                         Figure 41. Cost of Federal agency wetland research,
             ,6Z        Contributing r arch
             cc 0         Not directly rlated to wetlandM                                                     per State, during fiscal year 1992. (Source: Federal
                                     c                                                                        Wetlands Research inventory and Database, unpub.
             02         Focused roser
             0      0 @   Directly related to wetlands                                                        data, 1992; compiled by the Wetlands Research and
                                                                                                              Technology Center, U.S. Army Engineer Waterways
                                                                                                              Experiment Station, Vicksburg, Miss.)

                    U.S. Army Corps of Engineers.
                    National Biological Service.








                      66      National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: OVERVIEW OF WETLAND RESOURCES



                                                                   held in trust for the public. Wetlands form critical                     domain of the Federal Government. International
                                                                   habitat and are part of the ecological system on                         efforts that result from those treaties, such as ef-
                                                                   which many of these species depend.                                      forts between Canada, Mexico, and the United
                                                             3.    Regulatory responsibilities-Because wetlands                             States to restore declining wetland-dependent
                                                                   provide so many benefits to society, activities that                     waterfowl populations, have an essential Federal
                                                                   adversely affect them may be subject to regula-                          element. (See article "Wetlands as Bird Habitat"
                                                                   tion. Some agencies, therefore, have regulatory                          in this volume.)
                                                                   authority over wetlands.                                                 There is also an intrinsic national interest in wet-
                                                             4.    Development activities-Federal agencies have                       land research. Where wetland questions or issues are
                                                                   an obligation to avoid projects or actions that may                widespread or shared by jurisdictions, or affect the
                                                                   adversely affect wetlands, to minimize the nega-                   national health, safety, or welfare, Congress may de-
                                                                   tive effects of their activities on wetlands, and to               termine that there is a national interest that justifies
                                                                   mitigate unavoidable wetland losses. These re-                     Federal agency research.
                      The understanding                            quirements apply to all Federal agencies, but
                          of wetlands as a                         those regularly involved in large-scale develop-                   TYPES OF FEDERAL WETLAND
                                                                   ment projects support specific wetland research                    RESEARCH
                   valued resource has                             activities.
                   been broadened by                         5.    Science-Agencies that have missions directly re-                         The Federal Wetlands Research Inventory and
                                                                   lated to science may conduct or support research                   Database reported in 1992 that 18 Federal agencies
                              the concerted                        on wetlands.                                                       were conducting some wetland research (Wetlands
                           efforts of many                         Although many different levels of government                       Research Subcommittee, unpub. data, 1992). Two
                      public and private                     may have mission-oriented research, Federal agency                       types of research were included in the inventory-
                                                             wetland research activities relate to congressionally                    focused and contributing. Focused research is spe-
                                  researchers.               mandated responsibilities. Most significant among                        cifically designed to investigate wetlands or some
                                                                                                                                      component thereof; contributing research provides
                                                             these are provisions that relate to:
                                                               ï¿½ Interstate commerce-Wetlands are part of the en-                     some information about wetlands but is not directly
                                                                   tire physical landscape, from river headwaters to                  related to wetlands.
                                                                   the sea. They form parts of water bodies that pro-                       Research categories also were identified by the
                                                                   vide shipping, transportation, and navigation.                     Inventory and Database. These categories were de-
                                                                   Some wetlands are used as routes for trade in in-                  fined by the subject of the wetland research being
                                                                   terstate commerce, and wetland products are                        conducted, and were listed in five topical areas:
                                                                   used in interstate trade. What happens to wet-                     I .   Wetland processes-Research to address factors
                                                                   lands in one State can affect wetland activities,                        that affect the type, location, size, and functions
                                                                   benefits, and uses in another State.                                     of wetlands.
                                                               ï¿½ International treaties-The benefits and uses of                      2.    Wetland functions-Research to determine the
                                                                   wetlands are the subject of international treaties,                      role wetlands play and the benefits they provide.
                                                                   such as the Ramsar Convention of 1971 and the                      3.    Human-induced stresses-Research to improve
                                                                   Migratory Bird Treaty, which are the exclusive                           ways of detecting or quantifying the effects of


               Delineation and
                 [dent ice ion
                   5 percent                                                                        AGENCY                                          RESEARCH CATEGORY
                                                                                                                                                         HUMAN-        DELINEATION
                                                                                                                                                         INDUCED              AND
                      Human-                                                                                               PROCESSES        FUNCTIONS    STRESSES     IDENTIFICATION MANAGEMENT
                      Induced                                                     Army Corps of Engineers       Corps      $1,072,000       $ 438,000    $ 154,000        $ 364,000        $ 4,818,000
                      Stresses              Management                        Agricultural Research service     ARS           814,000               0       65,000                  0           909,000
                      22 percent             34 percent                                    Bureau of Mines      BOM           316,000         49,000               a                0                  0
                                                                                     Bureau of Reclamation      BOR            25,000         25,000               0                0           150,000
                                                                                      Department of Energy      DOE         2,698,000       2,126,000    2,195,000          1,279,OOD         2,110,000
                   Functions                                               Federal Highway Administration       FHA            77,000         39,000        29,000            347,000           100,000
                   12 percent                                                Minerals Management Service        MMS           500,000                              0                0                  0
                                    Processes                                         National Oceanic and      NOAA          287,000       2,144,000      523,000            100,000           165,000
                                   27 percent                                 Atmospheric Administration
                                                                                      National Park Service     NPS         1,046,000               0      194,000                  0           531,000
                                                                               National Science Foundation      NSF           269,000               0              0                0                  0
                                                                                   Office of Surface mining     osm                   0             0              0                0           147,000
                                                                                      Smithsonian Institute     SMI           847,000       100,000         32,000            88,000               1,000
                                                                                  Soil Conservation Service*    SCS            32,000               0              0                0         2,014,000
                                                                                Tennessee Valley Authority      TVA            55,000       167,000         70,000                  0         2,674,000
                                                                     U.S. Environmental Protection Agency       EPA           150,000       586,000          1     0                0         2,320,00
                                                                              U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service    FWS         2,366,000       1,027,000    7,039,000            771,000         4,916,000
                                                                                         U.S. Forest Service    USFS          213,000       409,000         13,000                  0           412,000
                                                                                     U.S. Geological Survey     USGS        6,534,000       844,000      3,456,000            118,000         1,567,000

                                                                         Became the Natural Resources Conservation Service in 1994.
                                                                   Figure 42.       Summary of Federal agency wetland research expenditures by                     research   category during 1992.
                                                                   (Source: Federal Wetlands Research Inventory and Database, unpub. data, 1992; compiled by the Wetlands
                      ifi t





























                                                                   Research and Technology Center U.S. Army Engineer Waterways Experiment Station, Vicksburg, Miss.)







                                                                                             National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: MANAGEMENT AND RESEARCH                                      67


                          stress on wetlands, or of determining stress thresh-               Department of the Interior
                          olds of wetlands.
                     4.   Wetland delineation and identification-Research                         Wetland research activities in the Department of
                          on methods and techniques to identify wetlands                     the Interior relate to its responsibilities as the primary
                          and delineate wetland boundaries.                                  steward ofAmerica's natural resources. The Depart-
                     5.   Management-Research to develop tools and tech-                     ment of the Interior performs basic scientific research
                          nologies to maintain, restore, and construct wet-                  on wetland processes and functions and applied fo-
                          lands.                                                             cused research on human-induced stresses, delinea-
                          Figure 42 depicts the expenditures on Federal re-                  tion and identification, and management of wetlands.
                     search in each of these categories in 1992. Individual                  The Department assumes ownership and management
                     research studies may span several of these categories;                  responsibilities for wetlands through the U.S. Fish and
                     however, these categories represent a convenient way                    Wildlife Service (FWS) and the National Park Ser-
                     to describe existing research activities.                               vice, and scientific research responsibilities through
                          In addition to distinguishing the type of research                 the activities of the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS)
                     it also is useful to distinguish the type of wetlan@                    and the National Biological Service (NBS). Research
                     being studied. Because ecological processes and                         funding for the Department was greater than $30.5
                     functions differ with the type of wetland, research                     million in 1992 (figs. 42-43).                                            What happens to
                     needs and techniques also differ. Disappearing coastal                        U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service: The FWS has
                     and bottom-land hardwood wetlands are among the                         stewardship responsibilities for fish and other wild-                     wetlands in one
                     major areas ofresearch. Figure 43 shows Federal ex-                     life (such as migratory birds, anadromous fish, and                       State can affect
                     penditures for research on different types of wetlands.                 endangered species), their habitats, and for wildlife                     wetland activities,
                     (See article "Weiland Definitions and Classification                    refuges. As a major Federal landowner, the FWS pro-
                     in the Conterminous United States" for an explana-                      tects and manages wetlands and associated habitats                        benefits, and uses
                     tion of wetland types.)                                                 on more than 90 million acres of national wildlife                        in another State.
                                                                                             refuges and provides advice about and technical sup-
                     AGENCY ROLES AND                                                        port for regulatory activities and trust species to other
                     RESPONSIBILITIES                                                        Federal, State, and private landowners. The FWS,
                                                                                             through the National Wetlands Inventory program,
                          Federal wetland research is conducted through-                     provides detailed wetland maps for the Nation, and
                     out the Nation. Twelve agencies listed in the Wetland                   also reports to Congress every 10 years the status and
                     Research Subcommittee's report and discussed below                      trends of the Nation      Is wetlands. (See article "Weiland
                     have wetland research expenditures of $1 million or                     Mapping and Inventory" in this volume.) Research fo-
                     more. Although not discussed below, other agencies                      cuses on improved methods and tools for identifying
                     with less funding that also contribute to wetland re-                   and delineating different wedand types.
                     search are the Department of the Interior's Bureau of                         U.S. Geological Survey: The USGS provides geo-
                     Mines, Bureau of Reclamation, Minerals Manage-                          logic, hydrologic, and topographic information to
                     ment Service, and Office of Surface Mining; the Fed-                    assist Federal, State, and local governments, the pri-
                     eral Highway Administration's Department of Trans-                      vate sector, and individual citizens in making man-
                     portation; and the National Science Foundation.                         agement decisions about the use of land and water

                                                                                                                                                                       Marine
                                                                                                                                                                       5 percent
                                                      AGENCY                                           WETLAND TYPES*



                                                                               MARINE        ESTUARINE       RIVERINE     PALUSTRINE        LACUSTRINE
                                   Army Corps of Engineers                                                                                                             Lacustrine
                                                                   Corps       $      0      $1,750,000     $1,529,000      $2,036,000       $ 824,000                 15 percent
                               Agricultural Research Service       ARS                0         20,000       1,053,000         650,000           65,000                                         Estuarine
                                            Bureau of Mines        BOM                0                0               a              0                 0                                      32 percent
                                      Bureau of Reclamation        BOR                0                0        50,000          50,000           100,000
                                       Department of Energy        DOE         153,000        418,000        1,855,000       2,640,000           406,000
                            Federal Highway Administration         FHA            5,000           5,000           2,000        193,000                  0              Palustrine
                              Minerals Management Service          MMS         250,000        250,000                  0              0                 0              26 percent
                                                                                                                                                                                          Riverine
                                 National Oceanic and              NOAA        193,000       2,925,000          66,000          35,000                  0                                22 percent
                                 Atmospheric Administration
                                       National Park Service       NPS            7,000       818,000         428,000          480,000           58,000
                                National Science Foundation        NSF                0       170,000           13,000          86,000                  0
                                    Office of Surface mining       OSM                0                0               0        64,000                  0
                                       Smithsonian Institute       SMI         420,000        355,000         267,000           26,000                  0
                                   Soil Conservation Service       scs         184,000        806,000         323,000          352,000           268,000
                                 Tennessee Valley Authority        TVA                0                0        84,000         531,000         2,084,000
                      U.S. Environmental Protection Agency         EPA         150,000        225,000         736,000        1,421,000           270,000
                               U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service      FWS         428,000       2,949,000       5,202,000       4,033,000         3,564,000
                                          U.S. Forest Service      USFS               0                0      102,000          945,000                  0
                                      U.S. Geological Survey       USGS        1,482,000     3,587,000   ,   2,606,000   .   2,880,000         1,963,000
                          Descrepancies in total expenditures occur because some agencies did not include constructed wetlands when reporting these figures.
                     Figure 43.      Summary of Federal agency wetland research expenditures by wetland type during 1992.
                     (Sources: Federal Wetlands Research Inventory and Database, unpub. data, 1992; compiled by the Wetlands
                     Research and Technology Center, U.S. Army Engineer Waterways Experiment Station, Vicksburg, Miss.)









                   68     National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: OVERVIEW OF WETLAND RESOURCES


                                                                                              4k                  resources. The USGS's wetland research activities are
                                                                                                                  an important part of the agency's activities. Research
                                                                                                                  focuses on the geology, chemistry, hydrology, and bi-
                                                                                                                  ology of wetlands and their interactions. Studies are
                                                                                                                  conducted in selected wetlands to determine the pro-
                                                                                                                  cesses responsible for the formation and evolution of
                                                                                                                  wetlands and to increase understanding of wetland
                                                                                                                  functions. Some specific topics that hydrologic stud-
                                                                                                                  ies address are ground-water/surface-water interac-
                                                                                                   1,             tions; the role of wetlands in water-quality improve-
                                                                                                                  ment; the relation between flood-plain wetlands, riv-
                                                                                            0
                                                                                                                  erine and estuarine hydrology, and water quality; and
                                                                                                                  the relation of light and water chemistry to aquatic
                                                                                                                  plant distribution in tidal waters.
                                                                                                                      National Park Service: Wetland research by the
                                        Core sample being collected by the U.S. Geological Survey at a            National Park Service is primarily issue driven; it is
                                        fen in Minn., tells the sediment history of this particular wetland.      management-oriented and focuses on protecting re-
                                        (Photograph by Nancy Rybicki, U.S.      Geological Survey.)               sources, mitigating the effects of human actions on
                                                                                                                  wetlands, and restoring natural wetland functions
                                                                                                                  where they have been disturbed by past or ongoing
                                                                                                                  human activities.
                                                                                                                      National Biological Service: TheNBS wasestab-
                                                                                                                  lished in October 1993 and, therefore, was not in-
                                                                                                                  cluded in the report by the Wetland Research Sub-
                                                                 A
                                                                                                                  committee and not included in the graphs in figures
                                                                                                                  42-43. However, it is a large player in research being
                                                                                                                  done on wetlands and, therefore, is included in this
                                                                                                                                      13S inventories and monitors wet-
                                                                                                                  discussion. The N
                                                                                                                  lands and conducts biological research on many
                                                                                                                  a
                                                                                                                      ects of wetlands; in fact, most activities of the NIBS
                                                                                                                    sp
                                                                                                                  are wetland related. It provides biological information
                                                                                                                  and research support to management agencies within
                                                                                                                  the Federal Government.

                                        The National Biological Service collects turtlegrass near Chan-           Department of Energy
                                        deleur Islands, La., to study the effects of water quality on the             The Department of Energy's role in and respon-
                                        plant. (Photograph courtesy of The National Biological Service.)          sibilities toward wetland research are related to its
                                                                                                                  compliance with environmental regulations. The
                                                                                                                  Department does this by assessing the environmen-
                                                                                                   Mow,"          tal effects of its activities on lands, including wet-
                                                                                                                  lands, under its jurisdiction, and by operating and
                                                                   y                                              developing facilities in ways that maintain and en-
                                                                                                                  hance environmental quality while providing efficient
                                                                                                                  energy production, transmission, and use. Research
                                                                                                                  focuses on supporting these activities. Research fund-
                                                                                                                  ing was about $10.3 million in 1992 (figs. 42-43).

                                                                                 17
                                                                                                                  Department of Defense
                                                                                                                      Wetland research activities of the Department of
                                                                                                                  Defense result primarily from legislation pertaining
                                                                                                                  to the mission of the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers
                                                                                                                  (Corps). The Army, through the Corps, is assigned
                                                                                                                  responsibility for much of the Nation's water-re-
                                                                                                                  source development activities, including efforts to
                                                                                                                  protect, conserve, restore, and establish new wet-
                                                                                                                  lands. In performing its development mission, such
                                                                                                                  as keeping waterways open by dredging or building
                                                                                                                  levees to protect cities from flooding, the Corps di-
                                                                                                                  rectly affects wetlands and must consider the effects
                                                          The National Biological   Service collects              of its activities. The Corps has established a formal
                                                          builtongue in a marsh near Lake Salvador,     La.,      Wetlands Research Program to support its wetland-
                                                          for use in greenhouse experiments in salinity           related responsibilities. This program is designed to
                                                          and flooding tolerance. (Photograph courtesy of         include both basic and applied research that empha-
                                                          The National Biological Service.)                       size the Corps strengths in engineering design and








                                                                              National Water Summary-Wetland Resources:       MANAGEMENT AND RESEARCH               69



                 construction, stewardship, and management. Re-
                 search funding for the Corps in 1992 was about $6.5
                 million (figs. 42-43).


                 Department of Agriculture
                     The Department of Agriculture performs wetland
                 research through several of its agencies; the Natural
                 Resources Conservation Service (formerly known as
                 the Soil Conservation Service), the Agricultural Re-
                 search Service, and the U.S. Forest Service. Research                                                                         k
                 funding for the Department of Agriculture was about
                                                 -43).
                 $4.5 million in 1992 (figs. 42
                     Natural Resources Conservation Service: The
                 Natural Resources Conservation Service assists other
                 Federal, State, and local governments in resource
                 conservation activities that include wetland protec-
                 tion. Their authority covers mainly lands with high
                 potential for conversion to agricultural uses.
                     The Natural Resources Conservation Service's             The U.S. Army Corps of Engineers collects water-level data at a
                 plant materials centers develop new varieties of plants      bottom-land hardwood wetland located along the Cache River, Ark.
                 and the technology for using plants to solve soil and        (Photograph courtesy of the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers.)
                 water-conservation problems. They also provide for
                 the commercial production of these plants. Some of
                 the centers conduct investigations on how to reestab-
                 lish marsh vegetation along eroding tidal shores in e
                                                                       th
                 mid-Atlantic States and the Gulf Coast States from
                 Alabama to Mexico. Projects are underway at other
                 centers to develop new varieties of plants and encou
                                                                          r
                 age plant reproduction, to develop techniques for es-
                 tablishing and maintaining restored and created fresh-
                 water wetlands, and to design and construct wetlands
                 that act as biological filters of agricultural runoff.
                     Economic Research Service: Although the Eco-
                 nomic Research Service is not one of the agencies
                 listed in the Wetland Research Subcommittee report,
                 its research is integral to oversight of the Wetland
                 Reserve Program by the Natural Resources Conser-
                 vation Service (see the article "Wetland Protection
                 Legislation" in this volume), and is, therefore, men-
                 tioned in this discussion. The Economic Research
                 Service conducts cost and benefit comparison stud-
                 ies to determine effective economic incentives asso-
                 ciated with wetland conservation or destruction.             The U.S. Army Corps of Engineers dewatered this freshwater
                 Because the Wetland Reserve Program is voluntary,            wetland at a restoration site at Kenilworth Marsh in Maryland to
                 research focuses on identifying costs that limit farm-       facilitate planting. Dewatering was achieved by building temporary
                                                                              dikes made from water-filled tubes designed by the Corps for this
                 ers' participation.                                          purpose. (Photograph courtesy of the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers.)
                     Agricultural Research Service: The Agricultural
                 Research Service's mission includes development of
                 technology needed to ensure maintenance of environ-
                 mental quality and natural resources. Their research         est Service also conducts studies of technological
                 supports implementation of Federal agricultural leg-         improvements used for reforesting wetland and ripar-
                 islation and development of new agricultural practices       ian sites, which involves understanding how tree spe-
                 that produce less off-site contamination. Many pro-          cies adapt to flooding. Other areas of study include
                 grams indirectly contribute to national wetland goals        establishing understory vegetation, restoring wetland
                 by improving management of basins that drain into            hydrology, and rehabilitating fish and other wildlife
                 wetlands.                                                    habitat.
                     U.S. Forest Service: The U.S. Forest Service con-
                 ducts research to support improved management of
                                                                              .L




























                 Federal, State, and private forests; the research com-       Department of Commerce
                 prises efforts to describe ecosystem dynamics and to             The Department of Commerce conducts its re-
                 develop improved technology for restoring and reha-          search through the National Oceanic and Atmospheric
                 bilitating forested wetlands. Research is conducted on       Administration. In 1992, funding for research by the
                 the role of flowing water in sustaining chemical,            Department was about $3 million (figs. 42-43).
                 physical, and biological processes integral to the func-         National Oceanic andAtmospheric Administra-
                 tioning of wetland and riparian ecosystems. The For-         tion: The National Oceanic and Atmospheric








                   70     National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: OVERVIEW OF WETLAND RESOURCES



                                                                                                                search has been focused on locating and determin-
                                                                                                                ing rates of loss of seagrasses, emergent marshes, and
                                                                                                                adjacent uplands using satellite and aerial photogra-
                                                                                                  A, 1-w        phy. Research is being conducted on the functional
                                                     L
                                                                                                                attributes of these habitats and their capability of be-
                                                                          Zilw
                                                                                                                ing restored.
                                                                                                                    National Marine Fisheries Service: This or-
                                 "d                                                                             ganization is the Federal steward of the Nation's living
                                                                                                                marine resources, from 200 miles offshore (the sea-
                                                                                                                ward extent of the Nation's assessment of mineral and
                                                                                                                energy sources) to the freshwater tributaries used by
                                                                                                                anadromous species for spawning. National Marine
                                                                                                                Fisheries Service's scientists conduct basic and ap-
                                                                                                                plied research to advance understanding of wetland
                                                                                                                habitat functioning in response to natural and human-
                                                                                                                induced environmental changes, to develop improved
                                                                                                                techniques for habitat restoration and assessment, and
                                                                                                                to support the habitat permit review process. The Na-
                              National Marine Fisheries Service scientists study the effects of oyster-         tional Marine Fisheries Service's Restoration Center
                              shell reefs on sedimentation and use by marine organisms in this created
                              wetland at Swansboro Marsh, N.C. (Photograph by David L. Meyer,                   develops and implements habitat restoration plans
                              National Marine Fisheries Service.)                                               that seek to restore, replace, or acquire the equiva-
                                                                                                                lent of the resources determined to have been injured
                                                                                                                by releases of oil or hazardous substances to the en-
                                                   Administration's (NOAA) mission is to manage our             vironment.
                                                   ocean and coastal resources, describe and predict                National Ocean Service: This organization ad-
                       The information             changes in the Earth's oceans and atmosphere, and            ministers programs that provide support for manag-
                           derived from            promote its global stewardship through scientific re-        ing marine environments. It manages a national net-
                                                   search and service. Three of NOANs five organiza-            work of marine sanctuaries and estuarine research
                            broad-scope,           tions are directly involved in wetland research: the         reserves. The estuarine research reserves, throughout
                    individual agency              National Marine Fisheries Service, the National              the National Estuarine Research Reserves System, are
                                                   Ocean Service, and the Office of Oceanic and Atmo-           established, managed, and maintained with the help
                           resear         may      spheric Research. NOAA also has a relevant agency-           of State authorities to assure their long-term protec-
                     complement that               wide program, the Coastal Ocean Program, which               tion. Research activities are used to facilitate manage-
                    of other agencies.             supports management of the coastal ocean environ-            ment of wetlands. Priorities change biennially and
                                                   ment.                                                        have included nonpoint-source pollution (1993-94)
                                                        The Coastal Ocean Program is intended to pro-           and habitat restoration (1994-95).
                                                   vide scientific products that support coastal ocean              Office of Oceanic and Atmospheric Research:
                                                   management through improved understanding and                This organization is responsible for conducting
                                                   prediction of environmental quality, fishery re-             research that improves understanding and prediction
                                                   sources, and coastal hazards. One of the Coastal             of oceanic and atmospheric conditions. This includes
                                                   Ocean Program's component programs seeks to un-              investigating processes that regulate wetland ecosys-
                                                   derstand and quantify the relation between estuarine         tem structure and production, the responses of these
                                                   habitat and coastal ocean productivity. Initial re-          systems to natural and human-induced conditions, and
                                                                                                                the effects of global climate and other atmospheric
                                                                                                                conditions on marine resources and ecosystems.

                                                                                                                U.S. Environmental Protection Agency

                                                                                                                    Research needs within the U.S. Environmental
                                                                                                                Protection Agency (EPA) are extensive. The Wetlands
                                                                                                                Research Program of the EPA is an applied research
                                                                                                                program that primarily provides technical support to
                                                                                                                improve the Agency's ability to carry out its regula-
                                                                                 7                              tory responsibilities. Three components of the Wet-
                                                                                                                lands Research Program are the Wetland Function
                                                                                                                Project, the Characterization and Restoration Project,
                                                                                                                and the Landscape Function Project. Detailed stud-
                                                                                                                ies of individual wetlands conducted to understand
                                                                                                                better the processes within wetlands that contribute
                                                                                                                to wetland functions and wetland responses to envi-
                                                                                                                ronmental stressors are carried out through the Wet-
                                                                                                                land Function Project. Studies of the characteristics
                              National Marine Fisheries Service scientists, using a drop sampler,               of groups of wetlands that compare the functions of
                              collect aquatic organisms in a salt marsh on Galveston Island, Tex.   This        natural, restored, and created wetlands within similar
                              is often done to assess damages following an oil spill. (Photograph by            geographic settings are carried out through the Char-
                              Lawrence P Rozas, National Marine Fisheries Service.)                             acterization and Restoration Project. Research is con-








                                                                              National Water Summary-Wetland Resources:       MANAGEMENT       AND   RESEARCH       71



                 ducted on the interactions of wetlands with other eco-
                 systems and on the cumulative effects of human
                                                                       ac
                 tivities on wetland functions through the Landsc
                                                                       ape    L     4,
                 Function Project. In 1992, EPA!s funding for wetland
                 research was about $3 million (figs. 42-43).                                IM,

                                                                                                   '1W
                 Tennessee Valley Authority

                      The Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA) is a re-
                 source management agency created by the Tennessee                         Alk                     .1
                 Valley Authority Act of 1933. Its research focuses on
                 both natural and constructed wetlands. Natural-wet
                 lands research is directed toward protecting and en-
                 hancing aquatic bed, emergent, and riparian forested
                 wetlands and the wildlife populations dependent on
                 them. Constructed-wetlands research is directed to-
                 ward designing and operating constructed wetlands to
                 solve specific waste-management Or environmental             Local teachers work in cooperation with U.S. Environmental Protection
                 problems and examining the basic mechanics and               Agency scientists to measure elevations and create site maps on this restored
                 physiology of these systems. Wetland research is con-        wetland in Portland, Oreg. (Photograph courtesy of the U.S. Environmental
                 ducted in the field, in laboratories, and at a unique 32-    Protection Agency.)
                 celled physical model at a constructed-wetland re-
                 search facility in Muscle Shoals, Ala. In 1992, fund-        Research and Development, a voluntary group that
                 ing for research was about $3 million (figs. 42-43).         meets annually in Washington, D.C., to present the
                                                                              status of agency research programs and discuss areas
                 Smithsonian institution                                      of potential interaction. This Committee developed the      Federal agencies
                                                                              first National Summary of Ongoing Wetlands Re-              have special
                      Smithsonian research on wetlands is focused on          search by Federal Agencies (U.S. Army Engineer
                 the biota, hydrology, and functions of wetlands. Aerial      Waterways Experiment Station, 1992). All Federal            obligations, as
                 photographs, remote sensing, and Geographic Infor-           agencies that perform wetland research are invited to       SteWards of public
                 mation Systems are used to extend research results           these meetings. Another voluntary adhoc committee,          monies, to get the
                 from specific sites to larger regions and to relate          the Forested Wetlands Research and Development In-
                 wetlands to their drainage basins. Research support          teragency Coordination Committee, formed working            most out of
                 comes directly from Congress, from Smithsonian               groups and developed a multiyear interagency re-            research dollars.
                 trust funds, and from extramural grants and contracts.       search proposal for work in forested wetlands in
                 Funding for research in 1992 was about $1 million            Southern States. The Corps, the NBS, and the FWS
                 (figs. 42-43).                                               provide funds for this research; and the EPA, Agricul-
                                                                              tural Research Service, and Natural Resources Con-
                 COORDINATION OF RESEARCH                                     servation Service actually do the research.
                 AMONG FEDERAL AGENCIES                                           Federal agencies also use informal scientific re-
                                                                              views of individual projects and entire programs for
                      Federal agencies conduct wetland research to            coordination. The purpose of these reviews is to ex-
                 execute their congressionally mandated missions.             pose a project or program to external review and com-
                 Generally these research efforts fall within well-de-        ment, as well as to provide a forum for exchanging
                 fined limits. By necessity, some agencies conduct            views and ideas about each participating agency's
                 research with a broad range of activities. The infor-        project or program. The wetland research programs
                 mation derived from broad-scope, individual agency           operated by the Corps, FWS, and EPA, and projects
                 research may complement that of other agencies.              of the NBSs National Wetland Research Center and
                      Federal agencies have special obligations, as stew-     Cooperative Research Units Center regularly receive
                 ards of public monies, to get the most out of research       external peer review. Several Federal agencies regu-
                 dollars. Effective coordination is essential to assure       larly hold interagency planning meetings to discuss
                 that agencies efficiently budget and use research funds,     new wetland research goals and projects, solicit com-
                 to ensure that research is not duplicated by two or more     ments, and explore areas for potential partnerships
                 agencies (and money wasted), and to ensure that the          and cooperation.
                 "best science" is achieved. Federal agencies involved            Agencies with responsibilities for regulating and
                 in wetland research use formal and informal coordi-          managing Federal lands, which include wetlands,
                 nation mechanisms to achieve these goals.                    conduct workshops, seminars, and other informal
                      Informal coordination takes many forms. It in-          meetings to facilitate effective interaction and coor-
                 eludes scientists from each agency communicating di-         dination of their research. Professional societies, sci-
                 rectly with scientists in other agencies about matters       entific literature, agency publications, newsletters,
                 of common interest. It also includes many adhoc com-         bulletins, and topical conferences also offer mecha-
                 mittees and working groups organized to accomplish           nisms for coordination and information exchange.
                 general coordination as well as specific research ob-            More formal coordination is achieved through
                 jectives. Among the adhoc committees is the Federal          exchange agreements, in which scientists may be ex-
                 Interagency Coordination Committee on Wetlands               changed from one agency to another for specific pe-








                    72     National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: OVERVIEW OF WETLAND RESOURCES



                                                      riods to provide needed expertise. As an example, the           Mon S. Yee, Natural Resources Conservation Service;
                                                      Wetlands Classification System developed by the                 Doug Ryan, U.S. Forest Service; David Correll,
                                                      FWS was prepared with full-time assistance of sci-              Smithsonian Institute; Mary E. Kentula, EPA; David
                                                      entists from the Corps and the Soil Conservation                A. Seyler, USGS; Clive Jorgensen, Department of
                                                      Service, and the authors of the report defining the             Energy; and Joel Wagner, National Park Service.
                                                      system (Cowardin and others, 1979) included repre-
                                                      sentatives from the FWS, the USGS, and NOAA.
                                                      Written agreements such as Memorandums of Agree-                References Cited
                                                      ment or Memorandums of Understanding also are
                                                      used to facilitate cooperation between agencies that            Cowardin, L.M., Carter, Virginia, Golet, F.C., and LaRoe,
                                                      share mutual objectives. Reimbursable and shared                     E.T., 1979, Classification of wetlands and deepwater
                                                      funding may be used to leverage available research                   habitats of the United States: U.S. Fish and Wildlife
                                                                                                                           Service, Report FWS/OBS-79/31, 131 p.
                                                      dollars and take advantage of specific expertise avail-         Frayer, W.E., Monahan, T.J., Bowden, D.C., and Graybill,
                                                      able in some agencies and lacking in others.                         F.A., 1983, Status and trends of wetlands and deepwater
                                                           Formal coordination may be required by specific                 habitats in the conterminous United States, 1950's to
                                                      legislative or administrative decisions, such as the                 1970's: Fort Collins, Colorado State University, p. 32.
                                                      Clinton administration's decisions relating to imple-           U.S. Army Engineer Waterways Experiment Station, 1992,
                                                      mentation of the Breaux Bill, which requires agen-                   National summary of ongoing wetlands research by
                                                      cies to coordinate in assessing damages and imple-                   Federal agencies: Vicksburg, Miss., Prepared by the
                                                      menting corrective mechanisms in south Louisiana's                   Wetlands Research Program, 69 p.
                                                      coastal wetlands.


                                                      ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
                                                                                                                      FOR ADDITIONAL INFORMATION: Wetlands Research
                                                           Representatives of Federal agencies listed herein          Program (CEWES-EP-W), U.S. Army Engineer Water-
                                                      contributed to this report. The authors are particularly        ways Experiment Station, 3909 Hall Ferry Rd., Vicksburg,
                                                      grateful to the following: Robert E. Stewart, Jr., NBS;         MS 39180








































                                                                                        U.S. Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper 2425








                                                                                                                      National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: MANAGEMENT AND RESEARCH                                                                   73


                          Wetland Management and Research
                          Wetland Mapping and Inventory
                          By Bill 0. Wilen', Virginia Carter', and J.                                                 Ronald Jones'


                                Wetland maps are a prerequisite for wetland in-                                       National Wetlands Inventory. (See the article "Wetland
                          ventory and for wetland development planning, man-                                          Protection Legislation" in this volume for more infor-
                          agement, protection, and restoration. Maps provide                                          mation on this and other wetland legislation.)
                          information on wetland type, location, and size. De-
                          tailed wetland maps are necessary for analysis of the                                       History and Status of the National
                          effect of projects at specific sites and for providing                                      Wetlands Inventory
                          baseline spatial data for the assessment of the effects
                          of national policies and activities. Wetland maps are                                              In 1906, and again in 1922, the U.S. Department
                          used by local, State, and Federal agencies, as well as                                      ofAgriculture inventoried the wetlands of the United
                          by private industry and organizations. They are used                                        States to identify those that could be drained and con-
                          for many purposes, including the development of                                             verted to other uses (Wilen and Tiner, 1993). In 1954,
                          comprehensive resource management plans, environ-                                           the first nationwide wetland survey by the FWS cov-                                         Wetland maps
                          mental impact assessments, natural resource inven-                                          ered about 40 percent of the conterminous United                                            are a prerequisite
                          tories, habitat surveys, and the analysis of trends in                                      States and focused on important waterfowl wetlands.
                          wetland status.                                                                             This survey was not comprehensive by today's stan-                                          for wetiand
                                 Several Federal agencies map wetlands in sup-                                        dards, but it stimulated public interest in the conser-                                     inventory,
                          port of their Congressional mandate. These include                                          vation of waterfowl wetlands (Shaw and Fredine                                         '
                          the U.S. Department of the Interior, U.S. Fish and                                          1956). (See the article "Wetlands as Bird Habitat,, in                                      planning,
                          Wildlife Service (FWS); the U.S. Department ofAg-                                           this volume.)                                                                               management,
                          riculture, Natural Resources Conservation Service                                                  After the earlier inventories, and in response to                                            tection, and
                          (NRCS); and the U.S. Department of Commerce,                                                passage of the Emergency Wetlands Resources Act                                             Pro
                          National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration                                             and its amendments, the FWS established the Na-                                             restoration.
                          (NOAA). The FWS has the primary responsibility for                                          tional Wetlands Inventory. The program is designed
                          mapping and inventory of all the wetlands of the                                            to (1) produce detailed maps on the characteristics
                          United States. The wetland maps produced by other                                           and extent of the Nation's wetlands, (2) construct a
                          agencies serve different purposes and generally in-                                         national wetlands data base, (3) disseminate wetland
                          volve cooperation with the FWS.                                                             maps and digital data, (4) report results of State wet-
                                                                                                                      land inventories, (5) report to Congress every 10 years
                          THE U.S. FISH AND WILDLIFE                                                                  on the status and trends of the Nation's wetlands, and
                          SERVICE'S MAPPING AND INVENTORY                                                             (6) assemble and distribute related maps, digital data,
                          ACTIVITIES                                                                                  and reports.
                                                                                                                             The National Wetlands Inventory has produced
                                The FWS National Wetlands Inventory is respon-                                        more than 50,800 maps covering 88 percent of the
                          sible for the mapping and inventory of wetlands                                             conterminous United States, 30 percent of Alaska,
                          throughout the United States. The Emergency Wet-                                            and all of Hawaii and the U.S. Territories (fig. 44)
                          lands Resources Act of 1986 and amendments to it                                            Priorities for mapping have been based on the needs
                          in 1988 and 1992 define the responsibilities of the                                         of the FWS, other Federal agencies, and State agen-









                                                                                                                                                                                      EXPLANATION
                                                                                                                                                                                      National Wettand
                                                                                                                                                                                         Inventory map
                                       HAWAII                                                @J                                                                                          availability
                                      1@. 't!@>                                                                                                                                       = Final maps
                              0 160MILES                                                                                                                                                      Draft maps
                              0 100 KILOMETERS                                                                                                                                                  Unavailable

                               ALASKA                                                                                                                                                 Figure 44. Areas of the United States that
                                                                                                                                                                                      have been mapped by the National
                                                                                                                                                                                      Wetlands Inventory program and status of
                                                                                                                             0                      @OMILES                           those maps, 1996. (Source: Data from U.S.
                                                       0        500 MILES                                                    I                                                        Fish and Wildlife Service, National
                                                       0    500 KILOMETERS                                                   0            500 KILOMETERS                              Wetlands Inventory files.)

                            'U.S. Fish and:Wildlife Service.
                            2 U.S. Geological Survey.








                   74      National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: OVERVIEW OF WETILAND RESOURCES



                                                      cies. To date, mapping has been concentrated on the                 In addition to wetland maps and status and trend
                                                      coastal zone (including the Great Lakes), prairie                reports, the National Wetlands Inventory produces
                                                      wetlands, playa lakes, flood plains of major rivers,             special items related to the identification, mapping,
                                                      and areas that reflect goals of the North American               and inventory of wetlands. The "National List of Plant
                                                      Waterfowl Management Plan (U.S. Fish and Wildlife                Species that Occur in Wetlands" (Reed, 1988) is an
                                                      Service, 1976). As a practical matter, priorities have           important tool for identifying wetlands on the basis
                                                      been based on the availability of funding and the                of their vegetation, A computerized data base for wet-
                                                      availability of high-quality aerial photographs. The             land plants, developed by the National Wetlands In-
                                                      National Wetlands Inventory produced maps at a rate              ventory, also lists plants found in wetlands and ranks
                                                      of about 5 percent of the conterminous United States             their affinity to the wetland environment. This infor-
                        To date, a       IMOSt        and about 2 percent of Alaska annually through                   mation is important for determining whether an area
                                                      1995-about 3,200 1:24,000-scale maps in the con-                 is really a wetland. Additionally, the National Wet-
                           18,800 maps,               terminous United States and about 60 1:63,360-scale              lands Inventory has contributed to a list of hydric soils
                        representing 29               maps in Alaska.                                                  (soils found in wetlands) (U.S. Soil Conservation
                                                          The National Wetlands Inventory has published                Service, 199 1). Many published State wetland reports,
                          percent of the              a series of documents on the trends in Welland losses            including "Wetlands of Maryland" (Tiner and Burke,
                  United States, have                 and gains. The first of these reports was "Status and            1995), "Wetlands of Connecticut" (Metzler and Tiner,
                         been digitiZed.              Trends of Wetlands and Deepwater Habitats in the                 1992), and "Status ofAlaska Wetlands" (Hall, Frayer,
                                                      Conterminous United States, 1950's to 1970's"                    and Wilen, 1994), contain wetland inventory results
                                                      (Frayer and others, 1983). In the Emergency Wetlands             and other important information. Finally, in coopera-
                                                      Resources Act of 1986 and subsequent amendments,                 tion with the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS), the Na-
                                                      Congress directed the National Wetlands Inventory                tional Wetlands Inventory has published a map (scale
                                                      to (1) update and improve the information contained              of 1 inch equals 50 miles) showing the locations of
                                                      in this report by 1990 and at 10-year intervals there-           major Welland complexes in the conterminous United
                                                      after and (2) estimate the number of acres of wetland            States, Hawaii, and Puerto Rico (Dahl, 1991) and a
                                                      habitat in each State in the 1780's and the 1980's and           map (scale of I inch equals 40 miles) of Alaska's
                                                      calculate the percentage of loss in each State. In re-           wetland resources (Hall, 1991).
                                                      sponse to this directive, the National Wetlands Inven-
                                                      tory published a 1990 report to Congress titled "Wet-            OTHER FEDERAL AGENCIES' MAPPING
                                                      lands- Losses in the United States, 1780's to 1980's"            AND INVENTORY ACTIVITIES
                                                      (Dahl, 1990).
                                                          The National Wetlands Inventory also is prepar-                 Natural Resources Conservation Service.-The
                                                      ing a geographically referenced digital data base for            NRCS (formerly the Soil Conservation Service) con-
                                                      wetlands so that wetland information can be placed               ducts its wetland inventory under the auspices of the
                                                      in geographic information systems (GIS) for use with             wetland conservation provision (nicknamed
                                                      computers. These digital maps and information are                "Swampbuster") of the Food Security Act of 1985.
                                                      easily transmitted over the Internet. To date, almost            This Act provides for the reduction of a farmer's pro-
                                                      18,800 maps, representing 29 percent of the United               gram benefits ifwetlands are converted to agricultural
                                                      States, have been digitized (fig. 45). Statewide data            production. In order to implement this act, the map-
                                                      bases have been digitized for Delaware, Hawaii, In-              ping of the NRCS is focused on freshwater wetlands
                                                      diana, Maryland, Illinois, New Jersey, Washington,               that have a high potential for agricultural conversion,
                                                      Iowa, Minnesota, and West Virginia. Digitization is              such as those adjacent to or lying within the bound-
                                                      in progress for Florida, North Carolina, South Caro-             aries of existing agricultural fields.
                                                      lina, South Dakota, and Virginia. Wetland digital data              The NRCS does not produce a standard map
                                                      are available for parts of 35 other States.                      product. Many delineations are made on 1:660-scale



                                                                                                                       ok







                                                                                                                                                               EXPLANATION
                                                                                                                                                               National Wetland
                                                                                                                                                                 Inventory map
                                                                                                                                                                 digitization

                                                                                                                                                                    Completed
                Figure 45. Areas of the conterminous                                                                                                                Not completed
                      United States and Hawaii where
                 wetland data have been digitized by             d 0   HAWAII
                     the National Wetlands Inventory                 I111h
                  program, 1996, (Source: Data from
                                                               D  1130MILES
                        U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service,
                   National Wetlands inventory files.)        a 100KILOMETERS
                                                                                                                                       50D MILES
                                                                                                                                       j
                                                                                                                       o        500 KILOMETERS








                                                                             National Water   Surnmary-Wetland Resources: MANAGEMENT AND RESEARCH                    75








                                                                                                                                          arm
                                                                                                               .11.111-1 .. May)"












                  The "Swampbuster" discourages the conversion of wetlands to                    The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration delineates
                  cropland. This wetland, which was converted to cropland at one time,           coastal wetland and upland habitats, such as this coastal wetland at
                  has been restored. (Photograph courtesy ofthe U.S. Fish and Wildlife           Chincoteague National Wildlife Refuge on Assateague Island, Va.
                  Service.)                                                                      (Photograph by Judy D. Fretwell, U.S. Geological Survey.)

                  black-and-white aerial photographs; others are made         scales. However, many needs can be satisfied by com-
                  on soil-survey base maps at scales that range from          mon products, and efforts are being made to standard-
                  1:10,000 to 1:64,000 (Teels, 1990). Information             ize maps and map products whenever possible or
                  sources for this program include recent and histori-        practical. Federal digital wetland mapping is coordi-
                  cal aerial photographs, such as those regularly             nated by the Wetlands Subcommittee of the Federal
                  acquired by the U.S. Department of Agriculture,             Geographic Data Coordination group in an effort to
                  National Wetlands Inventory maps from the FWS,              meet requirements established by the Office of Man-
                  U.S. Department ofAgriculture crop history records,         agement and Budget. The Office of Management and              Efforts are made
                  and field verifications.                                    Budget requires agencies to develop a national digi-          to standardize
                      National Oceanic andAtmosphericAdministra-              tal spatial information resource in collaboration with
                  tion.-The NOAA has developed the Coastal Wet-               State and local governments and the private sector.           maps and map
                  land Habitat Change Program in order to delineate           This requirement is for the purposes of (1) promot-           products when-
                  coastal wetland habitats and adjacent uplands and           ing the development, maintenance, and management
                  plains to monitor changes in these habitats on a cycle      of a national digital wetland data base; (2) encour-          ever possible or
                  of I to 5 years. The basis for monitoring will be a         aging the development and implementation of stan-             practical.
                  data base describing the areal extent and distribution      dards, exchange formats, specifications, procedures,
                  of coastal wetlands in the conterminous United              and guidelines; (3) promoting interaction among
                  States. The program will help to determine the link-        other Federal, State, and local government agencies
                  ages between estuarine and marine wetlands, as well         that have interests in the generation, collection, use,
                  as the distribution, abundance, and health of living        and transfer of wetland spatial data; (4) maintaining
                  marine resources.                                           and disseminating information on the type and avail-
                      U.S. Geological Survey.-The USGS compiles,              ability of wetland spatial data; and (5) promoting the
                  produces, and disseminates topographic, hydrologic,         concept of effective wetland management.
                  and geologic maps and digital data related to wet-
                  lands. The standard USGS 1:24,000-scale topo-
                  graphic map commonly is used as a base for wetland
                  mapping by other Federal, State, and local agencies.
                  However, because USGS maps depict wetlands as un-
                  bounded symbols (fig. 46), the maps cannot be used
                  to establish exact boundaries for wetlands. Interme-
                                                                                                                                                 EXPLANATION
                  diate-scale (1:100,000) and large-scale maps (scales
                  of 1:24,000 or greater) are used for project planning.                                                                               Orchard
                  Large-scale maps known as orthophoto quadrangles,
                                                                                                                                                       Woods
                  which are made by manipulation of aerial photo           - -----
                  graphs to achieve a positionally accurate photo-                                                                                     Intermittent pond
                  graphic base map, are used as a base for State wet-                                                        Z.
                  land mapping.                                                                                                                        Marsh or swamp
                                                                                                                                                       Wooded marsh
                                                                                                                                                           or swamp
                  COORDINATION OF FEDERAL
                                                                                                  34
                  WETLAND MAPPING EFFORTS
                      Differing needs of various Federal agencies can         Figure 46. Unbounded symbols on a U.S. Geological Survey
                  require different types of maps or different map            topographic map show the general location of wetlands.








                  76     National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: OVERVIEW OF WETLAND RESOURCES



                                                   PRODUCING NATIONAL WETLANDS                                 structure, and arrangement; branching pattern; height;
                                                   INVENTORY MAPS                                              growth habit; and color. Determining the boundary
                                                                                                               of a wetland is the most difficult part of mapping.
                                                       Most natural-resource inventories make use of           Normally, transitions are found at the boundary from
                                                   aerial photographs or satellite images combined with        upland vegetation to wetland vegetation, from
                                                   field verification. The National Wetlands Inventory         nonhydric to hydric (wetland) soils, and from land
                                                   uses the best and most appropriate aerial photographs       that is not flooded to areas that are subject to flood-
                                                   available for mapping wetlands. The principal data          ing or saturation. On color-infrared photographs,
                                                   source in the early 1980's was the 1:80,000-scale,          water generally shows as a distinctive black and blue-
                                                   high-altitude, black-and-white aerial photography ac-       black color because of its lack of reflectance, Wet-
                           The National            quired by the USGS for topographic mapping and              lands that have canopy openings and contain stand-
                                 Wetlands          production of orthophoto quadrangles. After the             ing water exhibit this signature along with assorted
                  Inventory uses the               USGSbeganits National High-Altitude Photography             w,tland-vegetation signatures. Saturated soils show
                                                   Program, 1:5 8,000-scale color-infrared photographs         dark,,tones because ofthe nonreflectance ofthe soil-
                         best and most             for the entire country became available; the National       water component. Even when wetland basins are dry,
                   appropriate aerial              Wetlands Inventory uses these photographs exten-            the silt, clay, and other fine-grained materials hold
                                                    ively. In 1987, the USGS replaced the National High-       more water than the upland soils hold, which results
                            photographs            AsItitude Photography Program with the National             in a distinctive dark color because of the lack of in-
                           available for           Aerial Photography Program, which produces                  frar,d reflectance.
                 mapping wetlands.                 1:40,000-scale color-infrared photographs; the Na-              Vegetation characteristics help to identify wet-
                                                   tional Wetlands Inventory uses these photographs as         lands. Wetland vegetation generally is more dense,
                                                   well. In some cases, the National Wetlands Inventory        more crowded, and more concentrated than upland
                                                   uses supplementary photography, such as some                vegetation. Wetland vegetation normally exhibits a
                                                   1:60,000-scale color-infrared photographs of the prai-      higher degree of lushness, vigor, and intensity than
                                                   rie pothole region of the northern Great Plains, which      does upland vegetation. Even wheat grown in a dry
                                                   were acquired from the National Aeronautics and             wetland basin has a distinctive signature; it is more
                                                   Space Administration.                                       vigorous because of extra moisture in the basin. Dead
                                                       Stereoscopic color-infrared photographs are best        and dying vegetation in flooded wetland basins also
                                                   for identifying and delineating wetlands. Color, tex-       has distinctive signatures. When physiographic po-
                                                   ture, and pattern are important features of wetland         sitions are associated with the vegetative character-
                                                   vegetation and background soils. A combination of           i,ti,, described above, wetland locations become
                                                   vegetation factors produce a specific response or sig-      more obvious on an aerial photograph (fig. 47).
                                                   nature on the photograph (Wilen and Pywell, 1992).              Patterns, or the repetition of the spatial arrange-
                                                   These vegetation factors include leaf size, shape,          ment, of vegetative types also provide important clues
                                                                                                               in the identification of wetlands. Basins that have a
                                                                                                               sernipermanently flooded center may have a season-
                                                                                                               ally flooded band around the center and a temporarily
                                                                                                               flooded outer band. Patterns are not restricted to veg-
                                                                                                               etation-they can include drainage patterns and land-
                                                                                                               u
                                                                                                                se patterns. Unplanted basins in farm fields might
                                                                                                               indicate wetlands; land-cover patterns such as ridges
                                     q4.                                                                       and swales help separate uplands and wetlands. When
                                                                                                               wetlands are being mapped, the photo interpreter
                                                                                                               closely checks areas indicated by swamp symbols as
                                                                                                               wetlands on USGS topographic maps and NRCS soil
                                                                                                               survey maps to ensure their possible inclusion as wet-
                                                                                                               lands; such areas are considered wetlands unless
                                                                                                               strong evidence indicates otherwise.
                                                                                                                   A typical National Wetlands Inventory map con-
                                                                                                               sists of wetland boundaries added to a black-and-
                                                                                                               white version of a 1: 24,000-scale USGS topographic
                                                                                                               base map. Wetlands are classified according to guide-
                                                                                                               lines developed by Cowardin and others (1979). (See
                                                                                                    J
                                                                                                               article "Wetland Definitions and Classifications in the
                                                                                                               United States" in this volume.) These wetland clas-
                                                                                                               sifications are shown on the map as alpha-numeric
                                                                                                               codes that are identified in a map explanation at the
                                                                                                               bottom of the map. Many steps are involved in the
                                                                           M
                                                                          61
                                                                                                               production of a wetland map from selecting the sites
                                                                                                               for field verification to delineation, quality control,
                                                                                                               and production of the final map product (fig. 48). All
                                                                                                               National Wetlands Inventory photointerpreters are
                Figure 47. Wetland features such as water, vegetation, and soil are identified on an           trained extensively in wetland identification, the FWS
                aerial photograph by their signatures (left), and these signatures are used to produce         wetland classification system, and the field identifi-
                wetland maps (right). (Source: U.S. Geological Survey, 1995 (left); TE Dahl, U.S. Fish         cation of wetland plants and soils in order to ensure
                and Wild1fie Service, unpub. data, 7 992 (right).)                                             the best quality, most accurate maps.








                                                            National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: MANAGEMENT AND RESEARCH  77




                A.




                                                          77"@                                       STEPS IN PRODUCING
                                                                                                     NATIONAL WETLANDS
                                                                                                      INVENTORY MAPS

                                                                                                  1. Determine project area.

                                                                                                  2. Obtain source materials.
                B.
                                                                                                  3. Prepare source materials
                                                                                                     (photo A).
                              A
                              Allitkl
                                                                                                  4. Review photo
                                                                                                     interpretation and plan
                                                                                                     field trip (photo B).

                                                                                                  5. Conduct a field
                                                                                                     reconnaissance of study
                                                                                                     area.

                                                                                                  6. Make photo
                                                                                                     interpretation (photo 0.
                                                                                                  7. Check photointerpretation
                      C.                                                                             (quality control)
                                                                                                     (photo D).
                                                                                                  8. Transfer photointerpreted
                                                                                                     data to base map
                                                                                                     (photo E).

                                                                                                  9. Check transferred
                                                                                                     information (quality
                                        N                                                            control).

                                                                                                10. Prepare copy of draft map
                                                                                                     for review.

                                                                                                11. Conduct review of draft
                                                                                                     maps.
                                                                                                12. Make changes to draft
                                                                                                     map manuscript
                                                                                                     (photo F).
                                                                                                13. Conduct final quality
                                                                                                     control checks.

                                                                                                14. Produce final map for
                                                                                                     distribution (photo G).
                                                                                                15. Digitize the final map
                                                                                                     (photo H).




                                                       Figure 48. The sequence of steps in producing National Wetlands Inventory maps.
                                                       (PhotographsA and EbyludyD. Fretwell, U.S. Geological Survey; all other photographs
                                                       by Donald W. Woodard, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service.)








                    78      National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: OVERVIEW OF WETLAND RESOURCES



                                                        HOW AND WHERE TO GET NATIONAL                                      Metzler, K.J., and Tiner, R.W., 1992, Wetlands of Connecti-
                                                        WETLANDS INVENTORY MAPS                                                cut: State Geological and Natural History Survey of
                                                                                                                               Connecticut in cooperation with the U.S. Fish and
                                                             Maps of the National Wetlands Inventory can be                    Wildlife Service National Wetlands Inventory, Report
                                                        acquired from 33 State-run distribution centers, 6                     of Investigations no. 13, 115 p.
                                                        USGS Earth Science Information Center regional                     Reed, P.B., Jr., 1988, National list of plant species that oc-
                                                        offices, or by calling the USGS national toll-free                     cur in wetlands-1988 national summary: U.S. Fish
                                                        number: 1-800-USA-MAPS. Maps can also be                               and Wildlife Service Biological Report 88 (24), 244 p.
                                                        viewed at the Library of Congress and the Federal                  Shaw, S.P., and Fredine, C.G., 1956, Wetlands of the United
                                                        Depository Library System and downloaded cost-free                     States-Their extent and their value to waterfowl and
                                                                                                                               other wildlife: U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Circu-
                                                        through the National Wetlands Inventory Home Page                      lar 39, 67 p.
                                                        on the Internet at http://wwwnwi.fws.gov. The six re-              Teels, B.M., 1990, Soil Conservation Service's wetland
                                                        gional USGS Earth Science Information Centers pro-                     inventory, in Kiraly, S.J., Cross, EA., and Buffington,
                                                        vide online computer links to the National Wetlands                    J.D., eds., Federal coastal wetland mapping programs;
                                                        Inventory map data base, which contains current in-                    a report by the National Ocean Pollution Policy Board:
                                                        formation about the availability and production his-                   Washington, D.C., U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Bio-
                                                        tory of National Wetlands Inventory maps and digi-                     logical Report 90 (18), p. 93-103.
                                                        tal data. Digital data are available in Digital Line               Tiner, R.W., and Burke, D.G., 1995, Wetlands of Maryland:
                                                        Graph 3 (DLG3) optional or Geographic Resources                        Annapolis, Md., Maryland Department of Natural Re-
                                                                                                                               sources, Water Resource Administration, in coopera-
                                                        Analysis Support System (GRASS) formats; latitude                      tion with U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, National
                                                        and longitude, State Plane Coordinates, or Universal                   Wetlands Inventory, 193 p.
                                                        Transverse Mercator (UTM) coordinate systems; and                  U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 1976, Existing state and
                                                        9-track, 8-mm, or 1/4-inch cassettes in UNIX-TAR                       local wetland surveys (1965-1975), v. 11, Narrative:
                                                        or ASCII tape formats. Other products available at                     Washington, D.C., U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service,
                                                        cost include acreage statistics by quadrangle, county,                 Office of Biological Services Report, 453 p.
                                                        or study area and color-coded wetland maps.                        U.S. Geological Survey, 1995, South Florida Satellite Im-
                                                                                                                               age Map, 1993: Reston, Va., U.S. Geological Survey,
                                                                                                                               1 sheet, scale 1:500,000.
                                                        References Cited                                                   U.S. Soil Conservation Service, 199 1, Hydric soils of the
                                                                                                                               United States: U.S. Soil Conservation Service in co-
                                                        Cowardin, L.M., Carter, Virginia, Golet, F.C., and LaRoe,              operation with the National Technical Committee for
                                                             E.T., 1979, Classification of wetlands and deepwater              Hydric Soils, Miscellaneous Publication No. 1491, 3d
                                                             habitats of the United States: U.S. Fish and Wildlife             ed., unnumbered pages.
                                                             Service, Biological Services Program Report FWS/              Willen, B.O., and Pywell, H.R., 1992, Remote sensing of
                                                             OBS-79/31, 131 p.                                                 the Nations wetlands, National Wetlands Inventory, in
                                                        Dahl, TE., 1990, Wetlands-Losses in the United States,                 Proceedings: Forest Service Remote Sensing Applica-
                                                             1780's to 1980's: Washington, D.C., U.S. Fish and                 tions Conference, 4th biennial, Orlando, Fla., unnum-
                                                             Wildlife Service, Report to Congress, 21 p.                       bered pages.
                                                        -1991, Wetland resources of the United States: U.S.                Wilen, B.O., and Titter, R.W., 1993, Wetlands of the United
                                                             Fish and Wildlife Service National Wetlands Inventory             States, in Whignam, D.F., Dykyjovd, Dagmar, and
                                                             map, scale 1:3,168,000.                                           Hejny, Slavomil, eds., Wetlands of the world I-Inven-
                                                        Frayer, W.E., Monahan, T.J., Bowden, D.C., and Graybill,               tory, ecology, and management: Dordrecht, The Neth-
                                                             EA., 1983, Status and trends of wetlands and                      erlands, Kluwer Academic Publishers, p. 515-636.
                                                             deepwater habitats in the conterminous United States,
                                                             1950's to 1970's: Fort Collins, Colo., Colorado State
                                                             University, 32 p.
                                                        Hall, J.`V, 199 1, Weiland resources ofAlaska: U.S. Fish and
                                                             Wildlife Service National Wetlands Inventory map,             FOR ADDITIONAL INFORMATION: Bill 0. Wilen, U.S.
                                                             scale 1:2,500,000.                                            Fish and Wildlife Service, National Wetlands Inventory,
                                                        Hall, J.V, Frayer, W.E., and Wilen, B.O., 1994, Status of          4401 N. Fairfax Drive, Room 400 Arlington, VA 22203;
                                                             Alaska wetlands: Anchorage, Alaska, U.S. Fish and             Virginia Carter, U.S. Geological Survey, 430 National Cen-
                                                             Wildlife Service, 33 p.                                       ter, Reston, VA 22092


















                                                                                            U.S. Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper 2425








                                                                             National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: MANAGEMENT AND RESEARCH                    79


                  Wetland Management and Research
                  Wetland Functions, Values, and Assessment
                  By Richard R Novitzkil, R. Daniel Smith,' and Judy D. Fretwell'

                       Wetlands, or the lack thereof, were a significant     ence in 1981, scientists defined the unique qualities
                  factor in the severe flooding in the Upper Mississippi     of wetlands and developed a list of wetland functions
                  and Missouri River Basins in the summer of 1993            (Richardson, 1981). In addition to the more com-
                  (Parrett and others, 1993) (fig. 49). Damages asso-        monly recognized habitat functions of wetlands, the
                  ciated with the flooding were undoubtedly worse than       scientists described hydrologic and water-quality
                  they would have been if flood-plain wetlands had still     functions. During the 1980's, participants at many
                  been in place. Human modification of the original          more conferences and symposia expanded the under-
                  wetlands (a common practice in the early part of this      standing and appreciation of the values of wetlands         Not all wetlands
                  century) had destroyed the ability of the wetlands to      (Kusler and Riexinger, 1986).                               perform all
                  modify flooding. (See the article "Effects of the Great                                                                functions nor
                  Midwest Flood of 1993 on Wetlands" in this volume.)        WETLAND FUNCTIONS DEFINED
                  Flood control, however, is only one of the values that                                                                 do they perform
                  wetlands have for society. In order to protect wet-            Welland functions are defined as a process or           all functions
                  lands, the public first must recognize the values of       series of processes that take place within a wetland.
                  wetlands. People need to understand what is lost           These include the storage of water, transformation of       equally well.
                  when a wetland is changed into an agricultural field,      nutrients, growth of living matter, and diversity of
                  a parking lot, a dump, or a housing development. Un-       wetland plants, and they have value for the wetland
                  derstanding the functions of wetlands will make it         itself, for surrounding ecosystems, and for people.
                  easier to evaluate wetlands when other uses are con-       Functions can be grouped broadly as habitat, hydro-
                  sidered.                                                   logic, or water quality, although these distinctions are
                                                                             somewhat arbitrary and simplistic. For example, the
                  RECOGNITION OF WETLAND                                     value of a wetland for recreation (hunting, fishing,
                  FUNCTIONS AND THEIR VALUES                                 bird watching) is a product of all the processes that
                                                                             work together to create and maintain the wetland.           Wetlands are
                       In the 1970's, scientists, ecologists, and conser-         Not all wetlands perform all functions nor do they     among the most
                  vationists began to articulate the values of wetlands.     perform all functions equally well. The location and
                  At a wetland conference in 1973, wetlands were ac-         size of a wetland may determine what functions it will      productive habitats
                  knowledged to be an important part of the hydrologic       perform. For example, the geographic location may           in the world.
                  cycle (Helfgott and others, 1973). In 1977, participa-     determine its habitat functions, and the location of a
                  tion at the first National Wetland Protection Sympo-       wetland within a watershed may determine its hydro-
                  sium-attended by more than 700 people-demon-               logic or water-quality functions (fig. 50). Many fac-
                  strated a growing interest in the value of wetlands and    tors determine how well a wetland will perform these
                  the need to protect them (Kusler and Montanari,            functions: climatic conditions, quantity and quality
                  1978). At a Welland Values and Management Confer-          of water entering the wetland, and disturbances or al-










                                                                                                                         All
                                                                                                                          Air














                  Figure 49. Flooding in the Upper Mississippi River Basin, summer 1993. (Photograph 0 Cameron Davidson, 1993.)

                       Manl@ch Environmental 'kchnology, Inc.
                       U.S. Army Corps of Engineers.
                       U.S. Geological Survey.








           80  National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: OVERVIEW OF WETLAND RESOURCES



                                                                  CHARACTERISTICS AND FUNCTIONS
                                                                  OF WETLANDS

                                                                  Isolated Wetlands
                                                                   1. Waterfowl feeding and nesting habitat
                                                                   2. Habitat for both upland and wetland
                                                                      species of wildlife
                                                                   3. Floodwater retention area
                                        19    ED WE A  S           4. Sediment and nutrient retention area
                                                                   5. Area of special scenic beauty
                                                                  Lake Margin Wetlands
                                                                   1. See "isolated wetlands" above
                                                                   2. Removal of sediment and nutrients
                                                                      from inflowing waters
                                                                   3. Fish spawning area
                                                                  Riverine Wetlands
                                                                   1. See "isolated wetlands" above
                                                                   2. Sediment control, stabilization of river
                                           KE MARGIN
                                           ETLANDS                    banks
                                                                   3. Flood conveyance area
                                                                  Estuarine and Coastal Wetlands
                                                                   1. See "isolated wetlands" above
                                                                   2. Fish and shellfish habitat and
                                                                      spawning areas
                                       0614                        3, Nutrient source for marine fisheries
                                     i   ETLANDS
                                                                   4. Protection from erosion and storm
                                                                      surges
                                                                  Barrier Island Wetlands
                                                                   1. Habitat for dune-associated plant and
                                                                      animal species
                                                                   2. Protection of backlying lands from
                                                                      high-energy waves
                                                                   3. Scenic beauty


                                       TUARINE AND
                                      0     WETLAND               Figure 50. Wetland functions depend upon the
                                                                  location of the wetland within a watershed. (Source:
                                                                  Modified from ].A. Kusler, Our National Heritage: A
                                                                  Protection Guidebook. Copyright (c) 1963 by the
                                BARRIER ISLAND WE                 Environmental Law Institute. Reprinted by permission.)



                                                                             OW,






                                      P                                                  %
                                                                      .71


                                     wV




                                                                                          a,@
                            Xt

             t

                                    At

         Timber harvest in a bottom-land forested wetland. (Photograph by Hay harvest in a prairie wetland. (Photograph by Richard P Novitzki,
         R. Daniel Smith, U.S. Army Engineer Waterways Experiment Station.) ManTech Environmental Technology, Inc.)








                                                                             National Water Surnmary-Wetland Resources: MANAGEMENT AND RESEARCH                   81



                 teration within the wetland or the surrounding eco-
                 system. Weiland disturbances may be the result of
                 natural conditions, such as an extended drought, or
                 human activities, such as land clearing, dredging, or
                 the introduction of normative species.
                     Perhaps wetlands are best known for their habi-
                 tat functions, which are the functions that benefit
                                                                                                                                 0
                 wildlife. Habitat is defined as the part of the physical
                 environment in which plants and animals live
                 (Lapedes, 1976), and wetlands are among the most                                        &
                                                                                                        40
                 productive habitats in the world (Tiner, 1989). They
                 p
                  rovide food, water, and shelter for fish, shellfish,
                 birds, and mammals, and they serve as a breeding
                 ground and nursery for numerous species. Many en-
                 dangered plant and animal species are dependent on                                              C        NS
                 wetland habitats for their survival. (See the article
                 "Wetlands as Bird Habitat" in this volume.) Hydro-                                        Velocity Reduction
                                                                                                W",
                                                                                                        Atmospheric Processes,
                 logic functions are those related to the quantity of
                                                                                                  "64i%round-water/Surfa
                 water that enters, is stored in, or leaves a wetland.
                 These functions include such factors as the reduction
                 of flow velocity, the role of wetlands as ground-wa-
                 ter recharge or discharge areas, and the influence of
                 wetlands on atmospheric processes. Water-quality
                 functions include the trapping of sediment, pollution
                 control, and the biochemical processes that take place                                                                          Figure 51. Wetland
                 as water enters, is stored in, or leaves a wetland. (See                                                                        functions and internal
                 article "Weiland Hydrology, Water Quality, and As-                                                                              and external values.
                 sociated Functions" in this volume for more informa-
                 tion on hydrologic and water-quality functions.)            society may have to choose among wetland functions
                                                                             that benefit individuals or small groups, that are of
                 WETLAND VALUES DEFINED                                      value to most of society, or that are important to the
                                                                             maintenance of the wetland itself.
                     If something has "value," then it is worthwhile,            Wetland functions have value on several levels-
                 beneficial, or desirable. The value of a wetland lies       internal, local, regional, and global. All wetland func-
                 in the benefits that it provides to the environment or      tions are internal, but the values or benefits of wet-
                 to people, something that is not easily measured.           land functions can be internal or external to the wet-
                 Wetlands can have ecological, social, or economic           land (fig. 5 1). Functions that provide internal values
                 values. Wed and products that have an economic value,       are the functions that maintain or sustain the wetland
                 such as commercial fish or timber, can be assigned a        and are essential to the continued existence of the wet-
                 monetary value. True wetland value, however, goes           land. Conversely, many functions have external val-
                 beyond money. How much value does one place on              ues that extend beyond the wetland itself. On a local
                 the beauty of a wetland or its archeological signifi-       scale, wetlands affect adjacent or nearby ecosystems,
                 cance? Wetland values are not absolute. What is valu-       for example, by reducing flooding in downstream
                 able and important to one person may not be valu-           communities or by removing nutrients from waste-
                 able to another person. As an example, the value of a       water. However, the broadest influence of wetland           A system of
                 wetland as duck habitat may be important to the             functions is global. Wetlands are now thought to have       wettand
                 hunter or birdwatcher but not to the farmer who owns        a significant effect on air quality, which is influenced    assessment is
                 the land.                                                   by the nitrogen, sulfur, methane, and carbon cycles.
                     "While wetland functions are natural processes          In addition, migrating birds are dependent upon wet-        necessary to
                 of wetlands that continue regardless of their perceived     lands as they travel.                                       ensure that the
                 value to humans, the value people place on those func-
                 tions in many cases is the primary factor determin-         PURPOSE OF WETLAND ASSESSMENT                               most valuable
                 ing whether a wetland remains intact or is converted                                                                    wetlands are
                 for some other use" (National Audubon Society,                  Many times when decisions are made about de-            pro
                 1993). In addition, values assigned to wetland func-        velopment of an area, such as the selection of a site             tected.
                 tions may change over time as society's perceptions         for a large commercial or industrial facility, the choice
                 and priorities change. The values that benefit society      of sites is not between a wetland or an upland, but be-
                 as a whole tend to change slowly; however, the val-         tween wetlands. In areas that have many wetlands, all
                 ues assigned by individuals or small groups are arbi-       alternative sites or routes for roads for a major facil-
                 trary, and most are subject to rapid and frequent           ity may involve the destruction or alteration of wet-
                 change and may even conflict. For example, timber           lands. In such cases, legal requirements commonly
                 production may be improved by draining a wetland            exist that require the replacement of destroyed wet-
                 site, whereas waterfowl production may be improved          lands. Even when a choice must be made between a
                 by impounding more water. Society may have to re-           wetland site and an upland site, the upland site may
                 solve conflicts regarding the management or preset-         have great value to the community. Managers, plan-
                 vation of wetlands and their functions. Furthermore,        ners, regulators, and even the general public have long








                   82     National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: OVERVIEW OF WETILAND RESOURCES



                                                        felt the need to have in place a system of assess-      oped for the Federal Highway Administration and has
                                                   ment or evaluation that would make the choices clearer       been used widely. It assigns values to specific func-
                                                   and ensure that the most valuable wetlands are pre-          tions of individual wetlands. The Environmental
                                                   served. Such an evaluation system could be based             MoDitoring Assessment Program-Wetlands was
                                                   entirely or partly on wetland function if values could       developed by the Environmental Protection Agency.
                                                   be assigned to individual functions.                         It is presented here as an example of a program that
                                                        Wetland assessment methods have been or are be-         focuses on determining the ecological condition of a
                                                   ing developed that assign numerical values to wetland        population of wetlands in a region. It does this by
                                                   functions. Some methods assign values on the basis           comparing the function of a statistical sample of wet-
                                                   of the benefits to the wetland itself by considering the     lands to reference wetlands in the region. The
                                                   question: How important is this function in terms of         Hydrogeomorphic approach is being developed by the
                  The WET evaluates                maintaining this particular wetland? Other methods           U.S. Army Corps of Engineers for assessing wetland
                                                   assign values on the basis of the benefits to surround-      functions. It combines features of the other two meth-
                           functions and           ing ecosystems or to humans. The types of questions          ods by measuring the functions of individual wetlands
                    values in terms of             considered in this approach are as follows: How              and also by comparing them to functions performed
                                                   important is this function to environmental quality          by other wetlands.
                            effectiveness,         downstream? How does this function benefit soci-
                   opportunity, Social             ety? This latter assessment method allows for the            Wetland Evaluation Technique (WET)
                     significance, and             comparison of the worth of one wetland to that of
                                                   another wetland.                                                  The WET is a comprehensive approach for evalu-
                    habitat suitability.                The development of a single method for assess-          ating individual wetlands that was developed in 1983
                                                   ing the functions of wetlands or for assigning values        (Adamus, 1983; Adamus and Stockwell, 1983) and
                                                   to the functions of wetlands is not a simple task. In-       revised in 1987 under the auspices of the U.S. Army
                                                   deed, probably no one method will satisfy all needs.         Corps of Engineers (Adamus and others, 1987). The
                                                   However, assessing each function of a wetland and            WET considers wetland functions to be the physical,
                                                   then assigning a value to each function is a step to-        chemical, and biological characteristics of a wetland.
                                                   ward the protection of sensitive wetlands. Further-          It assigns wetland values to the characteristics that are
                                                   more, an evaluation system that provides the basis for       valuable to society. The following functions are as-
                                                   comparing wetlands would facilitate mitigation for           signed values by WET:
                                                   unavoidable wetland losses, would provide a tool for              - Ground-water recharge
                                                   determining the success (or failure) of programs and              - Ground-water discharge
                                                   policies intended to protect or manage wetland re-                - Floodflow alteration
                                                   sources, and would assist in identifying long-term                - Sediment stabilization
                                                   trends in the condition of wetland resources.                     - Sediment/toxicant retention
                                                                                                                     - Nutrient removal/transformation
                                                   WETLAND ASSESSMENT METHODS                                        - Production export
                                                        The three wetland assessment methods described               - Wildlife diversity/abundance
                                                   herein are representative of the methods that are avail-          - Aquatic diversity/abundance
                                                   able or are being used by wetland managers and plan-              - Recreation
                                                   ners. The Wetland Evaluation Technique was devel-                 - Uniqueness/heritage




















                                                                                                                           L
                                                The recreational pleasures of
                                                   a wetland are captured in
                                                this photo at Horicon Marsh,
                                                 VO s. (Photograph by Phillip
                                                                  J. Redman,
                                                     U.S. Geological Survey.)







                                                                               National Water Surnmary-Wetland Resources: MANAGEMENT AND RESEARCH                       83



                      The WET evaluates functions and values in terms          for recreation) and a habitat suitability rating for
                 of effectiveness, opportunity, social significance, and       waterfowl, fish, and other wildlife (Adamus, 1988).
                 habitat suitability. Effectiveness assesses the capabil-      The probability rating is an estimate of the "likeli-
                 ity of a wetland to perform a particular function. For        hood" that a wetland will perform a function on the
                 example, a wetland that has no outlet is assigned a           basis of its characteristics. It does not estimate the de-
                 high value for sediment retention, whereas a wetland          gree or magnitude to which a function is performed.
                 just downstream from a dam is assigned a low value.           Recreation is not evaluated because no scientific ba-
                 Opportunity assesses the potential for a wetland to           sis exists for making an objective assessment with-
                 perform a specific function; for example, a wetland           out extensive data collection at the site.
                 in a forested area that has no potential sediment                  The WET approach probably has been applied to
                 sources would be assigned a low opportunity value             nearly every type of wetland in every State; however,
                 for sediment retention. Social significance assesses          it has proved to be unwieldy to use. For most users,          EMAP-Wetiands
                 the value of a wetland in terms of special designations       the need to be able to apply this method to every             identifies
                 (does it have endangered species?), potential eco-            wetland in every part of the United States makes the          "indicators" of
                 nomic value (is it used regularly for recreational ac-        system unnecessarily cumbersome. For example,
                 tivities?), and strategic location (is it in a State where    most users are interested in a local area and prefer not      condition,
                 very few wetlands of its type remain?). The WET uses          to enter data repeatedly for local characteristics that       standardizes
                 11 predictors" that relate to the physical, chemical, and     are unlikely to change, as is required in the WET
                 biological characteristics of the function being evalu-       approach. In order to refine the method for specific          methods of
                 ated. As an example, the presence or absence of a con-        regions and to refine the thresholds among the low,           measurement, and
                 stricted outlet from a wedand could be used to pre-           medium, and high values, Adamus (1988) intended               establishes a
                 dict whether the wet]aDd might be effective in stor-          that regional versions and five different levels of WET
                 ing floodwaters. In addition, WET can be used to              be developed, neither of which has happened. Despite          national network.
                 assess the habitat suitability for waterfowl and wet-         its shortcornings, however, WET continues to be used
                 land-dependent birds, fish, and invertebrates.                by those who are familiar with it. Furthermore, much
                      The WET approach was designed to provide a               of the data generated by its application could be used
                 balance between costly, site-specific studies and the         to create data bases that would simplify its use and
                 "best professional judgment" approach, which is less          would improve its regional application.
                 costly but lacks reproducibility. The WET method is
                 intended to be used by any environmental profes-              Environmental Monitoring Assessment
                 sional, so that an engineer can evaluate biological           Program-Wetlands (EMAP-Wetlands)
                 functions or a biologist can evaluate hydrologic func-
                 tions. First, information resources are obtained for the           In 1988, the Environmental Protection Agency
                 wetland, the area surrounding the wetland, and the            initiated the Environmental Monitoring Assessment
                 area downstream from the wetland. Then a series of            Program (EMAP) in order to provide improved in-
                 questions is answered about the wetland's watershed,          formation on the status and trends in the condition
                 topography, vegetation, and other features. By pro-           of the Natiorfs ecological resources. The wetlands
                 gressing next through a series of flow charts (or an          part of EMAP was intended to develop an approach
                 available computer software package), an evaluation           for assessing the condition (how well a wetland is per-
                 can assign a probability rating of "high  ... ..  moderate,"  forming its functions) of different types of wetlands
                 or "low" to each of the functions listed above (except        in a region and in the Nation as a whole (Novitzki,




















                                                                                                                                             Sheep foraging at a
                                                                                                                                             wetland near Bridgeport,
                                                                                                                                             Calif. (Photograph by
                                                                                                                                             A.S. Van Denburgh,
                                                                                                                                             U.S. Geological Survey.)








                  84     National Water Surnmary-Wetland Resources: OVERVIEW OF WETLAND RESOURCES



                                                   1994; Novitzki and others, 1994). The near-term ob-              Other likely indices will be related to the follow-
                                                   jectives of the program were to conduct research in         ing: habitat integrity (how does the population of wa-
                                                   order to identify "indicators" of wetland condition,        terfowl, finfish, or shellfish in sampled wetlands com-
                                                   to standardize methods of measurement, and to es-           pare with that in reference wetlands?), hydrologic
                                                   tablish a national network for monitoring wetlands at       integrity (how similar is the hydrologic regime in the
                                                   regional scales and over long periods (decades). In         sampled wetlands to that in reference wetlands?), and
                                                   some places, it is impossible or impractical to mea-        water-quality improvement (how do sediment trap-
                                The HGM            sure wetland functions directly; therefore, character-      ping and other water-quality processes in sampled
                                 approach          istics or "indicators" are measured, and these indi-        wetlands compare with those in reference wetlands?).
                                                   cate how well certain functions are being performed         Wetland health may be evaluated either by sifnilarity
                            represents a           by the wetland. For example, the number of water-           (how similar are sampled wetlands to reference wet-
                       combination of              fowl per acre can be calculated from actual field mea-      lands?) or by biological criteria (are the sampled
                                                   surements and then can be used as an indicator ofhow        wetlands above or below a level determined from
                           the WET and             well a wetland is performing its waterfowl habitat          measurements obtained in the reference wetlands?).
                     EMAP-Wettands                 function.                                                   The comparison of the condition of sampled wetlands
                              approaches               The EMAP-Wetlands program was intended to               with the condition of reference wetlands provides a
                                                   have three phases. First, pilot studies were to be con-     means for telling the difference between changes that
                                                   ducted to evaluate the ability of selected indicators to    result from long-term changes in climate (both
                                                   make a distinction between healthy and degraded             sampled wetlands and reference wetlands will be af-
                                                   wetlands. Next, regional demonstrations were to be          fected) and changes that happen because of manage-
                                                   conducted by using some of the best indicators from         ment actions, regulatory policy, or other human fac-
                                                   the pilot studies. These demonstrations would confirm       tors that affect wetlands (only the sampled wetlands
                                                   the ability of the program to assess the condition of a     will be affected).
                                                   specific type of wetland in a specific region. Finally,          Pilot studies of salt marshes in the Gulf of Mexico
                                                   the program would be implemented to monitor the             and prairie pothole wetlands ofthe Midwest have been
                                                   condition of a specific wetland type in a region. Only      completed. Results of these studies have been evalu-
                                                   Phase I has been conducted.                                 ated to identify the indicators that most effectively
                                                       Data from pilot and demonstration studies in            reveal the difference between healthy and degraded
                                                   Phase I are being analyzed to develop preliminary           wetlands. In the salt marshes, the indicators that seem
                                                   indices of signs of the health of a wetland. One index      to hold the greatest promise (Turner and Swenson,
                                                   will be for biological integrity, which combines in-        1994) are as follows:
                                                   dicators of healthy plant and animal communities.             - Ratio of vegetated areas to open water
                                                   Biological characteristics of the sampled wetlands            - Number of plant species (or the diversity of plant
                                                   will be compared with those of the most unaltered                species)
                                                   wetlands of the same type in the region, known as ref-        - Biomass (production of plant material per unit
                                                   erence wetlands. This comparison is based on the as-             area)
                                                   sumption that the least altered wetlands have sustain-        - Amount of organic matter in soil
                                                   able biological integrity.                                    - Salinity



















                                                                                                                                         i      X




                     Serene beauty is provided
                                                                                                               @I'A
                       by this restored wetland
                      in Montana. (Photograph
                                                                         M".
                             by Edith B. Chase,
                       U.S. Geological Survey.)
                                                                                              AA








                                                                               National Water Surnmary-Wetland Resources: MANAGEMENT AND RESEARCH                      85



                      In prairie pothole wetlands, indicators of the           much water may be stored in the wetland. The nature
                 health of a wetland that seem to hold the greatest            of the debris lines also may suggest the velocity of
                 promise at the local level (L.M. Cowardin, U.S. Fish          the water as it moved through the wetland. For ex-
                 and Wildlife Service, oral commun., 1994) are:                ample, small leaves and twigs suggest slow-moving
                  ï¿½ Amount of developed land in the surrounding up-            water, small branches suggest somewhat swifter
                      land                                                     water, and large branches and tree trunks suggest very
                  ï¿½ Rates of increase and decrease in the number of            high velocities. Sediment deposits observed at the site
                      water-filled basins or in the area of water surface      may suggest the depositional characteristics. For ex-
                      between April (spring thaw) and August (end of           ample, no sediment deposits suggest little deposition,
                      summer)                                                  thin silt deposits suggest that slow-moving water was
                  ï¿½ Ratio of temporary to seasonal to semipermanent            sustained for long periods, and gravel and cobble de-
                      wetlands                                                 posits might suggest that water was flowing rapidly
                      At the level of the individual wetland ecosystem,        when it entered the site but then slowed significantly
                 other promising indicators (L.M. Cowardin, oral               at the site.
                 commun., 1994) are:                                               A wetland assessment provided by the HGM ap-
                  - Diversity of plant species                                 proach will likely be a "site profile" that lists the site
                  - Number and types of species of large invertebrates         characteristics that are related to identified wetland
                  - Range of water-level fluctuation                           functions. This profile then will be compared with
                  - Sedimentation rate                                         characteristics of the reference wetlands (all wetlands
                                                                               in the region in the same geomorphic class) in order
                 Hydrogeomorphic Approach (HGM)                                to rank the site. A data base that contains profiles of
                                                                               wetland characteristics (indicators of wetland func-
                      In 1990, the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers be-            tions) for each wetland type (hydrogeomorphic class)
                 gan developing the Hydrogeomorphic Approach                   will be established for each region. These data will
                 (HGM) as a way to provide a foundation for assess-            define the range of characteristics found in these wet-
                 ing the physical, chemical, and biological functions          lands.
                 of wetlands (Brinson, 1993; Smith and others, 1995).              At present (1995), the HGM approach is in de-
                 The program, still being developed, is intended to            velopment and has not been released to the public.
                 revise and simplify the WET approach described                Field tests of this assessment method have been con-
                 above (Adamus and others, 1987), as well as make it           ducted in river-edge wetlands in the Pacific North-
                 more applicable to specific regions. The WET pro-             west, the Northeast, the Rocky Mountains, the South-
                 cedure develops a profile of specific characteristics         west, and the Southeast; in coastal wetlands in the
                 (predictors) for an individual wetland, and these are         Pacific Northwest, the North and South Atlantic
                 used to assess the degree of effectiveness of the dif-        States, and the gulf coast States; and in closed-basin
                 ferent functions of the wetland. The HGM approach             wetlands in the Midwest. Data and insights derived
                 compares the characteristics of a specific wetland            from these tests are being compiled and will be evalu-
                 with the characteristics of a group of wetlands (ref-         ated in regional workshops. Following those evalua-
                 erence wetlands) in the region, and this information          tions, manuals of draft HGM methods will be pre-
                 is used to assess the degree to which the individual          pared and presented for comment and review in re-
                 wetland is performing selected functions. Thus, the           gional workshops.
                 HGM approach represents a combination of the WET
                 and EMAP-Wetlands approaches. Wetland charac-                 CONCLUSIONS
                 teristics to be evaluated by HGM are limited to those
                 that are important in the specific region and hydro-              If any hope remains for preserving the Natiorfs
                 geomorphic setting. Hence, different characteristics          wetland resources, it depends upon obtaining public           It is critical to
                 will be identified and evaluated for different                support. Public support can be won if scientists can          Create and
                 hydrogeomorphic settings, such as closed basins in            explain clearly how wetlands function, how they in-           maintain a data
                 the Midwest (for example, prairie pothole wetlands),          teract with their surroundings, and how their func-
                 river-edge wetlands in the Southeast (for example,            tions can benefit society. Wetlands have come under           base of wetiand
                 bottom-land hardwood wetlands), and coastal wet-              intensive scientific study only during the last two           characteristics
                 lands (for example, salt marshes).                            decades. Techniques of wetland evaluation will im-            in which the data
                      In the HGM approach, local wetland scientists or         prove as scientists gather more information about the
                 managers identify the functions that are performed            processes that take place in wetlands and about the           are reliable,
                 by wetlands in a specific hydrogeornorphic setting in         similarities and differences among the functions of           com arable, and
                 that region. Also, they identify wetland characteris-         different types of wetlands. In order to develop pub-                P
                 tics (indicators), such as plant communities, plant           lic support and to encourage enlightened policy de-           rePeatable.
                 species, and density of stems, that suggest whether           cisions and regulations, it is critical to create and
                 or not a wetland is performing a specific function,           maintain a data base of wetland characteristics in
                 such as slowing the flow velocity of floodwater. Next,        which the data are reliable, comparable, and repeat-
                 the value of each function is determined by measur-           able at periodic intervals in order to monitor long-
                 ing the degree to which that function is likely to be         term trends.
                 performed. This is based on the characteristics of the            More than one approach to wetland evaluation is
                 indicators. For example, if lines of debris are selected      possible, as illustrated by the examples discussed
                 as an indicator that a wetland has been flooded, their        above. Wetland functions and their values to humans
                 altitude may be used to determine how deep the                and other living matter may be assessed for an indi-
                 water may have been during flooding and thus how              vidual wetland by using approaches such as WET or








                    86      National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: OVERVIEW OF WETLAND RESOURCES


                                                       HGM. After this, they can be compared with other                      tection guidebook: Washington, D. C., Environmental
                                                       natural wetlands in a region by using the HGM                         Law Institute, p. 4.
                                                       approach. Both WET and HGM can be used to                        Kusler, J.A., and Montanari, J.H., 1978, National Wetland
                                                                                                                             Protection Symposium: U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service,
                                                       determine the amount of mitigation required to off-                   Office ofBiological Services, FWS/OBS-78-97, Pro-
                                                       set unavoidable wetland loss, as well as to evaluate                  ceedings, 255 p.
                                                       the degree of success of individual mitigation                   Kusler, J.A., and Rjexinger, Patricia, eds., 1986, National
                                                       projects. (See article "Wetland Protection Legisla-                   Wetland Assessment Symposium: Albany, N.Y., Asso-
                                                       tion" in this volume for further discussion of mitiga-                ciation ofStateWetland Managers, Proceedings, 331 p.
                                                       tion.) The EMAP-Wetlands approach suggests that                  Lapedes, D.N., ed., 1976, McGraw-Hill dictionary of sci-
                                                       it might be possible to examine the condition (pris-                  entific and technical terms: New York, McGraw-Hill
                                                       tine or degraded) of a population of wetlands in a                    Book Company, 1634 p.
                                                       specified area. Periodic reevaluation of this popula-            National Audubon Society, 1993, Saving wetlands-A
                                                                                                                             citizen's guide for action in the Mid-Atlantic region:
                                                       tion of wetlands might be used to determine trends                    Camp Hill, Pa., National Audubon Society, 130 p.
                                                       in their condition and to identify the effects of broad          Nvitzki, R.P., 1994, EMAP-Wetlands-A program for
                                                       policy decisions (such as "no net loss"), programs                    assessing wetland condition, in Mitsch, W.J., ed., Glo-
                                                       (such as mitigation banking where wetlands are cre-                   bal wetlands-Old World and New: New York, Elsevier
                                                       ated or restored to offset losses of other wetlands),                 Science Publishers, p. 691-709.
                                                       or natural phenomena (such as climate change).                   Novitzki, R.P., Rosen, B.H., McAllister, L.S., Ernst, T.L.,
                                                                                                                             Huntley, B.E., and Dwire, K., 1994, EMAP-Wet-
                                                                                                                             lands-Research strategy for the assessment of wetland
                                                       References Cited                                                      condition: Corvallis, Oreg., U.S. Environmental Pro-
                                                                                                                             tection Agency, Environmental Research Laboratory,
                                                       Adamus, P.R, 1983, FHWA Assessment method, v. 2 of                    149 p.
                                                            Method for wetland functional assessment: Washing-          Parrett, Charles, Melcher, N.B., and James, R.W., Jr., 1993,
                                                            ton, D.C., U.S. Department of Transportation, Federal            Flood discharges in the upper Mississippi River basin,
                                                            Highway Administration Report no. FHWA-IP-82-24,                 1993: U.S. Geological Survey Circular 1120-A, 14 p.
                                                            134 p.                                                      Richardson, Brandt. ed., 198 1, Selected proceedings of the
                                                       -1988, The FHWA/Adanius (WET) method for wet-                         Midwest Conference on Weiland Values and Manage-
                                                            land functional assessment., in Hook, D.D., McKee,               ment: Navarre, Minn., Freshwater Society, 660 p.
                                                            W.H., Jr., Smith, H.K., Gregory, James, Burrell, V.G.,      Smith, R.D., Ammann, Alan, Bartoldus, C., and Brinson,
                                                            Jr., DeVoe, MR., Sojka, R.E., Gilbert, Stephen, Banks,           M.M., 1995, An approach for assessing wetland func-
                                                            Roger, Stolzy, L.H., Brooks, Chris, Mathews, T.D., and           tions using hydrogeomorphic classification, reference
                                                            Shear, T.H., Management, use, and value of wetlands,             wetlands, and functional indices: Vicksburg, Miss.,
                                                            v. 2 of The ecology and management of wetlands: Port-            U.S. Army Engineers Waterways Experiment Station,
                                                            land, Oreg., Timber Press, p. 128-133.                           Technical Report TRWRP-DF, 10, [100 p.]
                                                       Adarmis, RR., Clairain, E.J., Jr., Smith, R.D., and Young,       Tinef, R.W., 1989, Wetlands of Rhode Island: Newton Cor-
                                                            R.E., 1987, Weiland Evaluation Technique (WET), v.               ner, Mass., U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, National
                                                            2 ofMethodology: Vicksburg, Miss., U.S. Army Corps               Wetlands Inventory, 71 p., appendix.
                                                            of Engineers, Waterways Experiment Station, Opera-          Turner, R.E., and Swenson, E.M., 1994, Indicator develop-
                                                            tional Draft Technical Report, 206 p. + appendixes.              ment for evaluating estuarine emergent conditions-
                                                       Adamus, P.R., and Stockwell, L.T., 1983, Criticalreview               salt marsh pilot-technical narrative (draft final re-
                                                            and evaluation concepts, v. I of Method for wetland              port): Baton Rouge, La., Louisiana State University,
                                                            functional assessment: Washington, D.C., U.S. Depart-            v. 1, 65 p.
                                                            ment of Transportation, Federal Highway Administra-
                                                            tion Report no. FHWA-IP-82-23, 176 p.
                                                       Brinson, M.M., 1993, Hydrogeomorphic classification for
                                                            wetlands. Washington, D.C., U,S. Army Corps of En-
                                                            gineers, Wetlands Research Program Technical Report
                                                            WRP-DE-4,79 p.                                              FOR ADDITIONAL INFORMATION: Richard P. Novitzki,
                                                       Helfgott, T.B., Lefor, M.W., and Kennard, W.C., 1973, First      ManTech Environmental Technology, Inc., 1600 S.W. West-
                                                            Weiland Conference: Ston-s, Conn., University of Con-       em Blvd., Corvallis, OR 97333; R. Daniel Smith, U.S. Army
                                                            neCticut, Institute of Water Resources, Report 2 1, Pro-    Engineer Waterways Experiment Station, 3909 Halls Ferry
                                                            ceedings, 199 p.                                            Road, Vicksburg, MS 39180; Judy D. Fretwell, U.S. Geo-
                                                       Kusler, J.A., 1983, Our national wetland heritage-A pro-         logical Survey, 407 National Center, Reston, VA 22092
















                                                                                          U.S. Geologica@ Survey Water-Supp@y Paper 2425








                                                                 National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: RESTORATION, CREATION, AND RECOVERY                      87


                 Restoration, Creation, and Recovery of Wetlands
                 Wetland Restoration and Creation

                 Mary E. Kentula'


                       The benefits of restoration of degraded or de-         replacement function? (2) Will the proposed wetland
                 stroyed wetlands and creation of new wetlands has only       increase wildlife diversity? (3) Is the increased diver-
                 recently been recognized. As the population has ex-          sity worth the loss of habitat of any endangered spe-
                 panded across the Nation during the past few centu-          cies? Questions of this type always arise during plan-
                 ries, wetlands have been drained and altered to accom-       ning for wetland restoration and creation.                    Wettand alter-
                 modate human needs. These changes to wetlands have                 A well-documented example of a physical linii-          ations have
                 directly, or indirectly, brought about changes in the        tation associated with restoring a wetland can be seen
                 migratory patterns of birds, local climate, and the          along the shoreline of the Salmon River Estuary, Oreg.        brought about
                 makeup of plant and animal populations. In the past,         (Frenkel and Morlan, 1990, 1991). In the past, many           Changes in the
                 people used wetland plants and animals for shelter and       high marsh wetlands along the Pacific coast were diked
                 food. More recently, people have become more aware           to remove them from tidal action. After the area was          Migratory patterns
                 of other benefits that wetlands provide-water-qual-          diked, the wetlands dried up and the land was used for        of birds, local
                 ity improvement, flood attenuation, esthetics, and rec-      pasture. In 1978, in an effort to restore the Salmon
                 reational opportunities. Now, it is recognized that nu-      River Estuary to its original condition, two dikes were       climate, and make
                 merous losses are incurred when a wetland is damaged         removed to allow the original wetlands to reestablish         Up Of plant and
                 or destroyed. Restoration and creation can help main-        themselves. However, after 10 years, the resulting wet-       animal
                 tain the benefits of wetlands and their surrounding eco-     lands (fig. 52) were not typical of other high marshes
                 systems, and at the same time accommodate the hu-            along the estuary. The land behind the dikes had sub-         Populations.
                 man need for development.                                    sided over time, and the restored wetlands were more
                      Wetland restorati on rehabilitates a degraded wet-      typical of wetlands at lower elevations nearer the es-
                 land or reestablishes a wetland that has been destroyed.     tuary (low marsh). Although the wetlands continue to
                 Restoration takes place on land that has been, or still      evolve as sediments are trapped and deposited by the
                 is, a wetland. A term commonly associated with res-          vegetation (thus raising the elevation), it might take
                 toration is "enhanced." An enhanced wetland is an            another 50 years for the restored wetlands to become
                 existing wetland that has been altered to improve a          similar again to the original high marsh (Frenkel and
                 particular function, usually at the expense of other         Morlan, 1991). The time required and the ability to
                 functions. For example, enhancing a site to increase         develop a fully functional soil system in project wet-
                 its use by a particular species of bird commonly lim-        lands may be major determinants of the eventual ac-
                 its its use as habitat for other species. (For informa-      ceptance or rejection of restoration and creation as          Restoration and
                 tion on functions of wetlands see the articles "Wetland      management options.                                           creation can
                 Hydrology, Water Quality, and Associated Functions"                It is difficult to make a definitive statement about
                 and "Wetland Functions, Values, and Assessment" in           the ability to replace wetland functions. Goals for res-      help maintain
                 this volume.)                                                toration and creation projects seldom are stated and          the benefits of
                      Wetland creation is the construction of a wetland       information on the existing functions of the wetlands         wetlands and
                 on a site that never was a wetland. This can be done         seldom are documented. This is due, in part, to the
                 only on a site where conditions exist that can produce       difficulty and expense of quantifying wetland func-           accommodate the
                 and sustain a wetland. Consequently, creation is more        tions. Also, responsible monitoring during construc-          human need for
                 difficult than restoration. A term commonly associated       tion and after completion of the project wetland is
                 with wetland creation is "constructed." A constructed        uncommon. Most information available on project                 evelopment.
                 wetland is a wetland created specifically for the pur-       wetlands is in the form of qualitative case studies.
                 pose of treating wastewater, stormwater, acid mine
                 drainage, or agricultural runoff (Hammer, 1989). As
                 used in this article, "project wetland" refers to restored
                 or created wetlands. (For a more complete discussion
                 of the meaning of these terms and others associated
                 with restoration and creation, see Lewis, 1990.)


                 CHALLENGES OF RESTORATION AND
                 CREATION

                      Ecological issues and physical limitations are
                 important factors to consider when planning for w
                                                                         et-                                                                Figure 52. View of a
                 land restoration or creation. The relative merits of de-                                                                   restored salt marsh in the
                                                                                                                                            Salm
                 stroying the function of an existing wetland, or other                                                                          an River Estuary on
                                                                                                                                            the
                 ecosystem, in exchange for another wetland function                                                                            Oregon coast.
                 involves the consideration of numerous questions such                                                                      (Photograph courtesy of
                 as: (1) Which is more important, the existing or the                                                                       the EPA Wetlands
                                                                                                                                            Research Program.)
                    'U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA).








                   88     National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: OVERVIEW OF WETLAND RESOURCES


                                                  DESIGNING FOR SUCCESS                                         The position of the basin surface relative to the water
                                                       Much of the written material on wetland resto-           table influences the degree ofsoil saturation and flood-
                                                  ration and creation deals with "project design." Project      ing. To ensure that standing water is present year
                                                  design considers a large number of site-specific, in-         round, many project wetlands are excavated so that the
                                                  terdependent factors that determine the structure and         deepest part of the basin is below the lowest antici-
                                                  function of a wetland. Although there is no "cook-            pated water level. The slope of the basin banks deter-
                                                  book" for restoring or creating wetlands, documents           mines how much of the site will be vegetated and by
                                                  describing general approaches to restoration and cre-         what kinds ofplants (fig. 53). This is because the slope
                                                  ation and the conditions conducive to project success         determines how far the substrate (soil or rock mate-
                           Benefits can           are available (Garbisch, 1986; Marble, 1990; Pacific          rial that forms the surface of the basin) will be from
                                                  Estuarine Research Laboratory, 1990; Hammer, 1992;            water and how much of the substrate has the neces-
                       extend beyond              Maynord and others, 1992). Elements common to                 sary conditions of wetness for specific plant species
                        the wetland if            wetland project design are site-selection criteria, hy-       (Hollands, 1990). The ability to maintain the desired
                      care is taken         in    drologic analysis, water Source and quality, substrate        plant community, therefore, is ultimately dependent on
                                                  augmentation and handling, plant material selection           the hydrology of the site. In a properly constructed
                        site selection.           and handling, buffer zones placement, and long-term           freshwater marsh, the lowest point of the wetland will
                                                  management. A brief overview of each element is pre-          be inundated to a depth and for a period long enough
                                                  sented here in a sequence similar to that followed in         that emergent vegetation can persist, but not so long
                                                  project planning.                                             as to destroy the plants.
                                                       Site selection-Sites for project wetlands often               Water source and quality.-Although it is com-
                                                  are selected on the basis of available land, or on poli-      monly acknowledged that site hydrology is a major
                                                  cies that require wetlands to be restored or created to       determinant of the success or failure of wetland res-
                                                  compensate for nearby wetland losses (mitigation). A          toration or creation, the influence of water quality of-
                                                  wetland's structure, function, and ability to persist over    ten is ignored. Inputs of chemicals from the surround-
                                                  time are greatly influenced by its location. Wetlands in      ing landscape can overwhelm a wetland's ability to
                                                  settings with limited human influence can differ              improve water quality and can change the character-
                                                  greatly in structure and function from wetlands in set-       istics of the site. For example, deicing salts are used
                                                  tings dominated by human activities. Therefore, the           extensively along highways and, if they enter a wet-
                                                  present and projected land uses of the surrounding area       land, can alter the productivity and composition of its
                                                  are a consideration when selecting the site. The char-        plant community, possibly favoring nuisance species
                                                  acteristics of existing wetlands, in the same general         such as purple loosestrife (Niering, 1989).
                                                  area, or in an area with similar land uses, can be used            Substrate augmentation and handling.-Wet-
                                                  as models for what might be expected of the project           lands are characterized by hydric soils, which develop
                                                  wetland. Benefits that extend beyond the wetland itself       as a result of an area being saturated, flooded, or
                                                  can be derived from the placement of a wetland if care        ponded long enough during the growing season to
                                                  is taken in site selection. For example, restoration of       develop anaerobic (oxygen-deficient) conditions (U.S.
                                                  riverbank wetlands between agricultural land and a            Soil Conservation Service, 1991) (fig. 54). Most ofthe
                                                  stream can improve downstream water quality (Olson,           chemical reactions in wetlands take place in the soils,
                                                  1992).                                                        where most chemicals are stored (Mitsch and
                                                        Hydrologic analysis.-Hydrologic conditions              Gosselink, 1993). The soils of project wetlands are re-
                                                  probably are the most important determinants of the           ceiving increased attention as studies link substrate
                                                  type of wetland that can be established and what wet-         characteristics to ecological function. Although a cre-
                                                  land processes can be maintained (Mitsch and                  ated wetland may be structurally similar to a natural
                                                  Gosselink, 1993). Elements of site hydrology that are         wetland, its hydrology may differ greatly from that of
                                                  important to maintaining a wetlarid are inflows and           the natural wetland if the permeability of the substrates
                                                  outflows of ground water and surface water, the result-       differ (O'Brien, 1986). In addition to differences in
                                                  ing water levels, and the timing and duration of soil         permeability, soils in project wetlands commonly have
                                                  saturation or flooding.                                       a smaller amount oforganic matter than soils in slml'-
                                                       One factor influencing hydrology is the configu-         lar natural wetlands. Because organic matter in soils
                              Hydrologic          ration of the basin (depression) containing the wetland.      stores nutrients that are critical to plant growth    (Pa-
                               conditions
                    probably are the
                      most important
                     determinants of
                                                                                                                                                               IV
                       and processes.
                                                                                                                           -High water table
                        wetiand types


                                                            High water table                                             Low water table
                                                          Low water table


                                                  Figure 53. The relative position of a basin substrate, the water table, and differences in vegetation result   ing
                                                  from the degree of basin slope.








                                                                 National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: RESTORATION, CREATION, AND RECOVERY                       89



                 cific Estuarine Research Laboratory, 1990), the
                 smaller amounts of organic matter in soils of project
                 wetlands may limit plant growth (Langis and others,
                 1991). Augmenting, or mulching, the substrate of
                 project wetlands with materials from a "donor" wet-
                 land can increase soil organic matter and provide a                                                            lot"
                 source of needed plant species, microbes, and inver-
                 tebrates. Mulching makes the substrate more condu-
                 cive to rapid revegetation by reducing the evaporation
                 of pore water, runoff, soil loss and erosion, and sur-
                 face compaction and crusting (Thornburg, 1977).                                                                             Chemicals from
                 Mulching also can cause problems such as the intro-                                                                         the surrounding
                 duction of unwanted plant species.
                                                                                                                                             Ian
                      Plant material selection and handling. -Vegeta-                                                                            dscape can
                 tion is the most striking visual feature of a wetland. Be-                                                     ft           overwhelm a
                 cause of the unique and stressful conditions that de-
                                                                                                                                     -1 Ii.  wetlandls ability
                 velop in wetlands, varying from long periods of flood-                                           so, N., MLM.-
                 ing to periodic drying, plants and animals found there                                                                      to improve water
                 have developed distinctive mechanisms to deal with                                                                          quality.
                 these stresses and conditions. It is important to recog-
                 nize the constraints of this unique environment when
                 planning a project wetland. Plant communities estab-         Figure 54. Scientist checking to see if a soil sample
                 lished in project wetlands will fare betterifthey closely    has the unique coloration typical of wetland (hydric)
                 resemble communities in similar, local wetlands. To          soils. (Photograph courtesy ofthe EPA Wetlands
                 increase the likelihood of successful colonization,          Research Program).
                 Garbisch (1986) suggests that project managers:
                  ï¿½ Select herbaceous species that rapidly stabilize the      cess. However, few project sponsors have been will-
                      substrate and that have potential value for fish and    ing to assume long-term responsibility for managing
                      wildlife                                                these new systems (Kusler and Kentula, 1990b). Be-
                  ï¿½ Select species that are adaptable to a broad range        cause of this, project wetlands that are designed to be
                      of water depths. A survey of vegetation at wet-         self-sustaining or self-managing will have the best
                      lands of the type being created or restored can         chance of survival. The installation of control struc-
                      identify the conditions of "wetness" needed by          tures, such as tide gates or pumps, that will require
                      species                                                 maintenance and are subject to vandalism could be dis-
                  -Avoid choosing only those species that are foraged         advantageous to the life of the project wetland.
                      by wildlife expected to use the site-muskrats
                      and geese have been known to denude sites               EVALUATION OF SUCCESS
                    Avoid committing significant areas of the site to
                      species that have questionable potential for suc-             One of the most vexing aspects of wet] and resto-
                      cessful establishment                                   ration and creation projects is defining success, pri-
                 In addition, Stark (1972) suggests the selection of "low     marily because there is no generally accepted defini-
                 maintenance" vegetation.                                     tion. This is true for many reasons-lack of clearly
                      Buffer zone placement.-Protective measures are          stated objectives, lack of long-term monitoring
                 needed for many restored and created wetlands, par-          (Kusler and Kentula, 1990b), and the subjective point
                 ticularly in urbanized areas. This protection can take       of view of the definer (Roberts, 1993). The vast ma-
                 the form of an undeveloped, vegetated band around the        jority of project wetlands are ecologically young- 10
                 wetland; a fence or barrier; or a lake or sediment ba-       years of age or less. The lack of information on eco-
                 sin. This buffer between the wetland and surrounding         logically mature projects limits the ability to predict
                 land is desirable; however, the characteristics of an        whether or not the functions of project wetlands can
                 appropriate vegetated buffer are not well defined. Al-       replace the functions of natural wetlands. Neverthe-
                 though composition is important, width is the most           less, the results of ongoing research and good profes-         Plants in project
                 frequently cited characteristic of an adequate buffer        sional judgment can be used to provide insight into
                 zone. Requirements for both composition and width            the selection of projects that have a high probability         wetlands fare
                 are dependent upon the adjacent land uses, their po-         of success,                                                    better if they
                 tential effect on the functions of the wetland, and the            Various attempts have been made to define suc-           closely resemble
                 requirements of the animals that will use the wetland        cess criteria for wetland projects. The earliest criteria
                 and buffer area. Buffers are used to:                        assumed that if conditions were correct for the estab-         those in similar,
                  - Deter predators from entering wetlands                    lishment of wedand vegetation, then other ecological           local wetlands.
                  - Trap and prevent undesirable materials from enter-        functions would either be present or develop over time.
                      ing the wetland through runoff from the sur-            Now, it is known that a site "green" with vegetation
                      rounding landscape                                      does not necessarily mean success, and the standards
                  - Provide habitat for wildlife that depend on uplands       by which projects arejudged are more likely to be tied
                      in addition to wetlands for part of their life cycle    to wetland functions.
                      Long-term management. -Careful monitoring of                  The Wetlands Research Program of the U.S. En-
                 newly established wetlands and the ability to make           vironmental Protection Agency (EPA) is developing an
                 rnid-course corrections are critical to long-term suc-       approach to establish quantitative performance crite-








                        90      National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: OVERVIEW OF WETLAND RESOURCES



                                                             ria for project wetlands. In this approach, groups of                       1992), and Florida (Brown, 1991) showed that, al-
                                                             natural wetlands serve as reference sites against which                     though the level of diversity differs with each project,
                                                             project wetlands are judged. For example, Zedler                            diversity tends to be higher on each project wetland
                                                             (1993) uses reference data from natural marshes be-                         than on its natural counterpart. The type of wetland
                                                             ing used by clapper rails (an indigenous bird species)                      studied was a pond with a fringe of freshwater marsh
                                                             to define criteria that can be used tojudge the suitabil-                   (fig. 56). If a project wetland develops as hoped and
                                                             ity of restored and created habitat for the birds. Older                    expected, after 2 to 5 years it probably will have a plant
                                                             project wetlands also are used as reference sites against                   diversity greater than or equal to that of similar natu-
                                                             which to judge newer project wetlands, both to verify                       ral wetlands. As competition for space and resources
                                                             that development is as expected and to identify devel-                      increases and the plants more completely cover the
                                        It is Still          opmental patterns that may have resulted from changes                       site, the diversity usually decreases and the plant com-
                              uncertain if a                 in project design (Kentula and others, 1992). This                          munity tends to become more like that of a mature site.
                                                     of      approach is designed to produce results that are region-
                                  full suite                 ally applicable to wetland protection and management.                       STATUS OF THE SCIENTIFIC KNOWLEDGE
                                         wetland                 . One tool for comparing the characteristics of                         OF RESTORATION AND CREATION
                                                             project wetlands with similar, naturally occurring wet-
                        functions can be                     lands is a performance curve (fig. 55). Functions in a                            Current scientific knowledge about successful
                                      replaced.              group ofrestored wetlands can be expected to increase                       wetland restoration and creation has been documented
                                                             gradually with time to a point of maturity at which time                    in "Wetland Creation and Restoration: The Status of
                                                             the level of function has stabilized, The mean level of                     the Science" (Kusler and Kentula, 1990a). Although
                                                             function in mature project wetlands is generally less                       the literature on wetland restoration and creation has
                                                             than that for natural wetlands. Rate and time of matu-                      increased since the publication of that book, the gen-
                                                             ration and functional level at maturity will differ from                    eral assessment presented still applies. Key points from
                                                             project to project, depending on the type of wetland                        the Executive Summary (Kusler and Kentula, 1990b)
                                                             being restored. The curve provides information on                           are discussed below. (Additional information on res-
                                                             when to monitor, how restored wetlands typically de-                        toration of aquatic systems, including wetlands, can be
                                                             velop, and when project goals have been met. Changes                        found in a recent publication by the National Research
                                                             in the characteristics of project wetlands can be ex-                       Council Committee on Restoration ofAquatic Ecosys-
                                                             pected in response to the maturation process, but also                      tems, 1992.)
                                                             in response to changes in the environment. Informa-                               The status of scientific knowledge about wetland
                                                             tion on the development ofproject wetlands and sin-ii-                      restoration and creation differs by wetland function,
                                                             lar natural wetlands helps managers determine                               type, and location. It is still uncertain if the full suite
                                                             whether an observed change is typical for a particular                      of functions provided by a particular wetland type can
                                                             year or stage of development.                                               be replaced. Full functional replacement has not yet
                                                                   Over time, successful project wetlands can be ex-                     been demonstrated. In the case of specific functions,
                                                             pected to become similar to comparable natural wet-                         the most is known about replacement of flood storage
                                                             lands. A comparison of plant diversity on project wet-                      and waterfowl habitat, and the least is known about wa-
                                                             lands and similar natural wetlands in Oregon (Kentuila                      ter-quality-improverrient and ground-water-associated
                                                             and others, 1992), Connecticut (Confer and Niering,                         functions. The more complex the hydrology and ecol-
                                                                                                                                         ogy of a system, the more difficult it is to restore the
                                                                                                                                         system. Complete restoration might be impossible in
                                                                                                                                         some systems.
                                                                                                                                               With respect to types and locations of wetlands,
                                                                                                                                         the most is known about restoration and creation of
                        Z                                                                                                                intertidal salt marshes along the coasts of the United
                        0
                                                                                                                                         States, in particular, the tall cordgrass marshes of the
                        Z                                                                                                                Atlantic coast. However, these salt marshes comprise
                        LL                                                                                                               only about 5 percent of the total wetland area of the
                        LL
                        0                                                                                                                Nation and are only a small part of the marine and
                        U)                                                    Maturity                                                   estuarine wetlands.
                        Cn                                                                            EXPLANATION
                        Lu                                                                                                                     Much less is known about restoration and cre-
                        Z                                                                        Mean level of function
                        LLJ
                        >                                                                             0 For natural wetlands at          ation of inland freshwater wetlands, such as ponds,
                        U                                                                                  a point in time               forested wetlands, or bogs and fens. Among these
                                                                                                      0 For restored wetlands at
                        Lu                                                                                 a point in time               wetlands, most is known about restoration and cre-
                        LL
                        LL                                                                             - For natural wetlands            ation of those dominated by open water, such as
                        Lu                                                                                 overtime
                        0                                                                       - - - For immature restored              ponds, and the associated herbaceous vegetation.
                        Z                                                                                  wetlands over time            Much less is known about replacing forested wetlands
                                                                                                         For mature restored             because of the time needed for woody vegetation to
                        UJ                                                                                 wetlands over time
                        cc                                                                                                               mature. Experts agree, however, that the ecosystems
                        Z                                                                                                                that are least likely to be successfully replaced are
                                                                                                                                         bogs and fens. These are the wetlands with deep or-
                                               INCREASING MONITORING TIME                                                                ganic soils that have developed over thousands of years
                                                                                                                                         and that have hydrologic conditions that are difficult,
                        F@gure 55. Typical performance curve illustrating the comparison of groups of                                    if not impossible, to duplicate.
                        natural wetlands and restored wetlands of the same type and similar size in the
                        same land-use setting. (Source: Modified from Kentula and others, 1992.)







                                                                  National Water Summary-Wetland Resources:         RESTORATION, CREATION, AND RECOVERY                91



                 FEDERAL AGENCY RESEARCH ON
                 WETLAND RESTORATION AND
                 CREATION

                       Several Federal agencies have missions, and
                 therefore conduct research activities, that involve wet-
                 lands. This section presents a brief overview of Fed-
                 eral research on wetland restoration and creation. [For
                 more information on wetland research by Federal
                 agencies, see the publications of the Wetlands Research
                 Program of the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (Corps)
                 and the article "Wetland Research by Federal Agen-
                 cies" in this volume.] The Corps has been leading an
                 effort to provide a reference source on current wetland
                 research being conducted by Federal agencies. The
                 first edition (U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Wetlands
                 Research Program, 1992) presents information pro-
                 vided by the Corps, the EPA, the Soil Conservation
                 Service (renamed Natural Resources Conservation
                 Service in October 1994), the Forest Service, the Na-
                 tional Marine Fisheries Service, the U.S. Fish and
                 Wildlife Service, the Bureau of Reclamation, and the           Figure 56. This pond with a fringe of marsh in Portland, Oreg., is a restored
                 U.S. Geological Survey. The Corps surveyed over 25             wetland and is an example of the type of freshwater project wetland most
                 agencies in 1993. To complement the Corps7 reference           common in this country. (Photograph courtesy of the EPA Wetlands Research
                 source, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service is maintain-        Program.)
                 ing the Wetland Creation/Restoration data base to pro-
                 vide a current compilation of the published literature.
                 A hard copy of the bibliographic material contained            increasing the ability to discern which projects have a
                 in the digital data base also has been produced                high probability of restoring or replacing damaged or
                 (Schneller-McDonald and others, 1989).                         lost ecosystems. Two factors that most limit the effec-
                       Federal agencies' research into wetland restora-         tive use of restoration and creation are: (1) lack of
                 tion and creation generally falls into two categories-         information on ecologically mature restored and cre-
                 design implementation and performance evaluation.              ated wetlands, and on the maturation process; and (2)         Ecosystems that
                 Major contributions on project design have been made           the limited number of well designed andwell con-              are least likely to
                 by agencies involved in large-scale development, like          structed project wetlands that can be used as models.
                 the Corps (Maynord and others, 1992) and the Fed-                   In general, restoration is likely to be more suc-        be successfully
                 eral Highway Administration (Marble, 1990). The EPA            cessful than creation. Restoration of a damaged or            replaced are
                 has focused its research on evaluation to support the          destroyed wetland will have a greater chance of estab-
                 agency responsibilities under Section 404 of the Clean         lishing the range of prior wetland functions, includ-         bogs and fens.
                 Water Act (Zedler and Kentula, 1986; Leibowitz and             ing critical habitat. Also, chances are greater for the
                 others, 1992). Agencies responsible for stewardship of         long-term persistence of a restored wetland than for
                 living resources, such as the National Marine Fisher-          one created where none existed before.
                 ies Service, have produced information that will in-
                 crease their effectiveness in management (Thayer,
                 1992).                                                         References Cited
                       The Natural Resources Conservation Service and           Brown, M.T., 1991, Evaluating constructed wetlands through
                 the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service probably will con-               comparisons with natural wetlands: Corvallis, Oreg.,
                 tribute the most information on practical, low-cost                 U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Environmental
                 approaches to wetland restoration under the 1990                    Research Laboratory, EPA/600/3-91/058, 37 p.
                 Farm Bill (Food, Agriculture Conservation and Trade            Confer, S.R., and Niering, W.A., 1992, Comparison of cre-
                 Act of 1990-(P.L. 101-624) and the Wetland Reserve                  ated and natural freshwater emergent wetlands in Con-    Restoration is
                 Program. Under these programs, thousands of wetland                 necticut: Wetlands Ecology and Management, v. 2,         likel to be more
                                                                                     no. 3, p. 143-156.                                              y
                 acres previously converted to agriculture have been            Frenkel, R.E., and Morlan, J.C., 1990, Restoration of the     Successful than
                 restored to wetlands. To support these efforts, both                Salmon River salt marshes-Retrospect and perspec-
                 agencies have produced guidelines for their field per-              tive: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Region 10,   Creation.
                 sonnel who are working with the farmers to restore                  142 p.
                 wetlands (U.S. Soil Conservation Service, 1992;                -1991, Can we restore our saltmarshes? Lessons from
                 Wenzel, 1992). (For more information on legislation                 the Salmon River, Oregon: Northwest Environmental
                 affecting wetlands, see the article "Weiland Protection             Journal, v. 7, p. 119-135.
                 Legislation" in this volume.)                                  Garbisch, EX, Jr., 1986, Highways and wetlands-Com-
                                                                                     pensating wetland losses: McLean, Va., Federal High-
                                                                                     way Administration, Office of Implementation, Contract
                 CONCLUSIONS                                                         Report DOT-FH-11-9442,60 p.
                                                                                Hammer, D.A., ed., 1989, Constructed wetlands for waste-
                       Wetland restoration and creation is more an art               water treatment-Municipal, industrial, and agricul-
                 than a science, and functional replacement of wetlands              tural: Chelsea, Mich., Lewis Publishers, Inc., 831 p.
                 has not been conclusively demonstrated. At the same            Hammer, D.A., 1992, Creating freshwater wetlands: Chelsea,
                 time, the growing body of literature and experience is              Mich., Lewis Publishers, Inc., 298 p.








                    92      National Water Surnmary-Wetland Resources: OVERVIEW OF WETLAND RESOURCES



                                                     Hollands, G.G., 1990, Regional analysis of creation and res-             tal Institute, University of Massachusetts, Publication
                                                          tonation of kettle and pothole wetlands, in Kusler, J.A.,           87-1,p.83-200.
                                                          and Kentula, M.E., eds., Wetland creation and restora-        Olson, R.K., ed., 1992, Special Issue-The role of created
                                                          tion-The status of the science: Washington, D.C., Is-               and natural wetlands in controlling nonpoint source pol-
                                                          land Press, p. 281-298.                                             lution: Ecological Engineering, v. 1, no. 112, p. 1- 170.
                                                     Kentula, M.E., Brooks, R.P., Gwin, S.E., Holland, C.C.,            Pacific Estuarine Research Laboratory, 1990, A manual for
                                                          Sherman, A.D., and Sifneos, J.C., 1992, An approach                 assessing restored and natural coastal wetlands with
                                                          to improving decision making in wetland restoration and             examples from southern California: LaJolla, Calif., Cali-
                                                          creation: Washington, D.C., Island Press, 151 p.                    fornia Sea Grant Report Number T-CSGCP-021, 105
                                                     Kusler, J.A., and Kentula, M.E., eds., 1990a, Wetland cre-               p-
                                                          ation and restoration-The status of the science: Wash-        Roberts, L., 1993, Wetlands trading is a losing game, say
                                                          ington, D.C., Island Press, 591 p.                                  ecologists: Science, v. 260, no. 5116, p. 1,890-1,892.
                                                     Kusler, J.A., and Kentula, M.E., 1990b, Executive summary,         Schneller-McDonald, Karen, Ischinger, L.S., and Auble, G.T.,
                                                          in Kusler, J.A., and Kentula, M.E., eds., Wetland cre-              1989, Wetland creation and restoration-Description
                                                          ation and restoration-The status of the science: Wash-              and summary of the literature: Washington, D.C., U.S.
                                                          ington, D.C., Island Press, p. xvii-xxv.                            Fish and Wildlife Service Biological Report 89, 66 p. +
                                                     Langis, Rene, Zalejko, M.K., and Zedler, J.B., 1991, Nitro-              database records.
                                                          gen assessments in a constructed and natural salt marsh       Stark, Nellie, 1972, Low maintenance vegetation-Wildiand
                                                          of San Diego Bay: Ecological Applications v. 1, p. 40-              shrubs, their biology and utilization: Washington, D,C.,
                                                          51.                                                                 U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Gen-
                                                     Leibowitz, S.G., Preston, E.M., Arnaut, L.Y., Detenbeck,                 eral Technical Report INT-1.
                                                          N.E., Hagley, C.A., Kentula, M.E., Olson, R.K.,               Thayer, G.W., ed., 1992, Restoring the Nation's marine en-
                                                          Sanville, W.D., and Sumner, R.R., 1992, Welland re-                 vironment: College Park, Md., Maryland Sea Grant
                                                          search plan-An integrated risk-based approach:                      College, 716 p.
                                                          Corvallis, Oreg., U.S. Environmental Protection Agen-         Thornburg, A., 1977, Use of vegetation for stabilization of
                                                          cy, Environmental Research Laboratory, EPA/600/R-92/                shorelines of the Great Lakes, in the Proceedings of the
                                                          060, 123 p.                                                         Workshop on the Role of Vegetation in Stabilization of
                                                     Lewis, R.R., Jr., 1990, Wetland restoration/creation/enhance-            the Great Lakes Shoreline: Ann Arbor, Mich., Great
                                                          ment terminology-Suggestions for standardization, in                Lakes Basin Commission, p. 39-53.
                                                          Kusler, J.A., and Kentula, M.E., eds., Wetland creation       U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Wetlands Research Program,
                                                          and restoration-The status of the science: Washington,              1992, National summary of ongoing wetlands research
                                                          D.C., Island Press, p. 417-423.                                     by Federal agencies (1992): Vicksburg, Miss., U.S.
                                                     Marble, A.D., 1990, A guide to wetland functional design:                Army Corps of Engineers, Waterways Experiment Sta-
                                                          McLean, Va., Federal Highway Administration Report                  tion, 69 p.
                                                          Number FRWA-IP-90-010, 222 p.                                 U.S. Soil Conservation Service, 1991, Soils-Hydric soils
                                                     Maynord, S.T., Landin, M.C., McCormick, J.W., Davis, J.E.,               of the United States: Washington, D.C., U.S. Depart-
                                                          Evans, R.A., and Hayes, D.F., 1992, Design of habitat               ment ofAgriculture, Soil Conservation Service Miscel-
                                                          restoration using dredged material at Bodkin Island,                laneous Publication Number 1491.
                                                          Chesapeake Bay, Maryland: Vicksburg, Miss., U.S.              _1992, Field handbook, Chapter 13-Wetland resto-
                                                          Army Corps of Engineers, Waterways Experiment Sta-                  ration, enhancement, and creation: Washington, D.C.,
                                                          tion, Wetlands Research Program Technical Report                    U.S. Department of Agriculture, Soil Conservation
                                                          WRP-1111-3, 33 p. + tables and figures.                             Service, 79 p.
                                                     Mitsch, W.J., and Gosselink, J.G., 1993, Wetlands (second          Wenzel, T.A., 1992, Minnesota wetland restoration guide:
                                                          edition): New York,Van Nostrand Reinhold Company,                   Minneapolis, Minn., Minnesota Board ofWater and Soil
                                                          Inc., 722 p.                                                        Resources.
                                                     National Research Council Committee on Restoration of              Zedler, J.B., 1993, Canopy architecture of natural and planted
                                                          Aquatic Ecosystems-Science, Technology, and Public                  coTdgrass marshes-Selecting habitat evaluation crite-
                                                          Policy, 1992, Restoration of aquatic ecosystems- Sci-               ria: Ecological Applications, v. 3, no. 1, p. 123-138.
                                                          ence, technology, and public policy: Washington, D.C.,        Zedler, J.B., and Kentula, M.E., 1986, Wetlands research
                                                          National Academy Press, 552 p.                                      plan: Corvallis, Oreg., U.S. Environmental Protection
                                                     Niering, W.A., 1989, Effects of stormwater runoff on wet-                Agency, Environmental Research Laboratory, EPA/600/
                                                          land vegetation: Proceedings of the Stormwater Confer-              3-86/009, 118 p,
                                                          ence, Southborough, Mass., New England Institute for
                                                          Environmental Studies, p. 1-38.
                                                     O'Brien, A.L., 1986, Hydrology and the construction of a
                                                          mitigating wetland, in Larson, J.S., and Neill, Christo-      FOR ADDITIONAL INFORMATION: Mary E. Kentula,
                                                          pher, eds., Mitigating freshwater wetland alterations in      Wetlands Research Program, U.S. Environmental Protection
                                                          the glaciated northeastern United States-An assess-           Agency, Environmental Research Laboratory, Corvallis, OR
                                                          ment of the science base: Amherst, Mass., Environmen-         97333














                                                                                          U.S. Geo@ogical Survey Water-Supply Paper 2425








                                                                         National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: RESTORATION, CREATION, AND RECOVERY                                  93


                    Restoraton, Creation and Recovery of Wetands
                    Effects of Hurricane Andrew 0 992) on
                    Wetlands in Southern Florida and Louisiana

                    By John K. Lovelace' and Benjamin                               F. McPherson'

                        Hurricane Andrew was a small but powerful                       made landfall near the southern tip of Florida on the
                    storm that caused massive destruction along a path                  morning ofAugust 24. After passing over the Florida
                    through southern Florida and south-central Louisi-                  Everglades, the storm proceeded in a northwesterly
                    ana in late August 1992 (fig. 57). Rainfall associated              direction across the Gulf of Mexico and made land-
                    with Andrew was light for a hurricane because of the                fall in south-central Louisiana at Point Chevreuil on              Andrew left a
                    small size and rapid forward movement of the storm.                 the morning of August 26. Andrew deteriorated rap-                 path of destruc-
                    However, rainfall totals of more than 7 inches were                 idly after landfall in Louisiana and was downgraded
                    recorded for the storm period in southeastern Florida               to a tropical depression on August 27. The remnants                tion 25 miles wide
                    and Louisiana; a high of 11.9 inches was recorded in                ofAndrew proceeded on a northeasterly path, produc-                and 60 miles long
                    Hammond, La. (Rappaport, 1992). Maximum sus-                        ing severe weather throughout the Southeastern States
                    tained windspeeds of 141 mph (miles per hour), with                 (Rappaport, 1992).
                    gusts of 169 mph, were recorded on August 24, just                      Hurricane Andrew moved across southern
                    before landfall in Florida (Rappaport, 1992). A storm               Florida at an average forward speed of 18 mph (Na-
                    surge of about 17 feet above sea level was recorded                 tional Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration,
                    at Biscayne Bay, Fla. (fig. 58) and about 9 feet near               1992). As it crossed southern Florida, Andrew left a
                    Terrebonne Bay in south-central Louisiana (fig. 59).                path of destruction 25 miles wide and 60 miles long
                        HurricaneAndrew originated in the Nor-thAtlan-                  (Gore, 1993).
                    tic Ocean, moved westward over the Bahamas, and





                                                                                           NORTH
                                                                    -28 6,nl               CAROLINA                                                                            MAP AREA
                                                           T NNESSEE                                                                                           -0
                                      ARKA1\15AS                                        SOL)TH
                                                    7                                   CAROLINA             EXPLANATION                                         000 0 0       0 300100@
                                             27   2arn                       GFORGIA                               Tropical-storm-force winds
                                              6a               ALA13AMA                                            Hurricane-force winds
                      TEXAS           LOUISIAN                                                                                                                      Figure 57. Storm path
                                                                                                                   Hurricane passage                                and areal extent of
                                     2@                7                                                           Storm passage                                    tropical-storm- and
                                                                                                           25 6arn Date and time                                    hurricane-force winds
                                                                              PI        rLORIDA                                                                     produced by Hurricane
                                                                                                                                                                      ndrew, August 1992.
                                                                                                                                                 *v                 (source: Data from
                                               @oo
                                                                                                                                                                    National Oceanic and
                                                                                                                                                                    Atmospheric Administra-
                                                                   0                                                                                                tion, National Weather
                                                                  low                                                                                               Service. Landsat images
                      0                    300 MILES                                                                                                                (photographs) from U.S.
                                                                                        41                                                                          Geological Survey,
                      0           300 KILOMETERS                                                                                                                    EROS Data Center)


                                                                                                                          V
                    @N


                                                                                                                              X









                         August 23,7992       4:53 pm                August 24,1992      4:41 pm                August 25,1992      4:29 pm                August 26,1992      4:17 pm

                          U.S. Geological Survey,








                              94            National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: OVERVIEW OF WETLAND RESOURCES



                                                                                                                                                                                   Hurricane Andrew passed through the heart of the
                                                                                                                                                                            largest wetlands in the United States, the Florida Ev-
                                                                                                                                                                            erglades. (See article "Florida Wetland Resources" in
                                                                                                                                                                            the State Summaries part of this volume.) Perhaps the
                                                                                                0.                                                                          most dramatic effect of the storm's passage through
                                                                       Hollyw od*                                                                                           these wetlands was the major structural damage to
                                            26' -                      7 ":-7 P%T                                                                                           trees caused by the strong winds. The storm passed
                                                                                                                                                                            directly over Biscayne National Park and Everglades
                                                                           Miami                                                                                            National Park, knocking down or severely damaging
                                                                       Coral Gables.                                                                                        mangrove trees on about 70,000 acres of wetlands in
                                                                       So4lh Miami-         /Z                                                                              the two parks. Within the storm's path, virtually all
                                                                       Kendall                                              105
                                                                       Parrine,                                                                                             large trees located in hammock areas (islands of
                                                           culler      S, inns' Q@                                                                                          dense, tropical undergrowth), typically hardwoods,
                                                                       dge,
                                                                                                                                                                            were defoliated and about 25 percent of the trees were
                                            25'- Homestead.
                                            30'     Florida rity                            1                                                                               windthrown or badly broken. About one-fourth of the
                                                                                                                                        Lake
                                                                                                                                        Okeechobs.                          royal palms and one-third of the pine trees in Ever-
                                                                                                                                        THE                   MAP           glades National Park were broken or damaged by the
                                                                                                                                EVERGL4DES                  AREA            winds (fig. 60). Damage to woody vegetation was
                                                           0                 20 MILES                                                                                       most severe near the eye of the storm where winds
                                                           I           I II                             Everglades                                                          were the strongest (Davis and others, 1994). However,
                                                           0           20 KILOMETERS                    National Park                                                       within 20 days surviving trees and shrubs had
                                                                                            0                  100 MILES                                    Biscayne        sprouted new growth (Alper, 1992).
                                                                                            i      I             I          Florida                         National               The storm appeared to have only minor effects
                                                                                            0        100 KILOMETERS             Bay                        Park             on the interior freshwater wetlands of The Ever-
                                                                                                                                                                            glades, which are composed mainly of sawgrass.
                                                                                                                                                                            Nearly all post-storm (August 28 to September 17,
                                            Figure 58. Storm-surge elevations,                       in feet above sea level,                                               1992) water-quality properties sampled by the South
                                            at selected points along the coast of Florida; < indicates                                                                      Florida Water Management District were within the
                                            less than. (Source: Data from U.S. Geological Survey files.)                                                                    range of pre-storm values. These properties included



                                            7 1 . I .                  .I . @ I I I . I                                                       i                                           I
                                            6-                                              A-
                                            5 - Positive----           1@                                      OKLAHOMA
                                 _J         4-     surge
                                 LLJ                                                                                                                       ARKANSAS
                                 >          3 -
                                 Lu
                                            2
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                               GEORGIA
                                 uJ         1
                                 U)
                                            0-                                                                                                                                      MISSISSIPPI                  ALABAMA
                                 3.1        -1 -Negative__--@            -,\SEA LEVEL
                                 0                  urge
                                 -J
                                 UJI        -2
                                 03            22     23   24          25 26 27 28          29 30                                                         LOUISIANA
                                            2.0                                                                      TEXAS
                                 0          1.5
                                 uJ                                                                                                                                                                                    MAP
                                 >          1.0
                                 M0         0.5 11                                                                                      Atchafalaya@                                                                   AREA
                                                                                                                                        River Basin
                                            0@@ 0
                                               @                                                                                                                                          Ha      ond
                                 F-         -0.5-
                                 LU                                                                                                           Cypremort
                                 uJ         -1.0 SEA LEVEL                                                                                    Point
                                 U-         -1.5
                                 Z_         -2.0 Negative-J                                                                                                                                                         0                              200 MILES
                                                    urge
                                            -2.5                                                                                                                                                                   0                   200 KILOMETERS
                                 C)         -3.0
                                            -3.- 22 23     24          25 26 27 28 29       30                                                913.                    912*                    91.                       90*                        89.
                                 >          5.5
                                 Lu                                                                                                                                         \        _,A afalaya                         Ly
                                 _J                                                                                                                                stmary                    RiverBasin
                                 LU         5.0 -                                                                                                                   Parish
                                                                                            C                                           0"
                                 _J         4.5 -                                                                        30' -                                                                          Terrebonne
                                                                                                                                                                                                           Parish
                                 >          4.0 -
                                 LU
                                 LLJ        3*5, Positive                                                                                                                                                                                    4.0
                                            3.0 - surge
                                 UJ         2.5 -                                                                                             Vermilion                                               CA
                                            2.0                                                                                                  Bay
                                 3:         1.5
                                            10                                                                                                                Pt. Chevrouil                                                           0. 7
                                            0,5 -
                                                                             SEA LEVEL      -                            29'                                                             7errebon n                   5.3       0                    50 MILES
                                               22    23    124         25 26 27 '28 29 '30                                                                                  X         C Bay
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                0            50 KILOMETERS
                                            DAYS, @N AUGUST 1992                                                                                                                                                                                     1

                                 Figure 59. Storm-surge elevations, in feet above or below sea level, at selected points along the coast of Louisiana.                                                                        Graphs indicate water
                                 levels at sites A, Vermilion Bay, near Cypremont Point; B, Wax Lake outlet, at Coleman; C, Houma Navigation Canal, at Dulac. (Source:
                                 Data from U.S. Geological Survey files.)







                                                               National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: RESTORATION, CREATION, AND RECOVERY                    95



                 turbidity, color, ammonia, and dissolved phosphate.
                 Wind-heaped, vegetative marsh debris was evident
                 along the edges of some forested islands, and the
                 characteristic periphyton mat (group of stalkless mi-
                 cro-organisms that live attached to surfaces project-
                 ing from the bottom of freshwater bodies) was absent
                 or altered in structure. However, much of The Ever-
                 glades' marsh appeared undamaged by the storm. A
                 significant effect of the wind in the freshwater wet-
                 lands was the destruction of, or damage to, about 80
                 percent of the hydrologic and meteorologic monitor-
                 ing stations located along the storms path (Davis and
                 others, 1994). '
                      The hurricane had little effect on wildlife in The
                 Everglades. Thirty-two deer wearing radio collars for
                 a National Park Service study survived the hurricane,
                 and the releafing of vegetation provided them with
                 food and cover. Adult alligators appeared unaffected,
                 but nests and young may have been adversely affected.
                 Most wading birds survived; estimates of pre- and
                 post-storm populations were similar, and about nor-
                 mal for the late-summer wet season (Davis and oth-
                 ers, 1994).
                      In the marine environment, the major effects of
                 the hurricane were changes in nearshore water qual-
                 ity, patches of intense bottom scouring, and beach
                                                                                                                                            7@
                 overwash. Dramatically increased turbidity persisted
                 in some areas for at least 30 days, particularly in
                 western Biscayne Bay where mangrove peat soils
                 continued to break down and enter the water. In north-
                 eastern Florida Bay, at the southern edge of the af-
                 fected area, concentrations of ammonia, dissolved                                                . .....
                 phosphate, and dissolved organic carbon increased          Figure 60. Hammock (top) and pine forest (bottom) in Everglades
                 dramatically. Phytoplankton (microscopic drifting          National Park, Fla., after Hurricane Andrew, September 1992. (Photo-
                 aquatic plants) blooms added to the increased turbid-      graphs by Benjamin F McPherson, U.S. Geological Survey.)
                 ity and, combined with low dissolved-oxygen concen-
                 trations, could have had severe effects on fish and in-
                 vertebrate populations. In addition, fuel from hun-        damaged trees, primarily willows and some cypress.
                 dreds of damaged boats and marina fuel tanks in            Near the coast, about 80 percent of the trees were
                 Biscayne Bay continued to discharge into the water         knocked down; about 20 miles inland, the estimates
                 for at least 27 days after the hurricane had passed        were about 30 percent. With the loss of trees, an esti-
                 (Davis and others, 1994).                                  mated 50 to 75 percent of the young squirrels in the
                      In Louisiana, the storm surge produced signifi-       area, those produced during the second litter of the
                 cant flooding in a few populated areas in the south-       year, died. The storm had little effect on deer (David
                 ern part of the State. However, there was no major         Morrison, Louisiana Department of Wildlife and
                 flooding of inland rivers. The greatest surge was east     Fisheries, oral commun., 1993).
                 of the point of landfall, where the counterclockwise           In the Atchafalaya River Basin, an estimated 182
                 rotation of winds, combined with forward motion of         million freshwater fish perished because of the
                 the hurricane, pushed water northward (fig. 59). An-       resuspension of anaerobic bottom materials in the
                 drew also produced a negative surge of as much as 3        water column (fig. 61). Most ofthe fish probably died
                 feet below sea level along the coast from about 10         during the first 24 hours after the storm as toxic hy-
                 miles west of landfall to the Texas State line, as the     drogen sulfide was released from bottom sediments,         Hurricane
                 counterclockwise winds west of the hurricane's eye         and decaying organic matter consumed dissolved oxy-        Andrew passed
                 pushed water away from the shore. Because the hur-         gen, causing fish to asphyxiate (Gary Tilyou, Loui-
                 ricane was moving in a northwesterly direction at the      siana Department of Wildlife and Fisheries, oral           through the heart
                 time of landfall, areas near landfall experienced a        commun., 1993). After the storm, U.S. Geological           of the largest
                 negative surge as the hurricane was to the southeast,      Survey personnel measured dissolved-oxygen con-            wetlands in the
                 then a positive surge as the hurricane moved past and      centrations of less than 1 mg/L throughout most of
                 was to the west.                                           the basin, in an area extending northward more than        United States.
                      After making landfall in Louisiana, Hurricane         60 miles from the coast (Charles Demas, U.S. Geo-
                 Andrew curved back towards the northeast, passing          logical Survey, oral commun., 1993). Dissolved-oxy-
                 over the Atchafalaya River Basin, which contains the       gen concentrations in the upper water column of
                 largest hardwood swamp (1.5 million acres) in the          larger water bodies in the Atchafalaya River Basin
                 United States, and Louisiana's largest palustrine wet-     generally range from 3 to 6 mg/L during summer
                 land. (See article "Louisiana Wetland Resources " in       months (Dennis K. Demecheck, U.S. Geological Sur-
                 this volume.) In parts ofthe basin, the storm severely     vey, oral commun., 1994). During the 2 weeks follow-








                    96      National Water Summary-Wetland           Resources: OVERVIEW OF WETLAND RESOURCES



                                   @V:
                                                                        ing the hurricane, fishkills were caused                Sediment deposition in thicknesses of as much as
                                                   0  7-4.              primarily by the movement of water                        10 inches, but averaging less than 1 inch, which
                          _-#e_                                         containing low concentrations of dis-                     killed vegetation and sank part of the floating
                                                                        solved oxygen into previously unaf-                       marsh
                                                                        fected water (Gary Tilyou, Louisiana               Other damage was attributed to vegetative scour,
                                                                        Department of Wildlife and Fisheries,              which resulted from large areas of attached plants
                                                                        oral commun., 1993). The value of                  having their roots torn from the bottom, and salt burn,
                                                                        freshwater fish killed was about $160              which occurred when saline (salty) water from the
                                                                        million, most of which was attributed              Gulf of Mexico was pushed into freshwater areas, kill-
                            ;0
                                    e'                                                  ed 29,000 paddlefish that          ing and damaging salt-sensitive plants (Lee Foot, U.S.
                                                                        to the estimat
                                      V@
                                                                        died. (The paddlefish is an endangered             Fish and Wildlife Service, oral commun., 1993).
                                                                        species and its valuation is based on the               About 25 square miles of coastal wetlands in
                                                                        $2,500 per-fish fine for killing paddle-           Louisiana are being lost every year due to coastal
                                                                        fish.) Estimates of the number of other            erosion and wet] and deterioration. Hurricane Andrew
                                                                        species killed (in millions) include               probably caused substantial immediate loss of coastal
                                                                        shad, 100; bream, 23; crappie, 7; large-           wetlands and possibly has hastened the erosion and
                   Figure 61.   Dead fish   in the Atchafalaya          mouth bass, 5; fresh-water drum, 11;               deterioration processes already at work (Dunbar and
                   River Basin, La., September 2, 1992.                 buffalo, 12; catfish, 11; and carp, I              others, 1992).
                   (Photograph by Charles R. Demas, U.S.                (Harry Blanchet, Louisiana Depart-
                   Geological Survey.)                                  ment of Wildlife and Fisheries, oral               References Cited
                                                                        commun., 1993).
                                                              In the coastal waters, an estimated 9.4 million              Alper, Joe, 1992, Everglades rebound from Andrew: Sci-
                                                          saltwater fish valued at $7.8 million were killed by                  ence, v. 257, p. 1,852-1,854.
                                                          the storm. The exact causes of death are uncertain,              Chabreck, R.H., and Linscombe, Greg, 1978, Vegetative
                                                          but popular theories include suffocation, caused by                   type map of the Louisiana coastal marshes: Louisiana
                                                          clogging of gills by sediment, and gas-bubble disease,                Department of Wildlife and Fisheries, New Orleans,
                                                                                                                                La., 1 sheet.
                                                          caused by the formation of nitrogen bubbles in the               Davis, G.E., Loope, L.L., Roman, C.T., Smith, G., and
                                                          fish's bloodstream due to increased pressure. Most of                 Tilmont, J.T., compilers, 1994, Assessment of Hurri-
                                                          the fish were found along a band of coastline about 5                 cane Andrew impacts on natural and archeological re-
                                                          miles long, just southeast of the point of landfall.                  sources of Big Cypress National Preserve, Biscayne
                                                          Species killed (in millions) include menhaden, 5.7;                   National Park, and Everglades National Park, 15-24
                                                          mullet, 0.9; croaker, 0.9; spotted sea trout, 0.2; sea                September 1992: National Park Service, 158 p.
                                                          catfish, 0.4; black drum, 0.03; and red drum, 0.02               Dunbar, J.B., Britsch, L.D., and Kemp, E.B., IR, 1992, Land
                                                          (Harry Blanchet, Louisiana Department of Wildlife                     loss rates, report 3, Louisianna coastal plain: U.S. Army
                                                          and Fisheries, oral commun., 1993).                                   Corps of Engineers Technical Report GL-90-2, p. 27.
                                                                                                                           Gore, Rick, 1993, Andrew aftermath: National Geographic,
                                                              Large segments of Louisiana's coastal marsh,                      v. 183, no. 4, p. 2-37.
                                                          primarily in Terrebonne and St. Mary Parishes, were              National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, 1992,
                                                          damaged. About 40 percent of the Natiods tidal wet-                   Special climate summary, Hurricane Andrew: National
                                                          lands are located on Louisiana's gulf coast (S.J. Wil-                Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Southeast
                                                          liams, 1993). A substantial part of these wetlands is                 Regional Climate Center, Columbia, S.C., 7 p.
                                                          omposed of fresh and intermediate marsh (Chabreck                Rappaport, Edward, 1992, Preliminary report, Hurricane
                     An estimated 9.4                     and Linscombe, 1978). Much of this marsh is                           Andrew, 16-28 August 1992: National Oceanic and At-
                      million saltwater                   "floatant" (a floating type of marsh). The marsh is                   mospheric Administration, National Weather Service,
                                                          said to float because partially decomposed organic                    National Hurricane Center, Coral Gables, Fla., 28 p.
                   fish valued at $7.8                                                                                     Williams, SJ., Penland, Shea, and Roberts, H.H., 1993,
                                                          matter and intertwining plant roots form a dense mat                  Processes affecting coastal wetland loss in the Louisi-
                   million were killed                    that rises and falls with the water level. The roots Of               ana deltaic plain, in Magoon, O.T., Wilson, W.S., Con-
                            by the storm.                 the plants that make up the mat are unattached, or only               verse, Hugh, and Tbbin, L.T., eds., Coastal Zone '93-
                                                          partly attached, to the bottom (Lee Foot, U.S. Fish                   Proceedings of the Eighth Symposium on Coastal and
                                                          and Wildlife Service, oral commun., 1993).                            Ocean Management, July 19-23, 1993, New Orleans,
                                                              The marsh suffered substantial damage caused by                   La.: New York, American Society of Civil Engineers,
                                                          wind, tide, and wave action. Three specific kinds of                  v. 1, p. 211-219.
                                                          damage were identified:
                                                          ï¿½ Compressed marsh, where a net decrease in sur-
                                                              face area results from the marsh being pushed                FOR ADDITIONAL INFORMATION: John K. Lovelace,
                                                              together, somewhat like an accordion closing                 U.S. Geological Survey, Louisiana District, 3535 S.
                                                          ï¿½ Marsh balls, which are created by the marsh be-                Sherwood Forest Blvd., Suite 120, Baton Rouge, LA 70816;
                                                              ing piled, rolled, or otherwise deformed to cre-             Benjamin F. McPherson, U.S. Geological Survey, T@mpa
                                                              ate large mounds (resulting in decreased surface             Subdistrict, 47 10 Eisenhower Blvd., Suite B-5, Tampa, FL
                                                              area)                                                        33634







                                                                                            U.S. Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper 2425








                                                                    National Water Surnmary-Wetland Resources: RESTORATION, CREATION, AND RECOVERY                          97


                    Restoration, Creation, and Recovery of Wetlands
                    Effects of the Great Midwest Flo od of 1993 on Wetlands

                    By James R. Kolval

                       The Great Midwest Flood of 1993 was the                     100o             95'                                                                   MAP
                                                                                                                                                                          AREA
                    most devastating flood in modem United                                                          90,
                    States history" with economic damages near
                    $20 billion. More than 50,000 homes were                      AKOTA
                    damaged or destroyed. The areal extent, inten-                                       OT
                    sity, and long duration of the flooding makes
                                                                                                                    CONS          45*
                    this event unique in the 20th century (National         ::::@'SOUTI41@
                    Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration,                     DAKOTA,
                    1994). At least 38 people lost their lives as a
                                                                                                                                             EXPLANATION
                    result of this extreme flood (Interagency Flood-
                    lain Management Task Force, 1994).                                                                                           Area of flooding streams
                    p                                                                            o         Refuge,
                                                                                                                                                 Boundary of Mississippi
                                                                                                                                                   River Basin
                       Significant flooding in the Upper Missis-
                    sippi River Basin began in mid-June and per-
                    sisted into early August 1993. The areal extent
                                                                                                                      ILUNOfs 40'
                    of this flooding included southern Minnesota,
                    Southwestern Wisconsin, Iowa, western Illi-
                    nois, northern Missouri, southern North Da-
                                                                                                         AISS
                    kota, and eastern parts of South Dakota, Ne-                                                                        Figure 62. Areal extent of flooding
                    braska, and Kansas (fig. 62).                                                                                       in the Upper Mississippi River Basin
                       Record flood-peak discharge was recorded                                            0    100    200 MILES        during the Great Midwest Flood of
                    at 39 streamflow-gaging stations in the Upper Mis-                                     iI I II .                    1993. (Source: Modified from
                    sissippi River Basin. Fifteen other gaging stations re-                                0  100 200 KILOMETERS        Parrett and others, 1993).
                    corded peak discharges exceeding previous maxi-
                    mum known regulated discharges (Parrett and others,           due to flooded foraging areas. Substrate disturbance
                    1993). The recurrence interval of the peak discharge          and massive sedimentation affected freshwater mus-
                    at 40 stations exceeded the 100-year flood (one-per-          sel populations. Mussels were found buried by I to 2
                    cent chance of occurring in any given year).                  feet of sand. Mammals were displaced from the flood
                       Near-record and record precipitation in June and           plain and suffered higher than normal mortality rates
                    July, falling on soil already saturated by as much as         on adjacent roads and railroad tracks (James
                    twice normal early spring rains, caused these record          Lennartson, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, written
                    floods. Precipitation for the period January-July 1993        commun., 1994). Fishes that rely on sight to find their        -the "most
                    totaled more than 20 inches in most of the flooded            food were handicapped because of the increased tur-            devastating flood in
                    area and more than 40 inches in parts of northeast-           bidity.                                                        modem United
                    em Kansas and east-central Iowa (Wahl, Vining, and                The flooding, however, had some short-term ben-
                    Wiche, 1993). Many areas received more precipita-             efits. Many fish feed and spawn on inundated flood             States history"...
                    tion in those 7 months than is normally received dur-         plains. "Ideal conditions for spring spawning fishes
                    ing the entire year.                                          occur during years in which flood and temperature
                       The Great Midwest Flood of 1993 was unique not             rise are coupled" (Scientific Assessment and Strategy
                    only because of the record high water levels and flows        Team, 1994). The evidence, particularly in the lower
                    and the wide areal extent, but also because of the long       Missouri River flood plain, ""indicates that the
                    duration of flooding. Many rivers were above flood            magnitude and timing of the 1993 flood provided ap-
                    stage for several months. The long period of inunda-          propriate temperature and discharge cues for spawn-
                    tion had significant effects on agricultural land and         ing river-floodplain fishes" (Scientific Assessment            ... a historically
                    wetlands.                                                     and Strategy Team, 1994).                                      unprecedented
                       The flood effects on wetlands varied in both the               The long-term effects of the floods are still be-
                    short term and long term. In the Upper Mississippi            ing evaluated. Fish habitat may have been improved             hydrometeoro-
                    National Wildlife Refuge, the flooding lasted 14              by creation of deep scour holes and massive under-             logical event...
                    weeks-from April through mid-August. "This pro-               water debris piles which provide more cover (James
                    longed inundation of bottom-land hardwood forest              Lennartson, oral commun., 1994). Greater-than-nor-
                    and backwater wetlands caused many tree tip-overs,            mal sedimentation on flood plains and in wetland
                    scoured out ground cover and tree regeneration sites,         ponds may have introduced contaminants and excess
                    eroded islands, destroyed emergent/submergent veg-            nutrients into those areas. Exotic plants such as purple
                    etation beds, impacted project dikes, and thus de-            loosestrife have colonized disturbed areas and dis-
                    stroyed most of the moist soil plants at three sites;'        placed native vegetation (Susan Hassletine, U.S. Fish
                    according to James Lennartson of the U.S. Fish and            and Wildlife Service, oral commun., 1994). Purple
                    Wildlife Service. The effects on wildlife populations         loosestrife colonies also have been observed at higher
                    also were severe. Many birds, including green-backed          elevations than normal, probably because seeds were
                    herons and red-shouldered hawks, fledged few young            carried by the extremely high floodwaters to these

                     I U.S. Geological Survey.








                    98     National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: OVERVIEW OF WETLAND RESOURCES



                                                                                                                      event by 9-23 percent, but only by 5-10 percent in a
                                                                                                                      100-year event. Flood-plain wetlands decreased
                                                                                                                      flooding 5-6 percent for I-year floods and only 2-3
                                                                                                                      percent for the 100-year storms.
                                                                                                                           The Executive Summary of the Report of the In-
                                                                                                                      teragency Floodplain Management Review Commit-
                                                                                                                      tee to the Administrative Floodplain Management
                                                                                                                      Task Force (1994) states the effect that wetlands had
                                                                                                                      on the Great Midwest Flood of 1993:
                                                                                                                           The loss of wetlands and upland cover and the
                                                                                                                           modification of the landscape throughout the
                                                                                                                           basin over the last century and a half signifi-
                                                                                                                           cantly increased runoff. * * *Although upland
                                                                            -------                                        watershed treatment and restoration of upland
                                                                                                                           and bottom-land wetlands can reduce flood
                                 This perimeter levee surrounding the Clarence Cannon National Wildlife                    stages in more frequent floods (25 years and
                                 Refuge, Mo., damaged during the 1993 flooding, allowed excessive                          less), it is questionable whether they would
                                 water to enter the refuge. (Photograph courtesy of U.S. Fish and Wildlife
                                 Service.)                                                                                 have significantly altered the 1993 conditions
                                                                                                                           (Interagency Floodplain Management Task
                                                      locations (James Lennartson, oral commum., 1994).                    Force, 1994).
                                                      Flood debris on flood plains has caused access prob-                 In conclusion, the Great Midwest Flood of 1993
                                                      lems for people at some places, but provides good               was a historically unprecedented hydrometeorologi-
                                                      wildlife cover. Open wetland aquatic vegetation ap-             cal event in area affected, severity of the effects, and
                                                      peared to be back to normal condition during the sum-           duration of the effects. Wetlands were affected ben-
                                                                                                                      eficially and detrimentally in the short and long term.
                                                      mer of 1994 (Susan Hassletine, oral commum., 1994).             The historical loss of wetlands from the basin in-
                                                           Wetlands commonly mitigate the effects of                  creased the severity of the flood, but even if all
                                                      floods. Wetland areas can be filled with and tempo-             presettlement wetlands had still existed, the flood
                                                      rarily store floodwaters so that flood effects on agri-         would probably still have set records and caused bil-
                                                      cultural and residential areas are lessened. However,           lions of dollars in damages.
                                                      wetlands have been steadily dissappearing or con-
                                                                     verted to other uses throughout the
                                                                     flood-affected area for the last two cen-        References Cited
                                                                     turies (see "History of Wetlands in the          Interagency Floodplain Management Task Force, 1994,
                                                                     Conterminous United States" in this                   Report to the Administration Floodplain Management
                                                                     volume). These wetlands include the                   Task Force-Sharing the Challenge: Floodplain Man-
                                                                     river flood plains and the upland prai-               agement into the 21st Century, 191 p.
                                                                     rie potholes.                                    National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, 1994,
                                                                          Many upland prairie pothole wet-                 Natural disaster survey report, The Great Flood of
                                                                     lands are closed flow systems, which                  1993, [281 p.].
                                                                     fill with rain and melting snow and then         Parrett, Charles, Melcher, N.B., and James, R.W., Jr., 1993,
                                                                     slowly evaporate or drain through the                 Flood disharges in the Upper Mississippi River Basin,
                                                                     ground-water system. Thus, they are                   in Floods in the Upper Mississippi River Basin, 1993:
                  ir                                                 ideal retention basins during and after               U.S. Geological Survey Circular 1120-A, 14 p.
                                                                                                                      Scientific Assessment and Strategy Team, 1994, Preliminary
                                                                     intense rains because they "do not nor-               report to the Interagency Floodplain Management Re-
                                                                     mally contribute to stream flow by run-               view Committee of the Administration Floodplain
                                                                     off, except during storms large enough                Management Task Force-Science for floodplain man-
                                                                     to make the depressions fill and spill"               agenient into the 21st century.
                                                                     (Scientific Assessment and Strategy              Wahl, K.L., Vining, K.C., and Wiche, G.J., 1993, Precipi-
                                                                     Team, 1994). This seems to have been                  tation in the Upper Mississipi River Basin-January 1
                                                                     the case in the flood of 1993. All avail-             through July 31, 1993, in Floods in the Upper Missis
                                                                                                                           sippi River Basin, 1993: U.S. Geological Circular
                                                                     able storage capacity of the wetlands                 1120-B, 13 p.
                                                                     was exceeded, and usually noncontrib-
                  These prairie grasses (foreground) and             uting areas did contribute to runoff (In-
                  trees (background) were killed by the
                  excessive water resulting from the long-           teragency Floodplain Management
                  term flooding of the Mississippi River in          Task Force, 1994). In modeling done by
                  the summer of 1993. (Photograph                    the Scientific Assessment and Strategy           FOR ADDITIONAL INFORMATION: James R. Kolva,
                  courtesy of U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service.)       Team (1994), upland wetlands simu-               U.S. Geological Suevey, Utah District, 1745 West 1700
                                                                     lated decreased flooding in a I-year             South, Salt Lake City, UT 84104







                                                                                         U.S. Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper 2425













                                                                       State SummaHes
                                                                      of Wefland Resources






                                                                                            1,7

                                                                                            7





















                                                                                    Horicon Marsh, Wisconsin, provides recreational
                                                                                                opportunities for outdoor enthusiasts.
                                                                          (Photograph by Phillip]. Redman, U.S. Geological Survey.)





                                                                                                                                            99



























                                                     State Summaries of Wetland Resources

                                                     Alabama       ......................... 101         Maine      ............................. 213         Oklahoma        ....................... 315
                                                     Alaska        ............................. 107     Maryland and District                                Oregon     ......................... - 321
                                                     Arizona       ........................... 115         of Columbia        .................  219          Pennsylvania        ................... 327
                                                     Arkansas      ......................... 121         Massachusetts        .................  225          Puerto Rico       ..................... 333
                                                     California    ................  ....... 127         Michigan        ........................ 231         Rhode island        ................... 339
                                                     Colorado      ......................... 135         Minnesota        ....................... 237         South Carolina         ................ 345
                                                     Connecticut        .................... 141         Mississippi       ...................... 243         South Dakota         .................. 351
                                                     Delaware      ........................ 147          Missouri      .......................... 249         Tennessee       ....................... 357
                                                     Florida       ............................ 153      Montana        ......................... 255         Texas     .............................. 363
                                                     Georgia       ........................... 161       Nebraska        ........................ 261         U.S. Virgin Islands         .......... 369
                                                     Hawaii        ............................ 167      Nevada       ........................... 267         Utah     ............................... 375
                                                     Idaho         .............................. 173    New Hampshire ..          .......  --   273          Vermont      ...  ...................... 381
                                                     Illinois      ............................. 179     New Jersey        ...................... 279         Virginia     ........................... 387
                                                     Indiana       ........................... 185       New Mexico           ................... 285         Washington         .................... 393
                                                     Iowa          .......................  ....... 191  New York         ....................... 291         West Virginia       ........  ......... 399
                                                     Kansas        ............................ 195      North Carolina          ................ 297         Western Pacific Islands            ... 405
                                                     Kentucky .    ........................ 201          North Dakota         .................. 303          Wisconsin       .............  ......... 411
                                                     Louisiana     ........................ 207          Ohio ... ...........................    309          Wyoming         ........................ 417



















                             100








                                                                                                                                                                                     National Water Summary-Wetland Resources 101
                                                                                                                                                                                                               Alabama
                                                                                                                                                                                       Wetland Resources
                            Wflands cover about 10 percent of Alabama and range in size                                                                At the most general level of the classification system, wetlands are
                            from small areas of less than an acre scattered throughout the State                                                       grouped into five ecological systems: Palustrine, Lacustrine, Riv-
                            to a large forested tract of more than 100,000 acres in the Mobile-                                                        erine, Estuarine, and Marine. The Palustrine System includes only
                            Tensaw River Delta (fig, 1). Wetlands are a valuable resource be-                                                          wetlands, whereas the other systems comprise wetlands and
                            cause they can reduce flood stages, stabilize banks, and improve                                                           deepwater habitats. Wetlands of the systems that occur in Alabama
                            water quality. Alabama's wetlands also are important nesting, breed-                                                       are described below.
                            ing, nursing, and feeding grounds for many species offish, birds,
                            and other wildlife and are a vital habitat for rare and endangered                                                         System                                                      Wetland description
                            plants and animals and for migrating waterfowl (Shaw and Fredine,
                            1956). Some of the spring-fed wetlands in the State are home to                                                            Palustrine       .................. Nonticlal and tida [-freshwater wetlands in which
                            threatened or endangered species such as the watercress darter,                                                                                                  vegetation is predominantly trees (forested wet-
                            coldwater darter, and pygmy sculpin. Commercial and recreational                                                                                                 lands); shrubs (scrub-shrub wetlands); persis-
                                                                                                                                                                                             tent or noripersistent emergent, erect, rooted
                            fisheries are sustained in large part by species that spend at least                                                                                             herbaceous plants (persistent- and nonpersis-
                            part of their life cycle in wetlands. The State's wetlands and adja-                                                                                             tent-emergent wetlands); or submersed and (or)
                            cent waters also are used for recreational activities such as hunt-                                                                                              floating plants (aquatic beds). Also, intermit-
                            ing, boating, bird watching, and photography and for research and                                                                                                tently to permanently flooded open-water bod-
                                                                                                                                                                                             ies of less than 20 acres in which water is less
                            education.                                                                                                                                                       than 6.6 feet deep.
                                                                                                                                                       Lacustrine        ................. Nontidal and tidal-freshwater wetlands within an
                            TYPES AND DISTRIBUTION                                                                                                                                           intermittently to permanently flooded lake or
                                                                                                                                                                                             reservoir larger than 20 acres and (or) deeper
                                    Wetlands are lands transitional between terrestrial and                                                                                                  than 6.6 feet. Vegetation, when present, is pre-
                            deepwater habitats where the water table usually is at or near the                                                                                               dominantly noripersistent emergent plants
                                                                                                                                                                                             (nonpersistent-emergent wetlands), or sub-
                            land surface or the land is covered by shallow water (Cowardin and                                                                                               mersed and (or) floating plants (aquatic beds),
                            others, 1979). The distribution of wetlands and deepwater habitats                                                                                               or both.
                            in Alabama is shown in figure 2A; only wetlands are discussed                                                              Riverine       ..................... Nonticlal and tidal-freshwater wetlands within a
                            herein.                                                                                                                                                          channel. Vegetation, when present, is same as
                                    Wetlands can be vegetated or nonvegetated and are classified                                                                                             in the Lacustrine System.
                            on the basis of their hydrology, vegetation, and substrate. In this                                                        Estuarine       ................... Tidal wetlands in low-wave-energy environments
                            summary, wetlands are classified according to the system proposed                                                                                                where the salinity of the water is greater than
                            by Cowardin and others (1979), which is used by the U.S. Fish and                                                                                                0.5 part per thousand ippo and is variable ow-
                                                                                                                                                                                             ing to evaporation and the mixing of seawater
                            Wildlife Service (FWS) to map and inventory the Nations wetlands.                                                                                                and freshwater.
                                                                                                                                                       Marine       ....................... Tidal wetlands that are exposed to waves and cur-
                                                                                                                                                                                             rents of the open ocean and to water having a
                                                                                                                                                                                             salinity greater than 30 ppt.

                                                                                                                                                               The Fws estimates that wetlands cover from 2.3 million to 3.1
                                                                                                                                                       million acres in Alabama Q.M. Hefner, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Ser-
                                                                                                                                                       vice, written commun., 1992). Palustrine forested wetlands such as
                                                                                                                                                       cypress and gum swamps, mixed hardwood forests, and wet pine
                                                                                                                                                       flatwoods account for most of that acreage.
                                                                                                                                                               Most of the State's forested wetlands are bottom-land forests
                                                                                                                                                       in alluvial flood plains. Cypress and tupelo gum commonly pre-
                                                                                                                                                       dominate in the permanently or seasonally flooded areas (swamps),
                                                                                                                                                       whereas other trees such as swamp oak, water hickory, red maple,
                                                                                                                                                       magnolia, sweetgum, and sycamore are more common in less fre-
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    -land forest has been
                                                                                                                                                       quently inundated areas. The loss of bottom
                                                                                                                                                       extensive throughout the Southeastern United States; in some re-
                                                                                                                                                       gions, only a small percentage of the original hardwood forests
                                                                   T,                                                                                  remains (Mitsch and Gosselink, 1986). Alabama has conserved a
                                                                                                                                                       lar      tract of its bottom-land forest along approximately 50 miles
                                                                                                                                                           ge
                                                                                                                                                       of the Mobile-Tensaw River Delta.
                                                                                                                                                               Other palustrine wetlands, such as shrub swamps (scrub-shrub
                                                                                                                                                       wetlands) and seepage bogs (emergent wetlands), exist as small,
                                                                                                                                                       isolated wetlands in the Coastal Plain of Alabama (fig. 2,B). These
                                                                                                                                                       wetlands typically are associated with ground-water seepage in
                                                     Figure 1. Cypress trees and                      marsh in the Mobile-                             swales or near the bottom of slopes. Seepage bogs support a unique
                                                     Tensaw River Delta. A large tract of delta wetlands                                               and diverse flora, including at least 20 species of carnivorous plants
                                                     has been designated a National Natural Landmark                                                   such as pitcher plants, sundews, butterworts, and bladderworts. The
                                                     by the National Park Service. (Photograph by                                                      bogs also are home to several species of orchids and a variety of
                                                     Benjamin F McPherson, U.S. Geological Survey.)                                                    sedges (Mohlenbrock, 1992). Fresh marshes, emergent wetlands








                   102    National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: STATE SUMMARIES



                   vegetated primarily by sedges, rushes, and grasses, commonly                of Coastal Plain rivers. Whereas many riverine wetlands have been
                   fringe ponds, reservoirs, and fresh tidal reaches of coastal rivers.        converted to deepwater habitat by impoundment, riverine wetlands
                         Although not as abundant as palustrine wetlands, lacustrine           are still present in the shallows of the remaining streams and rivers
                   and riverine wetlands constitute a significant proportion of                that have not been impounded. Rocky shoals are riverine rock-bot-
                   Alabama's freshwater wetlands. There are few natural lakes in the           tom wetlands that were once more common upstream from the Fall
                   State, but impoundments on most of the larger rivers have created           Line in most of the State's rivers before they were impounded. These
                   many acres of lacustrine wetlands in the shallows of the reservoirs.        wetlands are now present only in the Cahaba River system (which
                   These wetlands can be nonvegetated (unconsolidated-bottom wet-              remains largely unimpounded) and in a few tributaries of other, now-
                   lands), vegetated by emergent plants such as American lotus and             impounded rivers. Rocky shoals, primarily in the Cahaba River and
                   golden club that are not visible above the water surface during part        the Little Cahaba River (a tributary), support stands of the Cahaba
                   of the year (nonpersistent- emergent wetlands), or vegetated by             lily, a spider lily that grows only in the rocky-shoal habitat (Cahaba
                   plants such as water lily or pondweed that grow on or below the             River Society, 1992).
                   water surface (aquatic-bed wetlands).                                            Estuarine marshes (emergent wetlands) are extensive in
                         Like lacustrine wetlands, riverine wetlands are nonvegetated          Alabama's coastal waters. Salt marshes form along tidally influenced
                   or vegetated by norpersistent emergent or submersed plants. Veg-            river reaches, on deltas, and on the shores of estuaries and bays. Salt
                   etated riverine wetlands are most common in slow-flowing reaches            marshes that are greatly influenced by seawater, such as those on


                           A                                                   8V
                                                            5


                                                           7,                                                             B          ntarior Low
                                 r                                     rn                                                            Plateaus





                            34.



                                                                                                                                                  Piedmont
                                                                                                                                                  Provinco
                                                                                         @J'





                                                                                                                                       Coastal Plain
                                             7


                                                     _T




                                                                                                                                           PHYSIOGRAPHIC DEVISIONS






                                                         2" ---- - - --- - ---
                                                                                                         WETLANDS AND DEEPWATER HABITATS
                                                                                                         Distribution of wetlands and deepwater habitats-
                                                                                                           This map shows the approximate distribution of large
                                                j                                                          wetlands in the State. Because of limitations of scale
                                                                                                           and source material, some wetlands are not shown

                                                                                                                Predominantly wetland

                                                                                                                Predominantly deepwater habitat



                         11 T_

                                                                        0        25        50 MILES
                                                                              '5    0
                                         j                              0    2     5 KILOMETERS
                    Grand 3Y           B    y   Dral
                                                                        P









































                    Savanna NW          uarine    Reserve

                     Douphin 11 1            NWR
                                 Fort Morgan


                   Figure 2. Wetland distribution in Alabama and physiography of the State. A, Distribution of wetlands and deepwater habitats. 8, Physiog-
                   raphy. (Sources:A, TE. Dahl, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, unpub. data, 1991. 8, Physiographic divisions from Fenneman, 1946; landforms
                   data from EROS Data Center.)








                                                                                                                                          National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: ALABAMA                                          103



                                                                                                                                                          Little Dauphin Island and the Fort Morgan peninsula,
                                                                                                                                                          are vegetated predominantly by dense stands of black
                                                                                                                                                          needlerush in areas that are flooded during extreme
                           A. Interior Low Plateaus                                                                                                       high tides and by smooth cordgrass in areas that are
                           PALUSTRINE WETLAND                   PALUSTRINE WETLAND                                                                        flooded more regularly (Stout, 1979). In contrast,
                                                                                                                                                          coastal marshes in less saline habitats have a greater
                                                                                                                                                          d
                                                                                                                                                           iversity of emergent plants (Stout, 1990). Field and
                                                                              RIVERINE WETLAND
                                                                                                                                                          others (199 1) estimated that coastal salt marshes cover
                                                                                                                    PALUSTRINE WETLANDS                   25,500 acres in southern Alabama.
                                   - ------------                                                                                                                Beds of submersed aquatic vegetation grow in
                                                              0                                                      Marsh               Marsh
                                                                                                                                                          the shallow waters of Mobile Bay and adjacent estu-
                                                                                                                        RIVERINE WETLAND                  aries; they are usually inundated except during low
                                                                                                                                                          tide (Stout, 1990). Only the zone of these aquatic beds
                                                                                                                                                          exposed during mean low tide is considered to be wet-
                                                                                                                                                          land by the Fws National Wetland Inventory; most
                                                                                                   Unnestone                                              estuarine aquatic beds are in deepwater habitats.

                                                                                                                                                          HYDROLOGIC SETTING

                                                                                                                                                                 Wetlands form where there is a persistent water
                           B. Appalachian Plateaus                                                                                                        supply at or near the land surface. The location and
                                     PALUSTRINE WETLAND                                                                                                   persistence of the supply is controlled by factors such
                                                                                                                                                          as precipitation, evapotranspiration, topography, soil
                                             RIVERNE WE LAND                                                                                              type, geology, runoff, and, near the coast, tides. Plen-
                                                           T
                           Ss                                                                                                                             tiful rainfall, about 55 inches per year statewide
                           Shale',                     E        PALUSTRINE WETLANDS
                                                                                                         PALUSTRINE WETLANDS                              (Jeffcoat and Mooty, 1986), is an important factor
                             Coal                                                                                                                         contributing to wetland formation and maintenance
                           Sandstone (Ss)                                                                 RIVERINE WETLAND                                in Alabama. Wetlands commonly form in topographi-
                                                                                                                                                          cally low areas, in areas of impeded drainage, and at
                                                                                                                                                          locations where the water table intersects the land
                                                                                                                                                          surface. The movement of ground water into wetlands
                                Shale
                                                                                                                                                          is controlled by hydraulic gradients (which are pri-
                                                                                                                                                          marily determined by topography), recharge from
                                                                                                                            Sh.1                          Precipitation, regional geologic structure, joints and
                           I               Sandstone                                                                                                      fractures in the bedrock, and aquifer porosity, perme-
                                                                                                                                                          ability, and thickness.
                                                                                                                                                                 For the purpose of discussing wetland hydrology,
                           C Coastal Plain                                                                                                                Alabama can be divided into two geohydrollogic re-
                                        PALUSTRINE WETLANDS                                 PALUSTRiNE WETLANDS                                           gions that are separated by the Fall Line (fig. 2B). The
                                                                                                                                                          Fall Line is a regional topographic feature that marks
                                                                                            Tidal freshwater swamp
                                                                                                                                  ESTUARINE               the boundary between the ancient, resistant crystal-
                                              -7-                                                        Mobile-Tensaw            WETLANDS                line rocks of the northern part of the State and the
                                                                                                          Ri- Delta
                                                                                                                                                          younger, softer sediments to the south.
                                                   <                                                  -7-
                                                                                                    < -                                                          The region north of the Fall Line in Alabama lies
                                                                                                                3
                                                                                                                                                          in four physiographic provinces-the Interior Low
                                                                                                                                                          Plateaus, the Appalachian Plateaus, the Valley and
                                     Sand aquifer                                                                                                         Ridge, and the Piedmont (fig. 2B). This region has
                                                                                                         Freshwater                                       diverse topography; altitudes range from 200 to 2,400
                                                                                                                                                          feet above sea level. Wetlands in this region are com-
                           -------------   Confining laVer                                                                        Saltwater               monly associated with rivers, reservoirs, and im-
                                                                                                                                                          poundments (as in Wheeler National Wildlife Refuge)
                                                       Confined aquifer                                                                                   or with springs, seeps, and solution features such as
                                                                                                                                                          caves and sinkholes (fig. 3A and 3B). Most of the
                                                                          EXPLANATION                                                                     once-common rocky-shoal habitat has been destroyed
                                                   Direction of ground-water                C@     Scrub-shrub vagetation                                 by channelization and damming of rivers, except in
                                                     flow                                                                                                 the Cahaba River Basin and a few tributaries of other
                                                   Average water table                             Emergent vegetation                                    rivers (Cahaba River Society, 1992). Most of the major
                                                                                                                                                          springs in the State are in the Interior Low Plateaus
                                                                                                                                                          and Valley and Ridge Province, where carbonate rocks
                                                   Forest vegetation                        lk)?   Submersed aquatic                                      predominate. These rocks characteristically are frac-
                                                                                                    vegetation                                            tured and cavernous and readily transmit ground
                                                                                                   Sand and organic                                       water to the land surface (Chandler and Moore, 1987).
                                                                                                    deposits                                              Isolated wetlands have formed near springs and seeps
                           Figure 3. Generalized geohydrologic setting of wetlands in three physiograph-                                                  and in sinkholes throughout the northern part of the
                           ic provinces of Alabama. A, Appalachian Plateaus. B, Interior Low Plateaus.                                                    State. Byrd Spring Swamp (also known as Byrd
                           C, Coastal Plain.                                                                                                              Spring Lake), a 650-acre wetland containing tupelo








                  104     National Water Surnmary-Wetland Resources: STATE SUMMARIES



                  gum and other bottom-land hardwoods, is a notable example of a               and commercial development, residential development, erosion and
                  wetland that is spring fed from a karst cave system (U.S. Fish and           subsidence, and natural succession from wetlands to uplands (Roach
                  Wildlife Service, 1992).                                                     and others, 1987). Much of the loss of coastal wetlands occurred in
                        The region south of the Fall Line in Alabama-the Coastal               the Mobile Bay area, where the loss was due to direct and indirect
                  Plain-has a gentle slope on which rivers and streams have devel-             effects of dredging (Duke and Kruczynski, 1992). Stout (1979) es-
                  oped broad flood plains shaped by wide seasonal fluctuations in              timated that about 6,000 acres of marshland in the bay have been
                  river levels. Wetlands have formed over extensive areas on these             destroyed and about 2,200 acres of marshland created by deposi-
                  flood plains in response to an abundant supply of water from river           tion of dredged material. Cumulative effects of alterations of all
                  flooding and ground-water sources. The hydrology of flood-plain              kinds on the Mobile Bay ecosystem resulted in a loss of more than
                  wetlands is typically dominated by river water levels that respond           10,000 acres of emergent estuarine marsh and probably more than
                  to basinwide climatic conditions (Winter and Woo, 1990). In late             50 percent of the submerged aquatic vegetation in the bay between
                  winter and early spring, annual flooding by rivers and streams can           1955 and 1979 (Watzin and others, in press).
                  inundate the entire flood plain to depths of several feet or more.                The Fws recently evaluated wetland changes in upper Mobile
                  Natural levees along rivers and streams trap water in the flood plain        Bay (Watzin and others, in press). The evaluation revealed no addi-
                  and reduce surface runoff (Hofstetter, 1983). Water trapped in flood-        tional loss of estuarine-marsh acreage since 1979 and reported a
                  plain wetlands is lost primarily by evapotranspiration and as ground-        substantial (75 percent) increase in freshwater marsh from 1979 to
                  water recharge (Winter and Woo, 1990). During much of the year,              1988, The increase in freshwater marsh was attributed to growth of
                  water levels in the flood plains are at or below the land surface,           emergent vegetation in disposal areas and ditches and to mapping
                  except in ponds, depressions, and sloughs, which can retain surface          errors in earlier inventories. About 1,200 acres (2.7 percent) of for-
                  water year round.                                                            ested wetlands in the upper Mobile Bay area were lost or converted
                        Wetlands on flood plains also are sustained by ground water            to scrub-shrub wetlands between 1979 and 1988. A major cause of
                  (fig. 3C). A rise in river stage causes water to go into bank storage,       the conversions was clearcutting associated with timber harvest.
                  which results in a rise in ground-water levels in the flood plain.           Losses were due largely to creation of impoundments and commer-
                  Ground-water inflow from adjacent uplands also can be an impor-              cial development.
                  tant source of water to flood-plain wetlands because flood plains                 Wetland regulations currently (1993) in effect generally allow
                  are topographically low and are a natural place for discharge from           wetland destruction only when mitigated by wetland enhancement
                  ground-water flow systems (Winter and Woo, 1990).                            or creation. The effectiveness of these measures in slowing wetland
                        On flood plains near the coast, river discharge combined with          loss will depend upon enforcement of and compliance with the
                  tidal action causes flooding and temporary storage of freshwater in          mitigation requirements. The effectiveness of wetland mitigation in
                  large areas of wetlands, such as those in the Mobile-Tensaw River            sustaining the ecological functions of wetlands remains in question
                  Delta (fig. 3C). The temporary storage affects the timing and size           (Stout, 1979; Alabama Department of Environmental Management,
                  of freshwater influx into Mobile Bay, which is critical in maintain-         1992).
                  ing optimal salinities in the bay. Temporary storage of freshwater
                  in the delta wetlands also improves the quality of the water that flows      CONSERVATION
                  into the bay by reducing nutrient and sediment loads and by increas-
                  ing organic detrital loads that serve as a food source for many es-               Many government agencies and private organizations partici-
                  tuarine organisms (Dardeau and others, 1990; Stout, 1990).                   pate in wetland conservation in Alabama. The most active agencies
                        Estuarine wetlands form where freshwater and saltwater Mix             and organizations and some of their activities are listed in table 1.
                  and can be subject to widely varying salinity caused by tidal fluc-               Federal wetland activities.-Development activities in Ala-
                  tuations and by seasonal and annual differences in freshwater in-            bama wetlands are regulated by several Federal statutory prohibi-
                  put that result from climate variation. Plants and animals of estua-         tions and incentives that are intended to slow wetland losses. Some
                  rine wetlands must be adapted to constantly changing hydrologic,             of the more important of these are contained in the 1899 Rivers and
                  salinity, and nutrient-availability regimes. Owing to the differing          Harbors Act; the 1972 Clean Water Act and amendments; the 1985
                  physiological tolerances of wetland plants and animals, wetland              Food Security Act; the 1990 Food, Agriculture, Conservation, and
                  communities develop in identifiable zones in response to those fac-          Trade Act; the 1986 Emergency Wetlands Resources Act; and the
                  tors.                                                                        1972 Coastal Zone Management Act.
                                                                                                    Section 10 of the Rivers and Harbors Act gives the U.S. Army
                  TRENDS                                                                       Corps of Engineers (Corps) authority to regulate certain activities
                                                                                               in navigable waters. Regulated activities include diking, deepening,
                        Alabama has lost as much as 50 percent of its wetlands in the          filling, excavating,and placing of structures. The related section 404
                  last 200 years (Dahl, 1990). In predevelopment times, wetlands               of the Clean Water Act is the most often-used Federal legislation
                  covered about 7.6 million acres of the area that is now Alabarna.            protecting wetlands. Under section 404 provisions, the Corps issues
                  Recent estimates of the remaining wetland acreage in Alabama range           permits regulating the discharge of dredged or fill material into
                  from 2.3 million to 3.1 million acres (J.M. Hefner, U.S. Fish and            wetlands. Permits are subject to review and possible veto by the U.S.
                  Wildlife Service, written commun., 1992) to about 3.8 million acres          Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), and the FWS has review and
                  (U.S. Department of Agriculture, 1985). Differences in the estimates         advisory roles. Section 401 of the Clean Water Act grants to States
                  possibly reflect differences in inventory terminology or techniques.         and eligible Indian Tribes the authority to approve, apply conditions
                        Alabama lost about 10 percent of its interior wetlands from            to, or deny section 404 permit applications on the basis of a pro-
                  1956 through 1979 (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 1992). Primary            posed activity's probable effects on the water quality of a wetland.
                  causes for the loss of the interior wetlands were agricultural con-               Most farming, ranching, and silviculture activities are not sub-
                  version of wetlands to croplands, conversion of bottom-land hard-            ject to section 404 regulation. However, the "Swampbuster" provi-
                  wood forests to pine culture, and inundation caused by reservoir             sion of the 1985 Food Security Act and amendments in the 1990
                  construction.                                                                Food, Agriculture, Conservation, and Trade Act discourage (through
                        Alabama lost about 69 percent of its coastal freshwater marsh          financial disincentives) the draining, filling, or other alteration of
                  and 29 percent of its estuarine marsh from 1955 through 1979. Pri-           wetlands for agricultural use. The law allows exemptions from pen-
                  mary reasons for the loss of these coastal wetlands were industrial          alties in some cases, especially if the farmer agrees to restore the








                                                                                                                                                             National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: ALABAMA                                                      105



                             Table 1. Selected wetland-related activities of government                                                                (Frank Dukes, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, oral commun., 1992).
                             agencies and private organizations in Alabama, 1993                                                                       The Corps manages 14 impoundments in the State and more than
                             [Source: Classification of activities is generalized from information provided                                            100 public-use areas (U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, 198 1). Mili-
                                 by agencies and organizations. ., agency or organization participates in                                              tary bases in Alabama cover an area of about 400,000 acres, some
                                 wetland-related activity; ..., agency or organization does not participate in                                         of which contain wetlands. The Sanctuaries and Reserves Division
                                 wetland-related activity. MAN, management; REG, regulation; R&C, restora-
                                 tion and creation; LAN, land acquisition, R&D, research and data collection;                                          of NOAA, in cooperation with the State of Alabama, manages the
                                 D&I, delineation and inventory]                                                                                       Weeks Bay National Estuarine Research Reserve. The Tennessee
                                                                                                                                                       Valley Authority (TVA) maintains 3,750 acres of managed wetlands
                                                                                                               C'                                                 hern Alabama (Wes James, Tennessee Valley Authority, oral
                                                                                                                                                       in nort
                             Agency or organization                                                                                                    commun., 1993). The Wildlife and Natural Heritage Resources
                             FEDERAL                                                                                                                   Section of TVA develops and implements conservation and manage-
                             Department of Agriculture                                                                                                 ment strategies to ensure protection of wildlife and natural heritage
                               Consolidated Farm Service Agency.,               ..........................                                             resources on TvA lands and promotes protection and enhancement
                               Forest Service      ...................................... ...........................                                  of such resources elsewhere in the region. The Natural Heritage
                               Natural Resources Conservation Service                  .................                                               Resources Section, in cooperation with State wildlife-management
                             Department of Commerce                                                                                                    agencies and the FWS, operates projects that provide critical wet-
                               National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration .                                                                       land habitats that support migratory waterfowl and other important
                             Department of Defense
                               Army Corps of Engineers            ...............................................                                      wetland species.
                               Military reservations           ....................................  ...............                                            Although it does not manage wetlands, EPAs wetland-research
                             Department of the Interior                                                                                                programs facilitate wetland management and conservation in Ala-
                               Fish and Wildlife Service          ...............................................                                      barna. The EPA, in cooperation with State and other Federal agen-
                               Geological Survey         ............................... ...........................                                   cies, is assessing coastal wetlands in the State as part of its Gulf of
                               National Biological Service           ............... ...........................
                               National Park Service           ....................................................                                    Mexico Program. The EPA and Fws are conducting a demonstration
                             Environmental Protection Agency               ...................................                                         project that will map changes in wetlands in Mobile Bay and the
                             Tennessee Valley Authority           ................... ...........................                                      lower Mobile-Tensaw River Delta.
                             STATE                                                                                                                              State wetland activities.-Although Alabama currently (1993)
                             Department of Conservation and Natural Resources                                                                          has no comprehensive wetland-protection program, the State is as-
                             Department of Economic and Community Affairs                     ......... ...
                             Department of Environmental Management                    ..................0                                             sessing the need for a wetlands policy. Several State agencies ac-
                             Geological Survey of Alabama             ......................................... ...                                    tively participate in aspects of Federal programs, and some wetlands
                             Marine Environmental Sciences Consortium                    ................                                              are protected under State programs.
                             SOME COUNTY AND LOCAL GOVERNMENTS                           ...............                                                        The Alabama Department of Economic and Community Af-
                             PRIVATE ORGANIZATIONS                                                                                                     fairs is responsible for planning policies that protect the State's water
                             The Nature Conservancy            ...................................................
                             Coastal Land Trust                ......................................................                                  resources, including wetlands. The Department's newly formed
                                                                                                                                                       Office of Water Resources has initiated a 3-year study to be com-
                                                                                                                                                       pleted in 1995 that will address protection of wetlands and other
                             altered wetland or other wetlands that have been converted to agri-                                                       water resources in the State. The Department also addresses wet-
                             cultural use. The Wetlands Reserve Program of the 1990 Food,                                                              land issues in its Statewide Comprehensive Outdoor Recreation Plan
                             Agriculture, Conservation, and Trade Act authorizes the Federal                                                           in response to section 303 of the Federal Emergency Wetlands Re-
                             Government to purchase conservation easements from landowners                                                             sources Act of 1986.
                             who agree to protect or restore wetlands. The Consolidated Farm                                                                    The Alabama Department of Environmental Management
                             Service Agency (formerly the Agricultural Stabilization and Con-                                                          manages wetlands in Alabama's coastal zone through its regulatory
                             servation Service) administers the Swampbuster provisions and Wet-                                                        authority under the Alabama Coastal Zone Management Act and
                             lands Reserve Program. The Natural Resources Conservation                                                                 through its authority to issue section 401 water-quality certification.
                             Service (formerly the Soil Conservation Service) determines com-                                                          The Department identifies wetlands and submersed grassbeds as
                             pliance with Swampbuster provisions and assists farmers in the iden-                                                      coastal resources for which effects from any regulated uses must
                             tification of wetlapds and in the development of wetland protection,                                                      be considered. This activity includes review of all State and Fed-
                             restoration, or creation plans.                                                                                           eral permitting activities for the coastal zone of the State and pri-
                                     The 1986 Emergency Wetlands Resources Act and the 1972                                                            marily, in the case of wetlands, section 404 dredge-and-fill permits
                             Coastal Zone Management Act and amendments encourage wetland                                                              and Rivers and Harbors Act navigable-water permits issued by the
                             protection through funding incentives. The Emergency Wetland                                                              Corps (Alabama Department of Environmental Management, 1992).
                             Resources Act requires States to address wetland protection in their                                                      Alabama's Coastal Zone Management program defines the coastal
                             Statewide Comprehensive Outdoor Recreation Plans to qualify for                                                           zone as that part of the State where the land surface is less than 10
                             Federal funding for State recreational land; the National Park Ser-                                                       feet above sea level. However, Rathburn and others (1987) reported
                             vice provides guidance to States in developing the wetland compo-                                                         that approximately 28 percent ofAlabama's coastal wetlands are in
                             nent of their plans. Coastal States that adopt coastal-zone manage-                                                       areas that are higher than 10 feet and, thus, are excluded from pro-
                             ment programs and plans approved by the National Oceanic and                                                              tection under the Coastal Zone Management program.
                             Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) are eligible for Federal fund-                                                                   Mitigation for wetland losses caused by approved projects is
                             ing and technical assistance through the Coastal Zone Management                                                          required in the coastal zone. A review of some of these coastal miti-
                             Act.                                                                                                                      gation projects indicated that, of 14 projects, 6 could not be evalu-
                                     Federal agencies are responsible for the proper management                                                        ated, 3 were successful, 2 were partially successful, and 3 were fail-
                             of wetlands on public land under their jurisdiction. In Alabama, the                                                      ures (Alabama Department of Environmental Management, 1992).
                             U.S. Forest Service manages wetlands in five National Forests,                                                                     The Department of Environmental Management regulates
                             which contain 636,476 acres of land and more than 400 miles of                                                            dredge-and-fill activities in wetlands that are not in Alabama's
                             rivers (Alabama Department of Economic and Community Affairs,                                                             coastal zone solely through the State's authority to issue section 401
                             1991). The FWS manages 55,000 acres on five National Wildlife                                                             water-quality certification under the Clean Water Act and through
                             Refuges in the State, of which about 29,000 acres are wetlands                                                            the Nonpoint Source Discharge Management Program. Other ac-









                     106      National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: STATE SUMMARIES



                     tivities that might affect wetlands, such as draining or logging op-                    Duke, Thomas, and Kruczynski, W.L., eds., 1992, Status and trends of
                     erations that do not result in significant welland fill, are not regu-                        emergent and submerged vegetated habitats, GulfofM[exico, USA: The
                     lated. Wetland waters are considered to be waters of the State in                             Environmental Protection Agency, Gulf of Mexico Program, 161 p.
                     the Alabama Water Pollution Control Act but are not defined or                          Fenneman, N.M., 1946, Physical divisions of the United States: Washing-
                     protected by the act for their inherent value (Alabama Department                             ton, D.C., U.S. Geological Survey special map, scale 1:7,000,000.
                                                                                                             Field, D.W., Reyer, A.J., Genovese, P.V., and Shearer, B.D., 1991, Coastal
                     of Environmental Management, 1992).                                                           wetlands of the United States-An accounting of a valuable national
                           The Alabama Department of Conservation and Natural Re-                                  resource: Washington, D.C., National Oceanic and Atmospheric Ad-
                     sources comments on section 404 permit applications and on local                              ministration and U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service cooperative report,
                     land-use issues to call attention to potential effects on wildlife. The                       59 p.
                     Department manages, regulates, and acquires land (including wet-                        Hofstetter, R.H., 1983, Wetlands of the United States, in Gore, A.J.P., ed.,
                     lands) for wildlife-management areas, State parks, and for other State                        Ecosystems of the world; 4B, Mires-Swamp, bog, fen and moor: Re-
                     recreational lands. The Department also will administer a new pro-                            gional studies, Amsterdam, Elsevier Scientific Publishing Co., p. 20 1-
                     gram, "Forever Wild," that has the objective of acquiring land for                            244.
                     protection, recreation, education, and scientific research.                             Jeffcoat, H.H., and Mooty, W.S., 1986, Alabama surface-water resources,
                                                                                                                   in U.S. Geological Survey, National water summary 1985-Hydro-
                           Private wetland activities.-Private organizations in Alabama                            logic events and surface-water resources: U.S. Geological Survey
                     are important advocates for wetlands. These organizations inform                              Water-Supply Paper 2300, p. 131-136.
                     the public on wetland issues, organize citizen networks, and lobby                      Mitsch, W.J., and Gosselink, J.G., 1986, Wetlands: New York, Van Nostrand
                     for wetland protection. The Alabama Conservancy, the Coastal Land                             Reinhold Company, 537 p.
                     Trust, the Sierra Club, the National Audubon Society, the Alabama                       Mohlenbrock, R.H., 1992, Conecuh bogs, Alabama: Natural History, v. 10 1,
                     Wildlife Federation, and the Cahaba River Society are involved in                             no. 3, p, 60-62.
                     State wetland issues.                                                                   RathbuTn, C.E., Watzin, M.C., Johnston, J.B., and O'Neil, P.E., 1997, Areal
                           The Nature Conservancy is active in the acquisition and pro-                            extent of wetlands above and below the 10-foot contour line in Ala-
                                                                                                                   bama: U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, National Weiland Research
                     tection of wetlands in Alabama. The Nature Conservancy, along with                            Center Open-File Report 86-3, 9 p.
                     the Coastal Land Trust, acquired 18,000 acres of wetlands in the                        Roach, E.R., Watzin, M.C., Scurry, J.D., and Johnston, J.B., 1987, Wetland
                     Mobile-Tensaw River Delta. Most of this acreage has been sold to                              changes in coastal Alabama, in Lowery, T.A., ed., Proceedings of
                     the Corps as part of its Tennessee-Tombigbee Waterway mitigation                              Symposium on the Natural Resources of the Mobile Bay Estuary,
                     project and will be managed by the State. The Nature Conservancy                              Mobile, Ala., February 10- 12, 1987: Mobile, Ala., Auburn Univer-
                     has been instrumental in the purchase and preservation of several                             sity, Alabama Sea Grant Extension Service and Alabama Cooperative
                     other wetland areas in the State, including the Bon Secour National                           Extension Service, p. 92-101.
                     Wildlife Refuge, the Weeks Bay National Estuarine Research Re-                          Shaw, S.P., and Fredine, C.G., 1956, Wetlands of the United States -Their
                     serve, several small (2- to 35-acre) pitcher plant bogs in northern                           extent and their value to waterfowl and other wildlife: U.S. Fish and
                     Alabama, and a 156-acre tract in southern Alabama that is primar-                             Wildlife Service Circular 39, 67 p.
                                                                                                             Stout, J.P., 1979, Marshes of the Mobile Estuary-Status and evaluation,
                     ily pine savannah containing some wetlands. The Nature Con-                                   in Loyacano, H.A., Jr., and Smith, J.P., eds., Proceedings of the Sym-
                     servancy also has been requested by the FWS to assist in the estab-                           posium on the Natural Resources of the Mobile Bay Estuary, Mobile,
                     lishment of the Grand Bay Savannah National Wildlife Refuge in                                Ala., 1979: Mobile, Ala., U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Mobile Dis-
                     southwestern Alabama and southern Mississippi. This proposed                                  trict, p. It 3 -122.
                     13,000-acre refuge will have substantial wetland acreage (Stratton                      -1990, Estuarine habitats, in Mobile Bay-Issues, resources, status,
                     Bull, The Nature Conservancy of Alabama, written commun.,                                     and management-Proceedings of a seminar held in Washington, D.C.,
                     1993).                                                                                        November 17, 1988: National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administra-
                                                                                                                   tion, Estuary-of-tbe-Month Seminar Series no. 15, p. 63-88.
                                                                                                             U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, 1981, Environmental data inventory, State
                     References Cited                                                                              of Alabama: Mobile, Ala., U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, 325 p.
                                                                                                             U.S.  Department of Agriculture, 1985, Status and conditions of land and
                     Alabama Department of Economic and Community Affairs, 199 1, Alabama                          water resources in Alabama, 1982: Auburn, Ala., U.S. Department of
                           Statewide Comprehensive Outdoor Recreation Plan: Montgomery,                            Agriculture, 140 p.
                           Alabama Department of Economic and Community Affairs, 146 p.                      U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 1992, Regional wetlands concept plan,
                           and appendix.                                                                           Emergency Wetlands Resources Act, Southeast Region: Atlanta, U.S.
                     Alabama Department of Environmental Management, 1992, Water-quality                           Fish and Wildlife Service, 259 p.
                           report to Congress: Montgomery, Alabama Department of Environ-                    Watzin, M.C., Tucker, Sandy, and South, Celeste, in press, Environmental
                           mental Management, 105 p. and appendix.                                                 problems in the Mobile Bay ecosystem-The cumulative effects of
                     Cahaba River Society, 1992, It's almost lily time!: Cahaba River Society                      human activities: Mobile, Ala., Mississippi-Alabama Sea Grant Con-
                           newsletter, May/June 1992, 16 p.                                                        sortium Publication.
                     Chandler, RX, and Moore, J.D., 1987, Springs inAlabama: Alabama Geo-                    Winter, T.C., and Woo, Ming-Ko, 1990, Hydrology of takes and wetlands,
                           logical Survey Circular 134, 95 p.                                                      in Wotman, M.G., and Riggs, H.C., eds., Surface water hydrology,
                     Cowardin, L.M., Carter, Virginia, Golet, F.C., and LaRoe, E.T., 1979, Clas-                   Boulder, Colo., Geological Society of America, The Geology of North
                           sification of wetlands and deepwater habitats of the United States: U.S.                America, v. 0-1, p. 159-187.
                           Fish and Wildlife Service Report FWS/OBS-79/31, 131 p.
                     Dahl, T.E., 1990, Wetlands-Losses in the United States, 1780's to 1980's:               FOR ADDITIONAL INFORMATION: District Chief, U.S. Geological
                           Washington, D.C., U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Report to Congress,              Survey, 5 20 19th Avenue, Tuscaloosa, AL 3540 1; Regional Weiland Coor-
                           13 p.                                                                             dinator, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 1875 Century Building, Atlanta,
                     Dahl, T.E., Johnson, C.E., and Frayer, W.E., 1991, Status and trends of                 GA 30345
                           wetlands in the conterminous United States, mid-I 970's to mid-1990s:                                                                                                              L
                           Washington, D.C., U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Report to Congress,
                           28 p.                                                                                                              Prepared by
                     Dardeau, M.R., Shipp, R.L. and Wallace, R.K., 1990, Faunal components,                                           Benjamin E McPherson,
                           in Mobile Bay-Issues, resources, status, and management-Proceed-                                            U.S. Geological Survey
                           ings of a seminar held November 17,1988: Washington, D.C., National
                           Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Estuary-of-the-Mooth
                           Seminar Series no. 15, p. 89-114.

                                                                          U.S. Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper 2425








                                                                                                                 National Water Summary-Wetland Resources 107
                                                                                                                                            Alaska
                                                                                                                  Wetland Resources
                 Alaska has more area covered by wetlands -approximately 170                  to absorb some meltwater. Following snowmelt, wetlands have a
                 millionofits 367 million acres-than the total areaofwetlands in              greater capacity for streamflow regulation because the capacity of
                 the other 49 States combined (Dahl, 1990). Alaska has a wide vari-           the soils to store water increases: higher temperatures increase the
                 ety of topographic, geologic, climatic, and hydrologic conditions that       thickness of unfrozen soils and increase evaporation and plant tran-
                 contribute to the variety of wetland complexes in the State. Alaska's        spiration, which help lower the water table.
                 wetland complexes differ in size, function, and type, and they in-                Wetland plants help control the erosion of mineral soils by
                 clude types that are rare in other States, such as vast expanses of          decreasing wind and water velocities near the ground and by hold-
                 treeless tundra (fig. 1) in northern Alaska and extensive black spruce       ing soil particles together with their roots. In permafrost areas, veg-
                 peatlands, or muskegs, elsewhere in the State.                               etation also reduces erosion by preventing the warming and thaw-
                      Wetlands are sociologically, ecologically, and economically             ing of ice-rich soils. In flood plains, wetland vegetation removes
                 important to Alaska. Wetlands provide the resources for people in            some suspended sediment from floodwaters by slowing water ve-
                 rural Alaskan villages to survive (Ellanna and Wheeler, 1990)-               locities.
                 almost all subsistence hunting, fishing, trapping, and food gather-               Wetlands in Alaska transform and retain nutrients and toxic
                 ing occurs on or adjacent to wetlands. Many mammals, fish, and               compounds. Nutrients and contaminants attach to the organic and
                 birds within the State depend on some type of wetland for breed-             fine mineral soils. Plants, phytoplankton, fungi, and bacteria use
                 ing, nesting, rearing young, or feeding. Alaska's wetlands provide           the nutrients and degrade some of the contaminants.
                 recreational opportunities and support related businesses for people
                 who hunt, observe, and photograph wildlife.                                  TYPES AND DISTRIBUTION
                      Alaska has seven wetland complexes that are important for their
                 water-habitat value (Tiner, 1984): Yukon-Kuskokwim Delta,                         Wetlands are lands transitional between terrestrial and
                 Izembek Lagoon, Yukon Flats, Teshekpuk Lake, upper Alaska Pen-               deepwater habitats where the water table usually is at or near the
                 insula, Copper River Delta, and upper Cook Inlet. In general, wet-           land surface or the land is covered by shallow water (Cowardin and
                 lands in Alaska that have the highest value for waterfowl are coastal        others, 1979). The distribution of wetlands and deepwater habitats
                 salt marshes and wetlands in and adjacent to lakes that have exten-          in Alaska is shown in figure 2A; only wetlands are discussed herein.
                 sive periods of drawdown or that fluctuate with river flow (Lensink               Wetlands can be vegetated or nonvegetated and are classified
                 and Derksen, 1990).                                                          on the basis of their hydrology, vegetation, and substrate. In this sum-
                      During spring and fall migrations, huge flocks of waterfowl             mary, wetlands are classified according to the system proposed by
                 (ducks, geese, and swans) and shorebirds (dowitchers, godwits,               Cowardin and others (1979), which is used by the U.S. Fish and
                 plovers, turnstones, sandpipers, curlews, snipe, phalaropes, and             Wildlife Service (Fws) to map and inventory the Nationlis wetlands.
                 yellowlegs) stop at wetland areas in Alaska. More than 70,000 swans,         At the most general level of the classification system, wetlands are
                 I million geese, 12 million ducks, and 100 million shorebirds de-            grouped into five ecological systems: Palustrine, Lacustrine, Riv-
                 pend on Alaskan wetlands for resting, feeding, or nesting (King and          erine, Estuarine, and Marine. The Palustrine System includes only
                 Lensink, 197 1). During years of drought in prairie States and Prov-         wetlands, whereas the other systems comprise wetlands and
                 inces of Canada, birds displaced from their traditional breeding             deepwater habitats. Wetlands of the systems that occur in Alaska
                 areas fly northward to wetlands in Alaska.                                   are described on page 3.
                      Alaska wetlands provide forage for large mammals such as
                 caribou, moose, and musk oxen. They also provide food and habi-
                 tat for beaver, muskrat, mink, and land otter. Rocky coastal beaches
                 serve as rookeries (areas where breeding and pupping occur) and
                 resting areas for marine mammals such as seal, sea lion, and wal-
                 rus. Alaska wetlands sustain some of the world's richest commer-
                 cial, sport, and subsistence fisheries. Almost 90 percent of wild
                 salmon caught in the United States are caught in Alaskan waters.
                 These fish rely on palustrine and riverine wetlands to provide food,
                 cover, and spawning areas during their life in inland waters, and they
                 pass through riverine, estuarine, and marine wetlands on their mi-
                 gration to and from the ocean. Resident freshwater and estuarine
                 fish also depend on wetland habitat.
                      Wetlands in Alaska have important hydrologic and water-qua] -
                 ity functions, including flow regulation, erosion control, sediment
                 retention, nutrient uptake, and contaminant removal. Many wetlands
                 have limited flood-control or water-storage functions during snow-
                 melt because their soils are seasonally or perennially frozen, limit-
                 l
                 ng absorption of runoff. However, several characteristics of wet-
                 ands help reduce peak flows, even when soils are frozen (Post,
                 1990). Water is detained behind hummocks and within depressions,             Figure 1. Tundra on the Arctic coastal    plain southwest of the
                 ponds, and lakes, and the velocity of the water is slowed by vegeta-         Kavik River. Willow thickets are present along the meandering
                 tion. The mosses, peats, and mineral soils of wetlands can become            stream. (Photograph by FC Golet, U.S. Fish and Wildlife
                 dryer during winter, and during snowmelt these materials are able            Service.)








                            108         National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: STATE SUMMARIES


                                                                                                  160-                r@hekpuk          BFA0roRT Sf-A
                                                                                                                     Lake

                                                                                                                           150-ZK-ik Ri-
                                                                                765.                                                      145



                                                                                                     r;
                                                               S44




                                                              65.



                                                                                                                                                                         A
                                                           Delta                                                                                                         WETLANDS AND DEEPWATER HABITATS
                                                                                                                                                                         Distribution of wetlands and deepwater habitats-
                                                                                                                                                                           This map shows the approximate distribution of large
                                                                                                                                                                           wetlands in the State. Because of limitations of scale
                                                                                                                                                                           and source material, some wetlands are not shown

                                                                                                                                                         ..3                      Predominantly wetland
                                                                                                                             Vicrage                       1             0
                                                                                                                                                                                  Predominantly cleepwater habitat

                                               r                                                                      n' au to                                           Gl..k     135'
                                                              Dole.                                                                                                      B.y
                                                                         17                                                                     Cope
                                                                           B.                                                         Willi..  Suckling
                                                                                                                                      &)U,d                     Cape                          ea.
                                         0          100        200 MILES                                                                                 Fairweather
                                                                                                                                                                    G.@...                                stikine
                                         0     100    200 KILOMETERS                                        Kdiak                     L F     0                          Flm                       I       River
                                                                                                                                0                        4                                                 Delta
                                                     be*                  ?a
                                                                                                o@7@slrkjnak IsA@d                                                  4
                                                                                                   T"giduk








                                                                                                                     4leutian                  islands



                                                                                                          780@
                                                                                                                                      I175,                  170,                     165.





                                                             "_ARCTIC"'                                                                                                           AR     C'

                                       NORTH
                                         WEST



                                                                                                                                                                                  CONtlI4EkTAI,-
                                                          f                                                                                                                                            %

                                                                                                                                          TRANSITION
                                                                                                       B                                                                                                                  C
                                                                                  TH
                                                     SOUTH                                             GEOGRAPHIC DIVISIONS                                                                                              CLIMATIC ZONES

                                                                                                       z
                                                    47,
                                                                                                                                                                                                     CON    INENTAL

                                                                                                       SOUTH
                                 ALEUTIAN                                                              EAST                                                                                  MARITIME
                                 ISLANDS



                            Figure 2. Wetland             distribution in Alaska and physical and climatological features that control                                       wetland distribution in the State. A, Distribu-
                            tion of wetlands and deepwater habitats. B, Geographic divisions. C, Climatic zones. (Sources: A, TE. Dahl, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service,                                                                                               k
                            unpub. data, 199 1. B, Geographic divisions modified from Lamke, 1986; landforms data from EROS Data Center. C, Hartman and Johnson,
                            1978.)








                                                                                                                                                                National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: ALASKA                                                   109



                           System                                                       Wertland description                                                    The Joint Federal-State Land Use Planning Commission for
                           Palustrine        .................. Nontidal and tidal-freshwater wetlands in which                                       Alaska (1973), Batten and Murray (1982), Lee and Hinckley (1982),
                                                                  vegetation is predominantly trees (forested wet-                                    Batten (1990), and Viereck and others (1992) describe Alaska's
                                                                  lands); shrubs (scrub-shrub wetlands); persistent                                   wetland vegetation. Many plants in Alaska grow well in a wide range
                                                                  or noripersistent emergent, erect, rooted herba-                                    of climate, soil, and water conditions. Some species dominate plant
                                                                  ceous plants ipersistent- and nonpersistent-                                        communities on both wet and dry soils, sometimes making it diffi-
                                                                  emergent wetlands); mosses and lichens (moss-                                       cult to differentiate Alaska wetlands from uplands solely on the basis
                                                                  lichen wetland); or submersed and (or) floating
                                                                  plants (aquatic beds). Also, intermittently to per-                                 of vascular-plant communities.
                                                                  manently flooded open-water bodies of less than                                               Palustrine System.-Most ofAlaska's wetlands are palustrine.
                                                                  20 acres in which water is less than 6.6 feet deep.                                 Palustrine wetlands in Alaska include both peatlands (wetlands that
                           Lacustrine         ................. Nontidal and tidal-freshwater wetlands within an                                      have organic soils) and nonpeatlands. Peatlands, also known as
                                                                  intermittently to permanently flooded lake or                                       mires, occur throughout Alaska and cover an estimated 27 to 110
                                                                  reservoir larger than 20 acres and (or) deeper                                      million acres (Northern Technical Services and EKON0, Inc., 1980;
                                                                  than 6.6 feet. Vegetation, when present, is pre-
                                                                  dominantly noripersistent emergent plants (non-                                     Dachnowski- Stokes, 1941), depending on the peatland definition
                                                                  persistent-emergent wetlands), or submersed                                         and inventory techniques used. In general, a peatland is a moss-li-
                                                                  and (or) floating plants (aquatic beds), or both.                                   chen, emergent, scrub-shrub, or forested wetland containing more
                           Riverine       ..................... Nontidal and tidal-freshwater wetlands within a                                       than 12 inches of a wet organic soil (peat) consisting of partly to
                                                                  channel. Vegetation, when present, is same as                                       well-decomposed plants. However, definitions of peatland differ in
                                                                  in the Lacustrine System.                                                           the thickness of peat required. Peat forms when the rate of plant
                           Estuarine        ................... Tidal wetlands in low-wave-energy environments                                        production exceeds the rate of decomposition, usually under wa-
                                                                  wherethe salinity ofthewater is greaterthan 0.5                                     ter-saturated conditions. Poor air circulation, low levels of oxygen,
                                                                  part per thousand (ppt) and is variable owing to
                                                                  evaporation and the mixing of seawater and                                          and cool ground water within the saturated soil inhibit the activity
                                                                  freshwater.                                                                         of soil bacteria and fungi, so dead plant material decomposes slowly.
                           Marine       ....................... Ticlal wetlands that are exposed to waves and cur-                                    Some peatlands in Alaska are underlain by poorly permeable silt,
                                                                  rents of the open ocean and to water having a                                       clay, well-decomposed peat, or bedrock, which contribute to the
                                                                  salinity greater than 30 ppt.                                                       water-holding capacity of those sites. Throughout Alaska, peat is
                                                                                                                                                      commonly several feet thick in topographic depressions and in
                                    Wetlands and deepwater habitats in Alaska are being invento-                                                      poorly drained lowlands.
                           ried by the Fws. As ofDecember 1992, about 25 percent ofthe State                                                                    Bogs and fens are peatlands that generally have a water table
                           had been mapped to determine acreage of the wetland types within                                                           near the surface and ground-cover vegetation that is predominantly
                           the classification system of Cowardin and others (1979). Wetlands                                                          mosses. Sedges, heath shrubs, and trees commonly grow above the
                           also have been inventoried in some of Alaska's urban areas by the                                                          moss layer. In Alaska, sphagnum and feather mosses commonly
                           U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (Corps). Maps showing wetland areas                                                           dominate the ground cover in flat peatlands having rain and snow
                           for parts ofAnchorage, Fairbanks, Juneau, and the Kenai Peninsula                                                          as the predominant sources of water (bogs), whereas brown mosses,
                           are available. The Natural Resource Conservation Service and                                                               grasses, and sedges are more prevalent on low-gradient slopes hav-
                           Alaska Department of Natural Resources Soil and Water Conser-                                                              ing some internal drainage or ground-water inflow (fens). A moss-
                           vation Districts also have mapped wetlands in some parts of south-                                                         floored peatland containing black spruce trees found primarily on
                           central and interior Alaska having agricultural and potentially agri-                                                      cold, wet, poorly drained soils is commonly referred to as muskeg.
                           cultural lands. The FWS 170-million-acre estimate for wetland area                                                         A inuskeg can be either a bog or a fen, depending on the source of
                           in Alaska (Dahl, 1990) is based on soil surveys, land-cover maps,                                                          water. Bogs and fens underlain by permafrost are extensive in wet,
                           National Weiland Inventory maps, and preliminary results of sta-                                                           low-relief areas near the Yukon and Kuskokwim Rivers in interior
                           tistical surveys conducted by the National Wetland Inventory.                                                              Alaska, where they cover about 9 million acres (Joint Federal - State



                                                                                                                                                                                                                         E

                                                                                                                                                                                                                          PERMAFROST
                                                          L.S_
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  Generally underlain by
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    continuous permafrost

                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  Underlain by discontinuous
                                                                                                     D
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    permafrost
                                                                                                     PRECIPITATION
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  Underlain by isolated
                                                                                                     -40- Line of equal annual                                                                                                        ldbbUb of permafrost
                                                                                                                 precipitation-
                                                                                                                  Interval, in inches,                                                                                            Generally free from
                                                                                                                  is variable                                                                                                       permafrost

                                                                          80          160                                     160
                                                                                                           320


                                                      40
                                                   80,
                                             160

                           Figure 2. Continued. D, Average annual precipitation. E, Permafrost distribution. (Sources: D, Lamke, 1986. E, Ferrians, 1965.)








                  110     National Water Surnmary-Wetland Resources: STATE SUMMARIES



                  Land Use Planning Commission for Alaska, 1973). In southeastern              age are not available. Riverine wetlands provide critical spawning
                  Alaska, where the terrain is mountainous, fens are more abundant             and rearing habitat for resident fish and for fish that migrate from
                  than bogs. Bogs and fens in southeastern Alaska form at the edges            the ocean to spawn. Many riverine wetlands are subject to annual
                  of mountain slopes and on adjacent lowlands. There, the wetlands             or periodic inundations caused by snowmelt, glacier melt, and sum-
                  are not underlain by permafrost but are commonly underlain by                mer rainfall. Vegetated wetlands in low-gradient channels include
                  bedrock at a shallow depth.                                                  submersed and floating aquatic plants and nonpersistent emergent
                        Tundra, marshes, and meadows form in wet areas over min-               plants such as buckbean, pendent grass, and cinquefoil. Vegetated
                  eral or organic soils. Tundra is characterized by treeless terrain           wetlands in high-gradient mountain streams are dominated by sub-
                  covered by mosses, lichens, grasses, sedges, and low shrubs (mostly          mersed aquatic mosses.
                  emergent, moss-lichen, or scrub-shrub wetland). Permafrost com-                   Estuarine System.-Estuarine wetlands cover about 2 million
                  monly is present at a shallow depth. Tundra occurs where summers             acres in Alaska (Hall, 1988). Nonvegetated estuarine wetlands in-
                  are not warm enough for tree growth and is most extensive in north-          clude flats, beaches, and rocky shores, which cover about 1.7 mil-
                  ern Alaska and above treeline in mountains throughout the State.             lion acres and are most abundant (about 874,000 acres) in north-
                  Three general types oftundra communities exist-wet, moist, and               western and southwestern Alaska. Tidal flats are mud and sand
                  alpine. The Joint Federal-State Land Use Planning Commission                 shores that appear to lack vegetation; however, a rich layer of mi-
                  for Alaska (1973) estimated that wet tundra covers about 33 rnil-            croscopic plants such as diatoms, blue-green algae, and dinoflagel-
                  lion acres, moist tundra about 66 million acres, and alpine tundra           lates typically covers the sediments. Intertidal sand and mud flats
                  about 85 million acres. Most lowland tundra remains wet or moist             bordering the Yukon - Kuskokwim Delta cover about 130,000 acres
                  throughout the short thawing season because it is underlain by per-          and in places are more than 6 miles wide. A series of barrier islands
                  mafrost. However, only a small part of alpine tundra in higher moun-         protects large areas of nonvegetated tidal flats in the Copper River
                  tain regions is considered wetland.                                          Delta. More than 20,000 acres of tidal flats occur on the seaward
                        Freshwater marshes (emergent wetlands) are periodically in-            edge of the Colville River Delta on the Beaufort Sea Coast. Exten-
                  undated by standing or slowly moving water. Marshes in Alaska                sive tidal flats not associated with major river deltas include
                  contain sedges, rushes, marestail, and other aquatic plants. The             Gustavus Flats near the mouth of Glacier Bay, intertidal lagoons of
                  vegetation shows a distinct zonation according to water depth and            Tugidak and Sitkinak Islands south of Kodiak Island, and vast
                  frequency of exposure. Marshes are distinguished from bogs and               mudflats in upper Cook Inlet.
                  fens by the general absence of moss, heath-type shrubs, and peat.                 Vegetated estuarine wetlands cover about 345,000 acres in
                  Marshes are common around the margins of lakes, ponds, and riv-              Alaska (Hall, 1988). The most common type ofestuarine vegetated
                  ers, in wet depressions and oxbows, on flood plains, in deltas, and          wetland is the salt marsh (emergent wetland). Salt marshes contain-
                  on gently sloping benches receiving water from steeper slopes above.         ing sedges and grasses occur in tidally flooded, low-energy areas,
                  Wet meadows (emergent wetlands) occupy seasonally flooded sites              such as gently sloping shores close to the mouths of rivers or be-
                  that dry out late in the growing season, although soils typically re-        hind barrier islands and beaches. Large salt-marsh complexes oc-
                  main saturated. Wet meadows are covered predominantly by her-                cur along the 500-mile shoreline of the Yukon-Kuskokwim Delta
                  baceous emergent plants, usually sedges, and are present on flood            (about 162,000 acres), on the outer edge of the Copper River Delta,
                  plains, lakeshores, and poorly drained lowlands throughout the State.        and in the upper Cook Inlet area. Several million migrating shore-
                        Palustrine wetlands within braided stream channels are com-            birds and waterfowl use these coastal salt marshes for feeding and
                  monly dominated by woody plants and perennial herbs. Willow and              resting.
                  alder are the predominant plants in riparian scrub-shrub wetlands                 Vegetated estuarine wetlands also include aquatic beds of al-
                  adjacent to Alaska's many rivers. Cottonwood predominates in ri-             gae and eelgrass. Rocky materials in tidal flats along the Aleutian
                  parian forested wetlands. Ponds commonly contain aquatic beds                Islands, in the western Gulf of Alaska, and in southeastern Alaska
                  with water lilies, pondweeds, and submersed aquatic plants.                  provide habitat for algae. During fall, nearly the entire world's popu-
                        Lacustrine System.-Alaska has hundreds of thousands of                 lation of Steller's ciders and emperor geese gather in aquatic-bed
                  lakes which together cover more than 5 million acres (Joint Fed-             wetlands in lagoons along the upper Alaska Peninsula. Izembek
                  eral-State Land Use Planning Commission forAlaska, 1973), but                Lagoon near the tip of the Alaska Peninsula contains one of the
                  estimates of the area covered by wetlands within these takes are not         largest eelgrass beds in the world, more than 94,000 acres. This
                  available. Lakes are abundant in lowlands underlain by permafrost,           lagoon serves as an international crossroad for migratory waterfowl
                  in oxbows along braided and meandering rivers, in depressions in             and shorebirds from Asia, the mid-Pacific, and North America.
                  glacial-drift deposits, and in mountain valleys dammed by glacial            Safety Lagoon on Seward Peninsula and Tugidak Lagoon on Tugidak
                  moraines. Many lakes in Alaska contain aquatic beds in deeper water          Island are other large eelgrass beds important to migrating water-
                  and emergent aquatic plants in shallower water, commonly grading             fowl.
                  into surrounding palustrine and riverine wetlands.                                Marine System. -Marine wetlands, which border the open
                        Lacustrine wetlands used extensively by waterfowl are char-            ocean and are exposed to high-energy waves, cover about 46,000
                  acteristically in lakes having gradually sloping shorelines and ex-          acres in Alaska (Hall, 1998). Nonvegetated marine wetlands are
                  tensive shallow areas; profuse growth of submersed aquatic plants;           generally sand and cobble-gravel shores or rocky shores. Most of
                  a border of palustrine wetlands vegetated by emergent plants such            the 250-mile coastline between Cape Suckling and Cape Fair-
                  as sedges, cattails, and bulrush; an extensive band of grassland             weather in the northern part of the Gulf of Alaska is sand beach,
                  around the lake; an abundance of aquatic insects; and a lake bot-            whereas most of the coast along the Aleutian Island chain is bed-
                  tom composed of mineral soil (Lensink and Derksen, 1990). Those              rock and boulder rocky shores. Vegetated marine wetlands occur
                  characteristics are common in lakes that have long periods of gradu-         primarily as algal aquatic beds colonizing rocky shores of the Alaska
                  ally receding water levels or that are connected to a river. In the          Peninsula and shores adjacent to the Gulf of A] aska.
                  Yukon Flats, such lakes have the highest density of nesting water-
                  fowl in interior Alaska, and they support a breeding population of           HYDROLOGIC SETTING
                  more than I million ducks.
                        Riverine,!iystem.-Wetlands within river channels include bars               Wetlands are present wherever topographic, climatic, and hy-
                  and flats of mud, sand, or gravel. Alaska has tens of thousands of           drologic conditions favor the retention of water. Low relief, perma-
                  rivers, streams, and creeks, but estimates of riverine wetland acre-         frost, a general abundance of precipitation relative to evaporation







                                                                                                    National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: ALASKA              ill



                  and plant transpiration, short cool summers, poorly permeable rocks         become freshwater systems. Also, in some areas, salt marshes have
                  near the land surface, and large tidal fluctuations help form and           migrated seaward almost a mile. Kodiak Island and parts of south-
                  maintain extensive wetlands in Alaska. Wetland characteristics con-         eastern Alaska are rising because glaciers whose weight had for-
                  tinuously change with changes in climate, water supply, soil mois-          merly caused land subsidence are melting. The relative fall in sea
                  ture, salinity, maturation of vegetation communities, tectonic activ-       level is presumably modifying wetlands above the tidal zone and
                  ity, fire, ice scour, glacier advance and retreat, and human activi-        creating wetlands within the new tidal zone.
                  ties such as draining and filling.                                                The productivity of many Alaska wetlands is affected by fires.
                       Alaska has seven broad, generally recognized geographic re-            Fires occur only infrequently in coastal areas, allowing as much as
                  gions (fig. 2B). These regions are Southeast, Aleutian Islands, South-      several tens of feet of peat to accumulate in some bogs and fens in
                  central, Southwest, Northwest, Arctic, and Interior Alaska. Alaska          southeastern Alaska. Fires, common in interior Alaska, rid marshes
                  has four climatic zones-Maritime, Transition, Continental, and              of dead grass, sedges, and shrubs and make new shoots available
                  Arctic (fig. 2C). The State's high mountain ranges, extensive coast-        for waterfowl and mammals. Burning of vegetation and peat releases
                  line, vast size-.- one-sixth the total area of the United States -and       minerals and nutrients from organic litter, usually potassium, cal-
                  long north-to-south distance are the principal causes for the great         cium, phosphorus, magnesium, chloride, and nitrogen. However,
                  differences in climate. From the northern part of the Arctic Zone to        where permafrost is present, a severe fire may cause the relative
                  the southern part of the Maritime Zone, average annual precipita-           abundance of plant species to change, especially if the fire removes
                  tion ranges from about 5 to 320 inches (fig. 2D), and average an-           the insulating organic layer, which in turn causes the top of the
                  nual temperature ranges from 10 to 45 degrees Fahrenheit. Two-              permafrost to lower. If the burned area remains undisturbed, wet-
                  thirds of the annual precipitation occurs from September through            land conditions will eventually return, but it can take 50 to 100 years
                  March in the Maritime Zone and from June through November in                to complete the cycle.
                  the Continental and Arctic Zones. In the Transition Zone, seasonal                Sea ice and glaciers also affect Alaska wetlands. Sea ice scours
                  precipitation patterns are not sharply defined, fluctuate from year         the coast and I imits the establishment of vegetation in intertidal and
                  to year, and can resemble those of either the Maritime or Continen-         subtidal areas of the Bering, Chukchi, and Beaufort Seas. Advanc-
                  tal Zones.                                                                  ing glaciers can cover wetlands, whereas retreating glaciers provide
                       Spring snowmelt supplies the most input to the annual water            new areas where wetlands can form.
                  budget in most Alaskan wetlands. Snowmelt is generally confined
                  to a short time period during spring but produces considerable run-         TRENDS
                  off because it can represent the precipitation accumulated for most
                  of the year. During summer, local rain or the melting of snow and                 Information on historical wetland gains and losses in Alaska
                  glacier ice in upland areas replenishes the water supply of many            is limited. Estimates of wetland losses for the entire State range from
                  wetlands. In much of the Southeast and South-central regions of             about 80,000 to 200,000 acres, or about 0.05 to 0. 15 percent of the
                  Alaska, precipitation greatly exceeds evaporation.                          historic wetland area (Senner, 1989; Dahl, 1990). Senner (1989),
                       Many wetlands throughout Alaska are underlain by poorly                using existing quantitative data and aerial photographic interpreta-
                  permeable materials, such as decomposed peat, bedrock, silt, clay,          tion techniques, estimated the following wetland losses through 1986
                  seasonally frozen soils, or permafrost, that do not readily allow water     by activity: petroleum -related development, about 30,000 acres;
                  from snowmelt or rain to pass through. Permafrost, soil having a            mining, about 13,000 acres; infrastructure (roads, harbors, airports,
                  temperature below freezing for 2 years or more, helps form and              and railroads), about 13,000 acres; development (residential, rec-
                  maintain wetlands in the Northwest, Arctic, and Interior regions. The       reational, and commercial), about 13,000 acres; agriculture, about
                  extent and thickness of the permafrost decrease southward from a            8,500 acres; construction of military facilities (mostly roads and
                  continuous layer as much as several hundred feet thick in the Arctic        airfields), about 2,400 acres; and timber, less than 2,000 acres.
                  region to areas generally free of permafrost in the South-central and       Wetland losses have generally occurred in urban areas (Anchorage,
                  Southeast regions (fig. 2E). In the Arctic coastal plain, thawed soi Is     Juneau, Fairbanks), around villages and communities, and in large
                  in the summer commonly are no more than about 3-feet thick, lim-            industrial developments such as oil fields, transportation corridors,
                  iting the rooting depth of plants and the infiltration of water. Long       and industrial sites. As much as 50 percent of the wetlands in low-
                  winters, cool summers, and the presence of permafrost maintain vast         lying areas of Anchorage have been filled since 1945 (Alaska De-
                  wet expanses under the same precipitation conditions that would             partment of Natural Resources, 1992). Any additional industrial,
                  produce only deserts in regions having temperate climates.                  commercial, and residential development within areas that are pre-
                       Alaska has about 34,000 miles of shoreline. Extremely large            dominantly wetland, such as in the Southwest, Northwest, and Arc-
                  tidal fluctuations occur daily in southeastern Alaska, Prince Will-         tic regions, might result in further draining or filling of wetlands.
                  iam Sound, Cook Inlet, and Bristol Bay, forming expansive tidal flats
                  and salt marshes. The diurnal fluctuation during spring tides is about      CONSERVATION
                  40 feet vertically in upper Cook Inlet near Anchorage. In coastal
                  areas having little topographic relief, such as those in the Southwest,           Many government agencies and private organizations partici-
                  Northwest, and Arctic regions, storm surges push seawater inland            pate in wetland conservation in Alaska. The most active agencies
                  several miles and affect the types and growth of plants.                    and organizations and some of their activities are listed in table 1.
                       Alaska's large rivers form extensive deltas. The Yukon - Kusko-              Federal wetland activities- Development activities in Alaska
                  kwim Delta is one of the world's largest and supports more than 10          wetlands are regulated by several Federal statutory prohibitions and
                  million acres of wetland. The deltas of the Colville, Copper, and           incentives that are intended to slow wetland losses. Some of the more
                  Stikine Rivers also support vast wetlands. Expansive wetlands, such         important of these are contained in the 1899 Rivers and Harbors
                  as the Yukon, Minto, Kanuti, and Koyukuk Flats, also occur adja-            Act; the 1972 Clean Water Act and amendments; the 1985 Food
                  cent to rivers flowing through large areas of low relief.                   Security Act; the 1990 Food, Agriculture, Conservation, and Trade
                       Tectonic activities affect the hydrology of Alaska's wetlands.         Act; the 1986 Emergency Wetlands Resources Act; and the 1972
                  During the 1964 earthquake, the Copper River Delta was uplifted             Coastal Zone Management Act.
                  6 to 13 feet, and the Portage area, which is 40 miles southeast of                Section 10 of the Rivers and Harbors Act gives the Corps au-
                  Anchorage, subsided as much as 8 feet. In the Copper River Delta,           thority to regulate certain activities in navigable waters. Regulated
                  some wetlands that were salt marshes before the earthquake have             activities include diking, deepening, filling, excavating, and plac-








                             112         National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: STATE SUMMARIES



                             Table 1. Selected wetland-related activities of government                                                                 pliance with Swampbuster provisions and assists farmers in the iden-
                             agencies and private organizations in Alaska, 1993                                                                         tification of wetlands and in the development of wetland protection,
                             [Source: Classification of activities is generalized from information                                  provided            restoration, or creation plans.
                                  by agencies and organizations. a, agency or organization participates in                                                      The 1986 Emergency Wetlands Resources Act and the 1972
                                  wetJand-related activity           ' ..., agency or organization does not participate in                              Coastal Zone Management Act and amendments encourage wetland
                                  wetland-related activity. MAN, management; REG, regulation; R&C, resto-
                                  ration and creation, LAN, land acquisition; R&D, research and data collec-                                            protection through funding incentives. The Emergency Wetland
                                  tion; D&I, delineation and inventory]                                                                                 Resources Act requires States to address wetland protection in their
                                                                                                                                                        Statewide Comprehensive Outdoor Recreation Plans to qualify for
                                                                                                                                                        Federal funding for State recreational ]and; the National Park Set-
                                                                                                                        C'
                             Agency or organization                                                                                                     vice (NPS) provides guidance to States in developing the wetland
                             FEDERAL                                                                                                                    component of their plans. Coastal States that adopt coastal-zone
                             Department of Agriculture                                                                                                  management programs and plans approved by the National Oceanic
                                Consolidated Farm Service Agency                 ........................... ...        ... ...     ... ...             and Atmospheric Administration are eligible for Federal funding and
                                Forest Service       .................................................................0 0      0    0          0        technical assistance through the Coastal Zone Management Act.
                                Natural Resources Conservation Service                   ................ ...  9        9      ...  *          0                Many large tracts of land in Alaska are managed by Federal
                             Department of Commerce                                                                                                     agencies including the Bureau of Land Management (about 90 to
                                National Oceanic and
                                Atmospheric Administration              .........................................0      ... ...     0          ...      100 million acres), the FWS (16 wildlife refuges covering about 77
                             Department of Defense                                                                                                      million acres), the NPS (parks and preserves covering about 50 mil-
                                Army Corps of Engineers            ..............................................e0                                     lion acres), the U.S. Forest Service (2 National Forests covering
                                Military reservations            .....................................................0                        ...      about 24 million acres), and the U.S. Department ofDefense (about
                             Department of the Interior                                                                                                 2 million acres). Because wetlands in Alaska are widespread, al-
                                Bureau of Land Management               ..............  .......................0                               0
                                Bureau of Mines         ............................................................. ... ...                  ...      most all of these tracts contain some wetland. Thus, these agencies
                                Fish and Wildlife Service          ..............................................0...                          0        directly or indirectly manage, inventory, or collect data on wetlands.
                                Geological Survey         .......................................................... ... ... ... ...*          ...      Many agencies are restoring and enhancing fish and wildlife habi-
                                Minerals Management Service               ...........  ....................... ... ...  ... ...     0          ...      tats in wetlands that they manage. Reclamation of old mining sites,
                                National Biological Service            ......................................... ... ... ... ...    .                   riverbanks trampled by fishermen, or other disturbed areas can in-
                                National Park Service            ...................................................o...o      0    0
                             Environmental Protection Agency                .................................. ...      ... ...     0                   clude revegetation and wetland restoration. Some agencies also are
                             NATIVE ALASKAN REGIONAL AND                                                                                                acquiring new lands containing wetlands. Governmental and non-
                             VILLAGE CORPORATIONS                .................................................                  ... ...             governmental groups and individuals have input into the manage-
                             STATE                                                                                                                      ment plans for these Federal tracts.
                             Department of Environmental Conservation                    ................ ...           ... ...     ... ...                     Native Alaskan regional and village corporation wetland ac-
                             Department of Fish and Game              .................  .......................e       0      0    .          0
                             Department of Natural Resouces                ....................................                                         tivities.-The Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act in 1971 allo-
                             Department of Transportation and                                                                                           cated about 44 million acres to Native Alaskan regional and village
                             Public Facilities      ................................................................... ... ... ... ...        ...      corporations. Much of this land contains wetlands.
                             University of Alaska         ...........................................................0... ...  ...             ...              State wetland activities.-Development activities in Alaska
                             SOME BOROUGH AND LOCAL GOVERNMENTS                               .......... *                                              wetlands are regulated by several State agencies. If the wetland is
                             PRIVATE ORGANIZATIONS                                                                                                      in a coastal area, a section 404 permit application is submitted to
                             Ducks Unlimited        ..................................................................a... ... 0
                             The Nature Conservancy              ..................................................0... ...    0                        the Corps and also to the Alaska Division of Governmental Coor-
                                                                                                                                                        dination, which coordinates the review of permit applications by the
                                                                                                                                                        Alaska Department of Environmental Conservation, Alaska Depart-
                             ing of structures. The related section 404 of the Clean Water Act is                                                       ment of Fish and Game, and Alaska Department of Natural Re-
                             the most often-used Federal legislation protecting wetlands. Under                                                         sources. The Division of Governmental Coordination also deter-
                             section 404 provisions, the Corps issues permits regulating the dis-                                                       mines whether a proposed coastal activity is consistent with the
                             charge of dredged or fill material into wetlands. Permits are sub-                                                         standards ofthe Alaska Coastal Management Program and with local
                             ject to review and possible veto by the U.S. Environmental Protec-                                                         management policies and plans. State-agency reviews of permit
                             tion Agency (EPA), and the Fws has review and advisory roles. Sec-                                                         applications for activities outside of coastal areas are not coordi-
                             tion 401 of the Clean Water Act grants to States and eligible Indian                                                       nated by the Division.
                             Tribes the authority to approve, apply conditions to, or deny sec-                                                                 The Department of Environmental Conservation certifies per-
                             tion 404 permit applications on the basis of a proposed activity's                                                         mit applications for compliance with State water-quality standards
                             probable effects on the water quality of a wetland.                                                                        under section 401 of the Clean Water Act and compliance with other
                                     Most farming, ranching, and silviculture activities are not sub-                                                   State laws and regulations. Pursuant to section 305(b) of the Clean
                             ject to section 404 regulation. However, the "Swampbuster" provi-                                                          Water Act, the Department submits to the EPA and the U.S. Congress
                             sion of the 1985 Food Security Act and amendments in the 1990                                                              a biennial assessment of the State's water quality, including that in
                             Food, Agriculture, Conservation, and Trade Act discourage (through                                                         wetlands (Alaska Department of Environmental Conservation,
                             financial disincentives) the draining, filling, or other alteration of                                                     1992).
                             wetlands for agricultural use. The law allows exemptions from pen-                                                                 Under Title 16 of the Alaska statutes, the Department of Fish
                             alties in some cases, especially if the farmer agrees to restore the                                                       and Game has discretion to approve, deny, or issue conditional per-
                             altered wetland or other wetlands that have been converted to agri-                                                        mits for activities affecting fish and wildlife and their habitats within
                             cultural use. The Wetlands Reserve Program of the 1990 Food,                                                               State critic al-habitat areas (about 1.4 million acres), game refuges
                             Agriculture, Conservation, and Trade Act authorizes the Federal                                                            (about 1.3 million acres), and game sanctuaries (about 94,000
                             Government to purchase conservation easements from landowners                                                              acres), many of which contain wetlands. Outside of such areas, The
                             who agree to protect or restore wetlands. The Consolidated Farm                                                            Department's role is limited to activities affecting anadromous-fish
                             Service Agency (formerly the Agricultural Stabilization and Con-                                                           habitat.
                             servation Service) administers the Swampbuster provisions and Wet-                                                                 The Department of Natural Resources Division of Parks and
                             lands Reserve Program. The Natural Resources Conservation                                                                  Outdoor Recreation is the lead agency developing State Compre-
                             Service (formerly the Soil Conservation Service) determines com-                                                           hensive Outdoor Recreation Plans for Alaska. Pursuant to the re-








                                                                                                             National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: ALASKA                    113


                   quirements of the Emergency Wetlands Resources Act of 1986, the                     References Cited
                   plan (Alaska Department of Natural Resources, 1992) prioritizes                     Alaska Department of Environmental Conservation, 1992, Alaska water
                   wetland protection by wetland type and function and outlines cri-                         quality assessment, 1992: Juneau, Alaska Department of Environmen-
                   teria used for the selection of high-recreational-value wetlands for                      tal Conservation, Division of Environmental Quality, Water Quality
                   possible acquisition. The Department of Natural Resources Soil and                        Management Section, 57 p.
                   Water Conservation Districts help private landowners determine                      Alaska Department of Natural Resources, 1992, Alaska's outdoor legacy-
                   whether the landowner's rural properties contain wetlands and                             Statewide Comprehensive Outdoor Recreation Plan, 1992-1996,
                   whether a proposed activity requires permits from Federal and State                       Public review draft: Anchorage, Alaska Department of Natural Re-
                   agencies.                                                                                 sources, Division of Parks and Outdoor Recreation, 100 p.
                         As a result of the 1959 Alaska Statehood Act, Alaska gained                   Alaska Division of Governmental Coordination, 1990, Alaska coastal man-
                   selection rights to about 105 million acres from the Federal Gov-                         agement program-Annual report, Fiscal year 1989: Juneau, Division
                                                                                                             of Governmental Coordination, 29 p.
                   ernment. So far, the State has received title to about 85 million acres.            -1991, Alaska coastal management program- Statutes and regula-
                   The State also owns about 65 million acres of submersed lands that                        tions, September 199 1: Juneau, Division of Governmental Coordina-
                   include the land between mean high tide and 3 miles offshore and                          tion, 105 p.
                   the land under many large lakes and rivers. Most State lands are                    Batten, A.R., 1990, A synopsis of Alaska wetland vegetation, in Alaska-
                   managed by the Department of Natural Resources, including about                           Regional wetland functions, Proceedings of a workshop, Anchorage,
                   3 million acres in State parks and about 2 million acres in State                         Alaska, May 28 -29, 1986: University of Massachusetts at Amherst,
                   forests. The University of Alaska owns some wetlands and has sev-                         The Environmental Institute Publication 90-1, p. 23-44.
                   eral academic departments researching wetlands and fish and wild-                   Batten, A.R., and Murray, D.F., 1982, A literature survey on the wetland
                   life that use wetlands.                                                                   vegetation of Alaska: U.S. Army Engineer Waterways Experiment
                                                                                                             Station Technical Report Y- 82 -2, 222 p.
                         Regional, borough, and local wetland activities.-The Alaska                   Cowardin, L.M., Carter, Virginia, Golet, F.C., and LaRoe, E.T., 1979, Clas-
                   Coastal Management Act established the Alaska Coastal Manage-                             sification of wetlands and deepwater habitats of the United States: U.S.
                   ment Program, which is described by the Alaska Division of Gov-                           Fish and Wildlife Service Report FWS/OBS -79/31, 131 p.
                   ernmental Coordination (1990, 1991) and Kyle (1982). The act al-                    Dachnowski-Stokes, A.P., 194 1, Peat resources in Alaska: U.S. Department
                   lows local governments, rural regions, and the State to cooperatively                     of Agriculture Technical Bulletin 769, 82 p.
                   protect and manage Alaska's coastal resources, including wetlands.                  Dahl, T.E., 1990, Wetlands -Losses in the United States, 17 80's to 1980's:
                   The coastal zone includes all marine waters and submersed lands                           Washington, D.C., U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Report to Congress,
                   extending offshore to the 3-mile limit of State jurisdiction and in-                      13 p.
                   land areas affecting coastal waters and resources. Many communi-                    Ellanna, L.J., and Wheeler, P.C., 1990, Subsistence use of wetlands in
                                                                                                             Alaska, in Alaska-Regional wetland functions, Proceedings of a
                   ties are along the coast or along a major river within the coastal zone.                  workshop, Anchorage, Alaska, May 28 -29, 1986: University of Mas-
                   Thirty-three coastal communities or regions have formed districts                         sachusetts at Amherst, The Environmental Institute Publication 90 -
                   to work with the Alaska Coastal Policy Council and to prepare                             1, p. 85-103.
                   Coastal Management Plans that guide development in their local                      Ferrians, O.J., Jr., 1965, Permafrost map of Alaska: U.S. Geological Sur-
                   areas. These district plans influence local, State, and Federal deci-                     vey Miscellaneous Geologic Investigations Series Map 1-445, scale
                   sions on development within the district, including the issuance of                       1:2,500,000.
                   section 404 permits.                                                                Hall, JX, 1988, Alaska coastal wetlands survey: Anchorage, U.S. Fish and
                         Anchorage, Juneau, Homer, Kodiak, and Sitka have wetland-                           Wildlife Service, 34 p.
                   management plans designating critical wetlands where little or no                   Hartman, C.W., and Johnson, P.R., 1978, Environmental atlas of Alaska:
                                                                                                             Fairbanks, University of Alaska, Institute of Water Resources, 101 p.
                   development is allowed, as well as less valuable wetlands that may                  Joint Federal- State Land Use Planning Commission for Alaska, 1973, Ma-
                   be available for development. These plans aid project planning,                           jor ecosystems of Alaska: Washington, D.C., U.S. Geological Survey
                   decrease the number of permit applications, and expedite review                           map, scale 1:2,500,000.
                   of approvable projects.                                                             King, J.G., and Lensink, C.J., 1971, An evaluation of Alaskan habitat for
                         General permits can be issued by the Corps to authorize speci-                      migratory birds: U.S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Sport
                   fied activities within an area, such as a coastal district. They can be                   Fisheries and Wildlife Administrative Report, 74 p.
                   administered by a local government and eliminate the need for in-                   Kyle, A.D., 1982, Local planning for wetlands management -A manual for
                   dividual evaluation.                                                                      districts in the Alaska Coastal Management Program: Juneau, Alaska
                         Private wetland activities. - Alaska has many private-interest                      Office of Coastal Management, 89 p.
                                                                                                       Lamke, R.D., 1986, Alaska surface-water resources, in U.S. Geological
                   groups that keep the public informed on wetland issues, organize                          Survey, National water summary 1985 -Hydrologic events and sur-
                   citizen networks, and lobby either for or against wetland-protection                      face-water resources: U.S. Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper
                   measures. The Nature Conservancy helps government agencies and                            2300,p.137-144.
                   private landowners identify rare and important ecological commu-                    Lee, L.C., and Hinckley, T.M., 1982, Impact of water level changes on woody
                   nities, protects valuable habitats and natural systems through ac-                        riparian and wetland communities - The Alaska region: U.S. Fish and
                   quisition or purchase, and assists governmental agencies and other                        Wildlife Service Report FWS/OBS-82/22, v. IX, 212 p.
                   conservation organizations in their land-preservation efforts. Ducks                Lensink, C.J., and Derksen, DX, 1990, Evaluation of Alaska wetlands for
                   Unlimited has helped government agencies acquire, enhance, and                            waterfowl, in Alaska-Regional wetland functions, Proceedings of a
                   protect wetlands used by waterfowl in the Anchorage, Fairbanks,                           workshop, Anchorage, Alaska, May 28 -29, 1986: University of Mas-
                                                                                                             sachusetts at Amherst, The Environmental Institute Publication 90-
                   and the Copper River Delta areas. The Alaska Center for the Envi-                         1, p. 45-84.
                   ronment, Anchorage Waterways Council, National Audubon Soci-                        Northern Technical Services and EKONO, Inc., 1980, Peat resource esti-
                   ety, National Wildlife Federation, Sierra Club, Southeast Alaska                          mation in Alaska: Anchorage, Northern Technical Services, v. 1, 107 p.
                   Conservation Association, and Trustees for Alaska are a few of the                        (contract report prepared for the U.S. Department of Energy).
                   organizations engaged in activities to protect Alaska's wetlands, in-               Post, R.A., 1990, Effects of petroleum operations in Alaskan wetlands - A
                   cluding programs to educate the public about wetland issues. The                          critique: Alaska Department of Fish and Game Technical Report 90-
                   Alaska Wetlands Coalition opposes potential developmental con-                            3, 112 p.
                   straints and is lobbying for the State to be exempt from portions of                Senner, R.G.B., 1989, Effects of petroleum operations in Alaskan wetlands:
                   section 404 regulations because of the abundance of wetlands in the                       Anchorage, Robert Senner and Company, 138 p.
                   State.








                   114      National Water Summay-Wetland Resources: STATE SUMMARIES



                   Tiner, R.W., Jr., 1984, Wetlands of the United States -Current status and
                         recent trends: Washington, D.C., U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 59 p.
                   Viereck, L.A., Dyrness, C.T., Batten, A.R., and Wenzlick, K.J., 1992, The
                         Alaska vegetation classification: U.S. Forest Service, General Tech-
                         nical Report PNW-GTR-286,278 p.


                   FOR ADDITIONAL INFORMATION: District Chief, U.S. Geological
                   Survey, 4230 University Drive, Suite 201, Anchorage, AK 99508; Regional
                   Wetland Coordinator, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 1011 East Tudor Road,
                   Anchorage, AK 99503


                                                  Prepared by
                                                 Roy L. Glass,
                                            U.S. Geological Survey






















































                                                                    U.S. Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper 2425







                                                                                                                     National Water Summary-Wetland Resources 115
                                                                                                                                            Arizona
                                                                                                                        Wetland Resources
                   Less than I percent of Arizona's landscape has wetlands (Arizona               TYPES AND DISTRIBUTION
                   State Parks, 1989). Since the late 1800's, streams and wetlands                      Wetlands are lands transitional between terrestrial and deep-
                   throughout Arizona have been drained or modified, resulting in the             water habitats where the water table usually is at or near the land
                   loss of more than one-third of the State's original wetlands (Dahl,            surface or the land is covered by shallow water (Cowardin and oth-
                   1990). Despite their limited extent, wetlands are a valuable resource          ers, 1979). The distribution of wetlands and deepwater habitats in
                   for the State's people and wildlife.                                           Arizona is shown in figure 2A; only wetlands are discussed here-
                        Benefits derived from the State's wetlands include flood con-
                   trol, streambank stabilization, water-quality improvement, water               in.   Wetlands can be vegetated or nonvegetated and are classified
                   supply, wildlife habitat, recreation, and education. Riparian wetlands         on the basis of their hydrology, vegetation, and substrate. In this
                   can lessen the severity of floods by retaining stormwater and re-              summary, wetlands are classified according to the system proposed
                   leasing it slowly. Riparian vegetation can stabilize streambanks and           by Cowardin and others (1979), which is used by the U.S. Fish and
                   reduce erosion. Wetlands can improve water quality by decreasing               Wildlife Service (FWS) to map and inventory the Natiotfs wetlands.
                   the sediment and pollutant load in the water that filters through the          At the most general level of the classification systm, wetlands are
                   wetland (Carter, 1986). Rivers, lakes, and artificial stock ponds are          grouped into five ecological systems: Palustrine, Lacustrine, Riv-
                   sources of water for public supply, irrigation, and livestock use.             erine, Estuarine, and Marine. The Palustrine System includes only
                        Wetlands are among the most valuable wildlife habitats in Ari-            wetlands, whereas the other sytems comprise wetlands and deep-
                   zona (Arizona State Parks, 1989). The variety and concentration of             water habitats. Wetlands of the systems that occur in Arizona are
                   wildlife in wetlands are the result of abundant water, diverse veg-            described below.
                   etation (which provides adequate cover), and the dynamic and tran-
                   sitional nature of constantly changing water levels. Wetlands provide
                   essential habitat for many waterfowl and other birds (including                System                                  Wetland description
                   shorebirds and tropical migrants), amphibians, fish, and mammals.              Palustrine  .................. Wetlands in which vegetation is predominantly
                   Some of the threatened or endangered species that depend directly                                       trees iforested wetlands); shrubs (scrub-shrub
                   or indirectly on Arizona wetlands include the bald eagle, humpback                                      wetlands); persistent or nonpersistent emergent,
                   chub, Apache trout, Gila topminnow, Yuma clapper rail, Hualapai                                         erect, rooted, herbaceous plants (persistent- and
                   Mexican vole, and ocelot (Arizona State Parks, 1989).                                                   nonpersistent-emergent wetlands); or sub-
                                                                                                                           mersed and (or) floating plants (aquatic beds).
                        Recreational use of wetlands benefits the State economically.                                      Also, intermittently to permanently flooded
                   Arizona's streams and wetlands offer diverse recreational experi-                                       open-water bodies of less than 20 acres in which
                   ences, including boating, hunting and fishing, camping, hiking, and                                     water is less than 6.6 feet deep.
                   wildlife watching. During 1978, in more than 46,000 visits to j list           Lacustrine  ................. Wetlands within an intermittently to permanently
                   three wetlands in southern Arizona, nonresident wildlife watchers                                       flooded lake or reservoir. Vegetation, when pres-
                   generated more than $5 million in tourist revenue, or approximately                                     ent, is predominantly nonpersistent emergent
                                                                                                                           plants (nonpersistent-emergent wetlands), or
                   $12,370 per acre (Arizona State Parks, 1989). Some wetlands, such                                       submersed and ior) floating plants (aquatic
                   as Montezuma Well (fig. 1), also are of historical, archeological, and                                  beds), or both.
                   cultural interest and provide opportunities for education and re-              Riverine  ..................... Wetlands within a channel. Vegetation, when pres-
                   search. Many Arizona tourist attractions are prehistoric and historic                                   ent, is same as in the Lacustrine System.
                   settlements that developed around streams and wetland areas that
                   provided fish, game, and water.                                                      Palustrine wetlands are represented in Arizona by riparian
                                                                                                  wetlands that include oxbow lakes, marshes, cienegas, and bosques
                                                                                                  and nonriparian wetlands such as tinajas. Palustrine wetlands also
                                                                                                  include artificially created wetlands such as farm ponds and cattle
                                                                                                  stock ponds. Riparian wetlands are in a transitional zone between
                                                                                                  the stream or lake and the dry desert upland. These habitats, the most
                                                                                                  extensive Arizona wetland habitat type, form as a result of consis-
                                                                                                  tently wet surface or subsurface conditions. Oxbow takes are former
                                                                                                  river channels that are sustained by floodwater from the nearby main
                                                                                                  stem of a river. Cienegas are riparian spring-fed marshes that are
                                                                                                  surrounded by upland and characterized by permanently saturated,
                                                                                                  organic soils (Arizona State Parks, 1989). Cottonwood and willow
                                                                                                  bosques (forests) are largely restricted to the flood plains of peren-
                                                                                                  nial and intermittent streams. The forests are sustained by winter
                                                                                                  and spring flooding. Some streams are sustained by ground-water
                                                                                                  pumpage and have provided a scattering of aquatic communities in
                               Figure 1. Montezuma Well, a lacustrine spring-fed                  and parts of Arizona that were once devoid of surface water. Tinajas,
                               wetiand/deepwater habitat that has formed in a sink-               also known as rock pools, are small depressions scoured in bedrock
                               hole. Located in a semiarid basin, this wetland was one            by boulders moved by flash floods (Arizona State Parks, 1988).
                               of the few sources of water for prehistoric inhabitants of               Lacustrine wetlands in Arizona include playas and caldera
                               the area. (Photograph by Eleanor Robbins, U.S.                     lakes. Playas, also referred to as sinks or sinkholes, are dry,
                               Geological Survey.)                                                unvegetated lakebeds in closed basins. The surface water of playa








                 116     National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: STATE SUMMARIES



                 lakes comes from direct precipitation and runoff-, over time, the
                 surface water evaporates and leaves tightly compacted fine sedi-
                 ments that compose the lake bottom. During wetter years, these                                                 Northern Arizona
                 areas can be flooded. Caldera takes are formed by the collapse of
                 basalt crust over a volcanic vent.
                       Riverine wetlands in Arizona occur in perennial, ephemeral,                                                         San Francisco
                 and intermittent streams. Perennial streams contain flowing water                                                         Plateau
                 throughout the entire year. Intermittent streams are streams that flow                                                            White
                 seasonally. Ephemeral streams, called washes, flow occasionally and                                                                Mtns
                 only as a result of surface runoff from precipitation.


                 HYDROLOGIC SETTING                                                                                        South-Central Arizona

                       Extreme aridity and seasonally varying precipitation are the
                 climatic characteristics that most significantly affect wetland for-                                                           Southeastern
                 mation and distribution in Arizona. The State's few perennial streams                                 Lower                    Arizona
                                                                                                                       Colorado
                 arise mainly at higher altitudes, where there is more moisture and                                    River
                 lower evaporation rates. As these streams descend to the desert              PHYSIOGRAPHIC
                 plains, evaporative losses and seepage to the ground-water system                  DIVISIONS
                 greatly reduce or eliminate surface flows.

                                                                      114'                                                             110.
                                                                  A                              77
                                                                           -    . :       X                 , ,
                                                                                                           ev



                                                           Hoo


                                                               a






                                                          P


















                        0
                               25      50 MILES
                        0   25 50 KILOMETERS                                                                          C-






                    WETLANDS AND DEEPWATER HABITATS
                    Distribution of wetlands and deepwater habitats-
                       This map showsthe a proximate distribution of large                                                     -------
                                         p
                       wetl :nds in the State. Because,of limitations of scale
                       and ource material, some wet ends are not shown

                           Predominantly wetland

                           Predominantly deepwater habitat



                 Figure 2. Wetland distribution in Arizona and physiography of the State. A,     Distribution of wetlands and deepwater habitats. 8, Physiogra-
                 phy. (Sources: A, TE. Dahl, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, unpub. data, 1991. B, Physiographic divisions from Brown, 1985; landforms data
                 from EROS Data Center.)








                                                                                                          National Water Surnmary-Wetland Resources: ARIZONA                 117



                        Most wetlands in Arizona require more moisture than that pro-                     South-Central Arizona. -The South-Central Arizona region
                  vided by local precipitation. Such moisture is available in drainages             has a warm-temperate to tropical -subtropical climate (Arizona State
                  and their flood plains (riparian zones) (fig. 3), on poorly drained               Parks, 1988). Most of the wetlands in this region have disappeared
                  lands, and in and near other wet areas such as ponds, margins of                  during the 20th century because of large-scale surface-water diver-
                  lakes, and springs and their outflows.                                            sions and extensive ground-water pumping required to support
                        Arizona can be divided into six physiographically distinct re-              municipal and agricultural development. Oxbow lakes and associ-
                  gions for purposes of discussing wetland hydrology (fig. 2B). These               ated marshes were once fairly common in the flood plains of the
                  six regions are the (1) White Mountains, (2) the San Francisco Pla-               major rivers in this area, particularly along the lower Verde, Salt,
                  teau, (3) Northern Arizona, (4) South-Central Arizona, (5) South-                 and Gila Rivers. Most of the wetlands in this part of the State are
                  eastern Arizona, and (6) the Lower Colorado River.                                directly associated with the free-flowing, unmodified stream seg-
                        White Mountains. -The White Mountains region is the wet-                    ments in the more mountainous regions and with ephemeral and
                  test part of the State; precipitation averages more than 23 inches per            intermittent streams at lower attitudes. Forested wetlands are com-
                  year, of which more than 50 percent falls as snow (Brown, 1985).                  mon in this region.
                  Snow is the main source for most of Arizona's perennial streams.                        Southeastern Arizona. -Summer precipitation in Southeast-
                  Most of the vegetated wetlands in the region are above 8,000 feet                 ern Arizona is more predictable than in other parts of the State and
                  in the cold boreal or subalpine climatic zone (Arizona State Parks,               generally exceeds winter precipitation. Historical accounts of this
                  1989). Many of the wetlands have been flooded by reservoirs. The                  area describe many extensive ponds and shallow grassy marshes
                  water in these reservoirs typically is clear and promotes abundant                (Arizona State Parks, 1989). Channelization and ground-water with-
                  aquatic vegetation (Brown, 1985). Reservoir wetlands in the White                 drawals have drained most of the marshes, and those that remain
                  Mountains region are the nesting habitat of more than 70 percent                  have been stripped of vegetation and reduced in size. Seasonal playa
                  of the waterfowl present in Arizona (Brown, 1985). Playas are                     lakes are common in this region. A few cienegas and other marshes
                  present east of Show Low, below 5,500 feet in altitude (Arizona State             exist in the northern part of the region, but similar wetlands have
                  Parks, 1989). Riparian wetlands in the region are on flood plains                 disappeared or have been eliminated in the eastern part of the re-
                  of high-altitude creeks and other drainages.                                      gion (Arizona State Parks, 1989). Many of the cienegas and marshes
                        San Francisco Plateau.-Annual precipitation in the San                      are directly connected to linear riparian corridors associated with
                  Francisco Plateau region averages about 19 inches, and about 75                   streams. Wetlands in the region occur at altitudes between 3,200
                  percent falls as snow (Arizona State Parks, 1989). Because of a per-              and 4,600 feet (Arizona State Parks, 1989).
                  meable substrate of basalt and cinder, the San Francisco Plateau has                    Lower Colorado River. -The Lower Colorado River region has
                  few perennial streams. Most wetlands are in intermountain grass-                  a tropical -subtropical climate (Arizona State Parks, 1988). In the
                  lands or open woodlands and have a seasonal water regime that                     extreme northwestern part of the region, wetlands are directly as-
                  depends on winter precipitation and snowmelt. Palustrine emergent,                sociated with the Colorado River and the Virgin River. Historically,
                  scrub-shrub, and forested wetlands form around caldera lakes.                     oxbow lakes and associated marshes were common in this area.
                  Caldera lakes typically are found at altitudes between 6,900 and                  Construction of Hoover Dam in 1935, however, eliminated the natu-
                  7,200 feet (Arizona State Parks, 1989). An example is Mormon                      ral fluctuations of the Colorado River, which deprived many oxbow
                  Lake, which is southeast of Flagstaff and is the State's largest natu-            takes of their maj .or source of water. The result has been a decrease
                  ral water body.                                                                   in wetlands associated with oxbow lakes.
                        Northern Arizona. -The Northern Arizona region has a cold-
                  temperate to boreal climate (Arizona State Parks, 1988). At least                 TRENDS
                  four types of palustrine wetlands exist in this region. These wetlands
                  include small seasonal lakes in the southern part of the Northern                       Arizona's landscape was not always as dry as it is today. Little
                  Arizona region, tule-fringed sinkholes (emergent wetland), marshes                more than a century ago, Arizona had a natural river-drainage sys-
                  of the Little Colorado River and a few of its tributaries, and ripar-             tem that flowed year-round and spanned nearly every part of the
                  ian forested wetlands (Brown, 1985; Platts and Jensen, 1986).                     State (Arizona State Parks, 1989). Perennial streams sustained the
                                                                                                                    Native American and Hispanic cultures that occupied
                                                                                                                    the State and provided water for a fledgling Anglo-
                                                PALUSTRINE WETLAND          PALUSTRINE WETLAND                      American pioneer community. Arizona has lost many
                      Desert                                                                                        of its natural wetlands as the increasing requirements
                                                                                                                    of agriculture, mining and other industry, and cities
                                     Flood                                                     Flood
                                     terrace                        RIVERINE WETLAND           terrace              have resulted in the modification of the State's aquatic
                                                                                                                    landscape. All the major rivers and many of the lesser
                                                                                                                    streams have been impounded, regulated, and diverted
                                                                                                                    (Arizona State Parks, 1989). Many other perennial
                                                                                                                    streams and wetlands have disappeared because
                                                                                                                    ground-water pumping has drained the aquifers, and
                                                                                                                    other land-use practices have altered the hydrology of
                                                                                                                    the drainage basins. Some of these changes were
                                                                                                                    implemented for flood control, water storage, and hy-
                                                         EXPLANATION                                                droelectric power. Others changes resulted from land-
                                         scrub-shrub vegetation                Emergent vegetation                  use practices and water-management actions (Arizona
                                                                                                                    State Parks, 1989). Regardless of the causes, the re-
                                                                                                                    structuring of Arizona's stream and wetland systems
                                         Cottonwood-willow forest               mesquiteforest                      has affected the natural extent and distribution of these
                                                                                                                    resources. The result has been greatly diminished op-
                                                                                                                    portunities for stream- and wetland-based recreation
                  'Figure 3. Hydrologic setting of wetlands in riparian areas of the Sonoran Desert.                and degraded open-space quality in and around urban
                  (Source: Arizona State Parks, 1988.)                                                              communities. Further, diminished natural-runoff re-









                              118          National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: STATE SUMMARIES



                              tention caused by wetland alteration or destruction has led to faster                                                      Table 1. Selected wetland-related activities of government
                              rising streams and higher flood peaks; these conditions have elimi-                                                        agencies and private organizations in Arizona, 1993
                              nated native fish and wildlife species in some areas.                                                                      lSource: Classification of activities is generalized from information provided
                                      Dahl (1990) estimates that, from predevelopment times until                                                             by agencies and organizations. o, agency or organization participates in
                              the 1990's, wetland acreage in Arizona decreased by more than one-                                                              wetand-related activity;                 agency or organization does not participate in
                                                                                                                                                              wetland-related activity. MAN, management; REG, regulation; R&C, res-
                              third. Harvesting of trees for fuel and building supplies, overgraz-                                                            toration and creation; LAN, @and acquisition; R&D, research and data col-
                              ing, conversion to croplands, inundation by impoundments, desic-                                                                lection, D&I, delineation and inventory]
                              cation caused by diversions, invasion of normative plant species,
                              plant eradication for increased water yield and flood control, flood-
                              plain development for urban needs, sand and gravel mining, and                                                             Agency or organization                                                                                        <@@
                              channelization and flood control have directly affected riparian                                                           FEDERAL
                              wetlands. Losses of nonflowing surface water and aquatic habitat                                                           Department of Agriculture
                              in cienegas also have been extensive.                                                                                        Consolidated Farm Service Agency                  ...........................
                                      Trends that will affect the future of wetlands in Arizona are the                                                    Forest Service        .................................................................
                              increasing population and urbanization; the changing attitudes about                                                         Natural Resources Conservation Service                    ................ ...
                                                                                                                                                         Department of Defense
                              land-, water-, and riparian-resource uses; the diversifying economy;                                                         Army Corps of Engineers             ..............................................0
                              and the shifting and increasingly complex patterns of water use. The                                                         Military reservations          .....................................................*
                              population and urbanization trends can be expected to affect stream                                                        Department of the Interior
                              and wetland resources because the demand for wetland recreation                                                              Bureau of Land Management                 ......................................9
                              will continue to increase, and municipal development will increase                                                           Bureau of Reclamation             ................................................. ...
                              pressure to encroach on riparian areas for residential, commercial,                                                          Fish and Wildlife Service           ..............................................
                                                                                                                                                           National Biological Service             .........................................
                              and industrial activities.                                                                                                   Geological Survey          .......................................................... ... ... ... ...
                                                                                                                                                           National Park Service           ...................................................
                                                                                                                                                         Environmental Protection Agency                ..................................
                              CONSERVATION                                                                                                               TRIBAL
                                      Many government agencies and private organizations partici-                                                        Some Indian tribes         .............................................................
                                                                                                                                                         STATE
                              pate in wetland conservation in Arizona. The most active agencies                                                          Department of Environmental Quality                 ...........................
                              and organizations and some of their activities are listed in table 1.                                                      Department of Water Resources                .................................... ...
                                      Federal wetland activities. -Development activities in Ari-                                                        Game and Fish Department              ..............................................0
                              zona wetlands are regulated by several Federal statutory prohibi-                                                            Outdoor Coordinating Commission                  .............................0
                              tions and incentives that are intended to slow wetland losses. Some                                                          State parks     .......................................................................0
                                                                                                                                                         COUNTY AND LOCAL
                              of the more important of these are contained in the 1899 Rivers and                                                        Counties      ..............................................................................  ...*
                              Harbors Act; the 1972 Clean Water Act and amendments; the 1985                                                             Municipalities       ..................................................................... ...
                              Food Security Act; the 1990 Food, Agriculture, Conservation, and                                                           Salt River Project...     ..................  .......................................... ... ... ... ...
                              Trade Act; and the 1986 Emergency Wetlands Resources Act.                                                                  PRIVATE ORGANIZATIONS
                                      Section 10 of the Rivers and Harbors Act gives the U.S. Army                                                       Desert Fishes Council          .......................................................
                                                                                                                                                         Ducks Unlimited        ..................................................................
                              Corps of Engineers (Corps) authority to regulate certain activities                                                        Johnson Historical Museum of the Southwest                      ...........
                              in navigable waters. Regulated activities include diking, deepening,                                                       National Audubon Society             ...............................................
                              filling, excavating, and placing of structures. The related section 404                                                    Arizona Riparian Council           ..................................................
                              of the Clean Water Act is the most often-used Federal legislation                                                          Arizona Wildlife Federation           ...............................  .............
                              protecting wetlands. Under section 404 provisions, the Corps issues                                                        The Arizona Nature Conservancy                 ..................................
                              permits regulating the discharge of dredged or fill material into                                                          Whittell Trust    ............. .................... . .................................. ...
                              wetlands. Permits are subject to review and possible veto by the U.S.
                              Environmental Protection Agency, and the Fws has review and ad-
                              visory roles. Section 401 of the Clean Water Act grants to States                                                          tification of wetlands and in the development of wetland protection,
                              and eligible Indian Tribes the authority to approve, apply conditions                                                      restoration, or creation plans.
                              to, or deny section 404 permit applications on the basis of a pro-                                                                 The 1986 Emergency Wetlands Resources Act encourages
                              posed activity's probable effects on the water quality of a wetland.                                                       wetland protection through funding incentives. The act requires
                                      Most farming, ranching, and silviculture activities are not sub-                                                   States to address wetland protection in their Statewide Comprehen-
                              ject to section 404 regulation. However, the "Swampbuster" provi-                                                          sive Outdoor Recreation Plans to qualify for Federal funding for
                              sion of the 1985 Food Security Act and amendments in the 1990                                                              State recreational land; the National Park Service provides guidance
                              Food, Agriculture, Conservation, and Trade Act discourage (through                                                         to States in developing the wetland component of their plans.
                              financial disincentives) the draining, filling, or other alteration of                                                             State wetland activities. -The Arizona Game and Fish Depart-
                              wetlands for agricultural use. The law allows exemptions from pen-                                                         ment is responsible for the management of fish and wildlife through-
                              alties in some cases, especially if the farmer agrees to restore the                                                       out the State except within Indian reservations (Arizona State Parks,
                              altered wetland or other wetlands that have been converted to agri-                                                        1989). The Department of Environmental Quality is responsible for
                              cultural use. The Wetlands Reserve Program of the 1990 Food,                                                               setting, monitoring, and enforcing water-quality standards for all
                              Agriculture, Conservation, and Trade Act authorizes the Federal                                                            navigable waters, their major tributaries, and all ground water of the
                              Government to purchase conservation casements from landowners                                                              State. The Department of Water Resources has authority for gen-
                              who agree to protect or restore wetlands. The Consolidated Farm                                                            eral control and supervision of the waters in Arizona and the ap-
                              Service Agency (formerly the Agricultural Stabilization and Con-                                                           propriation and distribution of such waters.
                              servation Service) administers the Swampbuster provisions and                                                                      Through the actions of the Game and Fish Department, De-
                              Wetlands Reserve Program. The Natural Resources Conservation                                                               partment of Environmental Quality, Department ofWater Resources,
                              Service (formerly the Soil Conservation Service) determines com-                                                           and State Parks, the State has taken steps to conserve streams and
                              pliance with Swampbuster provisions and assists farmers in the iden-                                                       wetlands and promote their recreational use but has not established








                                                                                                          National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: ARIZONA                   119


                 a comprehensive policy pertaining to these resources. The Ripar-                   References Cited
                 ian Area Advisory Committee, made up of agencies, associations,                    Arizona State Parks, 1988, Chapter 3-Wetlands resources in Arizona-
                 citizen groups, and academia, currently (1993) is working on a full                      An addendum to 1983 statewide comprehensive outdoor recreation
                 report to the Governor that will address a statewide policy and rec-                     plan: Phoenix, Arizona State Parks, p. 29-60.
                 ommendations.                                                                      -1989, Arizona rivers, streams, and wetlands study, in 1999 State-
                       County and local wetland activities. -The framework exists                         wide comprehensive outdoor recreation plan: Phoenix, Arizona State
                 within county and city governments to incorporate wetland areas                          Parks, 244 p.
                 as assets to the local community. Local governments can establish                  Brown, D.E., 1985, Arizona wetlands and waterfowl: Tucson, University of
                 policies to protect wetlands by restricting nearby development and                       Arizona Press, 169 p.
                 land uses. Arizona municipalities that have programs or policies to                Carter, Virginia, 1986, An overview of the hydrologic concerns related to
                 facilitate the protection of wetlands and riparian areas include                         wetlands in the United States: Canadian Journal of Botany, v. 64,
                                                                                                          p. 364-374.
                 Scottsdale, Prescott, Tucson, Sierra Vista, Show Low, and Pinetop.                 Cowardin, L.M., Carter, Virginia, Golet, F.C., and LaRoe, E.T., 1979, Clas-
                       The quasi-public Salt River Project's activities have major im-                    sification of wetlands and deepwater habitats ofthe United States: U.S.
                 plications for streams and wetlands in Arizona (Arizona State Parks,                     Fish and Wildlife Service Report FWS/OBS -79/31, 131 p.
                 1989). The reservoirs and irrigation projects that the Project ad-                 Dahl, T.E., 1990, Wetlands -Losses in the United States, 1780's to 1980's:
                 ministers have inundated or otherwise drastically altered tens of                        Washington, D.C., U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Report to Congress,
                 thousands of acres of native riparian areas and hundreds of miles                        13 p.
                 offree-flowing streams (Arizona State Parks, 1989). In recent years,               Plans, W.S., and Jensen, Sherman, 1986, Wetland/riparian ecosystems of
                 however, the Project has been active in the Arizona Riparian Coun-                       the Great Basin/desert and montane region-An overview, in Great
                 cil and in work to establish methods of'measuring and permitting                         Basin/Desert and Montane Regional Wetland Functions -Proceed-
                                                                                                          ings of a workshop held at Logan, Utah, February 27-28, 1986: The
                 critical instream flows. Additionally, the Project's environmental                       Environmental Institute, University ofMassachusetts at Amherst Pub-
                 policy includes protection of aquatic ecology and cooperation with                       lication 90 -4, p. 1-22.
                 Federal, State, and local agencies responsible for environmental pro-
                 tection.
                       Private wetland activities. -Programs from private groups
                 focus mainly on the acquisition and management of stream and ri-                   FOR ADDITIONAL INFORMATION: District Chief, U.S. Geological
                 parian areas, education and information exchange, wetland resto-                   Survey, 375 South Euclid Avenue, Tucson, AZ 85719; Regional Wetland
                 ration, and advocacy for wetland recreation and conservation. The                  Coordinator, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 500 Gold Avenue, SW, Room
                 Nature Conservancy, an international nonprofit organization, seeks                 4012, Albuquerque, NM 87103
                 to protect rare plants and animals by preserving the habitats they
                 need to survive -critical lands in the United States and beyond our                                               Prepared by
                 borders. The Arizona Riparian Council provides an important com-                                   L.K. Ham, U.S. Geological Survey, and
                 munication channel for professionals working in the area of ripar-                                   S.K. Bulmer and Tanna Thornburg,
                 ian-habitat management. Through the work of its subcommittees,                                                Arizona State Parks
                 the Council has begun to address coordination and consistency
                 problems within the existing decentralized statewide riparian-man-
                 agement system.







            120    National Water Surnmary-Wetland Resources: STATE SUMMARIES



























































                                                 U.S. Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper 2425







                                                                                                                    National Water Summary-Wetland Resources 121
                                                                                                                                     Arkansas
                                                                                                                      Wetland Resources
                 WtIands occupy about 8 percent of the land surface in Arkan-                    TYPES AND DISTRIBUTION
                 sas (Dahl, 1990) and are an important but threatened resource,                       Wetlands are lands transitional between terrestrial and deep-
                 Historically, wetlands occupied a much larger area of the State and             water habitats where the water table usually is at or near the land
                 greatly influenced early economic development. At the time the first            surface or the land is covered by shallow water (Cowardin and oth-
                 Europeans settled in the area, wetlands occupied about 28 percent               ers, 1979). The distribution of wetlands and deepwater habitats in
                 of what is now Arkansas. These wetlands consisted largely of vast               Arkansas is shown in figure 2A; only wetlands are discussed herein.
                 bottom-land forests and swamps bordering the Mississippi River and                   Wetlands can be vegetated or nonvegetated and are classified
                 other rivers and streams. The forested wetlands contained abundant              on the basis of their hydrology, vegetation, and substrate. In this
                 bottom-land trees such as cypress, tupelo gum, sycamore, birch,                 summary, wetlands are classified according to the system proposed
                 cottonwood, and several species of oak that provided a source of                by Cowardin and others (1979), which is used by the U.S. Fish and
                 timber for domestic and economic development. As the forests were               Wildlife Service (FWS) to map and inventory the Natiorfs wetlands.
                 cleared and the wetlands were drained, the fertile bottom land was              At the most general level of the classification system, wetlands are
                 opened up to agriculture, which eventually became the mainstay of               grouped into five ecological systems: Palustrine, Lacustrine, Riv-
                 the local economy. The loss of wetlands to agriculture and urban-               crine, Estuarine, and Marine. The Palustrine System includes only
                 ization and the associated loss of wildlife habitat have slowed but             wetlands, whereas the other systems comprise wetlands and
                 continue to be a major concern (Arkansas Department of Pollution                deepwater habitats. Wetlands of the systems that occur in Arkansas
                 Control and Ecology, 1992).                                                     are described below.
                       Wetlands provide critical habitat for many important plants and
                 animals in Arkansas. Seven endangered species and three threatened
                 species of plants and animals inhabit wetlands in the State (Curtis             System                                 Wetland description
                 James, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, written commun., 1993).                  Palustrine  .................. Wetlands in which vegetation is predominantly
                 Some of the endangered or threatened species of animals and plants                                       trees (forested wetlands); shrubs (scrub-shrub
                 in Arkansas that rely on wetlands sometime during their lives in-                                        wetlands); persistent or nonpersistent emergent,
                 clude the bald eagle, the red-cockaded woodpecker, the grey bat,                                         erect, rooted, herbaceous plants (persistent- and
                 the pink mucket pearly mussel, the fat pocketbook pearly mussel,                                         nonpersistent-emergent wetlands); or sub-
                                                                                                                          mersed and (or) floating plants (aquatic beds).
                 and the pondberry.                                                                                       Also, intermittently to permanently flooded
                       Arkansas bottom-land forested wetlands provide important                                           open-water bodies of less than 20 acres in which
                 habitats for many species of fish. Seasonal flooding of river flood                                      water is less than 6.6 feet deep.
                 plains provides access to new or expanded food supplies during                  Lacustrine  ................. Wetlands within an intermittently to permanently
                 periods of increased energy needs of fish at critical stages in their                                    flooded lake or reservoir. Vegetation, when pres-
                 reproductive and growth cycles (Jack Kilgore, John Baker, and R.D.                                       ent, is predominantly nonpersistent emergent
                                                                                                                          plants (nonpersistent-emergent wetlands), or
                 Smith, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, unpub. data, 1993).                                                 submersed and (or) floating plants (aquatic
                       Wetlands in Arkansas, especially those in the Mississippi River                                    beds), or both.
                 Valley, are a critical component of the series of wetland habitats              Riverine  ..................... Wetlands within a channel. Vegetation, when pres-
                 along the Mississippi Flyway, which is used by millions of migra-                                        ent, is same as in the Lacustrine System.
                 tory birds each year. The management board of the Lower Missis-
                 sippi Valley Joint Venture for the restoration of Mississippi Flyway                 Most of the wetlands in Arkansas are palustrine forested, scrub-
                 waterfowl populations considers the protection and preservation of              shrub, and nonvegetated wetlands (Arkansas Department of Pollu-
                 wetlands in Arkansas to be a key to the success of their program                tion Control and Ecology, 1992; U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service,
                 (Lower Mississippi Valley Joint Venture Management Board, 1990).                1992). The most extensive areas of wetlands in the State lie along
                 Wetlands in the Cache-Lower White River system (fig. 1) in the                  the major rivers, such as the lower Mississippi, Arkansas, Red,
                 Mississippi Flyway have been designated as one of nine "Wetlands                White, and Little Rivers and their principal tributaries in the Mis-
                 of International Importance" in the United States under provisions
                 of the Convention on Wetlands of International Importance Espe-
                 cially as Wildlife Habitat (Arkansas Department of Pollution Con-
                 trol and Ecology, 1992), which is known informally as the Ramsar
                 Convention after Ramsar, Iran, where the convention was held in
                 1971.
                                                                                                                                                F
                       Wetlands modify the water quality and hydrology of conter-                                                               igure 1. Black Swamp,
                 minous water bodies by serving as nutrient, sediment, and sedime
                                                                                         nt-                                                    a wetland along the
                 related toxic-materials traps. For example, Kleiss (1993), in a study                                                          Cache River. The
                 on the Cache River in eastern Arkansas, found that there was a sub-                                                            Cache-Lower White
                 stantial decrease in suspended sediment and nitrate loads in the river                                                         River wetlands have
                 after it passed through a wetland. Wetlands also mitigate the sever-                                                           been designated "Wet-
                 ity of floods and droughts by serving as floodways and reservoirs                                                              lands of International
                 for surface waters and recharge- discharge areas for ground water                                                              Importance" under the
                 (Mitsch and Gosselink, 1993). Wetlands in Arkansas also provide                                                                provisions of the 1971
                                                                                                                                                Ramsar Convention.
                 recreational opportunities for hunting, fishing, bird watching, and                                                            (Photograph by Ed Morris,
                 boating to thousands of people each year.                                                                                      U.S. Geological Survey.)








                                     122           National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: STATE SUMMARIES



                                     sissippi Alluvial Plain, South Central Plains, and Arkansas Valley                                                                             HYDROLOGIC SETTING
                                     Ecoregions (fig. 2A and 2B). Other wetlands are scattered through-                                                                                      The existence of wetlands depends on geologic and hydrologic
                                     out the State and are associated with springs and seeps in the                                                                                 conditions that favor the retention of water and on hydrologic proc-
                                     Ouachita Mountains and Ozark Highlands. Arkansas has 7 National                                                                                esses that allow the water to accumulate (Winter and Woo, 1990).
                                     Wildlife Refuges, I National Scenic River System, I National For-                                                                              Wetland hydrology involves complex water-flow patterns that are
                                     est, 17 State wildlife management areas, and 6 State parks that con-                                                                           affected by regional and local geology, topography, soil character-
                                     tain significant wetland areas.                                                                                                                istics, and climate. Water in small wetlands can be supplied by local
                                              The larger wetlands in Arkansas generally are forested wetlands                                                                       shallow ground-water flow systems, surface waters, or precipitation.
                                     associated with the flood plains of rivers such as the Saline,                                                                                 In the mountainous areas of northern and western Arkansas, wet-
                                     Ouachita, and Little Rivers and Bayou Dorcheat. Mixed forested and                                                                             lands typically are small and associated with springs. Larger wet-
                                     scrub-shrub wetlands border the Cache, Black, and St. Francis Riv-                                                                             lands in southern and eastern Arkansas commonly receive water
                                     ers and Taylor Bay. Little Bayou Meto is lined by an example of a                                                                              from local and regional ground-water flow systems and surface
                                     mixed forested and emergent wetland, which is uncommon in Ar-                                                                                  water. Surface water collects in topographic lows, and ground water
                                     kansas. Smaller wetlands with unique features include Centerville
                                     Pondberry and Coffee Prairie. These two wetlands contain plant                                                                                 commonly discharges in these areas. The rate at which water per-
                                     species of special concern to the State. Coffee Prairie has been iden-                                                                         colates downward from these wetlands to ground-water systems or
                                     tified by The Nature Conservancy and the Natural Heritage Com-                                                                                 upward from ground-water systems to the wetlands is a function of
                                     mission as deserving of priority-protection (U.S. Fish and Wildlife                                                                            local hydraulic conditions and geologic characteristics.
                                     Service, 1992).



                                                               940                                                                            92-





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                                     36

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                                                                                                                            I River                     carlopmAlle
                                                                                                                                                          n e


                                                                                                                                                                                                      I
                                                                          A     On
                                               Fort Srpjj 1                                                                                                                                                                            0                 25               50 MILES
                                                                                                        birer                                                                                                                          0           25       50 KILOMETERS




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                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                         .:, br
                                                                                                                                  'no   81.4

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                                                                                                                                                                                                 NWR
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              F





                                                                    k        op
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                               A
                                                                                                                      El Dorad.                  @Ra.      i

                                        A                     WETLANDS AND DEEPWATER HABITATS                                                                                                                                   B              ECOREGIONS
                                                              Distribution of wetlands and deepwarter habitats-                                                                                                                                    A.    South Central Plains
                                                                  This ma      p  shows the approximate distribution of large                                                                                                                      B.    Ouachita Mountains
                                                                  wetlands in the State. Because of limitations of scale                                                                                                                           C.    Arkansas Valley
                                                                  and source material, some wetlands are not shown                                                                                                                                 I).   Boston Mountains
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                   E.    Ozark Highlands
                                                                          Predominantly wetland                                                                                                                                                    F. Mississippi Alluvial Plain

                                                                          Predominantly cleepwater habitat


                                     Figure 2.           Wetland distribution in Arkansas and ecoregions of the State. A, Distribution of wetlands and deepwater habitats. B, Ecoregions.
                                     (Sources: A, TE. Dahl, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, unpub. data, 199 1. B, Ecoregions from Omemik, 1987; landforms data from EROS
                                     Data Center.)








                                                                                                 National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: ARKANSAS                123


                      In some parts of the State, seasonal fluctuations in precipita-           A. During flooding
                 tion result in seasonal differences in the flooded area of wetlands.
                 However, precipitation in the State is abundant and averages from                  PALUSIT11NE WETLAND                         PALUSTRINE WETIAND
                 40 to 56 inches per year. No season is without at least moderate
                 amounts of precipitation (Freiwald, 1985); therefore, seasonal varia-                     E               RIVERINE WETLAND
                 tions in the water content of most wetlands in the State are small.
                      Major wetlands in Arkansas are closely associated with the                           ca
                 State's large river flood plains, and most are influenced by the Mis-
                 sissippi River. In the northeastern and eastern parts of the State,                                   Natural            N:
                                                                                                                       levee
                 many streams flow through channels cut into alluvium -sands, silts,
                 and clays-deposited by the Mississippi River. These streams in-                                                                       I ly
                 clude the Black, White, St. Francis, and Cache Rivers and Bayou
                 Deview (Arkansas Department of Pollution Control and Ecology,                                                                       Alluvium
                 1992).
                      The flood plain of the Mississippi River is an area of little to-
                 pographic relief that has been subjected to frequent flooding. This
                 frequent flooding has resulted in the establishment of large stands            0. During flood recession
                 of water-tolerant bottom-land trees and the development of back-
                 water swamps associated with such hydrologic conditions (fig. 3A,                  PALUSTRINE WETLAND                          PALUSTRINE WETLAND
                 3B, and 3Q. The continued survival of these forested and scrub-                                           RIVERINE WETLAND
                 shrub wetlands depends on continued seasonal flooding and dewa-
                 tering cycles. Disruption of the flooding and dewatering cycle can
                 adversely affect plant and animal communities in wetlands and al-
                 ter the size and type of the wetlands. When the flooding cycle is
                 prevented, such as when wetland areas are leveed or ditched and                         CT            Natural
                                                                                                                       levee              N:
                                                                                                                                           lure,+*
                 drained, the water-tolerant plant species commonly are replaced by
                 less water-tolerant trees and shrubs. Once the threat of flooding is
                 reduced, these areas often are cleared for agriculture. When wet-                                                                   Alluvium
                 lands are drained or cleared, they can no longer trap sediments and                             Alluvium
                 sediment-bound contaminants, remove nutrients from flood waters,
                 or provide off- channel storage to lessen the severity of floods. Also,
                 nursery habitat for certain species of fish and invertebrates is greatly       C. During low flow
                 restricted when wetlands are drained. This can result in lower fish
                 and invertebrate populations. Conversely, in forested wetlands sub-                PALUSTRINE WETLAND                          PALUSTRINE WETLAND
                 jected to permanent flooding, such as occurs when a river is
                 dammed, the establishment of new trees will cease and the existing                                        RIVERINE WETLAND
                 trees will die. Eventually, the forested wetland will be replaced by
                 open water.


                 TRENDS                                                                                                Natural            Natural
                                                                                                                       levee              levee
                      The area that is now Arkansas began losing wetlands shortly
                 after the arrival of European settlers and has lost more wetland acres
                 than any inland State in the Nation (Scott Yaich, U.S. Fish and                                 Alluvium                            Alluvium
                 Wildlife Service, written commun., 1993). Wetland loss in Arkari-
                 sas from the 1780's to the 1980's was about 72 percent (Dahl, 1990),         F
                 and many remaining wetlands have been altered from their natural
                 state. Arkansas originally contained about 9,848,600 acres of wet-           Figure3. Surface hydrologic interaction between a river and forested
                 lands before the arrival of European settlers. By 1937, wetland area         wetlands in the flood plain. A, During flooding. B, During flood
                 in the State had decreased to about 4,900,000 acres (U.S. Fish and           recession. C, During low flow; note establishment of new trees.
                 Wildlife Service, 1992). The rate of wetland loss increased after
                 World War 11 owing to the increased availability of mechanized               and Wildlife Service, written commun., 1993).
                 equipment. Wetland loss was about 36 percent of the remaining                      Almost all of the cleared lands in the major wetland areas of
                 wetland area from 1957 to 1967 but decreased to about 14 percent             the State were being farmed in the 1990's, although many of these
                 from 1977 to 1985 (Arkansas Department of Pollution Control and              areas are considered marginal for crop production because of the
                 Ecology, 1992). Holder (1969) estimated that 90 percent of the               flooding hazard (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 1992). Some of
                 wetland loss in the last 40 years was due to the expansion of soy-           these marginal farmlands reverted to scrub-shrub wetlands when
                 bean production. By 1993, more than 90 percent ofArkansas'origi-             farming operations were discontinued.
                 nal bottom-land forested wetlands had been converted to upland or                  Even though the rate of wetland loss has declined in recent
                 other types of wetlands (Scott Yaich, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Ser-            years, Arkansas continues to lose wetlands. Continuing threats to
                 vice, written commun., 1993). The 72-percent wetland loss reported           the remaining, primarily forested wetlands of the State as identi-
                 by Dahl (1990) represents total wetland loss in the State but does           fied by Fws (1992) include (1) drainage and flood protection, (2)
                 not account for conversion of natural wetlands to some other type            dredging and stream chatmelization, (3) conversion of forested
                 of wetland or the creation of artificial wetlands. For example, some         wetland to scrub-shrub, emergent, or open-water wetlands, (4) al-
                 of the State's remaining wetland acreage includes small farm ponds,          teration of drainage patterns, (5) construction of dikes and levees,
                 which are not high-quality wetland habitat (Scott Yaich, U.S. Fish           and (6) discharge of pollutants.








                              124          National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: STATE SUMMARIES



                                      Much of the historical wetland loss within Arkansas has been                                                       Table 1. Selected wetiand-related activities of government
                              a result of Federal legislation. In 1850, the, U.S. Congress passed                                                        agencies and private organizations in Arkansas, 1993
                              the Swamp Land Act, which granted to Arkansas 7,686,575 acres                                                              (Source: Classification of activities is generalized from information provided
                              of swamp and overflow lands considered unfit for cultivation. The                                                               by agencies and organizations. ., agency or organization participates in
                              objective of the act was to help control floods in the Mississippi                                                              wetland-related activity; ..., agency or organization does not participate in
                                                                                                                                                              wetland-related activity. MAN, management; REG, regulation; R&C, resto-
                              River Valley and encourage the drainag@ and clearing of these "sub                                                              ration and creation; LAN, land acquisition; R&D, research and data collec-
                              marginal" lands for agriculture by allowing sale of these lands to                                                              tion, D&I, delineation and inventory]
                              private individuals for development (Shaw and Fredine, 1971).
                              Congress passed the Flood Control Act of 1928 in response to the                                                                                                                                               C
                              disastrous 1927 floods in the Mississippi Valley. This act removed                                                         Agency or organization                                                                                 9@     1@@
                              the requirement for local interests to pay one-half of the cost of levee                                                   FEDERAL
                              construction on the Mississippi River. The passage of this bill re-                                                        Department of Agriculture
                              sulted in the accelerated construction of a vast network of levees                                                           Consolidated Farm Service Agency                  ...........................
                              along the Mississippi River and its tributaries. The net effect of this                                                      Forest Service       .............................................  ...................
                              and other flood-control acts was the conversion of thousands of acres                                                        Natural Resources Conservation Service                     ................
                              of wetlands to agriculture due to the removal of the threat of fre-                                                        Department of Defense
                                                                                                                                                           Army Corps of Engineers             ..............................................
                              quent flooding (Arkansas Department of Pollution Control and                                                               Department of the Interior
                              Ecology, 1992).                                                                                                              Fish and Wildlife Service           ..............................................
                                                                                                                                                           Geological Survey          ..........................................................
                                                                                                                                                           National Biological Service             .........................................
                              CONSERVATION                                                                                                                 National Park Service           ...................................................
                                      Many government agencies and private organizations partici-                                                        Environmental Protection Agency                ..................................
                                                                                                                                                         STATE
                              pate in wetland conservation in Arkansas. The most active agencies                                                         Department of Pollution Control and Ecology                    .............
                              and organizations and some of their activities are listed in table 1.                                                      Forestry Commission           .........................................................0 0*            0      0
                                      Federal wetland activities.-Development activities in Arkan-                                                       Game and Fish Commission               .............................................o o  0             e      0
                              sas wetlands are regulated by several Federal statutory prohibitions                                                       Natural Heritage Commission              ..........................................0                          0
                              and incentives that are intended to slow wetland losses. Some of the                                                       Soil and Water Conservation Commission                    ...................*                                0
                                                                                                                                                         PRIVATE
                              more important of these are contained in the 1899 Rivers and Har-                                                          Ducks Unlimited         ..................................................................      a             0
                              bors Act; the 1972 Clean Water Act and amendments; the 1985 Food                                                           National Audubon Society              ...............................................           0             0
                              Security Act; the 1990 Food, Agriculture, Conservation, and Trade                                                          The Nature Conservancy             ..................................................0          0      0      0
                              Act; and the 1996 Emergency Wetlands Resources Act.
                                      Section 10 of the Rivers and Harbors Act gives the U.S. Army
                              Corps of Engineers (Corps) authority to regulate certain activities
                              in navigable waters. Regulated activities include diking, deepening,                                                       States to address wetland protection in their Statewide Comprehen-
                              filling, excavating, and placing of structures. The related section 404                                                    sive Outdoor Recreation Plans to qualify for Federal funding for
                              of the Clean Water Act is the most often-used Federal legislation                                                          State recreational land; the National Park Service (NPS) provides
                              protecting wetlands. Under section 404 provisions, the Corps issues                                                        guidance to States in developing the wetland component of their
                              permits regulating the discharge of dredged or fill material into                                                          plans.
                              wetlands. Permits are subject to review and possible veto by the U.S.                                                               The Fws administers seven National Wildlife Refuges, includ-
                              Environmental Protection Agency, and the FwS has review and ad-                                                            ing the 154,000-acre White River National Wildlife Refuge located
                              visory roles. Section 401 of the Clean Water Act grants to States                                                          along the lower White River in Arkansas. The Fws also administers
                              and eligible Indian Tribes the authority to approve, apply conditions                                                      wetland-acquisition programs and advises Federal and State agen-
                              to, or deny section 404 permit applications on the basis of a pro-                                                         cies responsible for wetland conservation. Other Federal agencies
                              posed activity's probable effects on the water quality of a wetland.                                                       that have management or monitoring responsibilities for wetlands
                                      Most farming, ranching, and silviculture activities are not sub-                                                   in Arkansas include the NPS, the U.S. Forest Service (FS), and the
                              ject to section 404 regulation. However, the "Swampbuster" provi-                                                          U.S. Geological Survey (usGs). The FS is responsible for the man-
                              sion of the 1985 Food Security Act and amendments in the 1990                                                              agement of wetlands in the State's National Forests. Buffalo National
                              Food, Agriculture, Conservation, and Trade Act discourage (through                                                         River, a segment of the Buffalo River under the jurisdiction of the
                              financial disincentives) the draining, filling, or other alteration of                                                     NPS, has some small wetland areas associated with the river. The
                              wetlands for agricultural use. The law allows exemptions from pen-                                                         usGs collects information on the quantity and quality of many of
                              alties in some cases, especially if the farmer agrees to restore the                                                       the Nation's water resources, including its wetlands.
                              altered wetland or other wetlands that have been converted to agri-                                                                 State wetland activities.-Arkansas has a Natural and Scenic
                              cultural use. The Wetlands Reserve Program of the 1990 Food,                                                               Rivers program and a Natural Heritage program. These two pro-
                              Agriculture, Conservation, and Trade Act authorizes the Federal                                                            grams designate extraordinary and ecologically sensitive areas, in-
                              Government to purchase conservation easements from landowners                                                              cluding wetlands, within the State. A technical review committee
                              who agree to protect or restore wetlands. The Consolidated Farm                                                            made up of representatives from State agencies makes recommen-
                              Service Agency (formerly the Agricultural Stabilization and Con-                                                           dations to the Governor on section 404 permits. The State has
                              servation Service) administers the Swampbuster provisions and Wet-                                                         adopted a program administered by the Arkansas Department of
                              lands Reserve Program. The Natural Resources Conservation                                                                  Pollution Control and Ecology that applies an antidegradation policy
                              Service (formerly the Soil Conservation Service) determines com-                                                           to substantial alterations of a water body, including associated wet-
                              pliance with Swampbuster provisions and assists farmers in the iden-                                                       lands. In addition, the Arkansas Soil and Water Conservation Com-
                              tification of wetlands and in the development of wetland protection,                                                       mission and the Arkansas Forestry Commission have extensive re-
                              restoration, or creation plans.                                                                                            sponsibilities concerning the manage                             'ment of the State's wetlands.
                                      The 1986 Emergency Wetlands Resources Act encourages                                                                        The Arkansas Game and Fish Commission, the State's lead
                              wetland protection through funding incentives. The act requires                                                            wildlife agency, has a long-standing commitment to protect wetlands








                                                                                                          National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: ARKANSAS                      125



                   within the Mississippi River Valley because of the area's importance                Cowardin, L.M., Carter, Virginia, Golet, F.C., and LaRoe, E.T., 1979, Clas-
                   to wildlife, particularly to migratory birds. The Arkansas Game and                       sification of wetlands and deepwater habitats of the United States: U.S.
                   Fish Commission owns or controls more than 174,000 acres in 14                            Fish and Wildlife Service Report FWS/OBS -79/31, 131 p.
                   wildlife management areas within the Mississippi River Valley, much                 Dahl, T.E., 1990, Wetlands-Losses in the United States, 1780's to 1980's:
                   of which consists of wetlands. The Arkansas Game and Fish Com-                            U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Report to Congress, 13 p.
                                                                                                       Freiwald, D.A., 1985, Average annual precipitation and runoff for Arkan-
                   mission and the Arkansas Natural Heritage Commission are com                              sas, 1951-80: U.S. Geological Survey Water-Resources Investigations
                   mitted to additional investment in the Mississippi River Valley and                       Report 84-4363, scale 1:1,000,000.
                   have begun developing comprehensive plans for these activities. The                 Holder, Trusten, 1969, Disappearing wetlands in eastern Arkansas: Little
                   Game and Fish Commission has developed the Cache-Lower White                              Rock, Arkansas Planning Commission, 71 p.
                   Rivers Joint Venture under the North American Waterfowl Manage-                     Kleiss, B.A., 1993, An ecosystem study of bottom land hardwood wetlands
                   ment Plan. The objective of this program is to protect bottom-land                        associated with the Cache River, eastern Arkansas, in Landin, M,C.,
                   habitat in the Cache River and lower White River Basins, which                            ed., Wetlands, Proceedings of the 13th Annual Conference Society of
                   constitute the second-largest area of contiguous bottom-land habi-                        Weiland Scientists, New Orleans, La.: Utica, Miss., Society of Wet-
                   tat in the Mississippi River Valley, second only to the Atchafalaya                       land Scientists, South Central Chapter, p. 31-37.
                                                                                                       Lower Mississippi Valley Joint Venture Management Board, 1990, Conserv-
                   River Basin in Louisiana. In 1990, protected Federal and State lands                      ing waterfowl and wetlands: Vicksburg, Miss., North American Wa-
                   in the Joint Venture were designated "Wetlands of International                           terfowl Management Plan, Lower Mississippi Valley Joint Venture,
                   Significance" under the provisions of the 1971 Ramsar Convention,                         32 p.
                   which produced an international agreement for cooperation in the                    Lynch, J.M., Baker, W.W., Foti, Tom, and Peacock, Lance, 1992, The White
                   conservation of wetland habitats.                                                         River-lower Arkansas River megasite-A landscape conservation
                         In 1988, the Natural Heritage Commission, in cooperation with                       design project: Little Rock, Arkansas Natural Heritage Commission
                   the Arkansas Chapter of The Nature Conservancy, began to develop                          and the Arkansas Nature Conservancy, 81 p.
                   the White River-Lower Arkansas River Megasite plan (Lynch and                       Mitsch, W.J., and Gosselink, J.G., 1993, Wetlands (2d ed.): New York, Van
                   others, 1992). This plan presents a landscape-level design inven-                         Nostrand Reinhold Company, 722 p.
                                                                                                       Omernik, J. M., 1987, Ecoregions of the United States- Map supplement:
                   tory of an ecologically intact, biologically diverse bottom-land sys-                     Annals of the Association of American Geographers, v. 77, no. 1, scale
                   tem that includes more than 550,000 acres. More than 280,000 acres                        1:2,500,000.
                   in this habitat system are public lands. The boundaries of this habi-               Shaw, S.P., and Fredine, C.G., 197 1, Wetlands of the United States -Their
                   tat system differ somewhat from those of the high-priority water-                         extent and their value to waterfowl and other wildlife: U.S. Fish and
                   fowl habitat defined by the Cache -Lower White Rivers Joint Ven-                          Wildlife Service Circular 39, 67 p.
                   ture, although both are in the Mississippi River Valley.                            U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 1992, Regional wetlands concept plan-
                         Regional andprivate wetland activities.-The Arkansas Chap-                          Emergency wetlands resources act, southeast region: Atlanta, Ga., U.S.
                   ter of The Nature Conservancy is involved in an effort to protect                         Fish and Wildlife Service, 259 p.
                   and restore the forested wetlands of the Mississippi River Alluvial                 Winter, T.C., and Woo, Ming-Ko, 1990, Hydrology of lakes and wetlands:
                                                                                                             in Wolman, M.G., and Riggs, II.C., eds., Surface water hydrology:
                   Plain in Arkansas as part of a coordinated effort to protect wetlands                     Boulder, Colo., Geological Society of America, The geology of North
                   of that region in seven States. The National Audubon Society and                          America, v. 0-1, chap. 8, p. 159-187.
                   Ducks Unlimited also are involved in the protection and restoration
                   of wetlands and the critical wildlife habitats they contain.
                         More than 50 percent of the remaining bottom-land forests in
                   the Mississippi River Valley are in private ownership and much of                   FOR ADDITIONAL INFORMATION: District Chief, U.S. Geological
                   these forests are commercial timberlands owned by the forest-prod-                  Survey, 401 Hardin Road, Little Rock, AR 72211; Regional Weiland Coor-
                   ucts industry. Most of these commercial timberlands are a critical                  dinator, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 1875 Century Building, Suite 200,
                   part of the Lower White-Lower Arkansas River Megasite plan be-                      Atlanta, GA 30345
                   cause they occupy key locations contiguous with and connecting
                   public lands within the system.                                                                                    Prepared by
                                                                                                                   Charles R. Demas and Dennis K. Demcheck,
                   References Cited                                                                                             U.S. Geological Survey

                   Arkansas Department of Pollution Control and Ecology, 1992, Wetlands,
                         Chapter 4 of water quality inventory report, 1992: Little Rock, Arkan-
                         sas Department of Pollution Control and Ecology, p. 45-48.








           126    National Water Surnmary-Wetland Resources: STATE SUMMARIES







































































                                                    U.S. Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper 2425







                                                                                                                                            National Water Summary-Wetland Resources 127
                                                                                                                                                            California
                                                                                                                                                Wetland Resources
                     California has about 454,000 acres of nonagricultural wetlands;                                 summary, wetlands are classified according to the system proposed
                     more than 90 percent of the State's wetlands have been drained,                                 by Cowardin and others (1979), which is used by the U.S. Fish and
                     mostly for agricultural purposes. Before significant agricultural                   con-        Wildlife Service (FWS) to map and inventory the Natiotils wetlands.
                     version began, about 5 million acres of wetlands supported lush                                 At the most general level of the classification system, wetlands are
                     aquatic vegetation and provided habitat for hundreds of species of                              grouped into five ecological systems: Palustrine, Lacustrine, Riv-
                     fish and wildlife as well as food, clothing, protection from preda-                             erine, Estuarine, and Marine. The Palustrine System includes only
                     tors, and transportation for native Americans.                                                  wetlands, whereas the other systems comprise wetlands and
                            California's wetlands provide stopover, wintering, and breed-                            deepwater habitats. Wetlands of the systems that occur in Califor-
                     ing habitat for vast numbers of waterfowl (fig. 1). The Sacramento -                            nia are described below.
                     San Joaquin River Delta is the largest remaining wetland area in the
                     State. The delta's wetlands regularly harbor as much as 15 percent                              System                                         Wetland description
                     of the waterfowl on the Pacific Flyway, the bird-migration corridor
                     extending from the southern tip of South America to Alaska. Al-                                 Palustrine    .................. Nontidal and tidal-freshwater wetlands in which
                     though significantly reduced in size since predevelopment times,                                                              vegetation is predominantly trees (forested wet-
                     wetlands in the delta are a source of large amounts of plant and algal                                                        lands); shrubs (scrub-shrub wetlands); persistent
                                                                                                                                                   or nonpersistent emergent, erect, rooted herba-
                     materials that are the basis of complex food systems in the wetlands                                                          ceous plants (persistent- and nonpersistent-
                     themselves and downstream in the estuaries of San Francisco Bay.                                                              emergent wetlands); or submersed and (or)
                            California's wetlands have significant environmental and eco-                                                          floating plants (aquatic beds). Also, intermit-
                     nomic value for humans and wildlife. Wetlands provide temporary                                                               tentIV to permanently flooded open-water bod-
                                                                                                                                                   ies of less than 20 acres in which water is less
                     storage of floodwaters, reducing downstream damage, and serve as                                                              than 6.6 feet deep.
                     buffers against erosion. Marshes in the Sacramento                     -San Joaquin             Lacustrine     ................. Nontidal and tidal-freshwater wetlands within an
                     River Delta and many coastal marshes act as freshwater barriers to                                                            intermittently to permanently flooded lake or
                     seawater intrusion of aquifers. Wetlands also trap sediment and ab-                                                           reservoir larger than 20 acres and @od deeper
                     sorb many waterborne pollutants and excess nutrients. Wetlands                                                                than 6.6 feet. Vegetation, when present, is pre-
                                                                                                                                                   dominantly nonpersistent emergent plants (non-
                     provide fish and wildlife habitat; inland wetlands are excellent habi-                                                        persistent-emergent wetlands), or submersed
                     tat for bass, catfish, bluegill, sunfish, crappie, geese, ducks, wading                                                       and (or) floating plants (aquatic beds), or both.
                     birds, and many species of amphibians. Wetlands offer recreational                              Riverine    ..................... Nontidal and tidal-freshwater wetlands within a
                     and educational activities, as well as opportunities for scientific                                                           channel. Vegetation, when present, is same as
                     studies.                                                                                                                      in the Lacustrine System.
                                                                                                                     Estuarine    ................... Tidal wetlands in low-wave-energy environments
                                                                                                                                                   where the salinity of the water is greater than 0.5
                     TYPES AND DISTRIBUTION                                                                                                        part per thousand (ppt) and is variable owing to
                                                                                                                                                   evaporation and the mixing of seawater and
                            Wetlands are lands transitional between terrestrial and deep-                                                          freshwater.
                     water habitats where the water table usually is at or near the larid                            Marine    ....................... Tidal wetlands that are exposed to waves and cur-
                     surface or the land is covered by shallow water (Cowardin and oth-                                                            rents of the open ocean and to water having a
                     ers, 1979). The distribution of wetlands and deepwater habitats in                                                            salinity greater than 30 ppt.
                     California is shown in figure 2A; only wetlands are discussed herein.
                            Wetlands can be vegetated or notivegetated and are classified                                   The Fws National Wetland Inventory currently (1993) is map-
                     on the basis of their hydrology, vegetation, and substrate. In this                             ping   California's wetlands and compiling statewide acreage data.
                                                                                                                     However, that inventory is not scheduled to be completed until the
                                                                                                                     late 1990's, and there are no other systematically compiled data
                                                                                                                     concerning statewide wetland acreage. Dahl (1990), on the basis of
                                                                                                                     Central Valley (fig. 2,B) acreage data in Frayer and others (1989)
                                                                                                                     and approximations by the FWS, estimated that California had
                                                                                                                     454,000 acres of wetlands in the mid-1980's-0.4 percent of the
                                                                                                                     State's area.
                                                                                                                            Frayer and others (1989) reported the results of a systematic
                                                                                                                     survey of Central Valley and Sacramento -San Joaquin River Delta
                                                             ..........
                                                                           v                                         wetlands conducted in the mid-1980's. The study indicated that there
                                                                                                                     were about 378,800 acres of freshwater and estuarine nonagricul-
                                                                           :;p                                       tural wetlands and 658,600 acres of flooded rice fields, most of
                                                                                                                     which are converted wetlands. Field and others (1991) reported that
                                                                                                                          Coastal counties of California had about 198,500 acres of
                                                                                                                     palustrine, estuarine, and marine wetlands on the basis of interpre-
                                                                                                                     tation of aerial photography done from the mid4970's to the mid-
                                                                                                                     1980's. Acreage data for the alluvial basins of northern California,
                                                                                                                     montane wetlands in the Sierra Nevada and Cascade Range, and
                          Figurell. Suisun Marsh provides habitat to many kinds of water-                            desert wetlands in southern California are not yet available.
                          fowl. Agricultural and urban encroachment has reduced and con-                                    The 378,800 acres of nonagricultural wetlands in the Central
                          tinues to threaten valuable wetlands. (Photograph courtesy of the                          Valley and Sacramento -San Joaquin River Delta includes approxi-
                          Bureau of Reclamation.)                                                                    mately 318,900 acres of palustrine wetlands and 59,900 acres of









                            128        National      Water Summary-Wetland Resources: STATE SUMMARIES




                                                    124')                             122"
                                                   A                                                                    120
                                                                                                                                                                                              C         AREA HAVING ANNUAL
                                                                                                                                                                                                         WATER DEFICIT

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                                                                                                                                                          Lm   Angeles







                                                                                                                                                       Tijuana Estuary                leg
                                                                                                                                                        Natim    ar'
                                                                                                                                                               h Reserva
                                                                                                                                                         Researc
                                                                                     Y                                                                                             Pj-- Bi-
                                                                                                                                                           WETLANDS AND DEEPWATER HABITATS
                                                                                             8outh                                                         Distribution of wetlands and deepwater habitats-
                                                                                                1)      C                                                      This map shows the approximate distribution of large
                                                                                                  assert                                                       wetlands in the State. Because of limitations of scale
                                                                                  re                                                                           and source material, some wetlands are not shown
                                                                                         Sd
                                                                                         r
                                                                                                                                                                     Predominantly wetland

                                                                                                                                                                     Predominantly deepwater habitat
                                                                                                                                                           71

                                                                                                                                                                     Area typified by a high density of small wetlands
                                B       PHYSIOGRAPHIC DIVISIONS
                            Figure 2. Wetland distribution in California and physical and climatological features that influence wetland distribution in the State. A, Distri-
                            bution of'wetlands and deepwater habitats. B, Physiography. C, Moisture balance. (Sources: A, TE. Dahl, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, unpub.
                            data, 199 7. B, Physiographic divisions modified from Fenneman, 1946; landforms from EROS Data Center C, Modified from Thomas and Phoenix,
                            1976.)







                                                                                                  National Water Surnmary-Wetland Resources: CALIFORNIA               129



                  estuarine wetlands (Frayer and others, 1989). The palustrine wet-             Cascade Range, and Klamath Mountains. Annual precipitation
                  lands are of three types: (1) Those associated with or adjacent to            amounts can differ widely from year to year because of variability
                  rivers -primarily overflowed lands, sloughs, and bypasses; (2)                in the Pacific storm track.
                  those associated with grasslands -mainly on the alluvial fans of                    Mountain ranges induce precipitation at the higher altitudes
                  the eastern and western slopes of the valley, which contain numer-            and create "rain shadows" (dry areas) in the leeward valleys and
                  ous vernal pools during normal-precipitation years; and (3)                   plains. In California, nearly continuous ranges of coastal mountains
                  marshes -mainly in the central lowlands of the Sacramento and San             extend from the Oregon border to Mexico, and these ranges are
                  Joaquin River drainage basins and the Tulare Basin. The Central Val-          paralleled by the southern Cascade Range and the Sierra Nevada
                  ley's estuarine wetlands are in the Suisun Marsh in the westernmost           about 150 miles farther inland (fig. 2B). Between the two ranges,
                  part of the Sacramento-San Joaquin River Delta.                               in.the rain shadow of the Coast Ranges, lies the Central Valley, nearly
                       On the basis of data from Field and others (1991), most wet-             400 miles long and 70 miles w     'ide. In the rain shadow of the south-
                  lands in California's coastal counties, which are primarily in the            ern Cascade Range, the Sierra Nevada, and the coastal mountains
                  Coast Ranges, are classified as palustrine. Of the 198,500 coastal            of southern California are the Basin and Range and Southern Cali-
                  wetland acres, 46,700 acres are fresh marsh (palustrine emergent              fornia Desert physiographic provinces.
                  wetlands), 77,800 acres are palustrine forested or scrub-shrub wet-                 Central Valley wetlands. -Streams originating in the Sierra
                  lands, 21,700 acres are salt marsh (estuarine emergent wetlands),             Nevada carry 95 percent of the runoff entering the Central Valley.
                  and 52,200 acres are tidal flats (estuarine unconsolid ated- shore            Before hydrologic modification associated with agriculture, much
                  wetlands), which are mostly nonvegetated. (The acreages for indi-             of the southern Sierra Nevada runoff flowed into the internally
                  vidual wetland types do not total 198,500 because of rounding.)               drained Tulare Basin, creating several large freshwater lakes that
                       The mountains of California contain palustrine, lacustrine, and          existed for more than 2,000,000 years (Page, 1986). The largest,
                  riverine wetlands. These wetlands have not been inventoried to date           Tulare Lake, formed a large lacustrine wetland extending over 600
                  (1993) because of their isolated and widely different topographic             square miles. Streams flowing in the trough of the Central Valley
                  and ecological settings. Construction of reservoirs on the upland             typically have low gradients and almost imperceptible natural levees.
                  reaches of creeks and major rivers in the Sierra Nevada and Cas-              Consequently, before the rivers were contained by irrigation and
                  cade Range has created additional wetland acreage. Palustrine wet-            flood-control projects, flood plains were wide, and in many years
                  lands of the Sierra, Cascades, and parts of the Coast Ranges are              the entire valley was inundated by floodwater. Overbank flooding
                  emergent wetlands commonly called bogs or meadows and forested                created thousands of acres of marshland and tens of thousands of
                  or scrub-shrub wetlands called swamps. These wetlands are typi-               vernal pools. Despite flood-control projects since the mid4850's,
                  cally small, sometimes only a few thousand square feet, and exist             overbank flooding still can occur in wet years.
                  randomly among coniferous forests at altitudes generally higher than                In the years before flood-control and irrigation projects, shal-
                  3,000 to 3,500 feet.                                                          low water tables supported large areas of wetlands on the valley
                       The desert basins of southeastern California contain lacustrine          floor. However, as a result of agricultural drainage, ground-water
                  and palustrine wetlands referred to as playas, which are lakebeds             withdrawal, building of upland diversion dams, and flood-control
                  that are intermittently flooded. Rogers, Soda, Searles, China, and            projects, the original flow paths of water into the Central Valley and
                  Rosamond Lakes are large playas. The typical playa is nonvegetated            most of California's other alluvial basins have been altered, and the
                  except where fissures and sinklike depressions provide intermittent           valley's hydrology is now generally as shown in figure 3A. Floods
                  sources of water by pooling rainfall and overland flow. In unusu-             no longer regularly cover the valley floors but are diverted to crop-
                  ally wet years and for periods following them, plants whose roots             land, stored, or channeled. Ground-water levels under the valley
                  reach the water table, such as saltbrush, rabbitbrush, tamarisk, and          floors have been drawn down to such an extent that recharge is pri-
                  mesquite, grow in areas of shallow ground water and around dry                marily from irrigation, and discharge is mainly to large centers of
                  springs (C.J. Londquist, U.S. Geological Survey, written commun.,             ground-water pumping (Bertoldi and others, 1991). Most of the
                  1993).                                                                        valley's wetlands are now sustained by controlled application of
                       Mono Lake, a saline lake remnant of a much larger ice-age lake           water (Frayer and others, 1989).
                  in the Basin and Range east of the central Sierra Nevada (fig. 2B),                 Many wildlife refuges in the Central Valley use irrigation drain
                  supports an abundance of brine shrimp and brine flies that are a              water either as a part or as the total source of water. Until 1986, 1,200
                  significant food source for eared grebes, avocets, plovers, sandpip-          acres of ponds in the Kesterson National Wildlife Refuge (fig. 2A)
                  ers, gulls, ducks, and phalaropes (Bakker, 1984). Because of the high         were partly sustained by agricultural drain water from the west side
                  salinity of the lake water, only salt-tolerant plants such as stinkweed,      of the San Joaquin Valley. In 1983, the Fws discovered an unusu-
                  goosefoot, and salt or alkali grass grow around the lake.                     ally high incidence of deformed or dead birds in the refuge. Studies
                       In the Southern California Desert near the California -Mexico            of the drain water entering the ponds and of the water in the ponds
                  border is a type of palustrine desert wetland known popularly as an           showed that the deformities were caused by high concentrations of
                  "oasis." These emergent, scrub-shrub, and forested wetlands sup-              selenium in the drain water. The Bureau of Reclamation (BOR)
                  port willow, catclaw, mesquite, cottonwood, tamarisk, reeds, arrow-           implemented a plan to mitigate the effects of the drain water at the
                  wood, and in some places, sedges, tules, and cattails. But the most           refuge by stemming the flow of agricultural drain water into the
                  distinctive plants of the oases are the native fan palms (Bakker,             refuge and eliminating all aquatic habitat in the areas of the con-
                  1984).                                                                        taminated ponds. Surface water is now imported into the refuge.
                                                                                                      Estuarine wetlands. -California's estuaries have a high de-
                  HYDROLOGIC SETTING                                                            gree of variability in their physical and hydrologic environment. For
                                                                                                most of the year, coastal estuaries, such as the Suisun Marsh below
                       To understand the existence of once vast natural wetlands in a           the confluence of the Sacramento and San Joaquin Rivers (and the
                  State that has an average annual precipitation of about 20 inches and         Sacramento- San Joaquin Delta wetlands under natural conditions)
                  is commonly considered to be semiarid to arid, California's hydrog-           are sustained by brackish to saline water. In the wet season during
                  raphy and topography must be examined. Most of the State has a                winter, they can become completely fresh. In addition, streamflow
                  natural annual water deficit (fig. 2C). However, in the areas having          varies substantially, from none in many years to floods in wet years.
                  a natural water surplus, precipitation ranges from 40 to as much as                 There is little emergent wetland acreage remaining in the Sac-
                  90 inches per year, most of that being snowfall in the Sierra Nevada,         ramento -San Joaquin River Delta. After World War 1, nearly all








                          130        National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: STATE SUMMARIES



                          delta marshland had been transformed to the series of improved                                              causes inland migrations of the estuaries, and tectonic up] ift, which
                          channels and leveed islands that exist to the present (fig. 3B). The                                        partly offsets the effects of a rising sea level. Deep submarine can-
                          delta soils are predominantly organic peat, and in agricultural use                                         yons and unusual shoreline configurations affect the size and con-
                          have oxidized extensively, causing land Surfaces to subside to more                                         dition of both estuaries. Longshore drifting and currents have not
                          than 15 feet below sea level within the leveed islands (California                                          been measured, but the effects are well known. Beach erosion has
                          Department of Water Resources, 1993) so that emergent wetlands                                              caused landward movement of the estuarine shorelines and subse-
                          can exist only on the margins of the delta.                                                                 quent salinity changes. After decades of study at the Tijuana Na-
                                  Three of California's estuarine wetlands have attracted national                                    tional Estuarine Research Reserve, restoration programs are under-
                          and international attention. The largest of these wetland areas is the                                      way.
                          complex system of over 1,000 miles of waterways in the Sacra-                                                      Montane wetlands. -The most common types of montane
                          mento-San Joaquin River Delta and three bays within a 1,200-                                                wetlands in California are meadows, which are palustrine wetlands
                          square-mile area of central California. The bays, beginning with the                                        with persistent emergent vegetation (fig. 3C and 3D). Meadows in
                          most landward, are Suisun, San Pablo, and the largest, San Fran-                                            California have been best studied in the Sierras, where they are es-
                          cisco. About 70 percent of California's water supply originates in                                          timated to compose about 10 percent ofthe total area (Ratliff, 1985).
                          the Sierras, flows through the Central Valley into the bay-delta sys-                                       At higher altitudes, glacial cirques commonly contain small pools
                          tem, then discharges into the Pacific Ocean at San Francisco Bay.                                           or lakes known as tarns. Meadows can develop when tarns fill with
                                 Two other, smaller estuarine wetlands, Elkhorn Slough on                                             sediment, peat, or both.
                          Monterey Bay and the Tijuana River estuary at San Diego, have been                                                 California's mountains are geomorphologically dynamic be-
                          included in the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration's                                           cause of glaciation, tectonic uplift, and volcanic eruptions in the
                          (NOAA) National Estuarine Research Reserves. Such reserves are                                              recent geologic past. Dynamic features include glacially scoured
                          defined as "classes of ecosystems worthy of research and educa-                                             depressions, moraines, and till and outwash deposits resulting from
                          tion, yet different enough to warrant selection as a distinct regional                                      landslides and mudflows and from volcanic debris and lava flows
                          type" (Zedler and others, 1992). The recent geologic factors that                                           that impede the movement of water from precipitation and snow-
                          shape these estuaries are the forces of slowly rising sea levet, which                                      melt, leading to the formation of wetlands. Impoundments can form


                            A. Central Valley                                                                                                                                                    EXPLANATION
                             COASTRANGE                                                                                                                              SIERRA NEVADA                        Direction of ground-water
                                                                                                                                                                                                            flow
                             RIVERINE WETLAND                                                                                                                   RIVERINE WETLAND
                                                                                                                                                      LACUSTRINE           r_1                            Average water table
                                           PALUSTRINE WETLAND                                                                                          WETLAND             E                       C@     Scrub-shrub vegetation
                                                F-1                                                                                                            I           I
                                                                                                                                                                           U)
                                                                           PALUSTRINE WETLAND                                             PALUSTRINE
                                                                                                                                           WETLAND

                                                                                                                                                                                                          Forest vegetation

                                                                                                    RIVERINE WETLAND                                     V,'
                                                           Canal
                                                             or
                                                                                    -, Z'                                                                                                         J/111   Emergent vegetation
                                                         farm ditch
                                                                       Well                                                                                                  Fractures           @11# Farmed crops
                                                                                                                               Well                                                                       Glacial till

                                                                                                                                                                                                          Basin-fill sediment
                                                                                                                   ---- --                                                                                  and alluvium


                                                                                        Elsain-fill aquifer
                                                                                                                                                                                                          Peat

                                                                                                                                                                           Gre Ite                        Confining bad or
                                                                                                                                                                                                            interbed

                                                                                                                                                                                                          Note:
                                                                                                                                                                                                            Vertical scale greatly
                                                                                                                                             Granite                                                        exaggerated






                           B. Sacramento-San Joaquin River Delta

                                                                                                                  RIVERINE WETLAND
                                                                                                                          r@
                                                                                                               PALUSTRINE WETLANDS

                                                              ESTUARINE WETLANDS


                                                                 N:tural           N:tural       Manm:de       Manm do
                                                                  I vee             I @ee           lava          levea.

                                                                                                       Drain
                                                         i5                                            P-P

                                                   -High tide

                                                                                                                                                          Figure 3. Generalized hydrologic setting of wetlands
                                                                                                                     Afftnrium                            in California. A, Central Valley. B, Sacramento-San
                                                                                                                                                 I        Joaquin River Delta.








                                                                                                                                      National Water Surnmary-Wetland Resources: CALIFORNIA                                       131



                                                                                                                                                       as a result of landslides or mining, road construction,
                                                                                                                                                       and other human activities. Beavers create wetlands as
                           C. Sierra Nevada                                                                                                            a result of dam building. An example of a landslide-
                                                                                                               LACUSTRINE WETLANDS                     created wetland can be found in Mirror Lake at the
                                                                                                                                                       base of Half Dome in Yosemite National Park. The lake
                                                                                           PALUSTRINE                               I
                                                                                            WETLAND                                                    is filling with sediment, and vegetation is becoming
                                                                                                                                                       established.
                                                                                   RIVERINE       -8                                                           Meadows form in several topographic positions:
                                                                                  WETLAND         2
                                                                                                  Z                                                    depressions in valley bottoms, on glacially gouged
                                              PALUSTRINE WETLANDS                    F-1                                                               surfaces, in glacial moraines with surface depressions
                                                                                                                                                       where water is held, and on slight to moderate slopes
                                                                                                                                                       where ground water discharges into fine-textured soils
                                                                                                                                                       (commonly glacial or landslide deposits) at a rate
                                                                                                                                i3vanite               greater than it can be released to streams and the at-
                                                                                                     Precut                                                    here.
                                                                                                                                                       mosp
                                                                                                                                                               Meadows can have a range of hydrologic charac-
                             Central                                                                                                                   teristics, from seasonally wet from snowmelt to satu-
                              Valley                                                                                                                   rated throughout the year. A single meadow can have
                                                                                                                                                       several different hydrologic regimes, each supporting
                                                                                                                                                       different vegetative communities (Ratliff, 1985).
                          Basin                                                                                                                        Meadows can be hydrologically dependent on both
                           fill                                                                                                                        surface and ground water. Recent studies indicate that
                                                                                                                                                       ground water is more important to meadow wetlands
                           D. Coast and Coast Range                                                                                                    than previously thought (Akers, 1986; Winter and Woo,
                             WEST                                                                                          COASTRANGE                  1990).
                                                                                                                       LACUSTRINE WETLAND                      The present hydrologic condition of meadows in
                                                                                                             PALUSTRINE                                the Sierras, and likely elsewhere in California, ranges
                                                                                                             WETLANDS
                                                                                                                                                       from slightly to highly altered; however, no systematic
                                                                                                                                                       evaluation has been reported. Grazing of livestock
                                                                                           RIVEMNE WETLAND
                                                                                                                                                       since the mid-I 850's disturbed many meadows enough
                                                                                                                                                       to cause erosion, which in turn affected the hydrologic
                                                          ESTUARINE WETILAND
                                                                I   -_                                                                                 regime and the vegetative communities. More recently,
                                          MARINE WETILAND                                               E                                              intensive recreational use has contributed to degraded
                                                           I                                                                                           meadow conditions as well. Restoration of meadow
                                                       -6                                                                                              vegetation to support grazing by livestock and wild-
                                                                                                                                                       life requires that the hydrologic regime first be restored
                                                                           C@                                                                          (Ratliff, 1985).
                                       Hightide                                                                                                                Southern California DesertlBasin and Range
                                                                                                            Corisedidated madne                        Wetlands. - Southeastern California from the Mexico
                                                                                                             gagim"tary rocks                          border to the eastern flank of the Sierra Nevada lies
                                                                               Frmur"
                                                                %                                                                                      in the rain shadow of the mountain ranges to the west.
                                                                                                                                                       Precipitation is very low and temperatures are very
                                                                                                                                                       high. Water for wetlands typically is supplied by moun-
                           E. Southern California Desert/Basin and Range                                                                               tain front creeks, springs, seeps, pools, and in more
                                                                                                                         RIVERINE WETLAND              recent times, irrigation canals (fig. 3E). The largest
                                                                                                                                                       wetlands in the region are playas, which typically are
                                                                                                                                                       dry much of the year. Playas receive water from inter-
                                                                                                                                                       mittent surface flows and from direct precipitation
                                                       PALUSTRINE WETLANDS                   PALUSTRINE WETLANDS                                       during infrequent storms. Water leaves playas through
                                                 r----- -I                                                                                             evaporation and transpiration because there is no sur-
                                                                                                                                                       face drainage. Elsewhere, isolated springs and seeps
                                                    8
                                                                                                                                                       support generally small marshes (cienagas) and other
                                                                                                                                                       wetlands, such as oases. Where the water supply is
                                                                                                                                                       relatively persistent but drainage is limited, saline
                                                           ------                     --------- -- -                                                   wetlands can form.
                                                                                                                                                               California's population is concentrated and in-
                                                                                                                                                       creasing in the southern part of the State. The grow-
                                                                                                                                                       ing demand for water and recreational activities (Bu-
                                                                                     Alluvial aquifer                                                  reau of Land Management, 1980) affects water re-
                                                                                                                                                       sources and desert lands, especially wetland and ripar-
                          Sedimentary,                                                                                        Auluvial aquifer         ian areas. Ground-water pumping in the western
                               rocks                                              430moop
                                                                                           Alluvial aquifer                                            Mojave Desert has caused fissures in playas at
                                                                                                                                                       Edwards Air Force Base, and riparian vegetation has
                       Figure3. Continued. Generalized hydrologic setting of wetlands in California. C,                                                been adversely affected by declining ground-water
                       Sierra Nevada. D, Coastand Coast Ranges. E, Southern California Desertand Basin                                                 levels. Increased amounts of water diverted for urban
                       and Range.                                                                                                                      uses decreases the amount supporting wetlands. Rec-








                               132          National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: STATE SUMMARIES


                               reational activities and grazing have damaged riparian vegetation,                                                           CONSERVATION
                               contributing to a general decline in the quantity and quality of ri-                                                               Many government agencies and private organizations partici-
                               parian wetlands.                                                                                                             pate in wetland conservation in California. The most active agen-
                                       Owens Valley, a closed basin at the base of the Sierra Nevada's                                                      cies and organizations and some of their activities are listed in table
                               eastern escarpment, historically received runoff from the mountains                                                          I
                               that supported flow in the Owens River. This surface-water flow                                                                    Federal wetland activities, -Development activities in Cali-
                               maintained Owens Lake and a ground-water level close to the ground                                                           fornia wetlands are regulated by several Federal statutory prohibi-
                               surface of the valley floor. Diversions of surface water and ground                                                          tions and incentives that are intended to slow wetland losses. Some
                               water to Los Angeles since 1970 virtually eliminated wetlands de-                                                            of the more important of these are contained in the 1899 Rivers and
                               pendent on surface water in the river and lake. However, ground-                                                             Harbors Act; the 1972 Clean Water Act and amendments; the 1985
                               water-dependent vegetation on the valley floor has survived a low-                                                           Food Security Act; the 1990 Food, Agriculture, Conservation, and
                               ering of the water table by several feet by extending the root sys-                                                          Trade Act; the 1986 Emergency Wetlands Resources Act; and the
                               tems (Sorenson and others, 1991). Its longer term survival and re-                                                           1972 Coastal Zone Mana ement Act.
                               production have not been studied.                                                                                                                                        9
                                                                                                                                                            Table 1. Selected wetland-related activities of government
                               TRENDS                                                                                                                       agencies and private organizations in California, 1993
                                                                                                                                                            [Source: Classification of activities is generalized from information provided
                                                                                                                                                               by agen6es and organizations. o, agency or organization participates in
                                       The earliest estimates of wetland acreage in California are those                                                       wetland-related activity; ..., agency or organization does not participate in
                               documented by the California State Engineers Surveys dating be@                                                                 wetland-related activity. MAN, management; REG, regulation; R&C, restora-
                               tween 1868 and 1886 (Hall, 1887). At that time, William H. Hall                                                                 tion and creation; LAN, land acquisition; R&D, fesearch and data collection;
                               recorded nearly 5.2 million acres of land as swamps, lakes, bogs                                                                D&I, delineation and inventory]
                               and river overflow areas, most of which were located in the CenQ
                               Valley. Dahl (1990) estimated that about 5 million acres of wetlands                                                         Agency or organization                                                                  IZ4, 4.     41P <@'
                               existed before large-scale agricultural conversions began. Of the                                                            FEDERAL
                               original 5 million acres, nearly 4 million were palustrine, lacustrine,                                                      Department of Agriculture
                               and riverine wetlands in the Central Valley, 700,000 were estuarine                                                          Consolidated Farm Service Agency                  ........................... ...
                               wetlands, 65,000 were palustrine and lacustrine wetlands of the                                                              Forest Service        .................................................................0
                               Coast Ranges, 120,000 were palustrine, lacustrine, and riverine                                                              Natural Resources Conservation Service                    ................ ...
                                                                                                                                                            Department of Commerce
                               wetlands of the Cascade Range and Sierra Nevada, and 15,000 acres                                                            National Oceanic and Atmospheric
                               were riverine orpalustrine wetlands ofthe interiorbasins and ranges.                                                         Administration        .................................................................0
                                       Significant wetland loss in California began in about 1850. In                                                       Department of Defense
                               that year, the National Swamp and Overflowed Land Act conveyed                                                               Army Corps of Engineers                     ...............................................
                               all swamp and overflowed I and, including delta marshes, from Fed-                                                           Military reservations         ......................................................    ... ...      ... ...
                                                                                                                                                            Department of the Interior
                               eral ownership to the State of California. In 1866, the California                                                           Bureau of Land Management                   ..............................
                               Legislature formed the Board of Swamp and Overflowed Land                                                                    Bureau of Reclamation                       ................................................. ... ...
                               Commissioners to manage reclamation projects and proceeds from                                                               Fish and Wildlife Service                   ..............................................*
                               sales of swampland by the State. In 1869, the board relinquished                                                             Geological Survey         .......................................................... ... ... ... ...
                               its authority to individual county boards of supervisors, By about                                                           National Biological Service                 ......................................... ... ...
                                                                                                                                                            National Park Service                       ...................................................0
                               1870, nearly all of California's wetlands were in private ownership                                                          Environmental Protection Agency             .................................. ...0
                               and subsidies were established to aid private developers in reclaim-                                                         STATE
                               ing swamplands (California Department of Water Resources, 1993).                                                             Environmental Protection Agency
                                       Between 1850 and 1920, about 70 percent of California's wet-                                                         State Water Resources Control Board                   ...................... ... *
                               land acreage was modified or converted to upland, largely by levee                                                           Regional Water-Quafty Control Board                   ..............  ....... ...0
                               and drainage projects (Dennis and others, 1984). Nearly all of the                                                           Resources Agency
                                                                                                                                                            California Coastal Commission               .................................... ...e
                               reclaimed land was put into agriculture, helping to make California                                                          Department of Conservation                  .......................... . ...........
                               the leading agricultural State in the Nation by 1887. The diversion                                                          Department of Fish and Game                 .....................................
                               and redistribution of Sierran runoff water into the valley continued                                                         Department of Parks and Recreation                  ........................
                               vigorously so that by 1939, 95 percent of the wetlands had been lost.                                                        Department of Water Resources                 ................................
                               By 1940, Tulare Lake, which had in post-European-settlement his-                                                             San Francisco Bay Conservation and
                                                                                                                                                            Development Commission                      ....................................  ....... ... ...
                               tory covered as much as 1,000 square miles, had been completely                                                              State Reclamation Board                     ............................................. ...
                               drained. Between 1938 and the early 1970's, construction of large-                                                           State Lands Commission                      .......................................
                               scale irrigation systems had modified more than 90 percent of the                                                            State Coastal Conservancy                   ..........................................
                               original wetlands.                                                                                                           Wildlife Conservation Board                 ........................................ ... ...
                                       Although losses of wetlands have been large, some changes in                                                         SOME COUNTY AND LOCAL GOVERNMENTS
                                                                                                                                                            Local planning authorities                  ........................................  ....... ... ... ...   0
                               land-use practices since about 1980 have caused increases or im-                                                             Reclamation districts         ........................................................000
                               provements in wetland habitats. Since 1939, a switch from                                                                    Resource conservation districts             ....................................00      0
                               pasturcland and row-crop farming to flooded rice paddies in the                                                              Water districts     ....................................................................090   0      0
                               Sacramento Valley and parts of the San Joaquin Valley has increased                                                          PRIVATE
                               palustrine wetlands by 41,000 acres (Frayer, 1989). Rice farmers                                                             California Waterfowl Association            ..................................9
                                                                                                                                                I           Ducks Unlimited      ........... ..............................................0
                               in conjunction with university and State researchers and private                                                             Farmlands and Open-Space Foundation                  ....................... ... ...
                               organizations, are developing methods to flood rice paddies during                                                           National Audubon Society                    ............................  .................. ... ...
                               critical periods of occupation by migratory waterfowl. If these                                                              Pacific Flyway Project.       ......................................................0..
                               methods are perfected, several hundred thousand acres could be                                                               Sierra Club    ........................................................................... ... ...
                               returned to seasonal wetland-habitat status while continuing to be                                                           The Nature Conservancy                      ..................................................0
                                                                                                                                                            Trustfor Public Land          ......................................................*
                               used as agricultural lands.







                                                                                                National Water Surnmary-Wetland Resources: CALIFORNIA              133



                      Section 10 of the Rivers and Harbors Act gives the U.S. Army                 The Fws manages approximately 225,000 acres of land on 34
                Corps of Engineers (Corps) authority to regulate certain activities           National Wildlife Refuges, Wildlife Management Areas, National
                in navigable waters. Regulated activities include diking, deepening,          Fish Hatcheries, or other wildlife facilities. Wetlands on these hold-
                filling, excavating, and placing of structures. The related section 404       ings are among the most important habitat along the entire Pacific
                of the Clean Water Act is the most often-used Federal legislation             Flyway. Through the American Waterfowl Management Plan, the
                protecting wetlands. Under section 404 provisions, the Corps issues           Fws administers the Central Valley Joint Habitat Venture, which
                permits regulating the discharge of dredged or fill material into             comprises private organizations and other public agencies that have
                wetlands. Permits are subject to review and possible veto by the U.S.         pooled their resources to help meet a target of restoring and main-
                Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), and the Fws has review and             taining the diversity, distribution, and abundance of waterfowl at
                advisory roles. Section 401 of the Clean Water Act grants to States           1970's levels.
                and eligible Indian Tribes the authority to approve, apply conditions              State wetland activities. - California has no single agency that
                to, or deny section 404 permit applications on the basis of a pro-            implements an integrated plan for management of wetland resources,
                posed activity's probable effects on the water quality of a wetland.          nor does the State have a wetlands-management policy. The Gover-
                      Most farming, ranching, and silviculture activities are not sub-        nor's Office sets broad environmental goals for the State. The
                ject to section 404 regulation. However, the "Swampbuster" provi-             Governor's Office of Planning and Research has no regulatory au-
                sion of the 1985 Food Security Act and amendments in the 1990                 thority but has substantial influence in guiding administration policy
                Food, Agriculture, Conservation, and Trade Act discourage (through            and is the clearinghouse for all documents promulgated under the
                financial disincentives) the draining, filling, or other alteration of        California Environmental Quality Act of 1970. This act establishes
                wetlands for agricultural use. The law allows exemptions from pen-            the basic charter for protection of California's environment. A major
                alties in some cases, especially if the farmer agrees to restore the          policy under the act is the maintenance of fish and wildlife popula-
                altered wetland or other wetlands that have been converted to agri-           tions, and the protection of wetlands is identified as a significant
                cultural use. The Wetlands Reserve Program of the 1990 Food,                  goal.
                Agriculture, Conservation, and Trade Act authorizes the Federal                    The California Environmental Protection Agency administers
                Government to purchase conservation easements from landowners                 four boards that set standards, control pollution, and improve the
                who agree to protect or restore wetlands. The Consolidated Farm               quality of the environment throughout the State. The State Water
                Service Agency (CFSA, formerly the Agricultural Stabilization and             Quality Control Board administers the system of water rights and,
                Conservation Service) administers the Swampbuster provisions and              through a series of nine Regional Water Quality Control Boards, is
                Wetlands Reserve Program. The Natural Resources Conservation                  responsible for implementing section 108 of the Clean Water Act,
                Service (NRCS, formerly the Soil Conservation Service) determines             which is a mandate to control nonpoint pollution. The boards also
                compliance with Swampbuster provisions and assists farmers in the             implement the provisions of the Porter-Cologne Act of 1969. These
                identification of wetlands and in the development of wetland pro-             provisions provide for assessment reports identifying surface-wa-
                tection, restoration, or creation plans.                                      ter bodies that would not meet water-quality standards without non-
                      The 1986 Emergency Wetlands Resources Act and the 1972                  point-source controls and allow for the development and implemen-
                Coastal Zone Management Act and amendments encourage wetland                  tation of best-management practices for control of nonpoint sources
                protection through funding incentives. The Emergency Wetlands                 of pollution.
                Resources Act requires States to address wetland protection in their               Several departments and commissions, operating within the
                Statewide Comprehensive Outdoor Recreation Plans to qualify for               overall administration of the Resources Agency of the State of Cali-
                Federal funding for State recreational land; the National Park                fornia, have primary responsibility for the enhancement and pro-
                Service provides guidance to States in developing the wetland com-            tection of wetland habitats. The Fish and Game Commission sets
                ponent of their plans. Coastal States that adopt coastal-zone man-            policy for the Department of Fish and Game. The Department has
                agement programs and plans approved by NOAA are eligible for Fed-             legislative authority to preserve, protect, and manage California's
                eral funding and technical assistance through the Coastal Zone                fish, game, and native plants, without respect to their economic
                Management Act.                                                               value, and administers provisions of the State Endangered Species
                      The EPA has authority, through the National Pollution Discharge         Act. The Department is responsible for wildlife management, col-
                System, National Pretreatment Program, Ocean Dumping/Dredging                 lecting and managing data for waterfowl and nongame wildlife,
                and Fill Program, and the Clean Water Act, to certify that permit-            disease research, wetland enhancement, and habitat development
                ted use of the State's waters is consistent with established water-           and management on 76 State-owned designated wildlife areas, eco-
                quality objectives. Under the Clean Water Act, the EPAs San Fran-             logical reserves, and other public lands. The Department of Fish and
                cisco Bay-Estuary Project has a 5-year-program objective to develop           Game Stream or Lake Alteration Agreements are required for ac-
                a comprehensive management plan that would set operational stan-              tivities that result in changes in natural conditions in streams, lakes,
                dards for nearly 700,000 acres of estuarine and marine wetlands.              channels, or crossings.
                      The U.S. Department of Agriculture, through local conserva-                  The San Francisco Bay Conservation and Development Com-
                tion districts and the NRCS, administers the Federal Water Bank               mission is authorized by the McAteer-Petris Act to analyze, plan,
                program with assistance from the CFSA and the State of California.            and regulate development activities in San Francisco Bay and along
                The major objective of this program is to restore, preserve, enhance,         its shoreline. The Commission implements the San Francisco Bay
                or improve wetland habitat in important migratory waterfowl nest-             Plan and the Suisun Marsh Protection Plan. The Commission also
                ing and breeding areas.                                                       regulates dredging and filling in the bay, and in sloughs, marshes,
                      The NOAA administers the Coastal Zone Management Act,                   certain creeks, and tributaries within 100 feet of the bay. The plan
                whose purpose is to increase awareness and understanding of the               is subject to Coastal Zone Management Agency consistency review
                coastal environment and to increase the ability of States' coastal-           as a component of California's Coastal Plan, which is administered
                zone-management programs to address problems. NOAA funding                    by the Commission. The Suisun Marsh Preservation Act was en-
                under the act assists California in coastal-plan development, includ-         acted in 1977 to establish policies and programs in the Suisun Marsh
                ing wetlands. Grants have been awarded to the California Coastal              Protection Plan. Local governments and districts must prepare lo-
                Plan and San Francisco Bay Plan. NOAA also administers the Na-                cal protection programs to bring their policies and ordinances into
                tional Estuarine Research Reserve program, which provides site ac-            conformity with the provisions of the act.
                quisition for preservation, research, and education.                               The Department of Water Resources is authorized by the Delta








                    134      National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: STATE SUMMARIES



                    Protection Act of 1988 to approve levee improvement in wetlands                      California Department of Water Resources, 1993, Sacramento-San Joaquin
                    of the Sacramento -San Joaquin Delta. The Department is respon-                           delta atlas: Sacramento, California Department of Water Resources,
                    sible for the State Water Project pumping facilities in the delta. The                    121 p.
                    Department, as authorized by Delta Flood Protection Act of 1988                      Cowardin, L.M., Carter, Virginia, Golet, F.C., and LaRoe, E.T., 1979, Clas-
                    is involved in a levee-improvement program for flood protection tha;                      sification of wetlands and deepwater habitats of the United States: U.S.
                                                                                                              Fish and Wildlife Service Report, FWS/OBS - 79/31, 131 p.
                    overlaps the North Delta Water Management Plans for widening                         Dahl, T.E., 1990, Wetlands-Losses in the United States, 1780's to 1980's:
                    channels, the South Delta Water Management Plans, and the Los                             Washington, D.C., U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Report to Congress,
                    Banos Grandes projects. The Department represents the State in                            13 p.
                    Corps and BOR flood-control and water- development projects.                         Dennis, N.B., Marcus, M.L., and Hill, H., 1984, Status and trends of Cali-
                           County and local wetland activities. -Resource Conservation                        fornia wetlands-Report to the California Assembly Resources Sub-
                    Districts are authorized by Division 9 of the California Public Re-                       committee: Sacramento, The California Assembly, 125 p.
                    sources Code to assist the State in conserving soil and water re-                    Fermeman, N.M., 1946, Physical divisions of the United States: Washing-
                    sources, including wetlands. There are about 400 water, reclama-                          ton, D.C., U.S. Geological Survey special map, scale 1:7,000,000.
                    tion, and drainage districts in California, another 300 park and open-               Field, D.W., Reyer, AT, Genovese, PX, and Shearer, B.D., 1991, Coastal
                                                                                                              wetlands of the United States: Rockville, Md., National Oceanic and
                    space districts, and 110 public-utility districts governed by Division                    Atmospheric Administration and U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service co-
                    9 authority for conservation.                                                             operative publication, 59 p.
                           In addition to special districts, county and city governments                 Frayer, W.E.,,Peters, D.D., and Pywell, H.R., 1989, Wetlands of the Cali-
                    are required to have a general plan that has mandated elements in-                        fornia Central Valley-Status and trends, 1939-1980's: Portland,
                    cluding open space/conservation, safety, land use, and water circu-                       Oreg., U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Report, 29 p.
                    lation (Government Code, Section 65000 et seq.). There are no re-                    Hall, W.H., 1887, Topographical and irrigation maps of the Great Central
                    gional requirements for plan consistency among the counties and                           Valley of California, embracing the Sacramento, San Joaquin, Tulare
                    cities. The conservation element of the general plan must address                         and Kern Valleys and the bordering foothills for California: Sacra-
                    the conservation, development, and utilization of natural resources,                      mento, California Department ofEngineering, scale about 1:380,160,
                                                                                                              2 sheets.
                    including water and its hydraulic force, forests, soils, rivers, and                 Page, R.W., 1986, Geology of the fresh ground-water basin of the Central
                    other waters, harbors, fisheries, wildlife, minerals, and other natu-                     Valley, California, with textural maps and sections: U.S. Geological
                    ral resources. The open-space element defines provisions for open                         Survey Professional Paper 1401 - C, 5 3 p@
                    space for the preservation of natural resources, the managed pro-                    Ratliff, R.D., 1985, Meadows in the Sierra Nevada of California- State of
                    duction of resources, outdoor recreation, and public health and                           knowledge: U.S. Forest Service General Technical Report PSW-84,
                    safety.                                                                                   52 p.
                           Private wetland activities. -Duck hunting clubs own most of                   Sorenson, S.K., Dileanis, P.D., and Branson, F.A., 1991, Soil water and
                    the rionagricultural Central Valley and Suisun Bay wetlands and                           vegetation responses to precipitation and changes in depth to ground
                    manage these areas for waterfowl. Ducks Unlimited is a major par-                         water in Owens Valley, California: U.S. Geological Survey Water-
                                                                                                              Supply Paper 2730-G, 54 p.
                    ticipant in the Joint Venture program of the FWS, in which public                    Thomas, H.E., and Phoenix, D.A., 1976, Summary appraisals ofthe Nations
                    and private organizations cooperate to preserve wetlands. The Na-                         ground-water resources, California region: U.S. Geological Survey
                    ture Conservancy, California Waterfowl Association, Pacific Fly-                          Professional Paper 813-E, 51 p.
                    way Project, Trust for Public Land, Solano County Farmlands and                      Winter, T.C., and Woo, Ming-Ko, 1990, Hydrology of takes and wetlands,
                    Open Space Foundation, Sierra Club, and National Audubon Soci-                            in Wolman, M.G., and Riggs, H.C., eds., Surface water hydrology:
                    ety have acquired sensitive lands for preservation and restoration.                       Boulder, Colo., Geological Society ofAmerica,The Geology ofNorth
                                                                                                              America, v. 0- 1, p. 159-187,
                                                                                                         Zedler, J.B., Nordby, C.S., and Kus, B.E., 1992, The ecology of Tijuana
                    References Cited                                                                          estuary, California-A national estuarine research reserve: Washing-
                    Akers, J.P., 1986, Ground water in the Long Meadows area and its relation                 ton, D.C., National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration Office
                           with that in the General Sherman Tree area, Sequoia National Park,                 of Coastal Resource Management, 151 p.
                           California: U.S. Geological Survey Water-Resources Investigations
                           Report 85-4178, 15 p.                                                         FOR ADDITIONAL INFORMATION: District Chief, U.S. Geological
                    Bakker, E.S., 1984, An island called California-An ecological introduc-              Survey, Room W-2233, Federal Building, 2800 Cottage Way, Sacramento,
                           tion to its natural communities: Berkeley, University of California           CA 95825; Regional Weiland Coordinator, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service,
                           Press, 484 p.                                                                 9 11 N.E. I I th Avenue, Portland, OR 97232
                    Bertoldi, G.L., Johnston, R.H., and Evenson, K.D., 1991, Ground water in
                           the Central Valley, California- A summary report: U.S. Geological
                           Survey Professional Paper 1401 -A, 44 p.                                                                     Prepared by
                    Bureau of Land Management, 1980, California Desert Conservation Area                                   G.L. Bertoldi and Walter C. Swain,
                           Plaw. Riverside, Calif., Bureau of Land Management, Desert District,                                  U.S. Geological Survey
                           173 p.















                                                                       U.S. Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper 2425








                                                                                                                    National Water Summary-Wetland Resources 135
                                                                                                                                     Colorado
                                                                                                                      Wetland Resources
                  Wtlands cover only about 1.5 percent of Colorado but are eco-                   ine, 14 percent was mixed lacustrine and palustrine, and 83 percent
                  logically and economically valuable to the State. Wetlands provide              was palustrine (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 1955; 1960).
                  important wildlife habitat -during some part of their life cycle, as            Palustrine wetlands in Colorado include forested wetlands in ripar-
                  much as 90 percent of the State's fish and wildlife depend on ripar-            ian areas and near springs and seeps; scrub-shrub wetlands, such
                  ian habitats that include wetlands (Redelfs, 1980), and wetlands                as willow carrs (thickets) and bottomland shrublands; emergent
                  provide stopover and breeding grounds to migratory waterfowl.                   wetlands, such as marshes, fens, alpine snow glades, and wet and
                  Wetlands also provide flood attenuation, bank stabilization, and                salt meadows; and aquatic-bed wetlands in ponds and lakes (Colo-
                  water-quality improvement (fig. 1). Colorado's tourist industry ben-            rado Department of Natural Resources, 1992).
                  efits from the scenic beauty of the State's wetlands and deepwater                   Wetlands occupy about I million acres (1.5 percent) of Colo-
                  habitats and from the opportunities they afford for recreational ac-            rado (Dahl, 1990). In the Great Plains (fig. 2B), wetlands occur in
                  tivities that include hunting, fishing, bird watching, nature photog-           the flood plains of the South Platte and Arkansas Rivers and in scat-
                  raphy, camping, hiking, and boating. Because wetland vegetation                 tered locations throughout the plains. Wetlands generally are
                  generally is more lush and productive than that in uplands, some                sparsely distributed in the Colorado Plateaus and Wyoming Basin.
                  wetlands are considered prime grazing land. Peat is mined from                  In the Southern and Middle Rocky Mountains, wetlands occur pri-
                  wetlands for use as a garden soil amendment. In the past, much of               marily in high mountain valleys and intermountain basins.
                  the State's mineral wealth was mined from placer gold and heavy-
                  mineral deposits in riparian zones. These benefits are provided by              HYDROLOGIC SETTING
                  diverse wetlands distributed across Colorado's plains, mountains,
                  and deserts.                                                                         Wetlands form where there is a persistent water supply at or
                                                                                                  near the land surface. The location and persistence of the supply is
                  TYPES AND DISTRIBUTION                                                          a function of interdependent climatic, physiographic, and hydrologic
                                                                                                  factors such as precipitation and runoff patterns, evaporation, to-
                       Wetlands are lands transitional between terrestrial and deep-              pography, and configuration of the water table.
                  water habitats where the water table usually is at or near the land                  Precipitation (fig. 2C) and runoff rates differ annually and with
                  surface or the land is covered by shallow water (Cowardin and oth-              season and location. The average annual precipitation in Colorado
                  ers, 1979). The distribution of wetlands and deepwater habitats in              ranges from about 7 inches in the San Luis Valley to about 60 inches
                  Colorado is shown in figure 2A; only wetlands are discussed herdiri.            in some mountainous areas. Most runoff occurs in spring and early
                       Wetlands can be vegetated or nonvegetated and are classified               summer and is greatest in the mountains. Greater precipitation and
                  on the basis of their hydrology, vegetation, and substrate. In this             runoff in the mountains are the principal reasons for the greater
                  summary, wetlands are classified according to the system proposed               acreage of wetlands in the intermountain basins than in other re-
                  by Cowardin and others (1979), which is used by the U.S. Fish and               gions of the State. In the mountains, melting snow is the primary
                  Wildlife Service (FWS) to map and inventory the Nation's wetlands.              source of runoff, whereas in the eastern plains, runoff is mostly from
                  At the most general level of the classification system, wetlands are            rainfall (Petsch, 1986). The timing and volume of runoff affect the
                  grouped into five ecological systems: Palustrine, Lacustrine, Riv-              establishment and function of riparian wetlands. High strearnflow,
                  erine, Estuarine, and Marine. The Palustrine System includes only               which results from snowmelt in the mountains during spring and
                  wetlands, whereas the other systems comprise wetlands and                       early summer, is essential for the maintenance of normally func-
                  deepwater habitats. Wetlands of the systems that occur in Colorado
                  are described below.



                  System                                 Wetland description

                  Palustrine .................. Wetlands in which vegetation is predominantly
                                           trees (forested wetlands); shrubs (scrub-shrub
                                           wetlands); persistent or nonpersistent emergent,
                                           erect, rooted, herbaceous plants (persistent- and
                                           nonpersistent-emergent wetlands); or sub-
                                           mersed and lor) floating plants (aquatic beds).
                                           Also, intermittently to permanently flooded
                                           open-water bodies of less than 20 acres in which
                                           water is less than 6.6 feet deep.
                  Lacustrine ............... Wetlands within an intermittently to permanently
                                           flooded lake or reservoir. Vegetation, when pres-
                                           ent, is predominantly nonpersistent emergent
                                           plants (non persistent-emergent wetlands), or                                                                                    A
                                                                                                            AN
                                           submersed and (or) floating plants (aquatic
                                           beds), or both.
                  Riverine ..................... Wetlands within a channel. Vegetation, when pres-
                                           ent, is same as in the Lacustrine System.              Figure 1.   Wetland   in Tennessee Park,  about4   m i I es northwest of
                                                                                                  Leadville. This wetland receives acidic mine drainage and was the
                       There is no current (1993) estimate of statewide wetland acre-             subject of a study to determine the capacity of wetlands to improve
                  age in each of the systems. Inventories of wetland and open-water               the chemical quality of such drainage. (Photograph by Katherine
                  areas conducted in the 1950's estimated that 3 percent was river-               Walton-Day U.S. Ceological Survey.)








                     136      National Water Surnmary-Wetland Resources: STATE SUMMARIES







                                                                                                             106.
                                                    A                     7@7


                                                                                                                 l'





                                                     40"
                                                                                                                        er



                                                                                                                                                                     "a
                                                                           0,10         C114" C,

                                                                                                                 Sow
                                                                                                                  Park


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                                                                                                                                                             %            T*" Buft@
                                                                                                                    1-@a NWR                                             ..R.
                                                                                  V.) t.
                                                                                                                                                                           _j
                                                                                              _j

                                                         WETLANDS AND DEEPWATER HABITATS                                                        0      25      50 MILES
                                                                                                                                                i   I I I       I
                                                         Distribution of wetlands and deepwater habitats-                                       0  25    50 KILOMETERS
                                                           This map shows the approximate distribution of large
                                                           wetlands in the State. Because of limitations of scale
                                                           and source material, some wetlands are not shown

                                                                Predominantly wetland

                                                                Predominantly deepwater habitat
                         Middle
                         Rocky
                        Mountains

                                                                                                          C

                                 "W
                                    vomft





                                                     k


                                                                               Great
                                                        7



                      :0@c J'

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                                                                                                                                          77'




                                                   n

                                         PHYSIOGRAPHIC DIVISIONS                                                                         PRECIPITATION

                                                                                                                                         -12- Line of equal annual precipitation-
                                                                                                                                                  Interval, in inches, is variable.

                     Figure 2. Wetland distribution in Colorado and physical and climatological features that control wetland distribution in the State. A, Dis-
                     tribution of wetlands and deepwater habitats. H, Physiography. C, Annual precipitation. (Sources: A, TE. Dahl, U.S. Fish and Wildlife
                     Service, unpub. data, 1991. B, Physiographic divisions from Fermeman, 1946; landforms data from FROS Data Center C, Petsch, 1986.)







                                                                                                National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: COLORADO               137



                 tioning riparian ecosystems. Water-control projects such as reser-               In the Colorado Plateaus and Wyoming Basin, wetlands occur
                 voirs or irrigation canals, which reduce seasonal strearnflow varia-        along perennial and intermittent streams, in oxbow lakes, around
                 tion and eliminate periodic flooding, can adversely affect many             reservoirs, in springs and seeps, and where there is a shallow water
                 streamside-wetland functions (Cooper, 1988).                                table. Because of their semiarid to and climate, these regions have
                      Evaporation generally is greatest in eastern Colorado (fig. 2D).       a lower density and acreage of wetlands than does the rest of the
                 Evaporation decreases with altitude and is least in the mountains.          State. As a result, the regiods wetlands are disproportionately valu-
                 Local evaporation patterns can affect wetland development. For              able to wildlife.
                 example, on the windward side of ridges above timberline, strong                 In the Rocky Mountains, wetlands form in two physio-
                 winds redistribute snow to the leeward side and increase evapora-           graphically and climatically distinct settings: mountain valleys and
                 tion (Windell and others, 1986). The result is a dry environment on         intermountain basins. Mountain valleys generally are geologically
                 the windward side, whereas on the leeward side, accumulated snow            young and, therefore, steep. The valleys have been shaped either by
                 melts slowly and creates a moist environment conducive to devel-            running water over their entire length or by glaciers at higher alti-
                 opment of alpine wetlands.                                                  tude and running water at lower altitude. Wetlands in mountain
                      In most of Colorado, evaporation exceeds precipitation annu-           valleys occur in both glaciated and nonglaciated parts of the val-
                 ally, and, except in mountainous areas, there is a net statewide an-        leys in locations from cliff faces to valley floors. Glaciation (fig.
                 nual moisture deficit that inhibits wetland formation. The moisture         2E ) in the alpine zone of some mountain valleys formed large cirque
                 deficit prevents the formation of bogs, which are emergent wetlands         basins in which remnant glaciers or late-melting snow maintain
                 that have organic soils and receive moisture only from precipita-           spring, seep, and snowbed wetlands. Cirque lakes, or tarns, formed
                 tion. In mountainous areas, where there is sufficient moisture for          by glacial scouring, collect meltwater and attenuate downhill flow.
                 bog formation, steep topography and shifting stream channels pre-           Also in the alpine zone, ponds form in depressions behind slump-
                 vent their development (Cooper, 1986).                                      ing saturated soils or in depressions caused by the weight of ac-
                      Ground-water discharge from springs, shallow water tables, or          cumulated snow. Below cirque basins, glaciated, steep-sided, U-
                 both maintain wetlands in many areas of Colorado. The results of a          shaped valleys have broad, flat floors and relatively low-gradient
                 study of wetlands in a river basin in the eastern plains indicated that     streams. Wetlands form on saturated cliff faces, at the sloping floor
                 most wetlands were along springfed streams that have perennial flow         near the sides of the valley, in oxbow lakes, in glacial kettle ponds,
                 in reaches 1-2 miles in length (Cooper and Cottrell, 1989). In the          in depressions on the surface of glacial moraines, in lakes created
                 intermountain basins, ground water is an important determinant of           by terminal or lateral moraines, in landslide-formed lakes, in or near
                 wetland location. Wetlands in the San Luis Valley (fig. 2A), an in-         seeps and springs, and in beaver ponds. In steep, V-shaped, non-
                 termountain basin, are hydrologically supported by springs or               glaciated parts of mountain valleys, wetlands occur as narrow ri-
                 ground-water mounds that form during spring and summer runoff               parian wetlands, in or near springs and seeps, and in beaver ponds
                 (Cooper and Severn, 1992).                                                  (Windell and others, 1986).
                      Climatic, topographic, and hydrologic characteristics differ                Intermountain basins, which were formed by tectonic forces,
                 among and sometimes within physiographic provinces. Colorado's              are filled by sediments derived from erosion of the surrounding
                 diverse physiography results in diverse hydrologic settings for wet-        mountains. The large, flat valleys are drained by low-gradient me-
                 land formation.                                                             andering streams and rivers. Wetlands in the intermountain basins
                      In the Great Plains, wetlands occur in riparian zones of peren-        form along these streams and rivers, in natural and constructed
                 nial streams, in oxbow lakes (abandoned stream meanders), in iso-           impoundments, in oxbow lakes, and in areas having a shallow water
                 lated depressions that have permanent or seasonal water supply, in          table maintained by underlying aquifers, annual flooding, or imper-
                 playa lakes (primarily in the southern part of the region), and in          meable substrates (Windell and others, 1986).
                 association with reservoirs or channelized streams, rivers, and irri-            The San Luis Valley is an intermountain basin in southern
                 gation ditches.                                                             Colorado. Throughout much of the valley, the water table is shal-

                                                                                              E
                                                                                                                           A@"












                                                                                                                          'jJ




                                                                                                                                   A


                                                                                                                                    '4 Y A,.'A"@'

                                         EVAPORATION                                                                    GLACIATION
                                         -40- Line of equal free-water-surface                                          11111111 Glacial extent during most recent
                                                evaporation- interval, 5 inches                                               glacial maximum

                 Figure 2. Continued. Wetland distribution in Colorado and physical and climatological features that control wetland distribution in the
                 State. 0, Annual free-water-surface evaporation. E, Extent of most recent glaciation. (Sources: 0, Farnsworth and others, 1982. E, Mon-
                 tagne, 1972.)








                   138     National Water Surnmary-Wetland Resources: STATE SUMMARIES



                   low or at land surface, creating large areas of wetlands that have           ley (Windell and others, 1986), but also in other regions of the State
                   diverse vegetation (Cooper and Severn, 1992). Wetlands in the val-           (Hopper, 1968; Rector and others, 1979). Gravel-pit construction
                   ley provide habitat for resident and migratory waterfowl and enhance         also has increased wetland acreage, and gravel mining and agricul-
                   water quality. The valley hosts endangered whooping cranes dur-              tural activities are totally or partially responsible for two-thirds of
                   ing migration and has the State's largest concentration of wintering         the wetlands inventoried in the Boulder, Colo., area (Cooper, 1988).
                   bald eagles (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 1990). The State's largest      Reservoir construction has undoubtedly increased the acreage of
                   National Wildlife Refuges, Alamosa and Monte Vista, are located              lacustrine wetlands.
                   there. Ground water is used to irrigate the valley and augment sur-
                   face-water flow in the Rio Grande. Recently, developers have sought          CONSERVATION
                   to export ground water from the valley to urban areas. The State
                   Engineer's office estimated that this project could cause permanent               Many government agencies and private organizations partici-
                   water-table drawdown of several feet over large areas in the north-          pate in wetlands conservation in Colorado. The most active agen-
                   ern valley (Cooper and Severn, 1992). Such declines could decrease           cies and organizations and some of their activities are listed in table
                   wetland acreage by reducing the area of saturated or inundated soil          I .
                   and the duration of inundation in emergent wetlands (Cooper and                   Federal wetland activities, -Development activities in Colo-
                   Severn, 1992). Redelfs (1980) reported that changes in irrigation            rado wetlands are regulated by several Federal statutory prohibi-
                   practices since the early 1970's already have reduced wetland acre-          tions and incentives that are intended to slow wetland losses. Some
                   age in the valley by 40 to 50 percent and have caused loss or drastic        of the more important of these are contained in the 1899 Rivers and
                   alteration of high-quality wetlands. The issue of new ground-water           Harbors Act; the 1972 Clean Water Act and amendments; the 1985
                   development illustrates the conflicts that occur frequently between          Food Security Act; the 1990 Food, Agriculture, Conservation, and
                   development and wetland-conservation interests in the State.                 Trade Act; and the 1986 Emergency Wetlands Resources Act.
                        Studies of wetland function have been conducted in a few                     Section 10 of the Rivers and Harbors Act gives the U.S. Army
                   Colorado wetlands. Rovey and others (1986) concluded that veg-               Corps of Engineers (Corps) authority to regulate certain activities
                   etation and water levels of wetlands in the Cross Creek area were            in navigable waters. Regulated activities include diking, deepening,
                   dependent on stream hydrology. However, in another study of Cross            filling, excavating, and placing of structures. The related section 404
                   Creek wetlands, Sundeen and others (1989) determined that the                of the Clean Water Act is the most often-used Federal legislation
                   hydrology of those wetlands was largely independent of streams that          protecting wetlands. Under section 404 provisions, the Corps issues
                   flowed through them. Ruddy and Williams (1991) reached a simi-               permits regulating the discharge of dredged or fill material into
                   lar conclusion about wetlands in the Williams Fork. Cooper (1990),           wetlands. Permits are subject to review and possible veto by the U.S.
                   in a study of wetland vegetation in South Park, delineated stands of         Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), and the Fws has review and
                   rare vegetation whose main range is in wetlands of boreal and arc-           advisory roles. Section 401 of the Clean Water Act grants to States
                   tic Canada and Alaska. A study of the water-quality function of a            and eligible Indian Tribes the authority to approve, apply conditions
                   subalpine wetland in the upper Arkansas River basin (indicated that          to, or deny section 404 permit applications on the basis of a pro-
                   the wetland removed iron from a stream affected by acidic mine               posed activity's probable effects on the water quality of a wetland.
                   drainage that flowed through the wetland (Walton-Day, 1991). An                   Most farming, ranching, and silviculture activities are not sub-
                   upper-montane wetland has been intensively studied to determine              ject to section 404 regulation. However, the "Swampbuster" provi-
                   the processes that caused elevated uranium concentrations (Owen,             sion of the 1985 Food Security Act and amendments in the 1990
                   1990), and reconnaissance work has been conducted in many other              Food, Agriculture, Conservation, and Trade Act discourage (through
                   such wetlands (Owen and others, 1992). Although these investiga-             financial disincentives) the draining, filling, or other alteration of
                   tions of natural processes have added to what is known of Colorado's         wetlands for agricultural use. The law allows exemptions from pen-
                   wetlands, the functions and values of the State's wetlands remain            alties in some cases, especially if the farmer agrees to restore the
                   largely unstudied (Cooper and Severn, 1992).                                 altered wetland or other wetlands that have been converted to agri-
                                                                                                cultural use. The Wetlands Reserve Program of the 1990 Food,
                   TRENDS                                                                       Agriculture, Conservation, and Trade Act authorizes the Federal
                                                                                                Government to purchase conservation easements from landowners
                        The Fws has estimated that, from the 1790's to the 1980's,              who agree to protect or restore wetlands. The Consolidated Farm
                   wetland area in Colorado decreased by 50 percent-from about 2                Service Agency (formerly the Agricultural Stabilization and Con-
                   million to about I million acres (Dahl, 1990). In agricultural areas,        servation Service) administers the Swampbuster provisions and Wet-
                   conversion to cropland, dewatering for irrigation purposes, and              lands Reserve Program. The National Resources Conservation
                   overgrazing by livestock contribute to wetland losses. In urban areas,       Service (formerly the Soil Conservation Service) determines com-
                   wetland losses are due to encroachment by residential and commer-            pliance with Swampbuster provisions and assists farmers in the iden-
                   cial construction, channelization, dewatering for municipal and              tification of wetlands and in the development of wetland protection,
                   industrial purposes, and contamination from inadequately treated             restoration, or creation plans.
                   sewage and industrial waste. In other areas, losses have been caused              The 1986 Emergency Wetlands Resources Act encourages
                   by ski-resort development, transmountain water diversions, drain-            wetland protection through funding incentives. The act requires
                   age, river channelization, burning, clear cutting, mining and related        States to address wetland protection in their Statewide Comprehen-
                   activities that produce toxic acidic or alkaline drainage, peat mining,      sive Outdoor Recreation Plans to qualify for Federal funding for
                   placer mining, water disposal, mine-tailing deposition, erosion and          State recreational land; the National Park Service provides guidance
                   sedimentation, accidents such as drilling-mud spills or tailing-dam          to States in developing the wetland component of their plans.
                   failures, sand and gravel mining, road and railroad construction,                 State wetland activities. -Although Colorado currently (1993)
                   dams and reservoirs, and acidic precipitation (U.S. Fish and Wild-           has no comprehensive wetlands -protection program, the State is
                   life Service, 1990, p. 9; Windell and others, 1986).                         assessing the need for a wetlands policy. Several State agencies
                        Some land-use practices have created new wetlands or enlarged           actively participate in aspects of Federal programs, and some wet-
                   existing ones. Leaking ditches, uncapped flowing wells, and seeps            lands are protected under State programs.
                   and return flows associated with irrigation have increased wetland                The Water Quality Control Division of the Department of
                   acreage or improved wetland habitat, notably in the San Luis Val-            Health reviews section 404 permit applications to ensure compli-








                                                                                                                                                           National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: COLORADO                                                      139



                             Table 1. Selected wetland-related activities of government                                                                mit applications and some local land-use issues to assess potential
                             agencies and private organizations in Colorado, 1993                                                                      adverse effects on wildlife. Also, the Division regulates construc-
                             [Source: Classification of activities is generalized from information                                    provided         tion activities that affect streams and riparian areas, acquires wet-
                                  by agencies and organizations. e, agency or organization participates in                                             lands through sales of Federal duck-hunting permits, and conducts
                                  wetland-related activity;               agency or organization does not participate in                               habitat-improvement projects on public and private lands.
                                  wetland-related activity. MAN, management; REG, regulation; R&C, res-
                                  toration and creation; LAN, land acquisition; R&D, research and data col-                                                     The activities of a few State agencies include restoration of
                                  lection; D&I, delineation and inventory]                                                                             former wetlands or creation of new wetlands. The Department of
                                                                                                                                                       Highways uses best management practices to avoid or minimize
                                                                                                               co                                      disturbances to wetlands caused by highway maintenance and con
                             Agency or organization                                                          0      01                01  1;@@         struction. Unavoidable damage to wetlands is mitigated through
                             FEDERAL                                                                                                                   wetland restoration or creation. The Department has data-collec-
                             Department of Agriculture                                                                                                 tion and monitoring programs to facilitate compliance with section
                               Consolidated Farm Service Agency                 ........................... ...        ... ...        ... ...          404 permitting requirements and to assess the effectiveness of n-Liti-
                               Forest Service       .................................................................0 0      0       0        0       gation projects. The Division of Minerals and Geology creates
                               Natural Resources Conservation Service                    ................ ...                                          wetlands to treat water from abandoned mines. The State Forest
                             Department of Defense                                                                                                     Service helps private landowners develop or augment wetlands.
                               Army Corps of Engineers           ..............................................*
                               Military reservations             .....................................................0                                         County and local wetland activities. -Most regulation of de-
                             Department of the Interior                                                                                                velopment activities in Colorado's wetlands is accomplished through
                               Bureau of Land Management               ..........  ...........................*                                        Federal and State laws. However, Eagle and Pitkin Counties (which
                               Bureau of Reclamation             ................................................. ... ...                             contain the towns of Vail and Aspen, respectively) and the cities of
                               Fish and Wildlife Service         ..............................................0...                                    Boulder, Broomfield, Fort Collins, and Greenwood Village have
                               Geological Survey                 .......................................................... ... ... ... ...0
                               National Biological Service            ......................................... ... ... ... ...       0                adopted their own ordinances or guidelines to protect wetlands or
                               National Park Service             ...................................................a  o      0       0        0       to mitigate unavoidable wetland losses.
                             Environmental Protection Agency              .................................. ...0             -       0        0                Private wetland activities. -Ducks Unlimited owns more than
                             Native American Tribes                                                                                                    2,200 acres of wetlands statewide (Ducks Unlimited, 1992). The
                               Southern Ute        ...................................................................o00             0        0       Nature Conservancy owns about 1,600 acres (A.T. Carpenter, The
                               Lite Mountain       ................................................................... ...0
                             STATE                                                                                                                     Nature Conservancy, written commun., 1992). Other organizations
                             Department of Agriculture           ...............................................                                       that participate in wetland -protection activities in the State include
                             Department of Health                                                                                                      the Colorado Native Plant Society, the Colorado Riparian Associa-
                               Hazardous Materials and Waste                                                                                           tion, the Colorado Wildlife Federation, the Grand Canyon Trust,
                               Management Division               .................................................... ...o                             High Country Citizerfs Alliance, the Sierra Club, Colorado Trout
                               Water Quality Control Commission                ............................. ...o
                               Water Quality Control Division             .................................... ...e    0                               Unlimited, the Colorado Cattlemarfs Association, and Colorado
                             Department of Highways              .................................................. ... ....                           Earth First! (Chew, 199 1).
                             Department of Natural Resources
                               Division of Parks and Outdoor Recreation
                                  Colorado Natural Areas Program                 ...........................&                                          References Cited
                               Division of Wildlife              .........................................................0
                               Land Commissioners                ......................................................0                               Bureau of Land Management, 1991, Riparian-wetlands initiative for the
                               Division of Minerals and Geology               ............................... ...                                               1990's: Bureau of Land Management Report BLM[WO/GI-9 I/
                             State Forest Service                .......................................................... ...                                 001 +4340, 50 p.
                             SOME COUNTY AND LOCAL GOVERNMENTS                             .............-                                              Chew, M.K., 1991, Bank balance -Managing Colorado's riparian areas:
                             PRIVATE ORGANIZATIONS                                                                                                              Fort Collins, Colorado State University Cooperative Extension Bui-
                             Ducks Unlimited        ................................................................ - 0e             0        0                letin 553A, 49 p.
                             The Nature Conservancy              ...................................................          0       0        0       Colorado Department of Natural Resources, 1992, Statewide comprehen-
                                                                                                                                                                sive outdoor recreation plan, draft of section IX, SCORP wetlands
                                                                                                                                                                amendment: Denver, Colorado Department of Natural Resources,
                                                                                                                                                                Division of Parks and Outdoor Recreation, 8 p.
                             ance with State water-quality laws. A permit is not issued by the                                                         Cooper, D.J., 1986, Ecological studies of wetland vegetation, Cross Creek
                             Corps without certification of such compliance by the Division.                                                                    Valley, Holy Cross Wilderness, Sawatch Range, Colorado: Boulder,
                             Pursuant to section 305(b) of the Clean Water Act, the Division                                                                    Colo., Holy Cross Wilderness Defense Fund, Technical Report 2, 25 p.
                             submits to the EPA and the U.S. Congress a biennial assessment of                                                                  [Available from Holy Cross Wilderness Defense Fund, 1130 Alpine,
                             the State's surface-water quality, including that of wetlands.                                                                     Boulder, CO 80304.1
                                     The Colorado Department of Natural Resources has diverse                                                          -1988, Advance identification ofwetlands in the city ofBoulder Com-
                             wetland responsibilities. The Department's Division of Parks and                                                                   prehensive Planning Area: Boulder, Colo., Boulder Planning Depart-
                             Outdoor Recreation develops the Statewide Comprehensive Outdoor                                                                    ment, 53 p.
                                                                                                                                                       -1990, Ecological studies in South Park, Colorado -Classification,
                             Recreation Plan. Pursuant to the requirements of the Emergency                                                                     functional analysis, rare species inventory, and the effects of remov-
                             Wetlands Resources Act of 1986, the most recent plan (Colorado,                                                                    ing irrigation (Contract report prepared for the U.S. Environmental
                             Department of Natural Resources, 1992) prioritizes wetland protec-                                                                 Protection Agency, Region V111, and the Park County Commission):
                             tion by wetland type and function. The Divisiorfs Colorado Natural                                                                 Fairplay, Colo., Park County Commission, 94 p. [Available from Li-
                             Areas Program identifies and seeks protection for unique natural                                                                   brarian, U.S. Geological Survey, Colorado District, Box 25046, MS
                             areas in the State. A "natural area" designation results in a main-                                                                415, Deaver Federal Center, Bldg. 53, Denver, CO 80225.]
                             tenance agreement among landowners, the Colorado Natural Areas                                                            Cooper, D.J., and Cottrell, T.R., 1989, An ecological characterization and
                             Program, and other interested parties. By 1992, about 5,000 acres                                                                  functional evaluation of wetlands in the Cherry Creek Basin - Cherry
                             of wetland were in designated natural areas (J.J. Coles, Colorado                                                                  Creek Reservoir upstream to Franktown (Contract report prepared for
                                                                                                                                                                the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Region Vill, and the city
                             Natural Areas Program, oral commun., 1992). The Colorado Natu-                                                                     of Greenwood Village): Golden, Colorado School of Mines, 57 p.
                             ral Areas Program has compiled inventories of plants and animals                                                          Cooper, D.J., and Severn, Craig, 1992, Wetlands of the San Luis Valley,
                             and plant associations of special concern in environments that in-                                                                 Colorado-An ecological study and analysis ofthe hydrologic regime,
                             clude wetlands. The Division of Wildlife reviews section 404 per-                                                                  soil chemistry, vegetation and the potential effects of a water table








                     140      National Water Surnmary-Wetland Resources: STATE SUMMARIES



                           drawdown (Contract report prepared for the State of Colorado Divi-                      in Kane, D.L., ed., Proceedings of the Symposium on Cold Regions
                           sion ofWildlife, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, and Rio Grande Water                   Hydrology, Fairbanks, Alaska, 1986: Bethesda, Md., American Water
                           Conservation District [Colo.]):. Denver, Colorado Division of Wild-                     Resources Association, p. 93 -100.
                           life, 158 p. [Available from Librarian, U.S. Geological Survey, Colo-              Ruddy, B.C., and Williams, R.S., Jr., 1991, Hydrologic relations between
                           rado District, Box 25046, MS 415, Denver Federal Center, Bldg. 53,                      streamflow and subalpine wetlands in Grand County, Colorado: U.S.
                           Denver, CO 80225.)                                                                      Geological Survey Water-Resources Investigations Report 90-4129,
                     Cowardin, L.M., Carter, Virginia, Golet, F.C., and LaRoe, E.T., 1979, Clas-                   53 p.
                           sification ofwetlands and deepwater habitats ofthe United States: U.S.             Sundeen, K.D., Leaf, C.F., and Bostrom, G.M., 1989, Hydrologic functions
                           Fish and Wildlife Service Report FWS/OBS-79/31, 131 p.                                  of sub-alpine wetlands in Colorado, in Fisk, D.W., ed., Proceedings
                     Dahl, T.E., 1990, Wetlands-Losses in the United States, 1780's to 1980's:                     of the Symposium on Wetlands - Concerns and Successes, Tampa,
                           Washington, D.C., U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Report to Congress,                    Fla., September 17-22, 1989: Bethesda, Md., American Water Re-
                           13 p.                                                                                   sources Association, p. 401-413.
                     Ducks Unlimited, 1992, Homework- Stockpiling wildlife does not work,                     U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 1955, Wetlands inventory- Colorado: Al-
                           preserving the habitatTCSouTce does!-. Wild Dawn, v. 2, no. 4, p. 6-7.                  buquerque, N. Mex., U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Report by the
                     Farnsworth, R.K., Thompson, E.S., and Peck, E.L., 1982, Evaporation at-                       Office of River Basin Studies, 19 p., 16 p1s.
                           las for the contiguous 48 United States: National Oceanic and Atmo-                -1960, Inventory of permanent water areas of importance to water-
                           spheric Administration Technical Report NWS 33, 27 p.                                   fowl in the state of Colorado: Albuquerque, N. Mex., U.S. Fish and
                     Fenneman, N.M., 1946, Physical divisions of the United States: Washing-                       Wildlife Service and Colorado Department of Game and Fish coop-
                           ton, D.C., U.S. Geological Survey special map, scale 1:7,000,000.                       erative publication, 9 p.
                     Hopper, R.M., 1968, Wetlands ofColorado: Colorado Department of Game,                    -1990, Regional wetlands concept plan-Emergency wetlands re-
                           Fish, and Parks Technical Publication 22, 89 p.                                         sources act: Lakewood, Colo., U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 90 p.,
                     Montagne, J.M., 1972, Glaciation during the Wisconsin stage, in Rocky                         4 apps.
                           Mountain Association of Geologists, 1972, Geologic Atlas of the                    Walton-Day, Katherine, 1991, Hydrology and geochemistry of a natural
                           Rocky Mountain Region: Denver, Hirschfeld Press, p. 259.                                wetland affected by acid mine drainage, St. Kevin Gulch, Lake County,
                     Owen, D.E. (chair), 1990, Session G -Multidisciplinary studies of a moun-                     Colorado: Golden, Colorado School of Mines, Ph.D. dissertation #T-
                           tain fen, Society of Weiland Scientists, I I th annual meeting, Final                   4033, 299 p.
                           Program, Breckenridge, Colo., June 4-6, 1990: Society of Wetland                   Windell, J.T., Willard, B.E., Cooper, D.J., and others, 1986, An ecological
                           Scientists, p. 54, 56-58, 61, 70.                                                       characterization of Rocky Mountain montane and subalpine wetlands:
                     Owen, D.E, Otton, J.K., Hills, F.A., and Schumann, R.R., 1992, Uranium                        U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Biological Report 86(11), 298 p.
                           and other elements in Colorado Rocky Mountain wetlands -A recon-
                           naissance study: U.S. Geological Survey Bulletin 1992, 33 p.
                     Petsch, H.E., Jr., 1986, Colorado surface-water resources, in U.S Geologi-               FOR ADDITIONAL INFORMATION: District Chief, U.S. Geological
                           cal Survey, National water summary 1985 -Hydrologic events and                     Survey, Building 53, Box 25046, Mail Stop 415, Denver Federal Center,
                           surface-water resources: U.S. Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper                 Denver, CO 80225; Regional Weiland Coordinator, U.S. Fish and Wildlife
                           2300,p.167-174.                                                                    Service, Fish and Wildlife Enhancement, P.O. Box 25486, Denver Federal
                     Rector, C.D., Mustard, E.W., and Windell, J.T., 1979, Lower Gunnison Basin               Center, Denver, CO 80225
                           wetland inventory and evaluation: U.S. Soil Conservation Service,
                           Bureau of Reclamation, Colorado Division of Wildlife, and Univer-
                           sity of Colorado cooperative publication, 90 p.                                                                    Prepared by
                     ,Redelfs, A.E., 1980, Wetlands values and losses in the United States:                                             Katherine Walton-Day,
                           Stillwater, Oklahoma State University, M.S. thesis, 144 p.                                                  U.S. Geological Survey
                     Rovey, E.W., Kraeger-Rovey, Catherine, and Cooper, D.J., 1986, Hydrologi-
                           cal and ecological processes in a Colorado Rocky Mountain wetland,































                                                                         U.S. Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper 2425








                                                                                                                         National Water Summary-Wetland Resources 141
                                                                                                                            Connecticut
                                                                                                                            Wetland Resources
                  Connecticut's diverse wetlands are valued for the environmental                     to the Fws National Wetland Inventory (Metzler and Tiner, 1992),
                  and economic benefits they provide, such as wildlife habitat, water-                wetlands covered about 172,500 acres, or about 5 percent, of Con-
                  quality improvement, flood and erosion control, recreation, hunt-                   necticut at that time. Wetlands were defined on the basis of aerial-
                  ing, trapping, and esthetic beauty. Wetlands provide food, shelter,                 photo interpretation of visible vegetation types and hydrology Evalu-
                  and breeding and nursery grounds for fish, shellfish, birds, and other              ations of the accuracy of the National Wetland Inventory maps for
                  wildlife, many of whose populations are threatened or endangered.                   Vermont and Massachusetts, which were produced using the same
                  The quality of water that passes through wetlands is typically en-                  techniques as for the Connecticut inventory, indicated that the
                  hanced by physical and biochemical processes. Undeveloped flood-                    1: 24,000-scale maps had accuracies of 91 percent and greater than
                  plain wetlands along the Connecticut River and other rivers in the                  95 percent, respectively, in those States (Metzler and Tiner, 1992).
                  State provide natural storage that helps regulate floodwaters. Be-                  Wetland area and density are greatest in the eastern part of the State
                  cause wetlands are valuable to the people of Connecticut, the Fed-                  (fig. 2B). Palustrine wetlands are by far the most common wetland
                  eral and State governments own and protect several wetlands, such                   type in the State, followed by estuarine wetlands (fig. 2C); together,
                  as Robbins Swamp (fig. 1).                                                          they constitute about 99 percent, by area, of the State's wetlands.
                                                                                                      The combined area of lacustrine and riverine wetlands makes up
                  TYPES AND DISTRIBUTION                                                              the remaining I percent of wetland acreage. A description of
                                                                                                      Connecticut's most common wetland types follows.
                        Wetlands are lands transitional between terrestrial and deep-                      Palustrine wetlands.-Vegetated palustrine wetlands in Con-
                  water habitats where the water table usually is at or near the land                 necticut include ponds and shallow lakes in which the dominant
                  surface or the land is covered by shallow water (Cowardin and oth-                  vegetation is floating or submersed (aquatic-bed wetlands); fresh-
                  ers, 1979). The distribution of wetlands and deepwater habitats in                  water marshes, fens, and bogs dominated by herbaceous plants
                  Connecticut is shown in figure 2A; only wetlands are discussed                      (emergent wetlands); and bogs and swamps dominated by shrubs
                  herein.                                                                             or trees (scrub-shrub or forested wetlands). Palustrine forested
                        Wetlands can be vegetated or nonvegetated and are classified                  wetlands constitute 54 percent of the State's wetlands (Metzler and
                  on the basis of their hydrology, vegetation, and substrate. In this                 Tiner, 1992) and consist primarily of red maple swamps with some
                  summary, wetlands are classified according to the system proposed                   evergreen forested wetlands. Red maple grows in most inland
                  by Cowardin and others (1979), which is used by the U.S. Fish and                   wetlands because it tolerates a wide range of flooding and soil-satu-
                  Wildlife Service (FWS) to map and inventory the Nation's wetlands.                  ration conditions. The vegetation found with red maple, in the un-
                  At the most general level of the classification system, wetlands are                derstory and intermixed or codominating in the canopy, differs ac-
                  grouped into five ecological systems: Palustrine, Lacustrine, Riv-                  cording to nutrient conditions and water regime. Evergreen forested
                  erine, Estuarine, and Marine. The Palustrine System includes only                   wetlands are commonly vegetated by Atlantic white cedar in east-
                  wetlands, whereas the other systems comprise wetlands and                           ern Connecticut (Metzler and Tirier, 1992) and hemlock or black
                  deepwater habitats. Wetlands of the systems that occur in Connecti-                 spruce in western Connecticut (Messier, 1980).
                  cut are described below.                                                                 Lacustrine and riverine wetlands.-Although present through-
                                                                                                      out the State, lacustrine and riverine wetlands comprise only a small
                  System                                   Wetland description                        percentage of Connecticut's wetlarid area. These freshwater wetlands
                                                                                                      generally are restricted to the channel or the shallow zone between
   4              Palustrine  .................. Nontidal and tidal-freshwater wetlands in which      the shore and deepwater habitat. If vegetated, they have only aquatic-
                                            vegetation is predominantly trees (forested wet-          bed or nonpersistent emergent vegetation. Riverine wetlands are
                                            lands); shrubs (scrub-shrub wetlands); persistent         most abundant in the freshwater tidal areas of the Connecticut and
                                            or nonpersistent emergent, erect, rooted herba-
                                            ceous plants (persistent- and nonpersistent-              Housatonic River (Metzler and Tiner, 1992). Shallow wetlands ad-
                                            emergent wetlands); or submersed and (or)
                                            floating plants (aquatic beds). Also, intermit-
                                            tently to permanently flooded open-water bod-
                                            ies of less than 20 acres in which water is less
                                            than 6.6 feet deep.
                  Lacustrine   ................. Nontidal and tidal-freshwater wetlands within an
                                            intermittently to permanently flooded lake or
                                            reservoir larger than 20 acres and (or) deeper
                                            than 6.6 feet. Vegetation, when present, is pre-                                                          Figure 1. Robbins
                                            dominantly noripersistent emergent plants (non-                                                           Swamp, near Canaan.
                                            persistent-emergent wetlands), or submersed                                                      i        This 1,000-acre forested
                                            and (or) floating plants (aquatic beds), or both.                                                         wetland is the largest
                  Riverine   ..................... Nontidal and tidal-freshwater wetlands within a                                                    inland wetland in
                                            channel. Vegetation, when present, is same as             i                                               Connecticut. The
                                            in the Lacustrine System.                                                                                 wetland provides wild-
                                                                                                      5i                -R'k,

                  Estuarine   ................... Tidal wetlands in low-wave-energy environments                                                      life habitat, outdoor
                                            where the salinity of the water is greater than 0.5                                                       recreation, and other
                                            partperthousand (ppt) and is variable owing to                                                            benefits. Parts are
                                                                                                                                                      owned by the State and
                                            evaporation and the mixing of seawater and
                                            freshwater.                                                               0   5 0
                                                                                                                                                      The Nature Conserv
                                                                                                                                                      ancy. (Photograph by
                        According to a survey conducted in the early 1980's by the
                  Connecticut Department of Environmental Protection on contract                                                                      Ellen M. Ramsey The
                                                                                                                                                      Nature Conservancy.)









                           142        National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: STATE SUMMARIES



                           jacent to rivers or lakes are classified as palustrine wetlands if there                                       HYDROLOGIC SETTING
                           is persistent emergent vegetation present.
                                  Estuarine wetlands.-Estuarine wetlands consist of salt and                                                      Wetlands occur in geologic, topographic, and hydrologic set-
                           brackish marshes (emergent and scrub-shrub wetlands) that have                                                 tings that enhance the accumulation and retention of ground water,
                           developed in protected coves and embayments along the coast and                                                surface water, or both for extended periods of time. Hydrologic proc-
                           estuaries adjacent to Long Island Sound. Sparsely vegetated estua-                                             esses are the primary factors determining the existence of wetlands;
                           rine flats and beaches, alternately flooded by tide or exposed to air,                                         even if the geologic and topographic settings are favorable for wet-
                           also are present.                                                                                              land formation, unfavorable hydrologic conditions can inhibit wet-

                                                                                                    73'
                                                                                                            . .........r                                                                               72'
                                                             r
                                           A                         Can@                                                                                                                   7T 'Q
                                               42'
                                                                                                                                                       J  i                                       W
                                                      %G4                 .'d                                                                     0      ?,1
                                                     40                    1                                                                                   16"t) 16
                                                             0       . 6 Robbi5AWamp                                       Wunqor  Lm s                         10
                                                             4         .     t      'D                                     r -                               r* 9

                                                                                                                                                                                          000
                                                                                                                                                                                   %



                                                                                                                           HArtf.rd
                                                                                                      %
                                                                                                                                                            4)

                                                                                                                                                  %          %                                                          'ell
                                                                                                                                                                             %
                                                                                                                                                                        #of                                                    PBchaug
                                                                                                                                                                                                                   J           Great Meadows


                                                                                                                                                                                         orwich
                                                                                                                                 Vaurharn.
                                                                                                                                      Meadows
                                                                                                                                       6hesler Ged @S                                     1                      0; .
                                                                                                                                                  or wmp                 'r .
                                                                                                                                                                %           '     % R
                                                     %                                                                                                                                                                It
                                                                                                                                                                                                                     .4
                                                     1,              of                                                                        .le
                                                                                                                                                               %                                                        Barn Island
                                                                                                                                                             04L         a
                                                                     0                                                                                                                          Newife Cove             Fish and Wildlife Area
                                                                                                                                                                  Set Meadow NWR

                                                                                                                                      State Park
                                                                     EVId. p.                                                                  S 0
                                                                                          Stuart B. NtKinney           I s       r4                      WETLANDS AND DEEPWATER HABITATS
                                                                                          NWR            0                                               Distribution of wetlands and deepwater habitats-
                                                                                                                                                            This map shows the approximate distribution of large
                                                                                                                                                            wetlands in the State. Because of limitations ofscale
                                                                     0       5        10        15 MILES                                                    and source material, some wetlands are not shown
                                                                     i   I   I I      I I
                                                                     0   5    10     15 KILOMETERS                                                                Predominantly wetland
                                                                                                                                                         M

                                                                                                                                                                  Predominantly deepwater habitat


                           B                    4 77                 TOLLAN '. -"28,102                                                                                      D         A
                                     22,761             271766       "1 11,572@   8.6                        C             Riverine and
                                        38                4.5        4'3       11@v                                  lacustrine wetlands                                                                    8
                                                      HARTFORD                                                      1 percent (1,929 acres)                                                                              C
                                   LITCHPIILD@
                                                                                                                                                  Estuarine wetlands                    c
                                                   Lm-1, 15,402             34,819                                                             11 percent (18,828 acres)
                                               19,465 @ 6.5                   8.2
                                                           L          3 NEW LONDON
                                                5.0     NEW                                                                                                                                                                   D
                                   4.8                 HAVEN
                                  FAIRFIELD '                                                                                                                                                D
                                           WETLAND ACREAGE AND DENSITY,                                              Palustrine wetlands
                                             BY COUNTY                                                                     88 percent                                                        PHYSIOGRAPHIC DIVISIONS
                                                                                                                        (151,791 acres)                                                      New England Province
                                           28,702     Acres of wetland in county                                                                                                                A. Taconic Section
                                                          '4


                                                      4"


                                                                                                                                                                            ]@IHYSICIG @AIHIC .VISIJ
                                                                                                                                                                                                                               ..S



                                                                                                                                                                                                B. Connecticut valley Lowland
                                               8.6    Percent of county covered                           RELATIVE AND ACTUAL ACREAGE                                                           C' New England Upland Section
                                                        by wetland                                           OF WETLANDS TYPES                                                                  D. Seaboard Lowland Section
                                                                                                             IN CONNECTICUT

                           Figure 2. Wetland distribution in Connecticut and physical features that control wetland distribution in the State. A, Distribution of
                           wetlands and deepwater habitats. B, Wetland acreage and density, by county. C, Relative and actual acreage of wetland types in the early
                           1980's for Connecticut. 0, Physiography. (Sources: A, TE. Dahl, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, unpub. data, 1991. B and C, Data from
                           Metzler and Tiner, 1992. D, Physiographic divisions from Fenneman, 1938; landforms data from EROS Data Center.)








                                                                                              National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: CONNECTICUT               143



                 land formation (Winter, 1988). On an annual basis, precipitation             Sections, which are underlain by metamorphosed calcareous rocks,
                 exceeds evapotranspiration losses in Connecticut, resulting in an            are distinct from those in the more widespread acidic bedrock ar-
                 annual moisture surplus. Hydrology, therefore, favors the formation          eas of the State. Soils and ground water derived from calcareous
                 of wetlands throughout the State, and wetland location is determined         rocks are rich in nutrients, resulting in wetlands such as Robbins
                 primarily by geologic and topographic controls.                              Swamp that support a lush and diverse flora (Dowhan and Craig,
                      Connecticut's physical features -created by geologic forces             1976).
                 over millions of years, erosion and deposition from recent glacia-                As vegetation became established after glacial retreat and de-
                 tion, and human activities -combined with present-day hydrologic             veloped in response to the warming climate, open-water areas filled
                 conditions, determine the distribution of wetlands in the State. Con-        with sediment or organic matter to become wetlands or remained
                 necticut can be divided into four physiographic divisions based upon         lakes with wetlands fringing open water. Studies of upland wetlands
                 general topographic relief: the Taconic, the Connecticut Valley Low-         in northeastern Connecticut have shown that wetlands have devel-
                 land, the New England Upland, and the Seaboard Lowland Sections              oped over many divergent paths in the time since deglaciation
                 of the New England Province (fig. 2D). Topographic relief gener-             (Thorson, 1990, 1992; Thorson and Harris, 1991). Postsettlement
                 ally increases from the southeast to northwest corners of the State.         agricultural and industrial practices, rather than natural ecological
                 Major lowland areas include the Seaboard Lowland, Connecticut                factors, determined the present-day character of all previously
                 Valley Lowland, and, in the New England Upland and Taconic Sec-              existing wetlands., In addition, many wetlands were formed since
                 tions, deep valleys formed of weathered, calcareous bedrock. Con-            settlement as a result of the effects of colonial land use and the con-
                 necticut was completely covered by ice during the last glaciation;           struction of cattle-watering sites, ice ponds, and mill ponds for
                 the ice margin reached its maximum extent at Long Island, New                water-powered industries.
                 York. Glaciation did little to change the preglacial, fluvially eroded            Tidal wetlands.-Wetlands in coastal areas of Connecticut have
                 bedrock topography except for locally deepening bedrock hollows              water-level fluctuations that are driven largely by ocean tides. Tidal
                 and river valleys (Schafer and Hartshorn, 1965). Large quantities            wetlands form a continuum from estuarine to tidal riverine to
                 of sediment were produced and deposited over bedrock throughout              palustrine wetlands. The effects of wave energy and salinity on the
                 the State. This sediment either was deposited on upland hilltops and         wetlands diminish along this continuum, although not necessarily
                 slopes as till or was eroded and reworked by glacial meltwater and           at the same rate. Tidal effects are present in the Connecticut River
                 deposited as stratified drift (sorted and layered glacial sediments).        as far as Windsor Locks near the Massachusetts border, whereas
                 Stratified drift was deposited in topographically low areas-major            wetlands have graded from salt and brackish to freshwater before
                 lowlands such as the Connecticut Valley Lowland and in stream and            reaching Hartford. Tidal wetlands receive freshwater input from
                 river valleys throughout the State. Many. wetlands in Connecticut            upland areas through ground-water discharge, stream overflow, and
                 occur in the depressions, deepened valleys, and lowlands in which            hillslope runoff. Regional ground-water discharge is greatest near
                 stratified drift was deposited.                                              the break in slope between upland and coastal areas, and interme-
                      Inland wetlands.-During deglaciation, a series of large gla-            diate and local ground-water flow systems increase in importance
                 cial lakes occupied the Connecticut Valley Lowland, and smaller              in low areas (Winter, 1988). Floodwater resulting from high tides
                 lakes occurred along many river valleys throughout the State                 or stormflows may be temporarily stored on the wetland surface.
                 (Schafer and Hartshorn, 1965). Extensive areas of flat, slowly per-          The drainage of floodwater and hillslope runoff from the wetland
                 meable stratified drift were deposited on the bottom of these lakes.         surface is slowed by the low slope of coastal areas. Major areas of
                 The generally low relief and poorly permeable substrate of these             tidal wetlands are shown along major portions of the Housatonic,
                 areas retain surface water or slow its drainage, leading to the for-         Quinnipiac, and Connecticut Rivers in figure 2A.
                 mation and maintenance of wetlands. Owing to the low slope of these               The major factors affecting the development and persistence
                 areas, small drainage obstructions can form large wetlands. Sources          of tidal wetlands are the postglacial rise of sea level relative to the
                 of water can be ground-water discharge, surface runoff, or direct            land, the tidal regime, the supply of sediments to the wetland, and
                 precipitation.                                                               the ability of plants to survive submergence by saltwater (Redfield,
                      Wetlands occur in small and large valleys throughout Connecti-          1972). Unless the submergence of tidal wetlands by rising sea level
                 cut. Some wetlands occupy the depressions, or kettles, left by melt-         is counteracted by the vertical accretion of the wetland by sediment
                 ing ice blocks in stratified drift. Wetlands also have formed in areas       deposition and plant accumulation, the wetland will drown and be-
                 modified by the recent erosion and deposition of rivers -in aban-            come a deepwater habitat. When the glaciers melted, the sea rose
                 doned river channels, behind levees and overbank sediments adja-             and encroached upon land, inundating many stream and river val-
                 cent to rivers, and in backswamp areas. In the New England Up-               leys to form estuaries. Tidal wetlands either have migrated inland
                 land and Taconic Sections, the hilly topography of upland areas of           along estuaries, river valleys, and coastal slopes or the wetlands have
                 till or bedrock generally does not retain surface runoff. Wetlands           been completely inundated. Salt-marsh peats, as much as,12.5 feet
                 form primarily in isolated depressions where surface runoff and              thick, overlie freshwater peats in parts of the Pataguanset River val-
                 ground-water discharge collect. The depressions may have no out-             ley and indicate the change in wetland type in response to chang-
                 flow or have drainage controlled by bedrock sills, stratified drift,         ing sea levels 4,000 years ago (Orson and others, 1987). Presently,
                 beaver dams, or manmade structures. Seepage wetlands may form                tidal wetlands exist in a narrow setting between rising sea level and
                 where the water table intersects the land surface, such as on con-           expanding coastal development. As sea level continues to rise, the
                 cave slopes and at breaks in slope; however, the wetlands are pe-            migration of these wetlands inland is hindered by historic alteration
                 rennial only if ground-water discharge is perennial (Winter, 1988).          of coastal-margin wetlands and by present development.
                      The position of a wetland in the landscape determines the
                 nutrient status and vegetative characteristics of the wetland                TRENDS
                 (Damman and French, 1987). Water that has moved through soil and
                 subsurface materials carries nutrients that encourage plant growth.               The Fws has estimated that Connecticut lost 74 percent of its
                 Wetlands in upland till and bedrock depressions are primarily areas          original wetlands over the 200-year period between the 1780's and
                 of discharge from nutrient-poor, local ground-water flow systems,            the 1980's (Dahl, 1990). The Fws estimate is based on the assump-
                 whereas wetlands in lowland stratified- drift valleys receive dis-           tion that Connecticut originally had about 670,000 acres of wetlands.
                 charge from more nutrient- enriched ground-water flow systems                However, Metzler and Tiner (1992) discuss some of the limitations
                 (Winter, 1988). Wetlands in the New England Upland and Taconic               of the methods used in the Fws inventory to estimate predevelopment








                              1"          National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: STATE SUMMARIES



                              and recent wetland acreage when applied to Connecticut. They be-                                                                   Federal wetland activities.-Development activities in Con-
                              lieve that statewide wetland losses of one-third to one-half are more                                                      necticut wetlands are regulated by several Federal statutory prohi-
                              realistic (Metzler and Tiner, 1992). The Connecticut Department                                                            bitions and incentives that are intended to slow wetland losses. Some
                              of Environmental Protection estimates losses of 40 to 50 percent                                                           of the more important of these are contained in the 1899 Rivers and
                              for freshwater wetlands and 65 percent for coastal wetlands.                                                               Harbors Act; the 1972 Clean Water Act and amendments; the 1985
                                      Some tidal wetlands have been created through the effects of                                                       Food Security Act; the 1990 Food, Agriculture, Conservation, and
                              human activities. Barske (1988) describes the development of 700                                                           Trade Act; the 1986 Emergency Wetlands Resources Act; and the
                              acres of salt marsh at the mouth of the Housatonic River through                                                           1972 Coastal Zone Management Act.
                              the accumulation of sediment, the result of upstream deforestation                                                                 Section 10 of the Rivers and Harbors Act gives the Corps au-
                              and other activities. Often, however, human activities lead to the                                                         thority to regulate certain activities in navigable waters. Regulated
                              degradation of tidal wetlands. The elimination or restriction of tidal                                                     activities include diking, deepening, filling, excavating, and plac-
                              flow commonly results in reduced salinity, lowered water tables,                                                           ing of structures. The related section 404 of the Clean Water Act is
                              subsidence of wetlands peats, and conversion of wetland vegetation                                                         the most often-used Federal legislation protecting Wetlands. Under
                              to less salt-tolerant species (Roman and others, 1984; Rozsa, 1988).                                                       section 404 provisions, the Corps issues permits regulating the dis-
                              Roman and others (1984) estimate that 10 percent of Connecticut's                                                          charge of dredged or fill material into wetlands. Permits are sub-
                              salt marshes are subject to tidal-flow restriction. Loss of upstream                                                       ject to review and possible veto by the U.S. Environmental Protec-
                              freshwater wetlands, separation of watercourses and remaining up-                                                          tion Agency, and the Fws has review and advisory roles. Section 401
                              stream wetlands from downstream areas by a railroad right-of-way,                                                          of the Clean Water Act grants to States and eligible Indian Tribes
                              and loss of downstream tidal marshes have all contributed to a re-                                                         the authority to approve, apply conditions to, or deny section 404
                              duction of productivity in Alewife Cove, an estuary on Long Island                                                         permit applications on the basis of a proposed activity's probable
                              Sound (Welsh and others, 1976). Several degraded coastal wetlands                                                          effects on the water quality of a wetland.
                              in Connecticut are the site of restoration projects. The U.S. Army                                                                 Most farming, ranching, and silviculture activities are not sub-
                              Corps of Engineers (Corps), in cooperation with the Connecticut                                                            ject to section 404 regulation. However, the "Swampbuster" provi-
                              Department of Environmental Protection, is working to identify and                                                         sion of the 1985 Food Security Act and amendments in the 1990
                              restore salt marshes that have been degraded as a result of tidal-flow                                                     Food, Agriculture, Conservation, and Trade Act discourage (through
                              restriction.                                                                                                               financial disincentives) the draining, filling, or other alteration of
                                                                                                                                                         wetlands for agricultural use. The law allows exemptions from pen-
                              CONSERVATION                                                                                                               alties in some cases, especially if the farmer agrees to restore the
                                                                                                                                                         altered wetland or other wetlands that have been converted to agri-
                                      Many government agencies and private organizations partici-                                                        cultural use. The Wetlands Reserve Program of the 1990 Food,
                              pate in wetland conservation in Connecticut. The most active agen-                                                         Agriculture, Conservation, and Trade Act authorizes the Federal
                              cies and organizations and some of their activities are listed in                                                          Government to purchase conservation easements from landowners
                              table 1.                                                                                                                   who agree to protect or restore wetlands. The Consolidated Farm
                                                                                                                                                         Service Agency (formerly the Agricultural Stabilization and Con-
                              Table 1. Selected wetland-related activities of government                                                                 servation Service) administers the Swarripbuster provisions and Wet-
                              agencies and private organizations in Connecticut, 1993                                                                    lands Reserve Program. The Natural Resources Conservation
                              [Source@ Classification of activities is generalized from information provided                                             Service (formerly the Soil Conservation Service) determines com-
                                    by agencies and organizations. 9, agency or organization participates in                                             pliance with Swampbuster provisions and assists farmers in the iden-
                                    wetland-related activity; .., agency or organization does not participate in                                         tification of wetlands and in the development of wetland protection,
                                    wetland-related activity. MAN, management; REG, regulation; R&C, resto-                                              restoration, or creation plans.
                                    ration and creation; LAN, land acquisition; R&D, research and data collec-
                                    tion; D&I, delineation and inventory]                                                                                        The 1986 Emergency Wetlands Resources Act and the 1972
                                                                                                                                                         Coastal Zone Management Act and amendments encourage wetland
                                                                                                                                                         protection through funding incentives. The Emergency Wetland
                              Agency or organization                                                                        \3@    <e                    Resources Act requires States to address wetland protection in their
                              FEDERAL                                                                                                                    Statewide Comprehensive Outdoor Recreation Plans to qualify for
                              Department of Agriculture                                                                                                  Federal funding for State recreational land; the National Park Ser-
                                 Consolidated Farm Service Agency                  ...........................          . ... ...                        vice (NPS) provides guidance to States in developing the Weiland
                                 Forest Service        .................................................................                                 component of their plans. Coastal States that adopt coastal-zone
                                 Natural Resources Conservation Service                    ................                                              management programs and plans approved by the National Oceanic
                              Department of Commerce                                                                                                     and Atmospheric Administration are eligible for Federal funding and
                                 National Oceanic and                                                                                                    technical assistance through the Coastal Zone Management Act.
                                 Atmospheric Administration             ........................................
                              Department of Defense                                                                                                              Federal agencies are responsible for the proper management
                                 Army Corps of Engineers             ..............................................                                      of wetlands on public lands under their jurisdiction. The FWS pro-
                                 Military reservations         .....................................................                                     tects and manages wetlands in two National Wildlife Refuges -the
                              Department of the Interior                                                                                                 Stewart B. McKinney National Wildlife Refuge and the Salt Meadow
                                 Fish and Wildlife Service           ..............................................                                      National Wildlife Refuge. The Corps manages and conserves for-
                                 National Biological Service            .........................................
                              Environmental Protection Agency                 ..................................                                         ests, water, fish, wildlife, wetlands, and recreation areas for mul-
                              STATE                                                                                                                      tiple uses at dams, reservoirs, and parks located throughout the State.
                              Department of Environmental Protection                   .....................                                                     State wetland activities. -Tidal wetlands are protected under
                              Department of Transportation              .........................................                                        the Tidal Wetlands Act of 1969 and the Coastal Management Act of
                              University of Connecticut           .................................................                                      1979. Activities in tidal wetlands are regulated at the State level with
                              TOWN AND CITY CONSERVATION COMMISSIONS
                              PRIVATE ORGANIZATIONS                                                                                                      exemptions for mosquito control, conservation, navigation, and
                              Connecticut Audubon Society               .........................................                                        emergency activities. Tidal wetlands are defined by the State as areas
                              Ducks Unlimited         .................................................................. ...                             that border or lie beneath tidal waters and that contain certain plant
                              The Nature Conservancy              ..................................................0                                    species. About 15,000 acres of tidal salt marsh and 7,000 acres of








                                                                                                      National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: CONNECTICUT                     145



                  brackish and freshwater tidal wetlands are regulated under this                     responsible for planning and regulating wetland-related activities
                  statute (Lefor and Tiner, 1972).                                                    at the town or municipal level. Inland wetland and watercourse com-
                        Nontidal freshwater wetlands are protected under the Inland                   missions regulate activities through permitting under the Inland
                  Wetlands and Watercourses Act of 1972. Inland wetlands are regu-                    Welland and Watercourses Act. Coastal-area zoning and planning
                  lated according to State standards by local inland wetlands and                     commissions balance development and the preservation of environ-
                  watercourses commissions. Permits are required for all activities                   mental values in coastal areas under the Coastal Management Act.
                  within wetlands with exemptions for agricultural activities, construc-              The act provides commissions with planning, research, and permit-
                  tion and maintenance of water-supply systems, certain conserva-                     ting authority. Education, training, support, and final authority are
                  tion and recreation uses, and the enjoyment and maintenance of                      provided to commissions by the Department of Environmental
                  residential property. Inland wetlands are defined by soil type -                    Protectiorils Wetland Program.
                  poorly drained, very poorly drained, flood-plain, or alluvial soils                       Private wetland activities.-Private organizations in Connecti-
                  as delineated by the National Cooperative Soil Survey. Rivers,                      cut are active in land acquisition and management, research, edu-
                  streams, waterways, and other natural and artificial water bodies                   cation, and policy review and planning. The Nature Conservancy
                  are regulated under this statute as watercourses. On the basis of the               protects about 1,800 acres of wetlands within the 9,000 acres of land
                  State's wetland definition, 15 to 20 percent of Connecticut's land is               under its ownership. Ducks Unlimited provides technical and finan-
                  subject to regulation as inland wetlands (Metzler and Tiner, 1992).                 cial assistance to Federal and State agencies in order to protect
                        Under section 401 of the Federal Clean Water Act, any activ-                  waterfowl habitat in Connecticut.
                  ity that results in a discharge, including that of fill into wetlands or
                  State waters that requires a federal permit, must also obtain a sec-                References Cited
                  tion 401 water-quality certification stating that the activity will not
                  violate State surface-water-quality standards. Many activities ex-                  Barske, Philip, 1988, Man and nature-Willing or unwilling partners, in
                  empted under the Inland Wetlands and Watercourses Act are in the                          Lefor, M.W., and Kennard, W.C., eds., Proceedings of the 4th Wet-
                  Department of Environmental Protection's jurisdiction under the                           lands Conference, November 15, 1986: University of Connecticut
                  section 401 certification program; however, normal maintenance and                        Institute of Water Resources Report 34, p. 91-99.
                  improvement of agricultural lands remain exempt from State and                      Butts, M.P., 1988, Status of wetland creation/mitigation projects on State
                                                                                                            highway projects in Connecticut, in Lefor, M.W., and Kennard, W.C.,
                  Federal authority. Use of the antidegradation provisions of State                         eds., Proceedings of the 4th Wetlands Conference, November 15, 1986:
                  surface -water-quality standards on wetlands provides enhanced                            University of Connecticut Institute of Water Resources Report 34,
                  wetland protection. Antidegradation provisions provide for the                            p. 13-18.
                  protection of existing wetland functions and the level of water quality             Cowardin, L.M., Carter, V., Golet, F.C., and LaRce, E.T., 1979, Classifica-
                  necessary to maintain and protect those functions. No degradation                         tion of wetlands and deepwater habitats of the United States: U.S. Fish
                  is allowed in areas designated as "outstanding national resource                          and Wildlife Service Report FWSJOBS -79/31, 131 p.
                  waters," such as National Wildlife Refuges, National Parks, State                   Dahl, T.E., 1990, Wetlands -Losses in the United States, 1780's to 1980's:
                  parks, wildlife areas, and other areas of ecological significance. The                    Washington, D.C., U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Report to Congress,
                  Water Resources Division of the Department of Environmental Pro-                          13 p.
                                                                                                      Damman, A.W.H., and French, T.W., 1987, The ecology of peat bogs of the
                  tection is responsible for section 401 certifications in Connecticut.                     glaciated northeastern United States -A community profile: U.S. Fish
                        The Department of Environmental Protection is the primary                           and Wildlife Service Biological Report 85(7.16), 100 p.
                  environmental and conservation agency in Connecticut. The Depart-                   Dowhan, IT, and Craig, R.J., 1976, Rare and endangered species of Con-
                  ment owns more wetland acreage in Connecticut than does the Fed-                          necticut and their habitats: Connecticut Geological and Natural His-
                  eral Government (Metzler and Titter, 1992). Numerous wetlands are                         tory Survey Report of Investigations no. 6, 137 p.
                  protected in State parks, State forests, and wildlife-managemerit                   Fermeman, N.M., 1938, Physiography of Eastern United States: New York,
                  areas throughout the State. Chester Cedar Swamp and Pachaug Great                         McGraw-Hill, 714 p.
                  Meadows are partly State-owned wetlands and are designated as                       Lefor, M.W., and Titter, R.W., 1972, Tidal wetlands survey of the State of
                  National Natural Landmarks by the NPS. The State owns significarit                        Connecticut-Report of the consultant biologists for the period De-
                                                                                                            cember 22, 1969 to June 30, 1972: Storrs, Biological Sciences Group,
                  portions of wetlands at Robbins Swamp, Durham Meadows, Barn                               University of Connecticut, 113 p.
                  Island Fish and Wildlife Areas, and Hammonasset State Park                          Messier, S.N., 1980, The plant communities of the acid wetlands of north-
                  (Metzler and Tiner, 1992). Wetlands are acquired through the Rec-                         western Connecticut: Storrs, University of Connecticut, M.S. thesis,
                  reation and Natural Heritage Act and sale of the new Connecticut                          98 P.
                  Waterfowl Hunting Stamp. Funds derived from the stamp will be                       Metzler, K.J., and Tiner, R.W., 1992, Wetlands of Connecticut: State Geo-
                  used solely for wetland acquisition or improvements.                                      logical and Natural History Survey of Connecticut Report of Investi-
                        Development projects that cause unavoidable wetlands degra-                         gations no. 13, 115 p.
                  dation or loss are required to mitigate or compensate for wetland                   Orson, R.A., Warren, R.S., and Niering, W.A., 1987, Development of a tidal
                  loss by replacing or providing a substitute wetland resource. The                         marsh in a New England river valley: Estuaries, v. 10, p. 20-27.
                                                                                                      Redfield, A.C., 1972, Development of a New England salt marsh: Ecologi-
                  Connecticut State Department of Transportation has been involved                          cal Monographs, v. 42, p. 201-237.
                  in wetlands creation and mitigation projects as a way to offset the                 Roman, C.T., Niering, W.A., and Warren, R.S., 1984, Salt marsh vegeta-
                  long-term effects of highway construction. Wetlands, created and                          tion change in response to tidal restriction: Environmental Manage-
                  restored as a part of the design, permit, and construction.process,                       ment, v. 8, p. 141-150.
                  have provided lost wetland functions with varying success (Butts,                   Rozsa, Ronald, 1988, An overview of wetland restoration projects in Con-
                  1988). The Department of Transportation. has acquired about 200                           necticut, in Lefor, M.W., and Kennard, W.C., eds., Proceedings of the
                  acres of wetlands in compensation for wetlands lost through devel-                        4th Wetlands Conference, November 15,1986: University of Connecti-
                  opment projects; most of this land has remained under the                                 cut Institute of Water Resources Report 34, p. 1-11.
                  Department's management. The Department provides funds for                          Schafer, J.P., and Hartshorn, J.H., 1965, The Quaternary of New England,
                                                                                                            in Wright, H.E., Jr., and Frey, D.G., eds., The Quaternary of the United
                  wetland-retated research primarily at the University of Connecti-                         States: Princeton, N.J., Princeton University Press, p. 113-128.
                  cut.                                                                                Thorson, R.M., 1990, Development of small upland wetlands-A strati-
                        Local wetland activities.-Inland wetland and watercourse                            graphic study in northeastern Connecticut: Storrs, University of Con-
                  commissions and coastal-area zoning and planning commissions are                          necticut School of Engineering, Final Report JHR 90-191, 285 p.








                     146     National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: STATE SUMMARIES



                     -1992, Remaking the wetlands in Lebanon, Connecticut- Cultural
                          and natural changes in the postglacial epoch: Storrs, University of Con-
                          necticut School of Engineering, Final Report JHR 92 - 215, 157 p.
                     Thorson, R.M., and Harris, S.L., 1991, How "natural" are inland wet-
                          lands?-An example from the Trail Wood Audubon Sanctuary in
                          Connecticut, USA: Environmental Management, v. 15, p. 675-687.
                     Welsh, B.L., Herring, J.P., Bessette, Diane, and Read, Luana, 1976, The
                          importance of an holistic approach to ecosystem management and
                          planning, in Lefor, M.W., Kennard, W.C., and Helfgott, T.B., eds.,
                          Proceedings of the 3rd Wetlands Conference, June 14, 1975: Univer-
                          sity of Connecticut Institute of Water Resources Report 26, p. 16- 33.
                     Winter, T.C., 1988, A conceptual framework for assessing cumulative im-
                          pacts on the hydrology of nontidal wetlands: Environmental Manage-
                          ment, v. 12, p. 605 - 620.


                     FOR ADDITIONAL INFORMATION: District Chief, U.S. Geological
                     Survey, Ribicoff Federal Building, 450 Main Street, Room 525, Hartford,
                     CT 06103; Regional Wetlands Coordinator, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service,
                     300 Westgate Center Drive, Hadley, MA 01035


                                                    Prepared by
                                                 Sandrat. Harris,
                                             U.S. Geological Survey








                                                                                                                                                                                   National Water Summary-Wetland Resources 147
                                                                                                                                                                                                          Delaware
                                                                                                                                                                                       Wetland Resources
                           Wetlands cover about 17 percent of Delaware (Tiner and Finn,                                                               grouped into five ecological systems: Palustrine, Lacustrine, Riv-
                           1986). These wetlands support rich biotic communities in freshwa-                                                          erine, Estuarine, and Marine. The Palustrine System includes only
                           ter, brackish-water, and saltwater settings across the State. Some of                                                      wetlands, whereas the other systems comprise wetlands and
                           the most familiar wetlands in Delaware are the tidal marshes along                                                         deepwater habitats. Wetlands of the systems that occur in Delaware
                           Delaware Bay (fig. 1).                                                                                                     axe described below.
                                   Wetlands have many chemical, physical, and biological func-
                           tions. In Delaware, wetlands trap waterborne sediments, nutrients,                                                         System                                                      Wetland description
                           and toxic chemicals by filtering inflowing water and storing or trans-
                           forming the filtrate. Coastal-zone and flood-plain wetlands mitigate                                                       Palustrine       .................. Nontidal and tidal-freshwater wetlands in which
                           the effects of flooding caused by runoff and tides by reducing flow                                                                                               vegetation is predominantly trees (forested wet-
                           velocity, storing water temporarily, and releasing it gradually. Veg-                                                                                             lands); sh rubs (scru b-sh rub wetl ands); persistent
                                                                                                                                                                                             or nonpersistent emergent, erect, rooted herba-
                           etation in riparian wetlands maintains stream channels by stabiliz-                                                                                               ceous plants (persistent- and nonpersistent-
                           ing the land surface, and tidal wetlands act as buffers against storm                                                                                             emergent wetlands); or submersed and (or)
                           tides and waves, thus impeding erosion. One of the most important                                                                                                 floating plants (aquatic beds). Also, intermit-
                           functions of wetlands is habitat for waterfowl, terrestrial and aquatic                                                                                           tently to permanently flooded open-water bod-
                                                                                                                                                                                             ies of less than 20 acres in which water is less
                           animals, and a wide variety of plant life. Wetlands provide food,                                                                                                 than 6.6 feet deep.
                           shelter, resting and feeding places on migration routes, breeding                                                          Lacustrine        ................. Nontidal and tidal-freshwater wetlands within an
                           areas, and nurseries for many animals including species of particu-                                                                                               intermittently to permanently flooded lake or
                           lar economic interest in Delaware such as muskrat, fish, ducks, and                                                                                               reservoir larger than 20 acres and (or) deeper
                           geese. Many rare and endangered plant species are adapted to hy-                                                                                                  than 6.6 feet. Vegetation, when present, is pre-
                           drologic conditions present only in wetlands, especially freshwater                                                                                               dominantly nonpersistent emergent plants (non-
                                                                                                                                                                                             persistent-emergent wetlands), or submersed
                           wetlands.                                                                                                                                                         and (or) floating plants (aquatic beds), or both.
                                   Delawares wetlands have considerable recreational and eco-                                                         Riverine       ..................... Nontidal and ticla I -freshwater wetlands within a
                           nomic value. They provide outdoor educational and recreational                                                                                                    channel. Vegetation, when present, is same as
                           opportunities, including activities such as bird watching, hiking, and                                                                                            in the Lacustrine System.
                           canoeing. In addition, wetlands in Delaware support the hunting,                                                           Estuarine        ................... Tidal wetlands in low-wave-energy environments
                           fur trapping, commercial and sport fishing, lumbering, and tourist                                                                                                where the salinity ofthe water is greater than 0.5
                           industries.                                                                                                                                                       part per thousand (ppt) and is variable owing to
                                                                                                                                                                                             evaporation and the mixing of seawater and
                                                                                                                                                                                             freshwater.
                           TYPES AND                   DISTRIBUTION                                                                                   Marine       ....................... Tidal wetlands that are exposed to waves and cur-
                                                                                                                                                                                             rents of the open ocean and to water having a
                                   Wetlands are lands transitional between terrestrial and deep-                                                                                             salinity greater than 30 ppt.
                           water habitats where the water table usually is at or near the land
                           surface or the land is covered by shallow water (Cowardin and oth-                                                                 Palustrine wetlands are the most abundant wetlands in Dela-
                           ers, 1979). The distribution of wetlands and deepwater habitats in                                                         ware, comprising 132,000 acres in 1983, or about 59 percent of the
                           Delaware is shown in figure 2A; only wetlands are discussed herein.                                                        wetland area in the State (Tiner, 1985). Palustrine wetlands are dis-
                                   Wetlands can be vegetated or nonvegetated and are classified                                                       tributed throughout the State in topographic depressions and in ri-
                           on the basis of their hydrology, vegetation, and substrate. In this                                                        parian zones along rivers and streams. In 1983, estuarine wetlands
                           summary, wetlands are classified according to the system proposed                                                          covered 89,800 acres in Delaware, or about 40 percent of the wet-
                           by Cowardin and others (1979), which is used by the U.S. Fish and                                                          land area in the State. Estuarine wetlands occur along the shores of
                           Wildlife Service (FWS) to map and inventory the Natioifs wetlands.                                                         Delaware Bay and the Delaware River and behind the barrier
                           At the most general level of the classification system, wetlands are                                                       beaches of the Atlantic Coast. Other types of wetland comprise less
                                                                                                                                                      than I percent of Delaware's welland area. In 1983, the State had
                                                                                                                                                      about 650 acres of riverine wetland, 140 acres of lacustrine wet-
                                                                                                                                                      land, and 540 acres of marine wetland (mostly beaches and sand-
                                                                                        ......                                                        bars along the Atlantic Coast).
                                                                                                                                                              Delaware is a small State, but it contains many different types
                                                                                                                                                      of wetlands. The plant composition of vegetated wetlands is deter-
                                                                                                                                                      mined by factors such as climate, soil type, ground-water and sur-
                                                                                                                                                      face-water chemistry, salinity, and the extent and duration of flood-
                                                                                                                                                      ing. The predominant vegetation or specific location of a Delaware
                                                                                                                                                      wetland frequently determines its common name. For example, in-
                                                                                                                                                      land bays are natural coastal features that contain both palustrine
                                                                                                                                                      and estuarine emergent wetlands, and such wetlands occur in
                                                                                                                                                      Rehoboth, Indian River, and Little Assawoman Bays. Palustrine and
                                     Figure 1. Estuarine wetlands on Cedar Creek at Slaughter                                                         estuarine emergent wetlands can be found in impoundments modi-
                                     Beach, Delaware. These are tidal wetlands typical of those                                                       fied by constructed levees and managed by water-control structures.
                                     found along Delaware Bay. (Photograph by Evelyn M. Maur-                                                         Salt and brackish marshes are predominantly estuarine emergent
                                     meyer Coastal and Estuarine Research, Inc.)                                                                      wetlands characterized by vegetation tolerant of brackish to salty








                             148        National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: STATE SUMMARIES



                             water; small scrub-shrub wetlands commonly are associated with                                                          The Delaware Department of Natural Resources and Environ-
                             the landward margins of salt marshes. Interdunal swales (dune                                                     mental Control has established five wetland categories for the State
                             slacks) are topographic depressions among sand dunes on the At-                                                   based on relative functions and values of the State's wetlands. Cat-
                             lantic Coast that contain palustrine emergent or scrub-shrub wet-                                                 egory I wetlands provide exceptional value or unique biotic assem-
                             lands. Palustrine forested wetlands in Delaware include Atlantic                                                  blages and include Delmarva bays, dune slacks, Atlantic white cedar
                             white cedar swamps, cypress swamps, and flood-plain forests, both                                                 swamps, and cypress swamps. Category Il wetlands are those gen-
                             tidal and nontidal. Delmarva bays (small, closed topographic depres-                                              erally considered permanently to seasonally wet or those that pro-
                             sions) commonly contain seasonally flooded palustrine emergent,                                                   vide significant habitat or biotic values. Category III wetlands in-
                             scrub-shrub, or forested wetlands. Delmarva bays and associated                                                   clude temporarily flooded wetlands and all wetlands not included in
                             wetlands also are known as whale wallows; loblollies; flatwoods                                                   another category. Category IV wetlands consist of farmed wetlands.
                             depressions; and intermittent, temporary, vernal, woodland, or                                                    Category V wetlands are all wetlands created from nonwetland areas
                             coastal-plain ponds.                                                                                              for purposes other than mitigation and include drainage ditches,
                                                                                                                                               farm ponds, stormwater-retention basins, and borrow pits.

                                  A
                                                -dY d-


                                          Churchmans          Wi
                                                Marsh


                                                 Mba     Ch




                         39, 30,
                                                                                                                                                                       C



                         Naxontown
                             Pond


                       Blackbird SF
                                                                                                                                     Piedmont
                                                                                                                                    Pro 'nce

                                                                                                                                  Fall Line






                                                                                                                                                                                                                        COASTAL PLAIN
                                                         0.0                                                                                                                                                            HYDROGEOMORPHIC
                                                                                                                                                                                                                        REGIONS

                                                                                                                                                                                                                        r_1 Poorly Drained Upland
                             as- 00'

                                                                                                                                                                                                                              Well-Drained Upland

                                                         4                              SJ@ghter Sewh                                                                                                                   r= Surficial Confined
                                                                                                                           PHYSIOGRAPHIC                                                                                I:= inner Coastal Plain
                                                                                                           The             DIVISIONS
                                                                                                           Great                                                                                                        MI Coastal Welland and
                                                                                                           Marsh                                                                                                                 Beach Region

                                                                                                                                                                                                                        C= Piedmont Province
                                                                                edden SF



                                                                                                                     8.Y
                                                                                                                                                       WETLANDS AND DEEPWATER HABITATS
                                                                                                                               ATIANTIC
                                                                                                                                                             ibution of wetlands and deepwater habitats
                                                                                                                                                       Distri
                                                                                                                                                          This map shows the approximate distribution of large
                                                                                                                     1@dl.. Riwl        OCFAN             wetlands in the State. Because of limitations of scale
                                                                                                                     B-Y                                  and source material, some wetlands are not shown

                                                                                                                                                                 Predominantly wetland

                                                                                                                                                                 Predominantly cleepwater habitat
                                                                                                                     B-Y                                F
                                                            75' 30'
                                             0           5     10        15 MILES
                                             1     1 -L-@@
                                             0     5     10 15 KILOMETERS


                             Figure 2. Wetland distribution in Delaware and physical features that control wetland distribution in the State. A, Distribution of wetlands
                             and deepwater habitats. B, Physiography. C, Hydrogeornorphic regions in the Coastal Plain of Delaware. (Sources: A, TE. Dahl, U.S. Fish
                             and Wildlife Service, unpub. data, 1991. B, Landforms data from EROS Data Center, divisions from Spo1jarik andjordan, 1966. C' Shedlock
                             and others, 1993.)








                                                                                               National Water Surnmary-Wetland Resources: DELAWARE               149


                HYDROLOGIC SETTING                                                           hummocky, has low relief, and has many seasonally flooded forested
                                                                                             wetlands and small, sluggish streams in poorly defined, low-gradi-
                     In Delaware, water in small, nontidal wetlands is supplied by           ent, shallowly incised valleys (fig. 3A) (Shedlock and others, 1993).
                direct precipitation, surface runofffrom precipitation, and localized,       About 43 percent of the region is forested, including the topographic
                shallow ground-water-flow systems recharged by precipitation.                depressions, which have poorly drained soils and typically contain
                Larger wetlands (tidal and nontidal) also can interact with regional         wetlands. Forests are interspersed with agricultural fields that are
                ground-water-flow systems. The primary source of water in tidal              in areas of higher elevation than the forests. The water table in this
                wetlands is tidal inundation, although runoff and ground-water dis-          region is shallow and has a relatively large seasonal fluctuation.
                charge can be important secondary sources. Water from surface                Local ground-water-flow patterns are directly affected by the depth
                runoff can collect in topographic lows, where ground water com-              of the water table and can differ with seasonal precipitation, even
                monly discharges after periods of greater-than-normal precipitation.         to the extent of changing direction, so that wetlands where ground
                These hydrologic conditions are conducive to the formation and               water is discharged in wet periods can become areas ofground-water
                maintenance of wetlands.                                                     recharge during dry periods (Phillips and Shedlock, 1993). Typical
                     Abundant precipitation (an annual average of 43 inches)                 wetlands in this region are seasonally saturated, forested wetlands.
                (Simmons, 1986) and extensive tidal zones in Delaware Bay and the            Examples include the wetlands in Redden State Forest, which have
                Atlantic Ocean provide ample water for wetlands in Delaware. Fluc-           poorly defined topographic boundaries (typical of the southern part
                tuations in local precipitation and evapotranspiration rates combine         of this region), and the small wetlands in Blackbird State Forest,
                with local differences in geology, topography, soil characteristics,         which are contained within Delmarva bays (typical of the northern
                and tides to create transient or seasonal changes in the local inter-        part of this region).
                actions ofgrourid water and surface water in wetlands (Winter, 1992;              The Well-Drained Upland occurs in a north-south trending
                Phillips and Shedlock, 1993). In general, mid-October to early April         band in eastern Delaware and in an area in the southern part of the
                (nongrowing season) is a period of ground-water recharge, with high          State around the headwaters of the Nanticoke River. This region is
                rates of precipitation and low rates of evapotranspiration. Mid-April        flat to gently rolling and has higher relief than the Poorly Drained
                to mid-October (growing season) is characterized by high rates of            Upland (fig. 3A). Streams are deeply incised, particularly tidal
                evapotranspiration and declining water levels (Johnston, 1973).              streams and their tributaries. About 28 percent of the Well-Drained
                     Delaware is in two physiographic provinces: the Coastal Plain           Upland is forested, primarily in riparian (streamside) zones, which
                and the Piedmont Province (fig. 2B). Geology, topography, and soils          include most of the wetlands in the region. The rest of the region is
                in the two provinces differ considerably; the types and distribution         covered by agricultural fields. Typical wetlands in the region include
                of wetlands in each province reflect this difference. Figure 3A - 3C         the palustrine forested wetlands along the Nanticoke RiveL
                is a generalization of wetland hydrology in Delaware.                             The Coastal Wetland and Beach region extends southward
                     Coastal Plain. -Ninety-three percent of Delaware, including             along the coast of Delaware from the Delaware River to the Dela-
                more than 94 percent of its wetland area, is in the Coastal Plain.           ware-Maryland border. This region is very flat and has dunes along
                All of the estuarine wetlands in the State are in this relatively flat       the Atlantic Coast (fig. 3A). The surficial. aquifer is composed of a
                province (Tiner, 1987), which rises from below sea level only to             variety of sediments that were deposited in several coastal settings,
                about 100 feet above sea level. The Coastal Plain is underlain by an         including beach, dune, and tidal marsh. The water table is gener-
                extensive and locally complex surficial aquifer that has a wide range        ally within a few feet of the land surface because of geohydrologic
                of depth, porosity, and permeability (Andres, 1987; Talley, 1987).           conditions and because the land-surface altitude is near sea level.
                Wetlands in the Coastal Plain generally intersect the surficial aqui-        Wetlands in this region have complex hydrology because of the
                fer.                                                                         geologic setting and because of the interactions between tides and
                     Coastal Plain wetlands are supported by precipitation, surface          ground-water discharge. Extensive wetlands in low-lying areas form
                runoff, flooding from streams, and ground-water discharge. Re-               as shallow embayments, salt marshes, and tidal and nontidal fresh-
                charge of the ground-water system in the Coastal Plain is mainly             water marshes and swamps. Examples of wetlands in the Coastal
                by infiltration of precipitation in interstream areas (Heath, 1984),         Weiland and Beach region include the large marshes in Indian River
                and discharge results from evapotranspiration and by seepage to              Bay, the Great Marsh (an extensive tidal marsh along Delaware Bay),
                streams, estuaries, wells, ditches, and the ocean. Both local and            and the freshwater and brackish tidal marshes along Blackbird
                regional ground-water flow may help sustain wetlands, especially             Creek.
                in low-lying areas near the coast, which contain extensive, mainly                The Surficial Confined region occupies two small areas of
                emergent wetlands. Forested wetlands occur primarily in bottom               southern Delaware. The landscape is flat, except for a number of
                lands along stream channels, especially in headwater areas. The              low, sandy ridges (relict dunes) that rise above their surroundings
                width of these forested wetlands in streamside and upland areas              (fig. 3B). This region is physiographically similar to the Poorly
                commonly has been reduced by ditching and the conversion of land             Drained Upland. Geohydrologic conditions in the upper sand unit
                to agricultural use.                                                         of the aquifer are the cause of the poor drainage conditions and
                     Regional differences in the configuration and geohydrologic             widespread presence of wetlands in the Surficial Confined region
                properties of sedimentary deposits in the Coastal Plain are reflected        (Shedlock and others, 1993). Extensively ditched agricultural lands
                by differences in topography, soils, degree of stream incision, the          have been converted from former wetland. About 55 percent of the
                configuration of the water table, and the paths of ground-water flow.        area in this region is still in large tracts of woodlands that occur in
                These characteristics, which affect the distribution of wetlands in          uplands between streams and in wetlands in riparian zones. Ex-
                the landscape, have been used to divide the Coastal Plain on the             amples of wetlands in the Surficial Confined region include the
                Delmarva Peninsula into hydrogeomorphic regions (Shedlock and                remnant of a large cypress swamp located east of Gumboro and the
                others, 1993). In Delaware, there are five hydrogeomorphic regions           forested wetlands along the Pocomoke River.
                (fig. 2C): the Poorly Drained Upland, the Well-Drained Upland, the                The Inner Coastal Plain is in northern Delaware. There is con-
                Surficial Confined, the Inner Coastal Plain, and the Coastal Wet-            siderable topographic relief in this region, and streams are well in-
                land and Beach. Each of these regions contains wetlands.                     cised in their lower reaches (fig. 3C). Land use in this region is
                     The Poorly Drained Upland lies along the drainage divide sepa-          heterogeneous. There has been considerable development of the
                rating the Chesapeake Bay drainage basin to the west from the drain-         northeastern section, which is mostly urban. The northwestern sec-
                age basins of Delaware Bay and the Atlantic Ocean. This region is            tion of the region is forested, and the southern section has mixed








                            150         National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: STATE SUMMARIES



                            agricultural and residential usage. Wetlands in the Inner Coastal                                             about 450 feet. The Piedmont Province is underlain by folded and
                            Plain occur in riparian zones, especially in the tidal reaches of the                                         faulted igneous and metamorphic bedrock overlain by a regolith of
                            Christina River, in forested areas, and in small, discontinuous ar-                                           variable thickness. Regolith, which underlies the land surface nearly
                            eas. Examples of wetlands in the region include Churchmarfs Marsh,                                            everywhere in this province, is a layer of unconsolidated, mostly
                            a tidal emergent wetland; Nonesuch Creek Marsh, an emergent                                                   fine-grained material composed of fragmental, weathered bedrock
                            wetland whose tidal flow is restricted by tide gates; and the small,                                          and alluvium overlying unweathered bedrock. Wetlands in the Pied-
                            nontidal, palustrine wetlands around Noxontown Pond.                                                          mont Province occur along riparian valleys and other low areas of
                                   Piedmont Province.-The Piedmont Province occupies the                                                  the ground surface, which commonly occur over fracture zones in
                            northern 6 percent of the State and contains only 2 percent of                                                the bedrock. Water is more likely to collect and be discharged in
                            Delaware's total wetland area (Tiner and Finn, 1986). The gently                                              these depressions than in other areas because fracture zones are
                            rolling hills of this province range in altitude from near sea level to                                       major pathways of ground-water movement (Heath, 1984).



                                A. Poorly Drained Upland, Well-Drained Upland, and Coastal Wetland and Beach

                                                 POORLY DRAINED UPLAND
                                  PALUSTRINE WETLAND                PALUSTRINE WETLANDS
                                                                                                                 WELL DRAINED UPLAND
                                                                                                                      RIVERINE WETLANDS


                                                                                             "R                                                                               COASTAL WETLAND AND BEACH
                                                                                                                                                                ESTUARINE WETLAND                      ESTUARINE WETLAND

                             -------               -- - -- ----- -------- --



                                                                                       aquifer                                                   ------


                                                                                                                                                                                                          UL >07@1 11 if
                                                                          '@V
                                                                                                                                                                                                             Saltwater
                                                                                                                                                                            Freshwater
                                                                                                                                                                                                                     Estuarine deposits


                                B.  Surficiat Confined region                                                                                                                               EXPLANATION
                                                                                                                                                                    Generalized direction of                 C@ Scrub-shrub vegetation
                                PALUSTRINE WETLANDS                             PALUSTRINE WETLANDS                                                                   ground-water flow

                                RIVERINE WETLAND                                  RIVERINE WETLAND                            RIVERINE WETLAND                      Average water table
                                     r-1                                                                                        I                I                                                         f Forest vegetation
                                                                                                                                                                    Water table in Poorly Drained
                                     is                                                    E
                                                                                                                                                                      Upland in wart season
                                                                                           2                                              1                                                                 11@1/lv Emergent vegetation
                             ---- - ---- ---                                                                                              R
                                                                                                                                          rc                        Water table in Poorly Drained
                                            Sand a                                                    ---------------                                                 Upland in dry season                @$ff# Farmed crops
                                                       or                                                                                                           Direction of ground-water              @ref;@@ Submersed aquatic
                                              uppe it)

                                                                                                                                                                      flow in Poorly Drained                          vegetation
                                                                                                                           Sand aquifer (upper unit)                  Upland in wet season
                                                                                                                                                                                                                    Channel-f.11 sediments
                                                                                                                                                                    Direction of ground-water
                                                                                                                                                                      flow in Poorly Drained                        Regolith
                                                                       Sand aquifer                                                                                   Upland in dry season
                                                                       (lower unit)                                                                                                                        -----    Contact between fresh-
                                                                                                                                                                                                                      water and saltwater

                                                                                                                                                                             Nolte: Vertical scale greatly exaggerated

                                C. Piedmont Province and Inner Coastal Plain

                                RIVERINE WETLAND
                                                       PIEDMONT PROVINCE                                        INNER COASTAL PLAIN
                                   PALUSTRINE WETLANDS
                                                                                PALUSTRINE WETLANDS


                                                                               ESTUARINE WETLAND                       RIVERINE WETLANDS



                                                                                                                      2



                                                                                         U
                                                                                                                          - ----- --                         Figure 3. Geohydrologic setting of wetlands in
                                                                                                                                                             Delaware. A, Poorly Drained Upland, Well-Drained
                                                                                                                                               Send
                                    Fractured bedrock                                                                                         aquifer        Upland, and Coastal Wetland and Beach. B, Surficial
                                                                                                                 u fe             7                          Confined region. C, Piedmont Province and inner
                                                                                                                                                             Coastal Plain.








                                                                                                                        National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: DELAWARE                               151



                           Recharge of the ground-water system in the Piedmont Prov-                                 of the Clean Water Act is the most often-used Federal legislation
                     ince is by infiltration of precipitation, mostly in the uplands (Heath,                         protecting wetlands. Under section 404 provisions, the Corps issues
                     1984); however, most precipitation in this province is transported                              permits regulating the discharge of dredged or fill material into
                     to surface depressions and streams by overland runoff. In forested                              wetlands. Permits are subject to review and possible veto by the U.S.
                     areas, water seeps into the soil layer and moves through it laterally                           Environmental Protection Agency, and the Fws has review and ad-
                     to discharge into streams and, by evapotranspiration, into the atmo-                            visory roles. Section 401 of the Clean Water Act grants to States
                     sphere. Some water moves below the soil zone to the water table in                              and eligible Indian Tribes the authority to approve, apply conditions
                     the regolith. The water seeps from the regolith into the underlying                             to, or deny section 404 permit applications on the basis of a pro-
                     bedrock or discharges to surface-water bodies (fig. 3C). Much of                                posed activity's probable effects on the water quality of a wetland.
                     the ground water available to wetlands in this region is stored in the                                Most farming, ranching, and silviculture activities are not sub-
                     regolith (Metzgar, 1973).                                                                       ject to section 404 regulation. However, the "Swampbuster" provi-
                           Types of wetlands in the Piedmont Province include flood-plain                            sion of the 1985 Food Security Act and amendments in the 1990
                     emergent marshes, seeps, and excavated farm ponds. Notable among                                Food, Agriculture, Conservation, and Trade Act discourage (through
                     wetlands in this province are the forested wetlands along Brandy-                               financial disincentives) the draining, filling, or other alteration of
                     wine Creek.                                                                                     wetlands for agricultural use. The law allows exemptions from pen-
                                                                                                                     alties in some cases, especially if the farmer agrees to restore the
                     TRENDS                                                                                          altered wetland or other wetlands that have been converted to agri-
                                                                                                                     cultural use. The Wetlands Reserve Program of the 1990 Food,
                           In the   1780's, about 480,000 acres (36 percent) of Delaware                             Agriculture, Conservation, and Trade Act authorizes the Federal
                     was wetland (Dahl, 1990). By the mid-1 980's, 223,000 wetland acres                             Government to purchase conservation easements from landowners
                     remained-a loss of about 54 percent since the 1780's. The esti-                                 who agree to protect or restore wetlands. The Consolidated Farm
                     mated annual loss of all types of wetland between 1955 and 1981                                 Service Agency (formerly the Agricultural Stabilization and Con-
                     was 1,600 acres (Tiner, 1987). Both human activities that adversely                             servation Service) administers the Swampbuster provisions and Wet-
                     affect water quality and natural phenomena have contributed to                                  lands Reserve Program. The Natural Resources Conservation Ser-
                     widespread wetland loss and degradation.                                                        vice (formerly the Soil Conservation Service) determines compli-
                           Major causes of vegetated nontidal wetland loss have been                                 ance with Swampbuster provisions and assists farmers in the iden-
                     channelization and ditching (about 55 percent), direct conversion                               tification of wetlands and in the development of wetland protection,
                     to agriculture (28 percent), urbanization (12 percent), and pond                                restoration, or creation plans.
                     creation (5 percent) (Tiner, 1987). Major causes of vegetated tidaJ                                   The 1986 Emergency Wetlands Resources Act and the 1972
                     wetland loss have been urbanization (63 percent), inundation by                                 Coastal Zone Management Act and amendments encourage wetland
                     submersion, dredging, or impoundment (24 percent), and pond cre-
                     ation (6 percent). Small areas of wetland have been formed in re-                               Table 1. Selected wetland-related activities of government
                     cent times, especially by inadvertent flooding during road construc-                            agencies and private organizations in Delaware, 1993
                     tion, by pond construction and, most recently, by the establishment                             [Source: Classification of activities is generalized from information provided
                     of compensatory wetland-mitigation sites. Properly managed shal-                                    by agencies and organizations. *, agency or organization participates in
                     low ponds and impoundments do not usually result in welland losses                                  wetiand-related activity; ..., agency or organization does not participate in
                     but rather in conversions from drier to wetter types of wetlands; they                              wetiand-related activity. MAN, management; REG, regulation; R&C, resto-
                     can even yield net increases in wetland value with the change in                                    ration and creation; LAN, land acquisition; R&D, research and data collec-
                     function. New wetlands also have formed on washover fans and flood                                  tion; D&I, delineation and inventoryl
                     tidal deltas along coastal areas as well as on former upland areas
                     inundated by rising sea levels.
                           Implementation of the 1973 State Wetlands Act and the 1972                                Agency or organization
                     Federal Clean Water Act markedly reduced the rate of human-caused                               FEDERAL
                     tidal wetland loss. The estimated annual tidal wetland loss between                             Department of Agriculture
                     1954 and 1973 was 444 acres (Lesser, 1971); between 1973 and                                       Consolidated Farm Service Agency      ...........................
                                                                                                                        Natural Resources Conservation Service      ................
                     1979 the estimated annual rate of tidal-wetland loss was 20 acres                               Department of Commerce
                     (Hardisky and Klemas, 1983). Recent rates of nontidal-wetland loss                                 National Oceanic and
                     have not been accurately quantified.                                                               Atmospheric Administration    .....................  .................. ...
                                                                                                                     Department of Defense
                                                                                                                        Army Corps of Engineers       ...........................  ..................
                     CONSERVATION                                                                                    Department of the Interior
                                                                                                                        Fish and Wildlife Service     ..............................................
                           Many government agencies and private organizations partici-                                  Geological Survey   .......................................................... ... ...
                     pate in wetland conservation in Delaware. The most active agencies                                 National Biological Service   ......................................... ... ...
                     and organizations and some of their activities are listed in table 1.                              National Park Service         ...................................................0
                           Federal wetland activities. -Development activities in Dela-                              Environmental Protection Agency      .................................. ...
                                                                                                                     STATE
                     ware wetlands are regulated by several Federal statutory prohibi-                               Delaware Geological Survey       ........................................... ... ...
                     tions and incentives that are intended to slow wetland losses. Some                             Department of Natural Resources and
                     of the more important of these are contained in the 1899 Rivers arid                            Environmental Control    .......................................................
                     Harbors Act; the 1972 Clean Water Act and amendments; the 1985                                  State Highway Administration     ......................................... ... ...
                     Food Security Act; the 1990 Food, Agriculture, Conservation, and                                University of Delaware
                     Trade Act; the 1986 Emergency Wetlands Resources Act; and the                                      College of Marine Studies     ............................................
                                                                                                                     SOME COUNTY AND LOCAL GOVERNMENTS                .............
                     1972 Coastal Zone Management Act.                                                               PRIVATE ORGANIZATIONS
                           Section 10 of the Rivers and Harbors Act gives the U.S. Army                              The Nature Conservancy           ..................................................
                     Corps of Engineers (Corps) authority to regulate certain activities                             Delaware Wild Lands, Inc         . ...............................................
                     in navigable waters. Regulated activities include diking, deepening,                            Delaware Nature Society          ....................... ..................
                     filling, excavating, and placing of structures. The related section 404                         Ducks Unlimited    ..................................................................000








                     152      National Water Surnmary-Wetland Resources: STATE SUMMARIES



                     protection through funding incentives. The Emergency Wetland                              niques and results: Environmental Management, v. 7, no. 4, p. 339-
                     Resources Act requires States to address wetland protection in their                      344.
                     Statewide Comprehensive Outdoor Recreation Plans to qualify for                     Heath, R.C., 1984, Ground-water regions of the United States: U.S. Geo-
                     Federal funding for State recreational land; the National Park Ser-                       logical Survey Water-Supply Paper 2242, 78 p.
                     vice provides guidance to States in developing the wetland compo-                   Johnston, R.H., 1973, Hydrology of the Columbia (Pleistocene) deposits
                                                                                                               of Delaware: Delaware Geological Survey Bulletin 14, 78 p.
                     nent of their plans. Coastal States that adopt coastal-zone manage                  Lesser, C.A., 1971, Memorandum to Secretary Austin N. Heller from
                     ment programs and plans approved by the National Oceanic and                              Charles Lesser RE 1971 wetland inventory (corrected): Dover, Del.,
                     Atmospheric Administration are eligible for Federal funding and                           Department of Natural Resources and Environmental Control, 3 p.
                     technical assistance through the Coastal Zone Management Act.                       Metzgar, R.G., 1973, Wetlands in Maryland: Maryland Department of State
                           State wetland activities. -Delaware's State Wetlands Act, en-                       Planning Publication 157, 80 p.
                     acted in 1973, protects coastal tidal wetlands, including some fresh-               Phillips, P.J., and Shedlock, R.J., 1993, Hydrology and chemistry of ground-
                     water wetlands along tidal rivers, and requires a permit from the                         water and seasonal ponds in the Atlantic Coastal Plain in Delaware,
                     Department of Natural Resources and Environmental Control for                             U.S.A.: Journal of Hydrology, v. 141, p. 157 -178.
                     many activities in these wetlands. A proposed freshwater (nontidal)                 Shedlock, R.J., Hamilton, P.A., Denver, J.M., and Phillips, P.J., 1993,
                                                                                                               Multiscale approach to regional ground-water quality assessment of
                     wetlands statute would establish a State-run nontidal-wetiands regu-                      the Delmarva Peninsula, in Alley, W.M., ed., Multiscale approach to
                     latory program based on five categories of wetlands. This would be                        regional ground-water quality assessment: New York, Van Nostrand
                     part of a comprehensive statewide management program and is in-                           Reinhold & Co., p. 563-587.
                     tended to result in the assumption of authority for the Federal sec-                Simmons, R.H., 1986, Delaware surface-water resources, in U.S. Geologi-
                     tion 404 program by the State. The Department ofNatural Resources                         cal Survey, National water summary 1985-Hydrologic events and
                     and Environmental Control also administers section 401 of the                             surface-water resources: U.S. Geological Survey WateT-Supply Paper
                     Federal Clean Water Act, providing regulatory control in wetland                          2300, p. 181-186.
                     areas in terms of effects on surface-water-quality standards. The                   SpoIjaric, Nenad, and Jordan, R.R., 1966, Generalized geologic map of
                                                                                                               Delaware: Newark, Del., Delaware Geological Survey map, scale
                     coastal-zone management program in Delaware bars the develop-                             1:296,075.
                     ment of heavy manufacturing industry within 2 miles of the State's                  Talley, J.H., 1987, Geohydrology of the southern coastal area: Delaware
                     coastline where wetlands are abundant, while allowing the devel-                          Geological Survey Hydrologic Map Series no. 7, scale 1:24,000.
                     opment of light industry and the expansion of preexisting industry                  Tiner, R.W., 1985, Wetlands of Delaware: Newton Corner, Mass., U.S. Fish
                     under a permit system. Permits are also required for substantial                          and Wildlife Service and Delaware Department of Natural Resources
                     changes to the character of beach or open-water areas. The Sub-                           and Environmental Control cooperative publication, 77 p.
                     aqueous Lands Act and the Beach Preservation Act regulate activi-                   -1987, Mid-Atlantic wetlands-A disappearing natural treasure:
                     ties in tidal and nontidal subaqueous navigable waters and within                         Newton Corner, Mass., U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service and U.S. En-
                     the coastal dune systems along the Atlantic Ocean and Delaware Bay.                       vironmental Protection Agency cooperative publication, 28 p.
                           Private wetland activities. -Private organizations with inter-                Tiner, R.W., and Finn, J.T., 1986, Status and recent trends of wetlands in
                                                                                                               five mid-Atlantic states -Delaware, Maryland, Pennsylvania, Vir-
                     ests in wetlands in Delaware are active in the development of regu-                       ginia, and West Virginia: Newton Corner, Mass., U.S. Fish and Wild-
                     lations, policy planning, advocacy, land acquisition and manage-                          life Service, National Wetlands Inventory Project technical report,
                     ment, environmental education, and research. A few of the many                            40 p.
                     such organizations in the State are The Nature Conservancy, the                     Winter, T.C., 1992, A physiographic and climatic framework for hydrologic
                     Delaware Nature Society, Delaware Wild Lands, Inc., the Sierra                            studies of wetlands, in Robarts, R.D., and Bothwell, M.L., eds., Pro-
                     Club, Ducks Unlimited, and the Brandywine Conservancy.                                    ceedings of the Symposium on Aquatic Ecosystems in Semi-Arid
                                                                                                               Regions, 1990: Saskatoon, Saskatchewan, Environment Canada, The
                                                                                                               National Hydrology Research Institute Symposium Series no. 7,
                     References Cited                                                                          p. 127-147,
                     Andres, A.S., 1987, Geohydrology of the northern coastal area, Delaware:
                           Delaware Geological Survey Hydrologic Map Series no. 5, scale                 FOR ADDITIONAL INFORMATION: District Chief, U.S. Geological
                           1:24,000.                                                                     Survey, 208 Carroll Building, 8600 LaSalle Road, Towson, MD 21286;
                     Cowardin, L.M., Carter, Virginia, Golet, F.C., and LaRoe, E.T., 1979, Clas-         Regional Weiland Coordinator, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 300 Westgate
                           sification of wetlands and deepwater habitats of the United States: U.S.      Center Drive, Hadley, MA 01035
                           Fish and Wildlife Service Report FWS/OBS - 79/31, 131 p.
                     Dahl, T.E., 1990, Wetlands -Losses in the United States, 1780's to 1980's:
                           Washington, D.C., U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Report to Congress,                                         Prepared by
                           13 p.                                                                                                     Martha A. Hayes,
                     Hardisky, M.A., and Klemas, Vytautas, 1983, Tidal wetlands natural and                                       U.S. Geological Survey
                           human-made changes from 1973 to 1979 in Delaware- Mapping tech-


















                                                                       U.S. Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper 2425







                                                                                                                                                             National Water Summary-Wetland Resources 153
                                                                                                                                                                                                Florida
                                                                                                                                                                Wetland Resources
                        Wands covered more than one-half of Florida, approximately                                                 oyster, mullet, spotted seatrout, and red drum (Tiner, 1994; Palik
                        20.3 million acres, in predevelopment times. Although only about                                           and Kunneke, 1984).
                        one-half of the original wetlands remain, Florida still has more                                                  In the past, wetlands were considered obstacles to the devel-
                        wetlands than any of the other 47 conterminous States (Dahl, 1990).                                        opment of the State. Widespread destruction and degradation of
                        Wetlands in Florida are diverse and include types that are rare in                                         wetlands, however, resulted in drastic losses of wildlife, water short-
                        other States, such as mangrove swamps and hydric hammocks. As-                                             ages, and water-quality problems (Frayer and Hefner, 199 1). Today,
                        sociations of warm-temperate and subtropical wetlands not found                                            Florida's wetlands are considered important resources and are pro-
                        elsewhere are common in Florida, a prime example being the unique                                          tected by laws that preserve their esthetic and ecological value.
                        complex of extensive sawgrass marshes and other wetlands known
                        as The Everglades (fig. 1).                                                                                TYPES AND DISTRIBUTION
                               Florida's wetlands have considerable economic and environ-
                        mental value. In river basins, flood-plain wetlands reduce down-                                                  Wetlands are lands transitional between terrestrial and deep-
                        stream flood damages by retaining overflows in backwater ponds                                             water habitats where the water table usually is at or near the land
                        and depressions. Organic soils in many wetlands can store large                                            surface or the land is covered by shallow water (Cowardin and oth-
                        quantities of water and release it slowly to plants during drought.                                        ers, 1979). The distribution of wetlands and deepwater habitats in
                        Wetlands can filter out and accumulate pollutants from surface                                             Florida is shown in figure 2A; only wetlands are discussed herein.
                        water-some cypress depressions in Florida have been used spe-                                                     Wetlands can be vegetated or nonvegetated and are classified
                        cifically for wastewater treatment (Dierberg and Brezonik, 1984).                                          on the basis of their hydrology, vegetation, and substrate. In this
                        Many rare or endangered plant and animal species, such as the in-                                          summary, wetlands are classified according to the system proposed
                        sectivorous white-top pitcherplant and the snail kite, live in Florida                                     by Cowardin and others (1979), which is used by the U.S. Fish and
                        wetlands. Wetlands provide breeding and feeding grounds for resi-                                          Wildlife Service (FWS) to map and inventory the Nation's wetlands.
                        dent and migratory birds. Coastal wetlands such as salt marshes,                                           At the most general level of the classification system, wetlands are
                        mangrove swamps, and seagrass beds are nursery areas for sea tur-                                          grouped into five ecological systems: Palustrine, Lacustrine, Riv-
                        tles and economically important species such as shrimp, blue crab,                                         erine, Estuarine, and Marine. The Palustrine System includes only
                                                                                                                                   wetlands, whereas the other systems comprise wetlands and
                                                                                                                                   deepwater habitats. Wetlands of the systems that occur in Florida
                                                                                                                                   are described below.



                                                                                                                                   System                                               Wetland description
                                                                                                  T                                Palustrine     .................. Nontidal and tidal-freshwater wetlands in which
                                                                                                                                                                     vegetation is predominantly trees (forestedwet-
                        77Z @@aW                                                                '1,0_1 'IV                                                           lands); shrubs (scrub-sh rub wetlands); persistent
                                                                                                                                                                     or nonpersistent emergent, erect, rooted herba-
                                                                                                                                                                     ceous plants (persistent- and nonpersistent-
                                                                                                                                                                     emergent wetlands); or submersed and (or)
                                                                                                                                                                     floating plants (aquatic beds). Also, intermit-
                                                                                                                                                                     tently to permanently flooded open-water bod-
                                                                                                                                                                     ies of less than 20 acres in which water is less
                                                                                                                                                                     than 6.6 feet deep.
                                                                                                                                   Lacustrine      ................. Nonticial and tidal-freshwater wetlands within an
                                                                                                                                                                     intermittently to permanently flooded lake or
                                                                                                                                                                     reservoir larger than 20 acres and (or) deeper
                                                                                                                                                                     than 6.6 feet. Vegetation, when present, is pre-
                                                                                                                                                                     dominantly noripersistent emergent plants (non-
                                                                                                                                                                     persistent-emergent wetlands), or submersed
                                                                                                                                                                     and (or) floating plants (aquatic beds), or both.
                                                                                                                                   Riverine     ..................... Nontidal and tidal-freshwater wetlands within a
                                                                                                                                                                     channel. Vegetation, when present, is same as
                                                                                                                                                                     in the Lacustrine System.
                                                                                                                                   Estuarine      ................... Tidal wetlands in low-wave-energy environments
                                                                                                                                                                     wherethe salinityof thewater is greaterthan 0.5
                                                                                                                                                                     part perthousand (ppt) and is variable owing to
                                                                                                                                                                     evaporation and the mixing of seawater and
                                                                                                                                                                     freshwater.

                                                                                                                                   Marine     ....................... Tidal wetlands that are exposed to waves and cur-
                                                                                                                                                                     rents of the open ocean and to water having a
                                                                                                                                                                     salinity greater than 30 ppt.


                                                                                                                                          Lacustrine and riverine wetlands are not addressed in this re-
                                                                                                                                   port. They constitute a relatively small part of Florida's wetlands
                                                                                                                                   and were not distinguished from deepwater habitats by the FWS
                        Figure 1. Sawgrass marsh and tree islands in the Everglades-Big                                            National Wetlands Inventory (Frayer and Hefner, 1991).
                        Cypress region of southern Florida. (Photograph courtesy of Florida                                               Palustrine System.-Eighty-seven percent of Florida's wetlands
                        State Archives.)                                                                                           are in the Palustrine System. Palustrine forested wetlands cover 5.5








                   154      National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: STATE SUMMARIES



                   million acres, nearly one-half the acreage of all Florida wetlands             tion. In many areas, numerous seasonal ponds, small streams, and
                   (Frayer and Hefner, 1991). These wetlands, which are widely dis-               other wetlands are embedded within the larger pine-flatwoods
                   tributed throughout the State, fringe rivers and lakes, line small             matrix. In wet flatwoods, soils can remain saturated through much
                   drainages and sloughs, form in small depressions and ponds, and                of the rainy season, and there can be standing water for I to 2 months
                   cover wet flatwoods. The predominant trees can be pines, hard-                 every year. During the dry season, however, high evapotranspira-
                   woods, or cypress.                                                             tion from sandy soils and an impermeable hardpan preventing up-
                         Pine flatwoods, the most common ecological community in                  ward movement of ground water result in dry conditions that can
                   Florida, are distributed statewide. These communities are on flat              persist for months (Abrahamson and Hartnett, 1990).
                   land and have poorly drained, acidic, sandy soils that commonly are                 Palustrine forested wetlands in which mixed hardwoods pre-
                   underlain by a clay or organic hardpan. Pine flatwoods can be a                dominate cover about 2 million acres of Florida (Kautz, 199 1) and
                   mixture of both wetland and upland communities that are difficult              comprise many wetland types. Bottom-land hardwood forests on
                   to delineate. Discrepancies between present-day estimates of 8.2 and           river flood plains are most common in the northern part of the State,
                   11.0 million acres of remaining wetlands in Florida (Frayer and                reaching their greatest extent in the alluvial flood plains of the pan-
                   Hefner, 1991; Kautz, 1991) might be due primarily to difficulties              handle (Wharton and others, 1977). Tree diversity can be high in
                   inherent in distinguishing wet from dry flatwoods. Wet flatwoods               alluvial flood plains: a study of the flood-plain forest bordering the
                   can grade into dry flatwoods with imperceptible changes in eleva-              Apalachicola River (Leitman and others, 1984) recorded 47 tree


                     A



                                                                                     84'


                                                                                                                                      onvitle



                                                                                                                                         30'






                                                                                      Big Rend


                     WETLANDS AND DEEPWATER HABITATS
                     Distribution of wetlands and deepwater habitats-                                                                                               ATLANTIC
                        This map shows the approximate distribution of large
                        wetlands in the State. Because of limitations of scale                                                                                      OCEAN
                        and source material, some wetlands are not shown

                            Predominantly wetland                                                                       4,

                            Predominantly deepwater habitat                                                                                               28-


                                                                                                                       a





                                     Moder                                                                                                         wk@
                                          are                                                                                                      Ok@@





                                WAVEENERGY
                                Average breaker height-                                                                                                              26'
                                 In centimeters                                              a$            0     25      50 MILES
                                 Low        0-10                                                           i      I I
                                 Moderate 10-50                                                            0  25   50 KILOMETERS
                                 High      Above 50

                                                                                                 X







                   Figure 2.  Distribution of wetlands and deepwater habitats in Florida and physical and climatological features that control wetland distribu-
                   tion in the State. A, Distribution of wetlands and deepwater habitats. B, Wave height along the Florida coast. (Sources: A, TE. Dahl, U.S.
                   Fish and Wildlife Service, unpub, data, 1991. B, Carlton, 1977.)








                                                                                                 National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: FLORIDA            155



                species and 5 major tree communities. Blackwater streams, which             palms, and the endangered Florida panther (Grow, 1989). Cypress
                are common in Florida, are dark colored owing to the presence of            scrub is a drier community of stunted cypress found primarily in
                organic acids from decaying vegetation. The Suwannee River, which           southern Florida on nutrient-poor, calcium-carbonate-rich soils or
                has characteristics of both blackwater and spring-fed streams, has          shallow sand over limestone. Big Cypress National Preserve has
                an extensive flood-plain forest in its lower reaches. Bay swamps,           large areas of cypress scrub in which mature cypress trees usually
                black gum swamps, and other mixed-hardwood wetlands that form               are less than 20 feet tall.
                in depressions are common throughout Florida. These forested                     Palustrine emergent wetlands such as freshwater marshes and
                wetlands often are mixed with shrub bogs (scrub-shrub wetlands)             wet prairies cover 2.9 million acres of Florida (Frayer and Hefner,
                as in the Apalachicola National Forest and in Pinhook Swamp, the            1991). Freshwater marshes are concentrated in southern Florida,
                southern extension of the Okefenokee Swamp in Florida (Wharton              where about 1.6 million acres remained in 1973, including 624,000
                and others, 1977). Shrub bogs are depressional wetlands that have           acres of sawgrass marshes (Odum and Brown, 1977). Other major
                acidic, organic soils and that typically are dominated by titi,             marsh systems include those in the Kissimmee and St. Johns River
                gallberry, fetterbush, and other evergreen shrubs (U.S. Soil Con-           flood plains (Kushlan, 1990). Freshwater marshes are inundated
                servation Service, 1989). Hydric hammocks, which form on poorly             most of the year, have thick accumulations of organic materials, and
                drained soils or soils saturated by near-surface water tables and in        burn infrequently. Wet prairies usually are inundated for less than
                which evergreen oaks such as live oak and swamp laurel oak pre-             one-half of the year, have less organic accumulation, and burn more
                dominate, are rare outside Florida (Vince and others, 1989). Ex-            frequently--every 1-3 years if fuel is sufficient. Fires maintain both
                otic tree species such as mclaleuca have invaded wetlands in south-         wetland types by limiting the invasion of woody vegetation and
                ern Florida to such an extent that some authors consider wetlands           retarding the accumulation of organic matter (Kushlan, 1990).
                in which they are the predominant vegetation to belong to a distinct             Estuarine and Marine Systems.-Florida has about 1.4 mil-
                forested-wetland type (Wharton and others, 1977; Ewe], 1990).               lion acres of estuarine and marine intertidal wetlands along 1,200
                     Palustrine forested wetlands in which cypress predominates             miles of coastline. About 12 percent of Florida's wetlands are es-
                cover about 1.6 million acres in Florida (Kautz, 1991). Cypress             tuarine, and less than I percent are marine. Tides cycle terrestrial
                domes are small, isolated, depressional wetlands that have convex           sediments, nutrients, and detritus through coastal wetlands, mak-
                silhouettes when viewed from a distance. They are acidic, stillwater        ing them highly productive ecological communities (Florida Natu-
                swamps that have standing water at least part of the year, and many         ral Areas Inventory and Division of State Lands, 1990). The most
                have a permanent central pond. The Green Swamp in west-central              common coastal wetlands are salt marshes, mangrove swamps, and
                Florida has a high density of cypress domes in a pine-flatwoods             seagrass beds.
                matrix (McPherson, 1979). Large swamps in which cypress pre-                     Salt marshes are emergent wetlands that develop along low-
                dominates commonly ring lakes or line watercourses. Cypress                 wave-energy coastlines and in estuaries. Wave energy (fig. 2B),
                strands are linear cypress swamps along watercourses. Fakahatchee           salinity, frequency of inundation, and tidal range vary along the
                Strand State Preserve in southwestern Florida contains an outstand-         coasts, resulting in substantial differences in the areal extent and
                ing example of a cypress strand; the wetland harbors rare orchids,          plant-species composition of these    marshes. The most extensive


                                                                            C








                D
















                                                                                       TOPOGRAPHYAND
                                                                                        BATHYMETRY-
                                                                                       Interval is in feet

                DAYS BELOW FREEZING                                                         250
                                                                                            200
                -5 ---- Line of equal annual number of days in                              150
                       which temperature is 320 F or lower-                                 100
                       Dashed where approximately located.             2                    50
                       Interval is variable                                                 Sea level
                                                                                            60
                                                                                            120
                                                                                            300



                Figure 2. Continued. Distribution of wetlands and deepwater habitats in Florida and physical and cJimatological features that control
                wetland distribution in the State. C, Topography of Florida and bathymetry of adjacent offshore waters. 0, Average annual number of days in
                which temperature is 32'F or lower. (Sources: C, Fernald, 198 1. D, Conway and Liston, 1990.)









                    156    National Water Surnmary-Wetland Resources: STATE SUMMARIES



                    development of salt marshes occurs in the Big Bend region of the             northern Florida, but the difference is not as great as in southern
                    gulf coast (fig. 2A).                                                        Florida because of a secondary rainfall peak in February and March.
                         Mangrove swamps replace salt marshes along southern coastal             In adjacent States to the north, this secondary winter-spring peak
                    areas that generally are subject to low-energy waves. Mangroves are          is more pronounced and in some areas is the primary peak. Most of
                    salt-tolerant trees that colonize shallow, subtropical marine and es-        the drainage basins of the larger northern Florida rivers such as the
                    tuarine waters. Tropical storms commonly damage or destroy man-              Apalachicola, Choctawhatchee, Escambia, and Suwannee are in
                    groves before they reach their maximum height (Odurn and McIvor,             Georgia and Alabama. Therefore, rainfall patterns in those States
                    1990), and most mangrove swamps are classified as scrub-shrub                have a significant effect on the hydrology of these rivers and their
                    wetlands because the trees typically are less than 20 feet tall.             flood-plain wetlands. The broad flood plains of these rivers have
                         Seagrass beds are colonies of several species of rooted vascu-          topographic features and tree communities that have been shaped
                    lar plants that typically live totally submersed in saltwater. Most of       by wide fluctuations in river levels. During the annual flooding in
                    Florida's seagrass beds are in Florida Bay at the southern tip of the        late winter and early spring, water depths on the flood plain of 15-
                    State and in the Gulf of Mexico offshore from the Big Bend. In this          20 feet are not unusual. However, in the rest of the year, these flood
                    report, only the shallowest zone of seagrass communities, in which           plains are mostly dry except for ponds, depressions, and sloughs that
                    shoal grass predominates, are considered to be wetlands; extensive           retain water year round.
                    seagrass beds below the intertidal zone are considered to be in deep-             Southern Florida has a nearly freeze-free climate (fig. 2D).
                    water habitats.                                                              Wetlands along the southern coasts support plant species that gen-
                                                                                                 erally do not thrive in the cooler climate of northern Florida coasts
                    HYDROLOGIC SETTING                                                           (Odum and others, 1982). For example, mangroves are killed back
                                                                                                 by freezes, which are more common in northern Florida, and some
                         Many factors contribute to the abundance of wetlands in                 seagrass species are better adapted to the warm waters of the south-
                    Florida, the most important of which are the low, flat terrain and           ern coasts. Wetlands in southern Florida commonly are invaded by
                    plentiful rainfall. Most of the State's wetlands are in flat areas be-       nonnative tropical species that alter native-species associations; two
                    low 50 feet above sea level that extend from the coast inland for many       such nonnative species, melaleuca and Brazilian pepper, have be-
                    miles (fig. 2A and 2C). Runoff and drainage in these wetlands are            come predominant in many southern Florida wetlands. The near
                    slow as a result of the low relief. The flat landscape and the imper-        absence of frost in southern Florida that enables some tropical spe-
                    meable strata underlying wetland soils commonly result in lateral            cies to thrive also limits the distribution of some temperate wetland
                    flow of water on or near the land surface. Some wetlands are drained         species. Pond pine, several hollies, titis, some of the tupelos, many
                    by low-gradient stream systems, as in the upper St. Johns River              bottom-land hardwood tree species, and several species of marsh
                    basin, which has extensive freshwater marshes and where the aver-            plants grow only in the central and northern regions of the State.
                    age velocity of the river is only 0.3 foot per second (Heath and                 Early travelers to southern Florida encountered a vast fresh-
                    Conover, 198 1). Near the coast, water levels in freshwater wetlands         water marsh that covered most of the peninsula from Lake
                    along these streams are affected by tidal fluctuations. Close to the         Okeechobee south. This wetland, now known as The Everglades,
                    mouth of the streams, the transition from freshwater to saltwater            covered about 2.9 million acres and was predominantly peatland
                    causes major changes in the structure and composition of estuarine           covered by tall sawgrass growing in shallow water. Associated plant
                    wetlands (Florida Department of Natural Resources, 1988).                    communities included pond apple swamps south of the lake, sloughs
                         Except along the southeastern coast, the land slopes gradually          with aquatic vegetation, wet prairies, tree islands, and mangrove
                    into the Gulf of Mexico and Atlantic Ocean. The shallow water off-           swamps bordering Florida Bay. The Everglades was part of the larger
                    shore diminishes the energy of incoming waves, resulting in small,           Kissimmee-Lake Okeechobee-Everglades Basin, which extended
                    low-energy breakers onshore. Two areas on the gulf coast receive             as a single drainage basin from present-day Orlando to Florida Bay,
                    low-wave energy favorable to the development of tidal marshes,               about two-thirds the length of the Florida peninsula (fig. 3A). The
                    seagrass beds, and mangrove swamps (fig. 2B). The near-zero wave-            Kissimmee River meandered across a 2-mile-wide flood plain south
                    energy coastline from north of Tampa to St. Marks is a result of the         to Lake Okeechobee, a shallow water body of 470,000 acres. When
                    shallow offshore waters and a protected location in Florida's Big            the lake was full, water sometimes overflowed the southern rim into
                    Bend. One of few coastal areas in the world subject to so little wave        The Everglades. Water in The Everglades moved slowly to the south
                    action, this part of the coast has the second-largest area of seagrass       by sheet flow in what Douglas (1947) called the River of Grass.
                    beds in the Gulf of Mexico (Zieman and Zieman, 1989), large ar-              Much of the land was inundated during the rainy season in normal
                    eas of coastal marsh, and extensive hydric hammocks just landward            years, and, during years of heavy rains, all but the highest tree is-
                    of coastal salt marshes (Vince and others, 1989).                            lands were flooded. During floods, water moved with enough force
                         Rainfall in Florida averages 53 inches per year and is greatest         to cause tree islands to develop an alignment pattern parallel to the
                    during the warm season from June through, September. Southern                lines of surface-wateT flow (Parker, 1974). During the dry season,
                    Florida has a subtropical climate characterized by two seasons-              ground-water levels generally were close to the land surface, but
                    dry and rainy-rather than by the four seasons typical of temperate           during some years, severe drought lowered water levels well below
                    climates to the north. As a result, wetlands in southern Florida are         the land surface and fires swept over the land, burning vegetation
                    affected by greater extremes of hydrologic conditions than those in          and peat. Seasonally varying flows of freshwater from The Ever-
                    the rest of the State. Wet prairies, wet pine flatwoods, and scrub           glades into Florida Bay had an important influence on the salinity
                    cypress forests that are saturated or inundated in the rainy season          of the bay and contributed to the productivity of coastal wetlands
                    can be severely dehydrated in the dry season in late winter and early        and fisheries.
                    spring when rainfall is relatively low and temperatures and evapo-               Significant drainage of The Everglades began in the early
                    transpiration rates remain relatively high (Jordan, 1984).                   1880's and continued through the 1960's. By the late 1920's, five
                         Opposite conditions exist in northern Florida, where flooding           canals connected Lake Okeechobee to the Atlantic Ocean. During
                    and replenishment of water in swamps and flood plains is greatest            the hurricanes of 1926 and 1928, Lake Okeechobee overflowed,
                    in the late winter and early spring. Winter evapotranspiration is            killing thousands of people and destroying crops. In response to
                    substantially lower than that in southern Florida because tempera-           these disasters, a 38-foot-high dike was constructed around the
                    tures are near or below freezing on many days and much of the                southern shore of the lake, and canals were enlarged to increase
                    vegetation is dormant. Summer rainfall exceeds winter rainfall in            drainage (Blake, 1980). The Central and Southern Florida Flood








                                                                                                                  National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: FLORIDA                       157



                    Control Project of 1948 authorized construction of a complex drain-                    Everglades National Park, which was established in 1947 on 1.4
                    age and water-management system comprising canals, levees,                             million acres at the southwestern end of the drainage basin.
                    pumps, and control structures. Lake Okeechobee and three water-                              Alterations of The Everglades by drainage and development
                    conservation areas (WCAS; fig. 3B) became reservoirs for flood pro-                    have had severe environmental consequences. About 40 percent of
                    tection during the wet season and for agricultural irrigation and                      the water that originally flowed southward from Lake Okeechobee
                    recharge of ground water in urban wellfields during the dry season                     into The Everglades is now diverted westward to the Gulf of Mexico
                    (Klein and others, 1975). Most of the 800,000 acres of the Ever-                       by the Caloosahatchee Canal and eastward to the Atlantic Ocean
                    glades Agricultural Area was drained to grow sugar cane and other                      by the St. Lucie Canal (fig. 3B). Seawater intrusion into the surficial
                    crops. About 50 percent of the original Everglades was eliminated                      aquifer has occurred as far as 6 miles inland in some areas
                    by the early 1990's. The remaining 50 percent is preserved in WCA-                     (VanArman and others, 1984). Lowered water tables have resulted
                    I (Loxahatchee National Wildlife Refuge), wcA-2, WCA-3, and                            in oxidation of drained peat and damaging peat fires that have low-


                           83'                  82-                  81o                   80*                 79o



                                     Draina     Bashl,
                                           B   ndaryP-:



                    28'                                                                                                                                       0





                                                                                        St Lucie;?



                    27'

                                                tch
                                                                                             Predevelopment
                                                                                             Everglades
                                                                                             andassociated
                                                              Big
                                                                                             wetlands
                                                           Cypresi-
                    2V                                      Swamp
                                      no                                                               83*                  82o                  8V                    80,                 79'


                                                                                                                 Drain       asin
                                                                                                                           nda'y.


                    25o                                  FLORIDA SAY
                                                                                               28'



                       t


                           0     25       50  MILES                                                                                                                 S! Lucie R
                           i   I  I I    _J
                           0  25   50 KILOMETERS                                                                                                                      St Lucie Canal
                                                                                               27*
                                                                                                                                                                          Everglades
                                                                                                                               Cal     hatche"s                           Agricultural
                                             EXPLANATION                                                                       Canal,                                     Area (EAA)
                                              2   water Conservation Area (WCA)                           G1                                                              Loxabatchee
                                                    number                                                                                                                Krildlife Refuge
                                             ,P Direction of water flow                                                                     Big
                                                                                               26*                                          Cypr         3
                                                                                                                                            Present



                                                                                                                                                          V

                                                                                                                                                      des

                    Figure 3.    Drainage patterns and selected geographic
                    features in the Everglades-Lake Okeechobee-Kissimmee                       250 -                                               Park,.:'
                    River drainage basin before and after development. A,                                                           FLORIDA BAY
                    Predevelopment. B, Recent. (Sources: A, Parker, 1974;
                    Davis, 1943. B, South Florida Water Management District,
                    1992.)








                   158     National Water Surnmary-Wetland Resources: STATE SUMMARIES



                   ered the land surface more than 5 feet in some agricultural areas            enhance pine timber production. The rate of wetland losses for all
                   (Davis, 1943; Duplaix, 1990). Using the wCA's as reservoirs has re-          of Florida slowed to 26,000 acres annually between the mid-] 970's
                   sulted in conditions that are often too dry or too wet to maintain           and mid-1980's; losses due to agriculture still were greatest, and
                   natural communities (McPherson, 1973). South of Lake Okeecho-                losses to urbanization were second in importance (Frayer and
                   bee, populations of wood storks and other wading birds decreased             Hefner, 1991).
                   by almost 95 percent from 1870 to 1973 as a direct result of hydro-               Recent estimates of the wetland acreage remaining in Florida
                   logic alterations (Crowder, 1974; Kushlan and others, 1975). Drain-          differ by almost 3 million acres; most of the difference. is in the
                   age and land clearing have increased opportunities for exotic plants         forested-wetland category. Wetlands delineated in figure 2A and
                   such as melaleuca. to become established in dense stands that ex-            reported by the FWS total I I million acres (Frayer and Hefner, 199 1).
                   clude native species. Water pumped into canals from agricultural             The Florida Game and Fresh Water Fish Commission, using 1985-
                   lands can have high levels of phosphorus and other nutrients. As a           89 Landsat Thematic Mapper imagery, estimated that about 8.2 mil-
                   result, sawgrass, which is adapted to a low-nutrient environment             lion acres of wetlands remain (Kautz, 1991). Hampson (1984) esti-
                   (Davis, 1991), is being replaced by cattails in the northern Ever-           mated that about 8.3 million acres of wetlands existed in Florida in
                   glades, particularly in WCA-2, where nutrient loading is a problem           1973. These two estimates are lower than the Fws estimate prob-
                   (South Florida Water Management District, 1992).                             ably because they exclude most of Florida's wet pine flatwoods, one
                        The magnitude of environmental alterations of The Everglades            of the most common natural communities in the State. The Game
                   has produced public concern and countermeasures to protect this              and Fresh Water Fish Commission estimate also excluded some
                   significant wetland. The 570,000-acre Big Cypress National Pre-              mixed-hardwood wetlands in areas where they could not be easily
                   serve adjacent to Everglades National Park was established in 1974.          distinguished from upland hardwoods Q.M. Hefner, U.S. Fish and
                   The Everglades was designated a "Wetland of International Impor-             Wildlife Service, written commun., 1993).
                   tance" by the Federal Government. State and Federal agencies work-                Wetlands regulations and legislation in effect today generally
                   ing cooperatively have developed plans that call for acquisition of          allow wetlands destruction only when mitigated by wetlands en-
                   parts of Shark River Stough and the remaining Everglades east of             hancement, preservation, or creation. The effectiveness of these
                   Everglades National Park and reestablishment of water flows along            measures in slowing wetland loss is currently under evaluation
                   historic flow paths. Preliminary plans also have been made to re-            (Frayer and Hefner, 1991). A recent report on the success of miti-
                   store the once-meandering Kissimmee River, which was reduced                 gation indicated that the ecological success rate for completed
                   from 90 to 52 miles in length by chatinelization in the 1960's. The          projects was low-for one-third of all permitted projects, the re-
                   State, as part of the settlement of a lawsuit filed by the Federal           quired mitigation had never been attempted (Florida Department
                   Government, has agreed to enforce a plan to greatly reduce nutri-            of Environmental Regulation, 199 1).
                   ent loading from the Everglades Agricultural Area. Federal legisla-
                   tion has assured minimum flows to Everglades National Park, and              CONSERVATION
                   attempts are being made to distribute water based on historic sea-
                   sonal-flow models. However, as water-demand patterns in southern                  Many government agencies and private organizations partici-
                   Florida become more complex, difficulties in providing water of the          pate in wetlands conservation in Florida. The most active agencies
                   proper quantity and quality at the proper time to remaining natural          and organizations and some of their activities are listed in table 1.
                   areas of The Everglades will increase. Because of the extensive                   Federal wetland activities.-Development activities in Florida
                   water-control system, water-management decisions have replaced               wetlands are regulated by several Federal statutory prohibitions and
                   natural events as the driving force controlling the function and evo-        incentives that are intended to slow wetland losses. Some of the more
                   lution of The Everglades.                                                    important of these are contained in the 1899 Rivers and Harbors
                                                                                                Act; the 1972 Clean Water Act and amendments; the 1985 Food
                   TRENDS                                                                       Security Act; the 1990 Food, Agriculture, Conservation, and Trade
                                                                                                Act; the 1986 Emergency Wetlands Resources Act; and the 1972
                        Wetlands covered more than one-half of Florida before devel-            Coastal Zone Management Act.
                   opment began (Hampson, 1984; Dahl, 1990). The Swamp Land Acts                     Section 10 of the Rivers and Harbors Act gives the U.S. Army
                   of the mid-1800's transferred 20.3 million acres of "swamp and               Corps of Engineers (Corps) authority to regulate certain activities
                   overflowed" lands from Federal to State ownership (Shaw and                  in navigable waters. Regulated activities include diking, deepening,
                   Fredine, 1956), and that was the acreage assumed by the Fws Na-              filling, excavating, and placing of structures. The related section 404
                   tional Wetlands Inventory for Florida's predevelopment (1780's)              of the Clean Water Act is the most often-used Federal legislation
                   wetlands (Dahl, 1990). In 1906, the U.S. Department of Agricul-              protecting wetlands. Under section 404 provisions, the Corps issues
                   ture conducted the first inventory of the Natiorfs wetlands. The sur-        permits regulating the discharge of dredged or fill material into
                   vey reported 19.8 million acres of wetlands in Florida excluding             wetlands. Permits are subject to review and possible veto by the U.S.
                   coastal lands overflowed by tidewater, indicating that wetland losses        Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), and the Fws has review and
                   in Florida probably were minimal before the 1900's (Shaw and                 advisory roles. Section 401 of the Clean Water Act grants to States
                   Fredine, 1956).                                                              a-ad eligible Indian Tribes the authority to approve, apply conditions
                        Wetland losses were greater in the early 1900's than in the             to, or deny section 404 permit applications on the basis of a pro-
                   period between 1930 and the mid-1950's owing to the lack of funds            posed activity's probable effects on the water quality of a wetland.
                   available for drainage projects during the Great Depression and                   Most farming, ranching, and silviculture activities are not sub-
                   World War 11. By the mid4950's, 15.3 million acres of wetlands               ject to section 404 regulation. However, the "Swampbuster" PTOVi-
                   remained (Shaw and Fredine, 1956). Most of the losses were due to            sion of the 1985 Food Security Act and amendments in the 1990
                   agricultural drainage in the St. Johns River valley, on the lower east       Food, Agriculture, Conservation, and Trade Act discourage (through
                   coast, in the Kissimmee River and Everglades region around Lake              financial disincentives) the draining, filling, or other alteration of
                   Okeechobee, and scattered in the west-central peninsula (Gray and            wetlands for agricultural use. The law allows exemptions from pen-
                   others, 1924; U.S. Bureau of the Census, 1952; Blake, 1990). Be-             alties in some cases, especially if the farmer agrees to restore the
                   tween the mid-l 950's and mid4 970's, wetland losses were extensive          altered wetland or other wetlands that have been converted to agri-
                   in The Everglades, where 1.5 million acres of primarily wet prai-            cultural use. The Wetlands Reserve Program of the 1990 Food,
                   ries and freshwater marshes were drained for agriculture and real            Agriculture, Conservation, and Trade Act authorizes the Federal
                   estate development (Odum and Brown, 1977). Moderate drainage                 Government to purchase conservation easements from landowners
                   was conducted from the mid- to late 1950's in northern Florida to            who agree to protect or restore wetlands. The Consolidated Farm








                                                                                                 National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: FLORIDA            159



                Service Agency (formerly the Agricultural Stabilization and Conser-        unaffected wetlands, or wetlands creation. Pursuant to section
                vation Service) administers the Swampbuster provisions and Wet-            305(b) of the Clean Water Act, the Department of Environmental
                lands Reserve Program. The Natural Resources Conservation                  Protection submits to the EPA and the U.S. Congress a biennial as-
                Service (formerly the Soil Conservation Service) determines com-           sessment of the State's surface-water quality, including that of wet-
                pliance with Swampbuster provisions and assists farmers in the iden-       lands. The Department of Environmental Protection has general
                tification of wetlands and in the development of wetland protection,       oversight authority for the five water-management districts, which
                restoration, or creation plans.                                            have authority to levy local taxes and regulatory authority over iso-
                     The 1986 Emergency Wetlands Resources Act and the 1972                lated wetlands within district boundaries. Authorization to use
                Coastal Zone Management Act and amendments encourage wetland               wetlands that are part of sovereign submerged lands is required from
                protection through funding incentives. The Emergency Wetland               the Department of Environmental Protection. These lands, which
                Resources Act requires States to address wetland protection in their       lie under navigable waters, are held in trust for all the citizens of
                Statewide Comprehensive Outdoor Recreation Plans to qualify for            Florida. The Department of Enviornmental Protection has desig-
                Federal funding for State recreational land; the National Park Ser-        nated portions of these submerged lands as aquatic preserves, which
                vice provides guidance to States in developing the wetland compo-          are carefully managed.
                nent of their plans. Coastal States that adopt coastal-zone manage-              Since 1963, the State of Florida has administered land-acqui-
                ment programs and plans approved by the National Oceanic and               sition programs that have preserved many wetlands and areas adja-
                Atmospheric Administration are eligible for Federal funding and            cent to water bodies. Much of the land purchased for preservation,
                technical assistance through the Coastal Zone Management Act.              as well as parks and other State-owned properties, is managed by
                     State wetland activities.-The Department of Environmental             the Department of Environmental Protection; however, a substan-
                Protection is the principal State agency that issues permits for de-       tial amount of publicly owned wetlands are managed by the water-
                velopment activities in wetlands. The Henderson Wetlands Act of            management districts, the Game and Fresh Water Fish Commission,
                1984 gave the Department of Environmental Regulation (now called           and the Division of Forestry. Historically, land-management pro-
                the Department of Environmental Protection) expanded jurisdiction          grams were designed for recreation, to develop specific resources
                over the issuance of permits for dredge-and-fill activities affecting      such as timber, or to favor a few important game animals or endan-
                wetlands. The Department of Environmental Protection evaluates             gered species. Partly as a result of citizen input and involvement,
                the potential effects on wetlands before granting permits and seeks        ecosystem-management techniques such as prescribed burning are
                mitigation of unavoidable losses by enhancement, preservation of           now widely used to maintain the natural character of wetlands and
                                                                                           other ecological communities. Since the early 1970's, ecosystem
                Table 1. Selected wetland-related activities of government                 maintenance as a land-management goal has gained favor in Florida
                agencies and private organizations in Florida, 1993                        as the best strategy to ensure long-term protection of plant and
                [Source: Classification of activities is generalized from information  provided animal species as well as sustainable resources for people.
                    by agencies and organizations. e, agency or organization participates in     Regional, county, and local wetland activities.-Florida's Com-
                    wetland-related activity; agency or organization does not participate in prehensive Planning Act of 1985, administered by the Department
                    wetiand-related activity. MAN, management, REG, regulation; R&C, restora- of Community Affairs, requires local governments to produce long-
                    tion and creation; LAN, land acquisition; R&D, research and data collection; range plans for the development and conservation of resources.
                    D&I, delineation and inventory]                                        Policies for wetlands protection are required elements of all plans.
                                                                                           Some city and county governments have strong regulatory or land-
                Agency or organization                      4@            1Y               acquisition programs that provide wetlands protection beyond that
                                                                                           which is required by the State. Others, particularly in the largely
                FEDERAL                                                                    rural northern part of the State, are less able to develop strong lo-
                Department of Agriculture                                                  cal protection programs owing to funding limitations; thus, the State
                  Consolidated Farm Service Agency  ...........................            and water-management districts have the largest roles in wetland
                  Forest Service ............................................ . ....................
                  Natural Resources Conservation Service  ................                 protection in those areas.
                Department of Commerce                                                           Private wetland activities.-Private organizations in Florida
                  National Oceanic and                                                     have important roles as advocates of wetland conservation and pro-
                  Atmospheric Administration  ........................................     tection. Florida has many private-interest groups that keep the public
                Department of Defense                                                      informed on wetland issues, organize citizen networks, and lobby
                  Army Corps of Engineers  ..............................................
                  Military reservations                                                    for wetland-protection measures. The National Audubon Society,
                Department of the Interio"r* ................*................             The Nature Conservancy, and the Trust for Public Lands have pur-
                  Fish and Wildlife Service  .............................................. chased wetlands in Florida for preservation. Some of these lands
                  Geological Survey  .......................................................... have been transferred to State or Federal ownership; others are pre-
                  National Biological Service ....................................         served in private ownership, such as Corkscrew Swamp, an Audubon
                  National Park Service  ................................................... sanctuary. Other groups, such as the Florida Wildlife Federation and
                Environmental Protection Agency  ..................................
                STATE                                                                      the Sierra Club, conduct wetland-prolection activities that include
                Department of Agriculture and Consumer                                     programs to educate the public about wetland issues.
                Services
                  Division of Forestry  ........................................................0
                Department of Community Affairs  .................................. ...    References Cited
                Department of Environmental Protection  .....................*
                Game and Fresh Water Fish Commission  .....................9               Abrahamson, W.G., and Hartnett, D.C., 1990, Pine flatwoods and dry prai-
                University of Florida Center for Wetlands  ....................                  ries, in Myers, R.L., and Ewel, J.J., eds., Ecosystems of Florida: Or-
                Other State university programs  .....................................           lando, University of Central Florida Press, p. 103-149.
                REGIONAL, COUNTY, AND LOCAL                                                Blake, N.M., 1980, Land into water, water into land-A history of water
                Water Management Districts  ..........................................           management in Florida: Tallahassee, University Presses of Florida,
                Regional Planning Councils  ............................................. ...    344 p.
                Some County and City Governments  .............................e           Carlton, J.M., 1977, A survey of selected coastal vegetation communities
                PRIVATE ORGANIZATIONS                                                            of Florida: Florida Department of Natural Resources, Florida Marine
                National Audubon Society   .......................................0              Research Publication 30, 40 p.
                The Nature Conservancy  ..................................................*Conway, McKinley, and Liston, L.L., eds., 1990, The weather handbook:
                Trust for Public Lands ........................................                  Norcross, Ga., Conway Data, Inc., 548 p.








                     160      National Water Surnmary-Wetland Resources: STATE SUMMARIES



                     Cowardin, L.M., Carter, Virginia, Golet, F.C., and LaRoe, E.T., 1979, Clas-            McPherson, B.F., 1973, Vegetation in relation to water depth in Conserva-
                           sification ofwetlands and deepwater habitats ofthe United States: U.S.                 tion Area 3, Florida: U.S. Geological Survey Open-File Report 73-
                           Fish and Wildlife Service Report FWS/OBS -79/31, 131 p.                                0173, 60 p.
                     Crowder, J.P., 1974, Some perspectives on the status of aquatic wading birds                   1979, Land cover map of the Green Swamp area, Central Florida:
                           in South Florida: U.S. Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife Report                   U.S. Geological Survey Miscellaneous Investigations Series Map I-
                           PB-231 216, 12 p.                                                                      t t34, scale 1:63,360.
                     Dahl, T.E., 1990, Wetlands-Losses in the United States, 1780's to 1980's:              Odum, H..T., and Brown, Mark, eds., 1977, Carrying capacity for man and
                           Washington, D.C., U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Report to Congress,                   nature in South Florida: Gainesville, Fla., National Park Service and
                           13 p.                                                                                  University of Florida Center for Wetlands cooperative publication,
                     Davis, J.H., 1943, The natural features of southern Florida: The Florida                     886 p.
                           Geological Survey Bulletin 25, 311 p.                                            Odum, W.E., and McIvor, C.C., 1990, Mangroves, in Myers, R.L., and Ewel,
                     Davis, S.M., 1991, Sawgrass and cattail nutrient flux -Leaf turnover, de-                    J.J., Ecosystems of Florida: Orlando, University of Central Florida
                           composition, and nutrient flux of sawgrass and cattail in the Ever-                    Press, p. 517-548.
                           glades: Aquatic Botany, v. 40, p. 203-224.                                       Odum, W.E., McIver, C.C., and Smith, T.J., 111, 1982, The ecology of the
                     Dierberg, F.E., and Brezonik, P.L., 1984, The effect of wastewater on the                    mangroves of South Florida-A community profile: U.S. Fish and
                           surface water and groundwater quality of cypress domes, in Ewet,                       Wildlife Service Report FWS/OBS - 81/24, 144 p.
                           K.C., and Odum, J.T., eds., Cypress Swamps: Gainesville, University              Patik, T.F., and Kunneke, J.T., 1984, Northwestern Florida ecological char-
                           Presses of Florida, p. 83-101.                                                         acterization-An ecological atlas: U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service
                     Douglas, M.S., 1947, The Everglades -River of grass: New York, Rhinehart,                    Report FWS/OBS-82/47.1, 302 p.
                           406 p.                                                                           Parker, G.G., 1974, Hydrology of the pre-drainage system of the Everglades
                     Duplaix, Nicole, 1990, South Florida water-Paying the price: National                        in South Florida, in Gleason, P.J., ed., Environments of South
                           Geographic, v. 178, no. 1, p. 89-113.                                                  Florida-Present and past: Miami, Fla., Miami Geological Society,
                     Ewel, K.C., 1990, Swamps, in Myers, R.L., and Ewel, J.J., eds., Ecosys-                      Memoir 2, p. 718-727.
                           tems of Florida: Orlando, University of Central Florida Press, p. 28 1-          Shaw, S.P., and Fredine, C.G., 1956, Wetlands of the United States -Their
                           322.                                                                                   extent and their value to waterfowl and other wildlife: U.S. Fish and
                     Fernald, E.A., ed., 198 1, Atlas of Florida: Tallahassee, The Florida State                  Wildlife Service Circular 39, 67 p., I map.
                           University Foundation, Inc., 276 p.                                              South Florida Water Management District, 1992, Surface water improve-
                     Florida Department of Environmental Regulation, 199 1, Report on the ef-                     ment and management plan for the Everglades: West Palm Beach,
                           fectiveness of permitted mitigation: Tallahassee, Florida Department                   South Florida Water Management District Support Information Docu-
                           of Environmental Regulation, 59 p.                                                     ment, 472 p.
                     Florida Department ofNatural Resources, 1988, Wetlands in Florida-An                   Tiner, R.W., Jr., 1984, Wetlands of the United States-Current status and
                           addendum to Florida's Comprehensive Outdoor Recreation Plan: Tal-                      recent trends: Washington, D.C., U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 59 p.
                           lahassee, Florida Department of Natural Resources, 91 p.                         U.S. Bureau of the Census, 1952, United States census of agriculture, 1950,
                     Florida Natural Areas Inventory and Division of State Lands, 1990, Guide                     v. 4-Drainage of agricultural lands: Washington, D.C., U.S. Gov-
                           to the natural communities of Florida: Tallahassee, Florida Depart-                    ernment Printing Office, 307 p.
                           ment of Natural Resources, 111 p.                                                U.S. Soil Conservation Service, 1989, Twenty-six ecological communities
                     Frayer, W.E., and Hefner, J.M., 1991, Florida wetlands - Status and trellas,                 of Florida (revised ed): Gainesville, Florida Chapter Soil and Water
                           1970's to 1980's: Atlanta, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 31 p.                       Conservation Society, 286 p.
                     Gray, L.C., Baker, O.E., Marschner, F.J., and Weitz, B.O., 1924, The utili-            VanArman, Joel; Nealon, Dennis; Burns, Scott; Jones, Brad; Smith, Lisa;
                           zation of our lands for crops, pasture and forests, in U.S. Department                 MacVicar, Thomas; Yamsura, Margaret; Federico, Anthony; Bucca,
                           ofAgriculture, Agriculture yearbook-I 923: Washington, D.C., U.S.                      Jane; Knapp, Michael; and Gleason, Patrick, 1984, South Florida Water
                           Government Printing Office, 1,284 p.                                                   Management District, in Fernald, E.A., and Patton, D.J., eds., Water
                     Grow, Gerald, 1989, Florida parks-A guide to camping in nature (4th ed.):                    resources atlas of Florida: Tallahassee, Florida State University, p.
                           Tallahassee, Fla., Longleaf Publications, 260 p.                                       138-157.
                     Hampson, P.S., 1984, Wetlands in Florida: Tallahassee, Florida Bureau of               Vince, S.W., Humphrey, S.R., and Simons, R.W., 1989, The ecology of
                           Geology Map Series 109, scale 1:2,000,000.                                             hydric hammocks-A community profile: U.S. Fish and Wildlife
                     Heath, R.C., andConover, C.S., 1981, Hydrologic almanac of Florida: U.S.                     Service Biological Report 85(7.26), 81 p.
                           Geological Survey Open-File Report 81-1107, 239 p.                               Wharton, C.H.; Odum, H.T.; Ewet, K.C.; Duever, M.I.; Lugo, Ariel; Boyt,
                     Jordan, C.L., 1984, Florida's weather and climate -Implications for water,                   Rene; Bartholemew, J.; DeBellevue, E.B.; Brown, S.; Brown, M.; and
                           in Fernald, E.A., and Patton, D.J., eds., Water resources atlas of                     Duever, L.C., 1977, Forested wetlands of Florida -Their management
                           Florida: Tallahassee, Florida State University, p. 18 - 35.                            and use: Gainesville, University of Florida, 348 p.
                     Kautz,R.S., 1991, Space age habitat mapping: Florida Wildlife, v. 45, no. 73,          Zieman, J.C., and Zieman, R.T., 1989, The ecology of the seagrass mead-
                           p. 30-33.                                                                              ows of the west coast of Florida -A community profile: U.S. Fish and
                     Klein, Howard, Armbruster, J.T., McPherson, B.F., and Freiberger, J.J.,                      Wildlife Service Biological Report 85(7.25), 155 p.
                           1975, Water and the south Florida environment: U.S. Geological Sur-
                           vey Water-Resources Investigations 24-75, 165 p.
                     Kushlan, J.A., 1990, Freshwater marshes, in Myers, R.L., and Ewel, J.J.,
                           Ecosystems of Florida: Orlando, University of Central Florida Press,             FOR ADDITIONAL INFORMATION: District Chief, U.S. Geological
                           p. 324-363.                                                                      Survey, 227 N. Bronough St., Suite 3015, Tallahassee, FL32301; Regional
                     Kushlan, J.A., Ogden, J.C., and Higer, A.L., 1975, Relation of water level             Wetland Coordinator, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 1875 Century Build-
                           and fish availability to wood stork reproduction in southern Ever-               ing, Suite 200, Atlanta, GA 30345
                           glades, Florida: U.S. Geological Survey Open-File Report 75-434,
                           56 p.
                     Leitman, H.M., Sohm, J.E., and Franklin, M.A., 1984, Wetland hydrology                                                 Prepared by
                           and tree distribution of the Apalachicola River flood plain, Florida:            Melanie R. Darst, Helen M. Light, and Benjamin F. McPherson,
                           U.S. Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper 2196, 52 p.                                                     U.S. Geological Survey







                                                                         U.S. Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper 2425








                                                                                                                                                                                   National Water Summary-Wetland Resources 161
                                                                                                                                                                                                                    Georgia
                                                                                                                                                                                         Wetland Resources
                           Georgia has more than 7.7 million acres of wetlands -about one-                                                                  A league and a league of marsh-grass, waist-high,
                           fifth of the surface area of the State (Hefner and others, 1994.) Most                                                                   broad in the blade,
                           wetlands in Georgia have been adversely affected by human activi-                                                                Green, and all of a height, and unflecked with a light
                           ties, but coastal salt marshes and a large area of preserved wilder-                                                                     or a shade,
                           ness in the Okefenokee Swamp remain relatively undisturbed. One                                                                  Stretch leisurely off, in a pleasant plain,
                           of the -few remaining old-growth cypress-tupelo forests in the South-                                                            To the terminal blue of the main.
                           cast is on the lower Altamaha River flood plain (fig. 1).
                                   Wetlands provide many economic and ecological benefits.                                                            TYPES AND DISTRIBUTION
                           Flood-plain wetlands dissipate the energy of floods, reduce erosion,
                           and stabilize the streamside environment. Wetlands filter water                                                                    Wetlands are lands transitional between terrestrial and deep-
                           entering rivers and coastal marsh systems, removing sediment and                                                           water habitats where the water table usually is at or near the land
                           pollutants. Annual flooding moves leaf litter and other terrestrial                                                        surface or the land is covered by shallow water (Cowardin and oth-
                           organic detritus from the flood plain into the main channel, provid-                                                       ers, 1979). The distribution of wetlands and deepwater habitats in
                           ing a primary source of food for stream and estuarine organisms.                                                           Georgia is shown in figure 2A; only wetlands are discussed herein.
                           Wetlands bordering many streams in Georgia are important habi-                                                                     Wetlands can be vegetated or nonvegetated and are classified
                           tat corridors for wildlife. Amid the pine plantations and farms cov-                                                       on the basis of their hydrology, vegetation, and substrate. In this
                           ering most of the uplands, wetland corridors connect areas that                                                            summary, wetlands are classified according to the system proposed
                           provide food, shelter, and water for many species of animals. During                                                       by Cowardin and others (1979), which is used by the U.S. Fish and
                           low-water periods, flood-plain ponds and backwaters contribute to                                                          Wildlife Service (FWS) to map and inventory the Nationlis wetlands.
                           biological diversity in stream ecosystems by providing still-water                                                         At the most general level of the classification system, wetlands are
                           habitats for fish, amphibians, reptiles, and aquatic invertebrates.                                                        grouped into five ecological systems: Palustrine, Lacustrine, Riv-
                           Biological productivity in estuarine emergent wetlands is higher                                                           erine, Estuarine, and Marine. The Palustrine System includes only
                           than on most agricultural lands (Teal and Teal, 1969). Such coastal                                                        wetlands, whereas the other systems comprise wetlands and
                           wetlands are essential to the life cycles of many commercially har-                                                        deepwater habitats. Wetlands of the systems that occur in Georgia
                           vested species such as clams, shrimp, blue crab, and mullet (Tiner,                                                        are described below.
                           1984).
                                    In addition to their ability to remove undesirable chemicals and                                                  SVstem                                                        Wetland description
                           support wildlife, wetlands are valued by tourists and Georgians for
                           their recreational uses and natural beauty. Sidney Lanier, a native                                                        Palustrine        .................. Nontidal and tidal-freshwater wetlands in which
                           of Georgia, described a vista of coastal marshland in his poem "The                                                                                               vegetation is predominantly trees (forested wet-
                           Marshes of Glynn":                                                                                                                                                lands); shrubs (scrub-shrub wetlands); persistent
                                                                                                                                                                                             or nonpersistent emergent, erect, rooted herba-
                                                                                                                                                                                             ceous plants (persistent- and nonpersistent-
                                                                                                                                                                                             emergent wetlands); or submersed and (or)
                                                                                                                                                                                             floating plants (aquatic beds). Also, intermit-
                                                                       Z                                                                                                                     tently to permanently flooded open-water bod-
                                                                           tr
                                                                                                                                                                                             ies of less than 20 acres in which water is less
                                                                                                                                                                                             than 6.6 feet deep.
                                                                                                                                                      Lacustrine         ................. Nontidal and tidal-freshwater wetlands within an
                                                                                                                                                                                             intermittently to permanently flooded lake or
                                                                                                                                                                                             reservoir larger than 20 acres and (or) deeper
                                                                                                                                                                                             than 6.6 feet. Vegetation, when present, is pre
                                                                                                                                                                                             dominantly nonpersistent emergent plants (non-
                                                                                                                                                                                             persistent-emergent wetlands), or submersed
                                                                                                                                                                                             and (or) floating plants (aquatic beds), or both.
                                                                                                                                                      Riverine       ..................... Nontidal and tidal-freshwater wetlands within a
                                                                                                                                                                                             channel, Vegetation, when present, is same as
                                                                                                                                                                                             in the Lacustrine System.
                                                                                                                                                      Estuarine        ................... Tidal wetlands in low-wave-energy environments
                                                                                                                                                                                             wherethe salinity ofthewater is greaterthan 0.5
                                                                                                                                                                                             part perthousand (ppt) and isvariable owing to
                                                                                                                                                                                             evaporation and the mixing of seawater and
                                                                                                                                                                                             freshwater.
                                                                                                                                                      Marine       ....................... Tidal wetlands that are exposed to waves and cur-
                                                                                                                                                                                             rents of the open ocean and to water having a
                                                                                                                                                                                             salinity greater than 30 ppt.

                                                                                                                                                               About 95 percent of Georgia's wetlands are palustrine. Estua-
                                                                                                                                                      rine and marine wetlands comprise approximately 4 percent of the
                                                                                                                                                      State's wetland acreage. Lacustrine and riverine wetlands are not
                                            Figurel. Old-growth gum-cypress forest on the                                                             addressed in this report because they constitute a relatively small
                                            Altamaha River flood plain. (Photograph by C.H.                                                           part of the State's wetlands and are generally fringe areas between
                                            Wharton, Clayton, Ga.)                                                                                    palustrine wetlands and deepwater habitats.








                  162     National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: STATE SUMMARIES



                        Palustrine System. -Forested wetlands constitute about 83                  Blackwater streams such as the Ogeechee, Satilla, and St.
                  percent of all palustrine wetlands in Georgia (J.M. Hefner, U.S. Fish       Marys Rivers generally contain water that is dark or tea colored
                  and Wildlife Service, oral commun., 1993). Large tracts of second-          because of a high content of tannins and other organic acids. Black-
                  growth bottorn-land hardwoods and tupelo-cypress forests exist              water streams usually have low velocities and carry little sediment.
                  along many Georgia rivers. Most of these rivers can be character-           Their flood plains have less topographic relief and are usually nar-
                  ized as either alluvial or blackwater streams.                              rower than flood plains of alluvial streams. Blackwater river flood-
                        Alluvial streams such as the Altamaha, Oconee, Ocmulgee,              plain wetlands have canopies of tupelo, cypress, and other tree spe-
                  Savannah, Flint, and Chattahoochee Rivers carry large amounts of            cies tolerant of wet organic soils.
                  sediment. Their flood plains have mineral soils and diverse topo-                Forested palustrine wetlands in Georgia that are not associated
                  graphic features such as flats, ridges, backswamps, and oxbow lakes.        with stream systems include cypress domes, gum swamps,
                  Flats and ridges support forests of mixed bottom-land hardwood              limesinks, Carolina bays, wet pine flatwoods, and hydric hammocks.
                  species; backswamps generally have canopies of tupelo and cypress.          Isolated cypress swamps and cypress domes occur primarily below
                  The alluvial river with the greatest average discharge in Georgia is        the Fall Line (fig. 2B), the area of transition between the higher
                  the Altamaha River, which has a flood plain 3- to 5-miles wide along        topographic relief of the piedmont to the north and the flatter to-
                  some reaches. The Altamaha River drainage basin includes about              pography of the coastal plain to the south. Cypress domes are cir-
                  one-fourth ofthe State and extends from Atlanta to the Atlantic coast.      cular depressional wetlands forested by pond cypress trees that grow
                  The basin has many small streams and two large rivers, the Oconee           taller in the center of the wetland and thus create a dome-shaped
                  and Ocmulgee Rivers, which join to form the Altamaha River.                 canopy. Gum swamps are depressional wetlands in which swamp


                                                            :7 r

                                                                                               Cumberland Plateau                             Southern Blue
                                                                                                         Section                              Ridge Section

                                                                                                Southern Valley and
                                                                                                     Ridge Section


                                                                                                                       Southern Piedmont Section


                  34'




                                                ta

                                                                                         Ag..t.                                             See Island Section

                                                                                                                 B

                                                                                                                          Ent Gulf Coastal
                                                                                                                            Plain Section



                                                     Macon
                                                                                                  0



                              Colu   a                                                                                        PHYSIOGRAPHIC DIVISIONS




                                                                                                                      Savannah

                        32'
                                                                                                                          ATLANT[C
                    A                     Alba                        Jr                                                 0 C E A N


                            S am     Too

                                                                                                                    WETLANDS AND DEEPWATER HABITATS
                                                                                                   d                Distribution of wetlands and deepwater habitats-
                                                                                                                      This map shows the approximate distribution of large
                                                                                      fsh*@v'NWR                      wetlands in the State. Because of limitations of scale
                                                                                                                      and source material, some wetlands are not shown
                                                                                         fe doe 82'
                                                  84'                                    mp                               Predominantly wetland
                                    0        25       50 MILES                                                     E-1    Predominantly deepwater habitat
                                    0    25    510 KILOMETERS                                                         -   Dams (Storage capacity at least 5,000 acre/feet)

                  Figure 2. Weiland distribution in Georgia and physiography of the State. A, Distribution of wetlands and deepwater habitats. 8, Physio-
                  graphy. (Sources: A, TE. Dahl, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, unpub. data, 199 1. B, Physiographic divisions from Clark and Zisa, 1976;
                  landforms data from EROS Data Center.)








                                                                                                         National Water Surnmary-Wetland Resources: GEORGIA                163



                 tupelo is the predominant tree. The northwestern part of the                      velocities are slower. Width of flood plains along rivers and the
                 Okefenokee Swamp contains large tracts of gum swamp. Limesinks                    occurrence of isolated depressional wetlands between rivers in-
                 are depressional wetlands formed by the dissolution or collapse of                crease as the land flattens toward the coast. Coastal areas have the
                 underlying limestone. Limesinks differ widely in size, depth, and                 greatest acreage of wetlands (fig. 2A).
                 average length of time they are inundated or have saturated soils.                      The great diversity of Georgia wetlands is a result of the State's
                 The Swamp of Toa in southwestern Georgia is the most extensive                    diverse physiography. Clark and Zisa (1976) divided Georgia into
                 limesink area in Georgia. Many of the limesinks are connected to                  six physiographic sections (fig. 2B). Three of the sections, the
                 ground-water aquifers and serve as recharge areas (Kalla and others,              Cumberland Plateau, Southern Valley and Ridge, and Southern Blue
                 1993). The Swamp of Toa is a mosaic of wetland and upland habi-                   Ridge, are in northern Georgia and are the areas with the greatest
                 tats that support rare plant and animal species such as chaffseed                 topographic relief. Many of the wetlands in these sections are moun-
                 and blind cave salamander. Limesink depressions called sagponds                   tain seeps and bogs that are too small and scattered to be shown in
                 are distinctive wetlands because they occur in mountainous north-                 figure 2A. Narrow wetlands border some streams. Depressional
                 western Georgia yet contain relict populations of lowland plants                  wetlands are rare, except for sagponds, which exist in some areas
                 (Wharton, 1977). Sagponds differ in wetness from intermittently                   of the Coosa River Valley of the Southern Valley and Ridge Section
                 to permanently flooded. Carolina bays, a wetland type unique to the               and in the Cumberland Plateau Section.
                 Southeastern United States coastal plain, are oval depressions that                     The Southern Piedmont Section of Georgia lies between the
                 have acidic, commonly peaty soils (Wharton, 1977). The predomi-                   more mountainous sections and the coastal plain. This section has
                 nant vegetation in these wetlands generally is leathery-leaved, ev-               a broad zone of gently rolling hills that are geologically similar to
                 ergreen, or semideciduous shrubs like fetterbush, titi, and zenobia.              the Blue Ridge Mountains but have less relief as a result of stream
                 More than 1,000 Carolina bays, occupying an area of about 250,000                 erosion (Wharton, 1978). Flood plains are wider and better devel-
                 acres, have been mapped in Georgia (Wharton, 1977). Wet pine                      oped in the Southern Piedmont Section than in the more mountain-
                 flatwoods forested by old-growth slash or pond pine grow mostly                   ous Southern Blue Ridge and Southern VAey and Ridge Sections
                 in southeastern Georgia and have soils that are saturated during part             to the north. Some depressional wetlands such as gum swamps ex-
                 of the growing season. Small patches of wet pine flatwoods can be                 ist in the Southern Piedmont Section, but cypress domes are ab-
                 interspersed among upland pine forests. Hydric hammocks are a rare                sent.
                 wetland type that exists in some areas of coastal Georgia. Semi-                        The two physiographic sections that form the coastal plain in
                 evergreen bottom-land hardwood species such as swamp laurel oak                   southern Georgia are the East Gulf Coastal Plain and Sea Island
                 are the predominant vegetation (Vince and others, 1989).                          Sections (fig. 2B). These sections lie southeast of the Fall Line and
                       Approximately 17 percent of Georgia's palustrine wetlands are               include more than one-half the land area of Georgia. Topographic
                 nonforested (J.M. Hefner, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, oral                    relief is lower, runoff is slower, and depressional features are more
                 commun., 1993). These nonforested wetlands are primarily fresh                    common in these two sections than in the Southern Piedmont Sec-
                 marshes associated with streams or isolated water bodies. In these                tion.
                 wetlands, emergent vegetation such as giant cutgrass, wild rice,                        Streams in the East Gulf Coastal Plain Section in southwest-
                 pickerelweed, and arrow arum are the predominant plants (Wharton,                 ern Georgia trend north-south and drain into the Gulf of Mexico.
                 1978). More than 20 percent of the Okefenokee Swamp is emergent                   Karst topography, which is created by dissolution of porous lime-
                 marshes and aquatic beds. Herb bogs occur on sloping ground or                    stone near the land surface, prevails in parts of this section and is
                 in slight depressions in pine uplands (Wharton, 1978) and have                    characterized by numerous limesinks and other depressional fea-
                 abundant herbaceous plants, including orchids, insectivorous plants               tures.
                 (such as pitcher plants), and a variety of wildflowers, but have few                    The Sea Island Section contains the greatest extent of wetlands
                 or no trees. The absence of a tree canopy in herb bogs might be due               in Georgia. Flood-plain wetlands along rivers are more extensive
                 to the high frequency of fires and the nutrient-poor, shallow soils               in this section than in any other physiographic section. A schematic
                 and underlying hardpan clays.                                                     cross section of an alluvial flood plain in Georgia is shown in fig-
                       Estuarine and Marine Systems. -Most of Georgia's coastal                    ure 3. The topographic features shown in the cross section were
                 wetlands are located in estuaries at the mouths of rivers. Salt                   formed by deposition and removal of sediments by flowing water.
                 marshes in which the predominant emergent plant species is smooth                 Most areas of an active flood plain are flooded at least annually. The
                 cordgrass are the most common estuarine wetlands (Wiegert and                     driest part of a flood plain is generally the natural levee adjacent to
                 Freeman, 1990). Smooth cordgrass marshes are flooded daily by                     the river. Levees and flats, which drain rapidly after floods recede,
                 tides and are exposed to mostly low-energy waves. These marshes                   are covered by canopies of bottom-land hardwoods such as live oak,
                 fringe the sounds that are between the mainland and offshore bar-                 water oak, sweetgum, overcup oak, water hickory, and swamp laurel
                 rier islands. The largest area of estuarine wetlands in Georgia sur-              oak. The wettest part of the flood plain, the backswamp, commonly
                 rounds St. Andrews and St. Simons Sounds. This wetland has more                   is farthest from the river and adjacent to the uplands. Backswamps
                 than 110,000 acres of salt marshes (Field and others, 1991). Tidal                generally hold water after floods recede and are sometimes perma-
                 flats are estuarine wetlands that are regularly exposed and flooded               nently saturated. Tupelo gum and cypress are the dominant trees
                 by tides. These flats generally are devoid of rooted vegetation but               because of their ability to tolerate long periods of flooding.
                 are important foraging areas for shorebirds. Georgia's marine wet-                      Rivers in the Sea Island Section flow southeastward toward the
                 lands comprise the intertidal zone of barrier-island ocean beaches.               Atlantic coast, with the exception of the Suwanec River, which flows
                                                                                                   into the Gulf of Mexico. In their lower reaches, tidal freshwater
                 HYDROLOGIC SETTING                                                                swamps are flooded by a combination of tidal fluctuations and high
                                                                                                   seasonal freshwater flows. Estuaries at the river mouths are fringed
                       The abundance of wetlands in Georgia is primarily due to high               by extensive marshes. Georgia's concave coastline, situated between
                 rainfall statewide and relatively flat topography in the southern part            the jutting Florida peninsula to the south and the outward-curving
                 of the State. Annual rainfall in the State averages about 50 inches               South Carolina coastline to the north, provides coastal wetlands in
                 (Carter and Hopkins, 1986). The largest streams in Georgia origi-                 this area some protection from tropical storms. A series of large
                 nate in or near the mountainous northeastern part of the State, which             barrier islands protects estuaries from high-energy waves and pro-
                 has high precipitation and runoff. Flood-plain wetlands develop                   vides shallowly inundated shorelines for the development of salt
                 along stream borders in areas of low topographic relief, where stream             marshes. Tidal ranges are greater on the Georgia coast than along








                    164     National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: STATE SUMMARIES



                    the other Southeastern Atlantic coastal States. This large tidal range              The Okefenokee Swamp was preserved by its own inhospitable-
                    (6- 9 feet) influences both the inland extent and topography of salt           ness for many years. In the 1890's a canal was dug through the ridge
                    marshes (Wiegert and Freeman, 1990).                                           on the eastern border to drain the swamp for logging and develop-
                         The Sea Island Section also contains the largest acreages of              ment. Drainage was unsuccessful, but eventually about 90 percent
                    isolated inland wetlands such as wet pine flatwoods, cypress                   of the marketable cypress was removed (Izlar, 1984b). Some pio-
                    swamps, gum swamps, and Carolina bays. Land-surface slopes are                 neers managed to establish homesites in the swamp, but it was a
                    gentle in many areas within this section, and ground water is com-             place where only a few could make a living. The Okefenokee Na-
                    monly near the land surface. Typically, there is a hardpan layer in            tional Wildlife Refuge, created in 1937, includes approximately 85
                    the subsurface soil that prevents rapid infiltration during rainy pe-          percent of the swamp. After devastating fires in the 1950's, an
                    riods, creating seasonally wet soils. During periods of little rain-           earthern dam, or sill, was built on the Suwannee River to raise water
                    fall, these same areas can be very dry. Plants adapted to a wide range         levels in the swamp. This sill has affected water levels over approxi-
                    of moisture conditions, such as gallberry and saw palmetto, are                mately one-fourth of the swamp area. Since the installation of the
                    common in these seasonally wet areas.                                          sill, scientific studies have clarified the role of natural fire in reju-
                         The Okefenokee Swamp, located in the southern part of the                 venating the swamp, and wildlife managers are now considering
                    Sea Island Section (fig. 2B), covers approximately 440,000 acres               allowing the sill to degenerate over time (Yin and Brook, 1992).
                    in Georgia and is one of the largest freshwater wetlands in the United
                    States. The swamp is a unique area containing a mosaic of emer-                TRENDS
                    gent marshes, aquatic beds, forested and scrub-shrub wetlands, and
                    forested uplands. The Okefenokee Swamp is located on a large ter-                   The Fws National Wetlands Inventory recently reported that
                    race that once might have been a shallow marine lagoon. When sea               Georgia had about 7.7 million acres of wetlands as of the 1980's
                    level declined, the terrace was isolated by a sand ridge along the             (Hefner and others, 1994). This estimate was based on the results
                    eastern edge. The swamp ecosystem appears to have developed in                 of a sampling procedure that used aerial photography. Another es-
                    the depression within the last 7,000 years (Laerm and Freeman,                 timate, based on satellite imagery, classified approximately 4.3 mil-
                    1986). The swamp has few inflowing streams and, therefore, pri-                lion acres in Georgia as wetland (J.R. Bozeman, Georgia Depart-
                    marily depends on rainfall for water (Rykiel, 1984). Headwaters of             ment of Natural Resources, written commun., 1992). The largest
                    the Suwannee and St. Marys Rivers are in the swamp. Water depths               discrepancy between these surveys was in the estimates of palustrine
                    average about 2 feet over an uneven layer of peat composed of plant            forested wetlands (J.M. Hefner, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, oral
                    material that has accumulated over thousands of years. Imperme-                commun., 1993). The discrepancies between estimates of wetland
                    able sediments underlying the peat keep most of the water from                 acreages could have resulted from differences in accuracy and reso-
                    percolating into the ground. In severe drought, fires can burn the             lution between aerial photography and satellite imagery and in in-
                    exposed peat, lowering the elevation of the swamp floor.                       terpretive techniques used for each method (Federal Geographic
                         Major fires probably burn large areas of the Okefenokee Swamp             Data Committee, 1992).
                    every 25 to 30 years (Izlar, 1984a). When normal hydrologic con-                    Because estimates of current wetland acreages in Georgia do
                    ditions return, the swamp floor is again inundated, and those areas            not agree, estimates of losses are difficult to substantiate. Dahl
                    where the peat was reduced hold deeper water in which aquatic                  (1990) reported wetland losses of approximately 23 percent for
                    plants such as water lilies grow. If fires are suppressed, swamp-floor         Georgia from the 1780's to 1980's, the lowest percentage of loss
                    levels can become high enough to support other types of wetlands               among the Southeastern States. Wetland losses throughout the
                    such as an emergent marsh vegetated by maidencane, sedges, iris,               Southeast have been caused primarily by drainage for farming and
                    and other plants. Accumulated plant material contributes to the                forestry operations (Hefner and Brown, 1985). Palustrine forested
                    buildup of peat until trees like red maple can grow or until fire again        wetlands along streams and isolated swamps of the coastal plain
                    reduces the amount of peat on the floor of the swamp.                          probably have been the most affected. Between the mid-1970's and
                         The Okefenokee Swamp provides habitat for 36 species offish,              mid-1980's, more than 100,000 acres offreshwater forested wetlands
                    37 species of amphibians, 66 species of reptiles, and 48 species of            in Georgia were destroyed, mostly because of conversion to land
                    mammals (Laerm and others, 1984). Among the inhabitants of the                 uses such as agriculture (Dahl and others, 1991). Nearly 500,000
                    swamp are rare animal and plant species such as round-tailed musk-             acres of'palustrine forested wetlands were converted during the same
                    rat, sandhill crane, woodstork, and hooded pitcher plants. A reported          time period to scrub-shrub or emergent freshwater wetlands (Hefner
                    232 species of birds inhabit in the swamp during some part of the              and others, 1994). Loss of estuarine marshes has slowed since 1970
                    year; 120 of these species are permanent residents (Sanders, 1987).            when Georgia began protecting those wetlands from development.


                                                                                                                                              EXPLANATION

                                                                    PALUSTRINE WETLAND                                                              High water

                                                                                                                                  Upland            Low water

                     RIVERINE WETLAND                  High flata                                            Backawarnp
                                            L-                                 Lowflats

                                                                                                                                                    Forest vegetation
                                 Sand bar



                                                                                                                              High water
                                 Low water                                                               W-High water'
                                                                   AJIuWum



                    F@gure 3. Schematic cross section of an    alluvial river flood plain in Georgia.







                                                                                                              National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: GEORGIA                      165


                  CONSERVATION                                                                          posed activity's probable effects on the water quality of a wetland.
                                                                                                              Most farming, ranching, and silviculture activities are not sub-
                        Many government agencies and private organizations partici-                     ject to section 404 regulation. However, the "Swampbuster" provi-
                  pate in wetland conservation in Georgia. The most active agencies                     sion of the 1985 Food Security Act and amendments in the 1990
                  and organizations and some of their activities are listed in table 1.                 Food, Agriculture, Conservation, and Trade Act discourage (through
                        Federal wetland activities. -Development activities in Geor-                    financial disincentives) the draining, filling, or other alteration of
                  gia wetlands are regulated by several Federal statutory prohibitions                  wetlands for agricultural use. The law allows exemptions from pen-
                  and incentives that are intended to slow wetland losses. Some of the                  alties in some cases, especially if the farmer agrees to restore the
                  more important of these are contained in the 1899 Rivers and Har-                     altered wetland or other wetlands that have been converted to agri-
                  bors Act; the 1972 Clean Water Act and amendments; the 1985 Food                      cultural use. The Wetlands Reserve Program of the 1990 Food,
                  Security Act; the 1990 Food, Agriculture, Conservation, and Trade                     Agriculture, Conservation, and Trade Act authorizes the Federal
                  Act; the 1986 Emergency Wetlands Resources Act; and the 1972                          Government to purchase conservation easements from landowners
                  Coastal Zone Management Act.                                                          who agree to protect or restore wetlands. The Consolidated Farm
                        Section 10 of the Rivers and Harbors Act gives the U.S. Army                    Service Agency (formerly the Agricultural Stabilization and Con-
                  Corps of Engineers (Corps) authority to regulate certain activities                   servation Service) administers the Swampbuster provisions and Wet-
                  in navigable waters. Regulated activities include diking, deepening,                  lands Reserve Program. The Natural Resources Conservation
                  filling, excavating, and placing of structures. The related section 404               Service (formerly the Soil Conservation Service) determines com-
                  of the Clean Water Act is the most often-used Federal legislation                     pliance with Swampbuster provisions and assists farmers in the iden-
                  protecting wetlands. Under section 404 provisions, the Corps issues                   tification of wetlands and in the development of wetland protection,
                  permits regulating the discharge of dredged or fill material into                     restoration, or creation plans.
                  wetlands. Permits are subject to review and possible veto by the U.S.                       The 1986 Emergency Wetlands Resources Act and the 1972
                  Environmental Protection Agency, and the Fws has review and ad-                       Coastal Zone Management Act and amendments encourage wetland
                  visory roles. Section 401 of the Clean Water Act grants to States                     protection through funding incentives. The Emergency Wetland
                  and eligible Indian Tribes the authority to approve, apply conditions                 Resources Act requires States to address wetland protection in their
                  to, or deny section 404 permit applications on the basis of a pro-                    Statewide Comprehensive Outdoor Recreation Plans to qualify for
                                                                                                        Federal funding for State recreational land; the National Park Ser-
                  Table 1. Selected wetland-related activities of government                            vice provides guidance to States in developing the wetland compo-
                  agencies and private organizations in Georgia, 1993                                   nent of their plans. Coastal States that adopt coastal-zone manage-
                  [Source: Classification of activities is generalized from information provided        ment programs and plans approved by the National Oceanic and
                      by agencies and organizations. 9, agency or organization participates in          Atmospheric Administration are eligible for Federal funding and
                      wetland-related activity; ..., agency or organization does not participate in     technical assistance through the Coastal Zone Management Act.
                      wetland-related activity. MAN, management; REG, regulation; R&C, resto-                 State wetland activities. -The Georgia Department of Natu-
                      ration and creation; LAN, land acquisition; R&D, research and data collec-        ral Resources is the principal State agency reviewing development
                      tion; D&I, delineation and inventory]                                             activities in wetlands. Georgia has a coastal regulatory program and
                                                                                                        requires a State permit for development activities in coastal marshes.
                                                                                                        A similar program for regulating activities in freshwater wetlands
                  Agency or organization                                             \Y                 does not exist. The Georgia Water Quality Control Act and section
                  FEDERAL                                                                               401 of the Federal Clean Water Act provide indirect protection of
                  Department of Agriculture                                                             freshwater wetlands in some instances. Under these two acts, the
                     Consolidated Farm Service Agency   ........................... ...                 Environmental Protection Division of the Department of Natural
                     Forest Service  .................................................................
                     Natural Resources Conservation Service  ................                           Resources must certify, for both freshwater and estuarine areas, that
                  Department of Commerce                                                                wetland activities will not degrade water quality (Wagner and oth-
                     National Oceanic and                                                               ers, 1989).
                     Atmospheric Administration  ........................................                     In 1970, Georgia enacted the Coastal Marshlands Protection
                  Department of Defense                                                                 Act to protect and conserve estuarine marshlands. Since that time,
                     Army Corps of Engineers  ..............................................*
                     Military reservations :  -......................  ..............                   permits issued by the Department of Natural Resources' Coastal
                  Department of the Interior                                                            Resources Division have allowed less than 600 acres of jurisdictional
                     Fish and Wildlife Service  ..............................................*         marshlands to be filled by nonexempt activities. Total coastal marsh-
                     Geological Survey  .......................................................... ... ... land losses, however, have been much higher as a result of filling
                     National Biological Service  ......................................... . ... ...   for public works projects, which are exempt. For example, the esti-
                     National Park Service  ...................................................
                  Environmental Protection Agency  ..................................                   mated loss of tidal wetlands resulting from the construction of In-
                  STATE                                                                                 terstate 95 through Georgia is approximately 4,000 acres (Georgia
                  Department of Community Affairs  ..................................                   Department of Natural Resources, 1992).
                  Department of Natural Resources                                                             Nonregulatory programs include acquisition of wetlands as part
                     Coastal Resources Division ...............................                         of wildlife-management areas and public fishing areas by the De-
                     Environmental Protection Division ...................
                     Game and Fish Division  .................................................0         partment of Natural Resources'Game and Fish Division. Total wet-
                     Parks, Recreation, and                                                             land acreage owned by the State is estimated to exceed 57,000 acres.
                     Historic Sites Division  ...................................................0      Wetland acquisitions are a priority of the Preservation 2000 pro-
                  Department of Transportation  .........................................               gram of 1991. Recent wetland tracts acquired with Preservation
                  Georgia Forestry Commission    .........................................              2000 funds include approximately 7,000 acres of tidal salt marshes
                  REGIONAL, COUNTY, AND LOCAL                                                           on two coastal barrier islands and approximately 6,000 acres of
                  Regional Development Centers   ....................................... ...
                  Some county and city governments    ..............................e                   flood-plain swamp on the lower Altamaha River. Small areas of
                  PRIVATE ORGANIZATIONS                                                                 wetlands also have been enhanced, restored, or constructed by the
                  The Nature Conservancy of Georgia    .............................0                   Department of Natural Resources for mitigation, wastewater treat-
                  Georgia Wildlife Federation  .............................................            ment, or waterfowl habitat management (Georgia Department of
                  Trust for Public Lands ...............................................
                                                                                                        Natural Resources, 1992).








                      166      National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: STATE SUMMARIES



                           Regional, coun ty, a nd local wetland activities.                 Growth              Andrejko, M.J., and Best, G.R., eds., The Okefenokee Swamp-its
                      Strategies Legislation" adopted in 1989 requires county and local                          natural history, geology, and geochemistry: Los Alamos, N. Mex.,
                      governments to formulate planning and land-use control pro-                                Wettand Surveys, p. 5-17.
                      grams that include steps to protect wetlands (Georgia Department                     Katla, P.I., Fassett, Veronica, Rigdon, T.A,, and Bowling, S.M., 1993, Ad-
                      of Natural Resources, 1992). Guidelines for these county and local                         vance identification of wetlands in Georgia, in Hatcher, K.J., ed., Pro-
                                                                                                                 ceedings of the 1993 Georgia Water Resources Conference, Athens,
                      protection plans are being developed by the Department of Natural                          Ga., April 20-21, 1993: Athens, The University of Georgia, Institute
                      Resources, the Department of Community Affairs, and Regional De-                           of Natural Resources, p. 345-348.
                      velopment Centers.                                                                   Laerm, Joshua, and Freeman, B.J., 1986, Fishes of the Okefenokee Swamp:
                           Private wetland activities. -Many private organizations in                            Athens, The University of Georgia Press, 118 p.
                      Georgia such as the Georgia Conservancy, the Sierra Club, and the                    Laerm, Joshua, Freeman, B.J., Vitt, L.J., and Logan, L.E., 1984, Checklist
                      National Wildlife Federation lobby for wetland-protection measures,                        of vertebrates of the Okefenokee Swamp, in Cohen, A.D., Casagrande,
                      participate in litigation involving wetland issues, and comment on                         D.J., Andrejko, M.J., and Best, G.R., eds., The Okefenokee Swamp -
                      State and Federal permits allowing wetland alterations. The Nature                         Its natural history, geology, and geochemistry: Los Alamos, N. Mex.,
                      Conservancy of Georgia and the Georgia Wildlife Federation are                             Wetland Surveys, p. 682-691.
                                                                                                           Rykiel, E.J., Jr., 1994, General hydrology and mineral budgets for Okefe-
                      acquiring river flood plains for preservation, primarily along the                         nokee Swamp -Ecological significance, in Cohen, A.D., Casagrande,
                      Altamaha and Alcovy Rivers, respectively.                                                  D.J., Andrejko, M.J., and Best, G.R., eds., The Okefenokee Swamp -
                                                                                                                 Its natural history, geology, and geochemistry: Los Alamos, N. Mex.,
                      References Cited                                                                           Weiland Surveys, p. 212-228.
                                                                                                           Sanders, Sigrid, 1987, Studying the many faces of the Okefenokee Swamp@
                      Carter, R.F., and Hopkins, E.H., 1986, Georgia surface-water resources, in                 Athens, The University of Georgia, Research Reporter, v. 15, no. 4,
                           U.S. Geological Survey, National water summary 1985 -Hydrologic                       p. 7-11.
                           events and surface-water resources: U.S. Geological Survey Water-               Teal, John, and Teal, Mildred, 1969, Life and death of the salt marsh: New
                           Supply Paper 2300, p. 195 - 200.                                                      York, National Audubon Society and Ballantine Books, Inc., 274 p.
                      Clark, W.Z., Jr., and Zisa, A.C., 1976, Physiographic map of Georgia: At-            Tiner, R.W., Jr., 1984, Wetlands of the United States- Current status and
                           lanta, Ga.. Department of Natural Resources, scale 1:2,000,000.                       recent trends: Washington, D.C., U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 59 p.
                      Cowardin, L.M., Carter, Virginia, Golet, F.C., and LaRoe, E.T., 1979, Clas-          U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 1992, Regional wetlands concept plan-
                           sification ofwetlands and deepwater habitats of the United States: U.S.               Emergency Wetlands Resources Act, southeast region: Atlanta, Ga.,
                           Fish and Wildlife Service Report FWS/OBS-79/31, 131 p.                                U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 259 p.
                      Dahl, T.E., 1990, Wetlands -Losses in the United States, 1780's to 1980's:           Vince, S.W., Humphrey, S.R., and Simons, R.W., 1989, The ecology of
                           Washington, D.C., U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Report to Congress,                  hydric hammocks-A community profile: U.S. Fish and Wildlife
                           13 p.                                                                                 Service Biological Report 95(7.26), 91 p.
                      Dahl, T.E., Johnson, C.E., and Frazer, W.E., 1991, Wetlands-Status and               Wagner, Wendy, Carr, David, and Kellett, Katie, 1989, A citizen's guide to
                           trends in the conterminous United States, mid-1970's to mid-1980s:                    protecting wetlands in Georgia: Charlottesville, Va., Southern Envi-
                           Washington, D.C., U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Report to Congress,                  ronmental Law Center, 90 p.
                           22 p.                                                                           Wharton, C.H., 1977, The natural environments of Georgia: Georgia De-
                      Federal Geographic Data Committee, 1992, Application of satellite data for                 partment of Natural Resources Bulletin 114, 227 p@
                           mapping and monitoring wetlands: U.S. Geological Survey Federal                 -1978, Physiography and biota of Georgia: BioScience, v. 28, no. 5,
                           Geographic Data Committee Technical Report 1, 44 p.                                   p. 336-339.
                      Field, D.W., Reyer, A.J., Genovese, P.V, and Shearer, B.D., 1991, Coastal            Wiegert, R.G., and Freeman, B.J., 1990, Tidal salt marshes of the south-
                           wetlands of the United States: Washington, D.C., National Oceanic and                 east Atlantic coast-A community profile: U.S. Fish and Wildlife
                           Atmospheric Administration and U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service co-                     Service Biological Report 85(7.29), 70 p.
                           operative report, 59 p.                                                         Yin, Zhi-Yong, and Brook, G.A., 1992, The impact of the Suwannee River
                      Georgia Department of Natural Resources, 1992, Water quality in Georgia,                   sill on the surface hydrology of Okefenokee Swamp, U.S.A.: Journal
                           1990-199 1: Atlanta, Georgia Department of Natural Resources, 69 p.                   of Hydrology, v. 136, no. 1- 4, p. 193-217.
                      Hefner, J.M., and Brown, J.D., 1985, Weiland trends in the southeastern
                           United States: Wetlands, v. 4, p. 1-12.
                      Hefner, J.M., Wilen, B.O., Dahl, T.E., and Frayer, W.E., 1994, Southeast             FOR ADDITIONAL INFORMATION: District Chief, U.S. Geological
                           wetlands - Status and trends, mid-1970's to mid-1980's: Atlanta, Ga.,           Survey, Peachtree Business Center, Suite 130,3099 Amwiler Road, Atlanta,
                           U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 32 p.                                           GA 30360; Regional Weiland Coordinator, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service,
                      War, R.L., 1984a, Some comments on fire and climate in the Okefenokee                1875 Century Building, Suite 200, Atlanta, GA 30345
                           swamp-marsh complex, in Cohen, A.D., Casagrande, D.J., Andrejko,
                           M.J., and Best, G.R., eds., The Okefenokee Swamp-Its natural his-                                               Prepared by
                           tory, geotogy, and geochemistry: Los Alamos, N. Mex., Wetland Sur-
                           veys, p. 70-85.                                                                                 Melanie R. Darst and Helen M. Light,
                      _1984b, A history of Okefenokee logging operations -A bourbon                                                 U.S. Geological Survey
                           and branch water success story, in Cohen, A.D., Casagrande, D.J.,
















                                                                        U.S. Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper 2425







                                                                                                                                                                                   National Water Summary-Wetland Resources 11657
                                                                                                                                                                                                                          Hawaii
                                                                                                                                                                                        Wetland Resources
                           Wtlands constitute less than 3 percent of the State of Hawaii but                                                          TYPES AND DISTRIBUTION
                           have had a major economic effect on the development of Hawaiian
                           society both before and after European contact. Native Hawaiian                                                                   Wetlands are lands transitional between terrestrial and
                           communities depended on wetlands for cultivation of taro and other                                                         deepwater habitats where the water table usually is at or near the
                           staple food crops and for coastal fisheries, After the arrival of Eu-                                                      land surface or the land is covered by shallow water (Cowardin and
                           ropean and Asian immigrants, wetlands were used for rice and wa-                                                           others, 1979). The distribution of wetlands and deepwater habitats
                           tercress cultivation. These agricultural uses of wetlands continue to                                                      in Hawaii is shown in figure 2A; only wetlands are discussed herein.
                           the present, although their economic importance has declined be-                                                                   Wetlands can be vegetated or nonvegetated and are classified
                           cause of demographic shifts and increased importation of food.                                                             on the basis of their hydrology, vegetation, and substrate. In this
                                   Wetlands provide important waterfowl and shorebird habitat.                                                        summary, wetlands are classified according to the system proposed
                           Endemic and endangered species that rely on Hawaiian wetlands                                                              by Cowardin and others (1979), which is used by the U.S. Fish and
                           include the Hawaiian stilt, Hawaiian coot, Hawaiian gallinule, and                                                         Wildlife Service (FWS) to map and inventory the Nation's wetlands.
                           Hawaiian duck (Hawaii Department of Land and Natural Resources,                                                            At the most general level of the classification system, wetlands are
                           1988). Wetlands also are used by migratory shorebirds such as the                                                          grouped into five ecological systems: Palustrine, Lacustrine, Riv-
                           Pacific golden plover and waterfowl such as the pintail duck (Ha-                                                          erine, Estuarine, and Marine. The Palustrine System includes only
                           waii Department of Land and Natural Resources, 1988). Some en-                                                             wetlands, whereas the other systems comprise wetlands and
                           demic Hawaiian plants are found only in wetlands (Vogl and                                                                 deepwater habitats. Wetlands of the systems that occur in Hawaii
                           Henrickson, 1971; Elliot, 1981).                                                                                           are described below.
                                   In recent years, recreational, educational, and scientific uses
                           of wetlands have increased. The Waimanu Valley on the island of                                                            System                                                      Wetland description
                           Hawaii (figs. I and 2A) is managed as a part of the National Estua-
                           rine Research Reserve system for such purposes.                                                                            Palustrine       .................. Nontidal and tidal-freshwater wetlands in which
                                   Wetlands can improve water quality (Hemond and Benoit,                                                                                                    vegetation is predominantly trees (forested wet-
                           1988) and reduce flooding (Carter, 1986). Wetlands in Pearl Har-                                                                                                  lands); shrubs (scru b-sh rub wetlands); persistent
                                                                                                                                                                                             or noripersistent emergent, erect, rooted herba-
                           bor are being considered for use as sediment traps by the U.S. Navy                                                                                               ceous plants (persistent- and nonpersistent-
                           (Stephanie Aschmann, U.S. Navy, oral commun., 1992). The                                                                                                          emergent wetlands); or submersed and (or)
                           Kawainui Marsh is an example of a wetland managed for flood pro-                                                                                                  floating plants (aquatic beds). Also, intermit-
                                                                                                                                                                                             tently to permanently flooded open-water bod-
                           tection.                                                                                                                                                          ies of less than 20 acres in which water is less
                                                                                                                                                                                             than 6.6 feet deep.
                                                                                                                                                      Lacustrine        ................. Nontidal and tidal-freshwater wetlands within an
                                                                                                                                                                                             intermittently to permanently flooded lake or
                                                                                                                                                                                             reservoir larger than 20 acres and (or) deeper
                                                                                                                                                                                             than 6.6 feet. Vegetation, when present, is pre-
                                                                                                                                                                                             dominantly nonpersistent emergent plants (non-
                                                                                                                                                                                             persistent-emergent wetlands), or submersed
                                                                                                                                                                                             and (or) floating plants (aquatic beds), or both.
                                                                                                                                                      Riverine       ..................... Nontidal and tidal-freshwater wetlands within a
                                                                                                                                                                                             channel. Vegetation, when present, is same as
                                                                                                                                                                                             in the Lacustrine System.
                                                                                                                                                      Estuarine       ................... Tidal wetlands in low-wave-energy environments
                                                                                                                                                                                             where the salinity of the water is greater than 0.5
                                                                                                                                                                                             part perthousand (ppt) and is variable owing to
                                                                                                                                                                                             evaporation and the mixing of seawater and
                                                                                                                                                                                             freshwater.
                                                                                                                                                      Marine       ....................... Tidal wetlands that are exposed to waves and cur-
                                                                                                                                                                                             rents of the open ocean and to water having a
                                                                                                                                                                                             salinity greater than 30 ppt.

                                                                                                                                                              On the basis of mapping by the Fws National Wetland Inven-
                                                                                                                                                      tory, wetland area in Hawaii has been estimated to be 110,810acres
                                                                                                                                                      (Hawaii Department of Land and Natural Resources, 1988). The
                                             r    '4                                                                                                  estimate includes areas of mixed wetlands and upland rain forest
                                                                                                                                                      (Dennis Peters, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, written commun.,
                                                                                                                                                      1993). Almost 90 percent of the wetland areais palustrine wetlands
                                                                                                                                                      (Hawaii Department of Land and Natural Resources, 1989). The FWS
                                                                                                                                                      survey did not include marine wetlands, which are small and are
                                                                                                                                                      not considered in this report. About 70 percent of Hawaiian wet-
                                             Figure 1. Estuarine wetland in Waimanu Valley on the                                                     lands are 5 acres or less, 20 percent are between 5 and 25 acres,
                                             island of Hawaii. (Photograph by B.R. Hill, U.S. Geo-                                                    and the remaining 10 percent are larger than 25 acres (Hawaii De-
                                             logical Survey.)                                                                                         partment of Land and Natural Resources, 1988).








                                  168        National Water Surnmary-Wetland Resources: STATE SUMMARIES



                                        Palustrine wetlands.-The largest wetlands in the State are                                                                   Lacustrine wetlands.-Only a few facustrine wetlands exist in
                                  palustrine wetlands on the windward (northeastern) mountain slopes                                                          the Hawaiian Islands. Lake Waiau is a small natural lake near the
                                  on the islands of Kauai, Maui, and Hawaii. These are primarily                                                              summit of Mauna Kea on the island of Hawaii. A number of small
                                  emergent and scrub-shrub wetlands and are known locally as bogs.                                                            lakes occupy topographic depressions on Niihau. Several reservoirs
                                  Palustrine emergent wetlands also are present upstream from some                                                            are located on Kauai, Oahu, Molokai, and Maui.
                                  coastal, estuarine wetlands.
                                              @*450
                                                                                                                                         50
                                                                                                                       3




                                                                       B                                                                                                                   200


                                                                       PRECIPITATION
                                                                       -50- Line of equal annual precipitation-                                                                         50                   200                 400
                                                                                     Interval, in inches, is variable.                                                                                         15,     C


                                                                                                                                                                                                                    0
                                  Ab"' sw@m*P.                        Kauai
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        150
                                                                  w jirm@t
                                                                      a
                      22@,p
                      FNiihau                    159@   30,
                                                                                                                                    Oahu
                                                                                                                                         llf-.h, Boy
                                                                                                                                             Heee fishpond
                                                                                                                                                  Kawainui Marsh
                                                                                                           P-1 11-b.,                       . Kaau Cmtw
                                                                                                                             158.       +
                                                                                                                                            Waikiki                                            Molokai
                                                                                                                                         Honolulu

                                                                  A                                                                                                                        21                          Maui  .


                                                                  WETLANDS AND DEEPWATER HABITATS
                                                                  Distribution of wetlands and deepwater habitats-                                                       Lanai                               feakala+
                                                                      This map shows the approximate distribution of large                                                                                                    166.
                                                                      wetlands in the State. Because of limitations oi scale
                                                                      and source material, some wetlands are not shown                                                          Kahootawe
                                                                            Predominantly wetland                                                                                                                                                       Waimanu Vailey National
                                                                             Predominantly cleepwater habitat                                                                                                                                           Estuarine Research Preserve
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            A60           Weipio Valley
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            "10116

                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          Hawaii
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                20.

                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            me

                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        L.ke W.M.
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                             Hilo


                                                                                                                                                                                   0       10    20      30 MILES
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                     Mae- Loe

                                                                                                                                                                                    0  10 20 30      KILOMETERS
                                                                                                                                                                                                   Q200
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                                  Figure 2. Wetland distribution and average annual precipitation in Hawaii. A, Distribution of wetlands and deepwater habitats. B, Average
                                  annual precipitation. (Sources: A, TE. Dahl, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, unpub. data, 1991. B, Lee and Valenciano, 1986.)








                                                                                                                National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: HAWAII                    169



                        Riverine wetlands.-Riverine wetlands in the State are in all                    maximum rainfall is at altitudes of 2,000 to 4,000 feet; on the lower
                   four subsystems of the Fws classification: Tidal, Lower Perennial,                   mountain ranges, the trade winds move over the mountains, and the
                   Upper Perennial, and Intermittent. A total of 376 perennial streams                  rainfall maximums are at or near the crests (Blumenstock and Price,
                   and more than 100 intermittent streams were identified in Hawaii                     1961). Rainfall gradients on the larger islands are high; average
                   in a recent survey by the Hawaii Cooperative Park Service Unit                       annual totals can range from greater than 200 inches to as little as
                   (1990).                                                                              10 inches within 10 miles (fig. 213). Geographically, evaporation is
                        Estuarine wetlands.-Estuarine emergent wetlands are present                     inversely proportional to rainfall and is less variable; the maximum
                   at the mouths ofmany rivers, usually along the wet, windward shores                  annual pan-evaporation rate is about 106 inches, and the minimum
                   of the major islands. Forested estuarine wetlands also have formed                   is about 17 inches (Hawaii Department of Land and Natural Re-
                   because of the introduction of mangrove in some coastal areas on                     sources, 1973). Runoff averages about 40 percent of rainfall
                   Oahu and Molokai.                                                                    (Takasaki, 1978). Ground water on each island occurs primarily as
                        Anchialine pools are a unique type of estuarine wetland. These                  a basal lens of freshwater floating on denser saltwater (fig. 3)
                   pools form in collapsed lava tubes and have a subsurface connec-                     (Valenciano, 1985). These floating freshwater lenses are known in
                   tion to the ocean. Therefore, the pools are affected by tidal action,                Hawaii as basal ground water. The upper extent of a lens, the basal
                   although they are rarely, if ever, inundated by seawater. These wet-                 water table, is generally less than 100 feet above sea level (Takasaki,
                   lands pools average about I acre in area (Hawaii Department of Land                  1978; Valenciano, 1985).
                   and Natural Resources, 1988) and support populations of endemic                            Despite large amounts of rainfall in some areas, wetlands are
                   shrimp. Anchialine pools were not included in the Fws National                       not extensive in the Hawaiian islands because ofthe generally steep
                   Wetlands Inventory maps; the Hawaii Department of Land and                           topography and the high permeability of bedrock (Elliot, 1981).
                   Natural Resources (1988) estimated that the pools have a total area                  Most water falling as rain travels rapidly to the ocean as surface-
                   of about 700 acres.                                                                  water and ground-water flow (Takasaki, 1978). Wetlands form only
                        Fishponds constructed by native Hawaiians along the shores                      where local hydrologic conditions favor retention of water near the
                   of the islands are another type of estuarine wetland. The ponds are                  land surface (fig. 3).
                   formed by walls built of stone. Although artificial, these ponds are                       Water is more likely to accumulate where precipitation is high
                   economically and culturally important and support several plant and                  and evaporation is low. In Hawaii, extensive bogs are confined to
                   animal species (Hawaii Department of Land and Natural Resources,                     areas where rainfall exceeds 150 inches annually (fig. 2A and 2B).
                   1988). Heeia fishpond on Oahu is an example of one such pond that                    These areas are at altitudes between 1,500 and 5,000 feet on wind-
                   is now preserved because of its cultural importance.                                 ward slopes. On the basis of limited pan-evaporation data, evapo-
                                                                                                        ration in these areas ranges from 50 to 95 inches annually (Hawaii
                   HYDROLOGIC SETTING                                                                   Department of Land and Natural Resources, 1973).
                                                                                                              Wetlands commonly form only where the water table intersects
                        Hydrologic conditions on the Hawaiian islands are largely de-                   the land surface. Topography and water-table configuration deter-
                   termined by climate and topography. When moisture-laden air                          mine the extent of areas where the land surface and water table in-
                   masses moving with the trade winds reach the volcanic mountains                      tersect. Most of the land surface of the islands is many hundreds of
                   that form the islands, the air masses are forced up the slopes, where                feet above the basal water table. Therefore, basal ground water sup-
                   they cool in the higher altitudes and release their moisture. Because                ports only a narrow zone ofestuarine and palustrine wetlands near
                   of this climatic phenomenon, known as the orographic effect, rain-                   the shore, where the water table and the land surface intersect (fig.
                   fall is more plentiful on the windward sides of the islands (fig. 2B)                3).
                   (Blumenstock and Price, 1961). On the highest mountains                                    Many of Hawaii's estuarine wetlands have developed over geo-
                   (Haleakala on Maui, maximum altitude of 10,021 feet; Maufia Kea                      logic time as a result of gradual subsidence of the islands and the
                   and Mauna Loa on Hawaii, maximum altitudes of 13,796 and 13,078                      resulting rise in sea level relative to the land surface (Macdonald
                   feet, respectively), the trade winds move around the peaks, and the                  and others, 1970). The relative rise in sea level reduced the gradi-



                                                                                                                                                          EXPLANATION
                        LEEWARD                                           PALUSTRINE OR LACUSTRINE                                     WINDWARD
                                                                                  WETLAND                                                                 - - -  Basal water table

                                                                                                                                                          -----  Dike-impounded water
                                                                                    Marsh                                                                         table
                                                                            (above caldera-filling lava)
                                                                                                            PALUSTRINE WETLANDS                           IIIillit/ Emergent vegetation
                                           RIVERINE WETLAND                                                                                               = Ash bed
                                           (intermittent stream)                                        RIVERINE WETLANDS
                                                                                                             (streams)                                           Alluvium

                        ESTUARINE WETLAND                                                                                    ESTUARINE WETLAND
                                                                                                               Marsh





                                      - - - - - - - - - --




                                                                                                                                 Volcanic rock
                                                                    ---------------------



                   Figure 3. Generalized cross section of a Hawaiian island showing hydrologic and geologic features that affect wetland distribution. (Source:
                   Modified from Takasaki, 1978.)









                               170          National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: STATE SUMMARIES



                               ent of streams entering the ocean. Sediments carried by the streams                                                        the summit of Mount Waialeale. The extensive bogs on Kauai, Maui,
                               were deposited near the stream mouths, and the accumulated de-                                                             and Hawaii occupy gently sloping mountainsides where rainfall is
                               posits were colonized by wetland vegetation. Wetlands in Pearl                                                             retained at the land surface (Fosberg, 196 1, p. 2 1; van't Woudt and
                               Harbor on Oahu and in Waimanu and Waipio Valleys on the island                                                             Nelson, 1963 p. 23; Vogl and Henrickson, 1971, p. 479).
                               of Hawaii are examples of this process.                                                                                            Geologic heterogeneities, including andesitic lava flows, vol-
                                       Topography affects the retention of surface runoff during rain-                                                    canic dikes, ash beds, soils, and alluvium, can restrict infiltration
                               storms. On the steep, highly eroded slopes of Oahu, runoff is rapid;                                                       of rainfall, resulting in surface saturation. The extensive bogs on
                               water does not accumulate at the land surface, and wetlands are rare                                                       the islands of Kauai, Maui, and Hawaii have formed on soils, ash
                               (fig. 2A). On the younger islands of Maui and Hawaii, stream ero-                                                          layers, or andesitic lava less permeable than the underlying basaltic
                               sion has not progressed to the same extent as on Oahu, and much of                                                         lava (Stearns and Macdonald, 1942, 1946; Macdonald and others,
                               the gently sloping surface of the original volcanic domes is still                                                         1960).
                               intact. On Kauai, caldera filling has resulted in nearly flat areas near                                                           Low-permeability clay layers underlie many bogs in Hawaii.
                                                                                                                                                          These clays result from weathering of bedrock in high-rainfall ar-
                               Table 1. Selected wetland-related activities of government                                                                 eas that have abundant plant remains on the forest floor. The organic
                               agencies and private organizations in Hawaii, 1993                                                                         acids derived from decaying plants cause rapid chemical weather-
                                                                                                                                                          ing of bedrock. Although the characteristic clay layers have been
                               [Source: Ciassification of activities is generalized from information provided                                             considered a factor in bog development (Skottsberg, 1940; Fosberg,
                                     by agencies and organizations. e, agency or organization participates in
                                     wetland-related activity; ..., agency or organization does not participate in                                        196 1; van't Woudt and Nelson, 1963; Vogl and Henrickson, 197 1),
                                     wetland-related activity. MAN, management; REG, regulation; R&C, restora-                                            the clay might actually be a result rather than a cause of impeded
                                     tion and creation; LAN, land acquisition; R&D, research and data collection;                                         drainage (Wentworth and others, 1940).
                                     D&I, delineation and inventory]                                                                                              Not much is known concerning the hydrologic functions of
                                                                                                                                                          Hawaiian wetlands. Coastal wetlands are generally in ground-water
                                                                                                                         C@                               discharge zones, and upland bogs are generally in ground-water
                               Agency or organization                                                                               0y, *1                recharge zones, but the importance of wetlands in controlling rates
                               FEDERAL                                                                                                                    of ground-water movement is not known. A study of the Alakai
                               Department of Agriculture                                                                                                  Swamp on Kauai indicated that recharge from the swamp to the basal
                                 Consolidated Farm Service Agency                 ............................. ...                                       aquifer was not significant (van't Woudt and Nelson, 1963). Storage
                                 Forest Service       ..................................................................                                  of surface runoff in bog peat (partially decomposed plant material)
                                 Natural Resources Conservation Service                   .................. ...                                          might supply strearnflow following rains (Skottsberg, 1940; van't
                               Department of Commerce
                                 National Oceanic and                                                                                                     Woudt and Nelson, 1963). The bog in the Ka'au Crater on Oahu was
                                 Atmospheric Administration                 .....................................                                         formerly used as a water-supply reservoir (Elliot, 198 1). When bog
                               Department of Defense                                                                                                      peat is completely saturated, bogs can act as sources of overland
                                 Army Corps of Engineers                    ...............................................                               flow during rainstorms and might increase runoff (vaift Woudt and
                                 Marine Corps         ...................................................................                                 Nelson, 1963). Coastal wetlands can reduce flooding because of
                                 Navy     ...................................................................................
                               Department ofthe Interior                                                                                                  their capacity to store surface runoff.
                                 Fish and Wildlife Service                  ...............................................
                                 Geological Survey         ........................................................... ... ...
                                 National Biological Survey                 ............................................ ... ... ...                      TRENDS
                                 National Park Service                      ....................................................                                  The Hawaii Department ofLarid and Natural Resources (1988)
                               Environmental Protection Agency              ..............................
                               STATE                                                                                                                      estimated that total wetland acreage in Hawaii before European
                               Department of Health                                                                                                       contact in 1778 was 110,000 acres. Wetland area was about 114,000
                                 Office of Environmental Quality Control               ......................                                             acres in 1900 because of increased wetland agriculture as rice pro-
                               Department of Land and Natural Resources                                                                                   duction became important. Since then, wetland agricultural acre-
                                 Commission on Water Resource Management                                                                                  age has declined by about 10,000 acres to a remnant of 420 acres
                                 Division of Forestry and Wildlife          ...................................
                                 Division of Water and Land Development                  ...................                                              used for taro and watercress production.
                                 Division of Land Management                ...................................... ... ...                                        According to a recent Fws report (Dahl, 1990), Hawaii has lost
                                 Office of Conservation and                                                                                               about 7,000 acres of wetlands since the 1780's. These losses were
                                 Environmental Affairs                      ..................................................... ...                     in coastal estuarine and palustrine wetlands at altitudes less than
                               Office of State Planning                                                                                                   1,000 feet (Andy Yuen, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, written
                                 Coastal Zone Management Program                   ...........................                                            commun., 1992). Estimates of predevelopment wetland area (58,800
                               University of Hawaii
                                 Environmental Center                       .....................................................                         acres) and recent wetland area (51,800 acres) used by Dahl (1990)
                                 Water Resources Research Center                  .............................                                           to compute losses are lower than those reported by the Department
                               COUNTY                                                                                                                     of Land and Natural Resources (1988) because Dahl's (1990) esti-
                               City and County of Honolulu                                                                                                mates do not include some areas of mixed wetland and rain forest
                                 Department of Land Utilization             .....................................                                         at altitudes greater than 1,000 feet that were included in the
                               County of Hawaii
                                 Planning Department                        ......................................................                        Department's estimates (Andy Yuen, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service,
                               County of Kauai                                                                                                            written commun., 1992). On the basis of the Department's estimates
                                 Planning Department                        ...................................................... ...                    of 110,000 original wetland acres and Dahl's (1990) estimate of
                               County of Maui                                                                                                             7,000 acres lost, Hawaii has lost about 6 percent of its original
                                 Planning Department                        ...................................................... ...0                   wetlands.
                               PRIVATE ORGANIZATIONS
                               Ducks Unlimited       ...................................................................                                          Coastal wetland losses have been greatest on Oahu, where most
                               Hawaii Audubon Society                       .................................................... . ... ...                of the population of the State resides. Maps and aerial photographs
                               National Audubon Society                     ................................................. ...0..                      of the Honolulu area before 1940 show many agricultural and coastal
                               Native Hawaiian Plant Society                ......................................... ... ... ... ...                     wetlands that no longer exist. Much of the resort area of Waikiki
                               Outdoor Circle      ...................................................................... ... ...                         was wetland before the dredging of the Ala Wai Canal. Many other
                               The Nature Conservancy                       ...................................................*                          wetlands have been partly or completely filled for industrial and








                                                                                                             National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: HAWAII                    171



                  residential developments. The Fws has estimated that 58 percent of                        Several Federal agencies manage wetlands as wildlife refuges
                  wetlands in the Kaneohe Bay area were lost between 1927 and 1978                    and other conservation areas. The FWS manages about 1,400 acres
                  (Andy Yuen, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, written commun.,                        of refuge lands in Hawaii. The U.S. Navy and Marine Corps also
                  1992).                                                                              manage wetland refuges. Other wetlands are managed by the NPS.
                       The most extensive wetlands in the State are in remote moun-                         State wetland activities.-Hawaii has no laws specifically re-
                  tainous areas removed from agricultural and urban areas (fig. 2A).                  lating to wetland protection, but chapter 205A of the Hawaii Re-
                  These wetlands are not presently threatened by human activities but                 vised Statutes provides for regulation of coastal areas, including
                  are being degraded by trampling and rooting by feral animals, par-                  wetlands, in conjunction with the Federal Coastal Zone Manage-
                  ticularly pigs, and by the introduction of exotic plants (Elliot, 198 1).           ment Act and Clean Water Act. Under the provisions of these and
                                                                                                      other laws, several State and county agencies regulate the use of
                  CONSERVATION                                                                        wetlands in Hawaii (table 1). The Office of State Planning's Coastal
                                                                                                      Zone Management Program provides wetlands policy guidance.
                       Many government agencies and private organizations partici-                    Policy is enforced through regulation by the county planning de-
                  pate in wetland conservation in Hawaii. The most active agencies                    partments, which have permitting authority for designated Special
                  and organizations and some of their activities are listed in table 1.               Management Areas. These areas generally are within 300 feet of
                       Federal wetland activities.-Development activities in Hawaii                   the shoreline but can extend much farther inland. The Office ofCon-
                  wetlands are regulated by several Federal statutory prohibitions and                servation and Environmental Affairs of the Department of Land and
                  incentives that are intended to slow wetland losses. Some of the more               Natural Resources has permitting authority for all designated con-
                  important of these are contained in the 1899 Rivers and Harbors                     servation lands, which can include upland as well as coastal wet-
                  Act; the 1972 Clean Water Act and amendments; the 1985 Food                         lands. The Department of Health and the Coastal Zone Manage-
                  Security Act; the 1990 Food, Agriculture, Conservation, and Trade                   ment Program make determinations of consistency with Federal
                  Act; the 1986 Emergency Wetlands Resources Act; and the 1972                        laws for permits issued by the Corps. The Commission on Water
                  Coastal Zone Management Act.                                                        Resource Management, a part of the Department of Land and Natu-
                       Section 10 of the Rivers and Harbors Act gives the U.S. Army                   ral Resources, has authority to regulate channel alterations and
                  Corps of Engineers (Corps) authority to regulate certain activities                 enforce instream-flow standards. The Office of Hawaiian Affairs
                  in navigable waters. Regulated activities include diking, deepening,                acts as an advocate for native Hawaiian concerns relating to wet-
                  filling, excavating, and placing of structures. The related section 404             lands. An effort to review State wetland policies is under way; this
                  of the Clean Water Act is the most often-used Federal legislation                   effort is being coordinated by the Office of Environmental Quality
                  protecting wetlands. Under section 404 provisions, the Corps issues                 Control in the Department of Health.
                  permits regulating the discharge of dredged or fill material into                         The Division of Forestry and Wildlife of the Department of
                  wetlands. Permits are subject to review and possible veto by the U.S.               Land and Natural Resources is the principal State wetiand-manage-
                  Environmental Protection Agency, and the FWS has review and ad-                     ment agency. The Division manages wildlife refuges and other
                  visory roles. Section 401 of the Clean Water Act grants to States                   wetlands. The wetlands in Waimanu Valley on the island of Hawaii
                  and eligible Indian Tribes the authority to approve, apply conditions               are included in the Waimanu National Estuarine Research Reserve,
                  to, or deny section 404 permit applications on the basis of a pro-                  which is administered by the Department of Land and Natural Re-
                  posed activity's probable effects on the water quality of a wetland.                sources in cooperation with the National Oceanic and Atmospheric
                       Most farming, ranching, and silviculture activities are not sub-               Administration. Hydrologic data are collected in this reserve by the
                  ject to section 404 regulation. However, the "Swampbuster" provi-                   U.S. Geological Survey in cooperation with the Department.
                  sion of the 1985 Food Security Act and amendments in the 1990                             Private wetland activities- Several private organizations en-
                  Food, Agriculture, Conservation, and Trade Act discourage (through                  gage in wetland activities (table 1) in Hawaii. The Nature Conser-
                  financial disincentives) the draining, filling, or other alteration of              vancy manages wetlands within its preserve system. Other groups,
                  wetlands for agricultural use. The law allows exemptions from pen-                  including the National and Hawaii Audubon Societies and Ducks
                  alties in some cases, especially if the farmer agrees to restore the                Unlimited, are involved in efforts to acquire wetlands for conser-
                  altered wetland or other wetlands that have been converted to agri-                 vation purposes. In addition, many other organizations take advo-
                  cultural use. The Wetlands Reserve Program of the 1990 Food,                        cacy roles before government agencies in matters concerning wet-
                  Agriculture, Conservation, and Trade Act authorizes the Federal                     lands. These include the Native Hawaiian Legal Corporation, the
                  Government to purchase conservation easements from landowners                       Sierra Club Legal Defense Fund, the Kawainui Heritage Founda-
                  who agree to protect or restore wetlands. The Consolidated Farm                     tion, and the National, and Hawaii Audubon Societies.
                  Service Agency (formerly the Agricultural Stabilization and Con-
                  servation Service) administers the Swampbuster provisions and Wet-
                  lands Reserve Program. The Natural Resources Conservation                           References Cited
                  Service (formerly the Soil Conservation Service) determines com-                    Blumenstock, D.I., and Price, Saul,
                  pliance with Swampbuster provisions and assists farmers in the iden-                                                      1961, Climates of the States-Hawaii:
                  tification of wetlands and in the development of wetland protection,                      U.S. Department of Commerce, Environmental Science Services
                                                                                                            Administration, climatography of the States 60-51, 27 p.
                  restoration, or creation plans.                                                     Carter, Virginia, 1986, An overview of the hydrologic concerns related to
                       The 1986 Emergency Wetlands Resources Act and the 1972                               wetlands in the United States: Canadian Journal of Botany, v. 64,
                  Coastal Zone Management Act and amendments encourage wetland                              p. 364-374.
                  protection through funding incentives. The Emergency Wetland                        Cowardin, L.M., Carter, Virginia, Golet, F.C., and LaRoe, E.T., 1979, Clas-
                  Resources Act requires States to address wetland protection in their                      sification of wetlands and deepwater habitats of the United States: U.S.
                  Statewide Comprehensive Outdoor Recreation Plans to qualify for                           Fish and Wildlife Service Report FWS/OBS -79/31, 131 p.
                  Federal funding for State recreational land; the National Park Ser-                 Dahl, T.E., 1990, Wetlands-Losses in the United States, 1780's to 1980's:
                  vice (NPS) provides guidance to States in developing the wetland                          Washington, D.C., U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Report to Congress,
                  component of their plans. Coastal States that adopt coastal-zone.                         13 p.
                                                                                                      Elliot, M.E., 1981, Wetlands and wetland vegetation ofthe Hawaiian Islands:
                  management programs and plans approved by the National Oceanic                            Honolulu, University of Hawaii, M.A. thesis, 228 p.
                  and Atmospheric Administration are eligible for Federal funding and                 Fosberg, F.R., 1961, Guide to excursion III: Honolulu, Tenth Pacific Sci-
                  technical assistance through the Coastal Zone Management Act.                             ence Congress and University of Hawaii, 207 p.








                     172      National Water Surnmary-Wetland Resources: STATE SUMMARIES



                     Hawaii Cooperative Park Service Unit, National Park Service, 1990, A pre-            - 1946, Geology and ground-water resources of the island of Hawaii:
                           liminary appraisal of Hawaii's stream resources: National Park Ser-                 Territory of Hawaii Division of Hydrography Bulletin 9, 363 p.
                           vice Report R84, 294 p.                                                        Takasaki, K.J., 1978, Summary appraisals of the natiows ground-water re-
                     Hawaii Department of Land and Natural Resources, 1973, Pan evaporation                    sources -Hawaii region: U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper
                           in Hawaii 1894-1970: Hawaii Department of Land and Natural Re-                      813-M, 29 p.
                           sources Report R51, 82 p.                                                      Valenciano, Santos, 1985, Hawaii ground-water resources, in U.S. Geologi-
                     -1988, State recreation functional plan technical reference document                      cal Survey, National water summary 1984-Hydrologic events, se-
                           and State comprehensive outdoor recreation plan, wetlands resources                 lected water-quality trends, and ground-water resources: U.S. Geo-
                           plan addendum: Honolulu, Hawaii, Department of Land and Natural                     logical Survey Water-Supply Paper 2275, p. 185 -191.
                           Resources, variously paged.                                                    van't Woudt, B.D., and Nelson, R.E., 1963, Hydrology of the Alakai Swamp,
                     Hemord, H.F., and Benoit, Janina, 1988, Cumulative impacts on water                       Kauai, Hawaii: Hawaii Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin 132,
                           quality functions of wetlands: Environmental Management, v. 12,                     30 p.
                           no. 5, p, 636 - 653.                                                           Vogl, R.J., and Henrickson, James, 1971, Vegetation of an alpine bog on
                     Lee, Reuben, and Valenciano, Santos, 1986, Hawaii surface-water resources,                East Maui, Hawaii: Pacific Science, v. 25, p. 475-483.
                           in U.S. Geological Survey, National water summary 1985-Hydro-                  Wentworth, C.K., Wells, R.C., and Allen, V.T., 1940, Ceramic clay in Ha-
                           logic events and surface-water resources: U.S. Geological Survey                    waii: The American Mineralogist, v. 25, no. 1, p. 2-33.
                           Water- Supply Paper 2300, p. 201- 206.
                     Macdonald, G.A., Abbott, A.T., and Peterson, F.L., 1970, Volcanoes in the
                           sea-The geology of Hawaii: Honolulu, University of Hawaii Press,               FOR ADDITIONAL INFORMATION: District Chief, U.S. Geological Sur-
                           517 p.                                                                         vey, 677 Ala Moana Boulevard, Suite 415, Honolulu, HI 96813; Regional
                     Macdonald, G.A., Davis, D.A., and Cox, D.C., 1960, Geology and ground-               Wetland Coordinator, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 911 NE I Ith Avenue,
                           water resources of the island of Kauai, Hawaii: Hawaii Division of             Portland, OR 97232
                           Hydrography Bulletin 13, 212 p.
                     Skottsberg, Carl, 1940, Report on Hawaiian bogs -Proceedings ofthe Sixth
                           Pacific Science Congress, July 24-August 12, 1939, Berkeley,                                                   Prepared by
                           Stanford, and San Francisco: Berkeley, University of California Press,                                          B.R. Hill,
                           v. 4, p. 659-661.                                                                                       U.S. Geological Survey
                     Stearns, H.T., and Macdonald, G.A., 1942, Geology and ground-water re-
                           sources of the island of Maui, Hawaii: Territory of Hawaii Division of
                           Hydrography Bulletin 7, 344 p.










































                                                                        U.S. Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper 2425







                                                                                                                    National Water Summary-Wetland Resources 173
                                                                                                                                                    Idaho
                                                                                                                       Wetland Resources
                 Although Idaho's wetlands account for less than I percent of the                System                                 Wetland description
                 State's area, its many small and isolated wetlands are essential to             Palustrine  .................. Wetlands in which vegetation is predominantly
                 the functioning of diverse ecosystems in deserts, plains, and moun-                                      trees (forested wetlands); shrubs (scrub-shrub
                 tains (fig. 1). Wetlands provide vital habitat for waterfowl, migra-                                     wetlands); persistent or nonpersistent emergent,
                 tory birds, fish, and other wildlife. More than 75 percent of Idahols                                    erect, rooted, herbaceous plants (persistent- and
                 wildlife depend on wetlands during some part of their life cycle                                         non persi stent-emerg ent wetlands); or sub-
                                                                                                                          mersed and (or) floating plants (aquatic beds).
                 (Idaho Department of Fish and Game, 1990). Wetlands enhance the                                          Also, intermittently to permanently flooded
                 water quality of lakes and streams by removing nutrients and pol-                                        open-water bodies of less than 20 acres in which
                 lutants from influent water. During floods, wetlands store floodwater                                    water is less than 6.6 feet deep.
                 temporarily, slow water velocities, and reduce bank erosion.                    Lacustrine  ................. Wetlands within an intermittently to permanently
                      Cities, small communities, and farms commonly were settled                                          flooded lake or reservoir. Vegetation, when pres-
                 next to or near riparian (streamside) wetlands because of the avail-                                     ent, is predominantly nonpersistent emergent
                                                                                                                          plants (nonpersistent-emergent wetlands), or
                 ability of water and shade. Wetland vegetation generally is more lush                                    submersed and (or) floating plants (aquatic
                 and productive than that in uplands; livestock benefit from shade                                        beds), or both.
                 and forage provided by healthy wetlands. Idaho's development was                Riverine  ..................... Wetlands within a channel. Vegetation, when pres-
                 enhanced by extracting large quantities of gold and other metals                                         ent, is same as in the Lacustrine System.
                 from streambeds and riparian zones along streams. Idahols wetlands
                 benefit an increasing population and a large tourism industry by
                 providing unique scenery and recreational opportunities.                             Dahl (1990) estimated that wetlands occupy about 386,000
                                                                                                 acres in Idaho. Most of the State's wetlands are in flood plains and
                                                                                                 riparian areas along streams and other water bodies. These are
                 TYPES AND DISTRIBUTION                                                          palustrine wetlands that include swamps (forested wetland); scrub -
                      Wetlands are lands transitional between terrestrial and deep-              shrub wetlands that also contain smaller acreages of marsh, wet
                 water habitats where the water table usually is at or near the land             meadow, and seeps (emergent wetlands); and a few small ponds.
                 surface or the land is covered by shallow water (Cowardin and oth-                   Many of the State's wetlands are in National Wildlife Refuges
                 ers, 1979). The distribution of wetlands and deepwater habitats in              managed by the Fws. The Bear Lake National Wildlife Refuge (NWR)
                 Idaho is shown in figure 2A; only wetlands are discussed herein.                in southeastern Idaho includes about 17,600 acres of wetland-up-
                      Wetlands can be vegetated or nonvegetated and are classified               land complex consisting of marsh, open water, and grasslands. Other
                 on the basis of their hydrology, vegetation, and substrate. In this             wetlands in southeastern Idaho- Oxford Slough in the Bear River
                 summary, wetlands are classified according to the system proposed               Basin and Grays Lake in the Snake River Basin-also have exten-
                 by Cowardin and others (1979), which is used by the U.S. Fish and               sive emergent wetlands; about 13,000 acres of the original lakebed
                 Wildlife Service (FWS) to map and inventory the Nation's wetlands.              at Grays Lake NWR is being restored to marsh by the FWS. Camas
                 At the most general level of the classification system, wetlands are            NwR and State refuges at Market and Mud Lakes in eastern Idaho
                 grouped into five ecological systems: Palustrine, Lacustrine, Riv-              also have marshes. Other refuges in the Snake River Basin are
                 erine, Estuarine, and Marine. The Palustrine System includes only               Minidoka NwP, which predominantly consists of scrub-shrub wet-
                 wetlands, whereas the other systems comprise wetlands and                       lands along the shores of Lake Walcott on the Snake River; Deer
                 deepwater habitats. Wetlands of the systems that occur in Idaho are             Flat NWR, which includes Lake Lowell Reservoir (about 11,600 acres
                 described below.                                                                of wetlands and deepwater habitat); and 109 islands in the Snake
                                                                                                 River. Notable emergent wetlands are at Camas Prairie Centennial
                                                                                                 Marsh and C.J. Strike ReservoiL In the northern Rocky Mountains,
                                                                                                 the Kootenai NWP contains about 2,800 acres of wetlands on the
                                                                                                 flood plain of the Kootenai River. The mud flats along the Pack River
                                                                                                 and delta marshes along the Clark Fork are among the larger wet-
                                                                                                 lands in northern Idaho. Small bogs, which are emergent wetlands
                                                                                                 that have organic soils and receive moisture only from precipita-
                                                                                                 tion, also are present in northern Idaho (Bureau of Reclamation,
                                                                                                 1992).
                                                                                                      Wetlands in Idaho's mountains are mostly alpine meadows
                                                                                                 (emergent wetlands) in flood plains and small shallow lakes and
                                                                                                 marshes in intermontane basins. In Idaho's plains, most wetlands
                                                               77-
                                                                                                 are associated with river systems, although locally, high water tables
                                                                                                 sustain small wetlands, and during wet years, playas can be filled
                                                                                                 by surface-water runoff. Lacustrine wetlands are present in Idaho's
                                                                                                 lakes and reservoirs; riverine wetlands are present in river channels.


                                                                                                 HYDROLOGIC SETTING
                 Figure 1. The Tules, a wetland     in an abandoned meander channel
                 of the Owyhee River. Tules is a name commonly used for stands of                     Wetlands are present where there is a persistent water supply
                 bulrush or cattail. (Photograph by RX Moseley, Idaho Department                 at or near the land surface. The location and persistence of the sup-
                 of Fish and Game.)                                                              ply are functions of interdependent climatic, physiographic, and








                           174          National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: STATE SUMMARIES


                                                                                          B


                                                                                                              PRECIPITATION

                                                                                                              -16- Line of equal annual precipitation-
                                                                                                                           Interval, in inches, is variable
                           A        KLZI
                                        , -74' - K- I .. i Ri-,
                                        NVVR

                                                                                                                           bU
                                                     -P,.k Ri-,

                                                                                                                                                                       C
                                                      (,'I.,k F-.,k
                                                                                                                                                                                          FREE-WATER-SURFACE EVAPORATION

                                                                                                                                                                                          -40- Line of equal free-water-surface
                                                                                                                                                                                                     evaporation-interval 5 inches



                                                                                                                                                          211

                                        <1

                                                                                                                                                         'V1                         30     f
                                                                                                              20





                                                                                                         12
                                                                                                                                                         12

                           46'                                                                                                                                                                                                            30
                                                                                                                                                                                                                               30
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  36






                                                                                                                                                                                               40


                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      35
                                                                                                    ---                                                                                                 45
                                                                                                                                                                                                                         4
                                                                                                                                                                                        40

                                    C-
                                    e4. 8@
                                                                          Z'

                                                             r
                                                                                                                                                                          D                      ECOREGIONS
                                                                                                                                                                                                   A. Columbia Basin
                                                                                                                        NWR
                           44'                                                                                                                                                                     B. Blue Mountains
                                                                                                                                                                                                   C Snake River Basin/High Desert
                                                                                                                                                                                                   D' Northern Basin and Range
                                        i-'                                                                                                                                                        E.'Northern Rockies
                                                                                                                   j1qo1k1t Lk,                                                                    F. Middle Rockies
                                                                                                                                                                                                   G, Wyoming Basin
                               Dear     L.                                                                                                                                                t
                               Rat                                                                                                                                                                 H. Wasatch and Uinta Mountains
                               NWP
                                                                        mt Prairie
                                                                                                                   e                                                            -A
                                    c                                                               P              e
                                                                                     i                     Lke         A
                                                                                                          watcou
                                                                                                                                                      NVVR


                                                                                                                                               Bear
                                        Rio.                                                                                    Oxford
                                                                                                                                 lough         NWR
                                                                                                                                                                                    B

                       42@
                                                                                          114'                                        112,
                           WETLANDS AND DEEPWATER HABITATS                                                                 0        25        50 MILES
                           Distributi n of wetlands and deepwater habitats-
                                        0                                                                                  0    25    50    KILOMETERS
                               This map shows the approximate distribution of large
                               wetlands in the State. Because of limitations of scale
                               and source material, some wetlands are not shown                                                                                                                          C
                                    Predominantly wetland

                                    Predominantly deepwater habitat

                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    H
                           Figure 2. Wetland distribution in Idaho and physical, climatological, and ecological features that control wetland distribution in the State.
                           A, Distribution of wetlands and cleepwater habitats. B, Precipitation. C, Annual free-water-surface evaporation. D, Ecoregions. (Sources:
                           A, T.E. Dahl, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, unpub. data, 1997. B, Kjelstrom, 1986. C, Farnsworth and others, 7982. D, Omernik, 1987;
                           landforms data from EROS Data Center)








                                                                                                    National Water Surnmary-Wetland Resources: IDAHO            175



                 hydrologic factors such as precipitation and runoff patterns, evapo-       creased in the broad river valleys because cropland irrigation re-
                 ration potential, topography, and configuration of the water table.        charges aquifers and ground water maintains summer and fall base
                 Surface water collects in topographic lows, which can be either            flows in streams and drains.
                 ground-water recharge or discharge areas. Soil composition deter-                In the Columbia Basin and Blue Mountains Ecoregions, wet-
                 mines the rate at which water is recharged or discharged.                  lands receive ground water from glacial outwash and alluvial de-
                      Precipitation is affected by topography and ranges statewide          posits along streams. However, these types of deposits commonly
                 from less than 10 inches per year on much of the Snake River Plain         are higher in altitude than the water table and thus cannot retain
                 in southern Idaho to more than 60 inches per year in mountainous           sufficient moisture for wetland development. Wetlands also could
                 areas that are headwaters of the Clearwater River (fig. 2B). Greater       develop where loess and other windblown deposits are present, but
                 precipitation in the mountains accounts in large part for the greater      wetland growth is inhibited because the soil is easily eroded. At
                 wetland acreage in the intermontane basins than on the plains in           lower altitudes, wetlands are grazed by livestock; wet meadows on
                 southern Idaho. Most of the water that supplies wetlands is from           the upper mountain slopes are summer grazing grounds (Pacific
                 spring snowmelt, either as direct runoff or indirectly as recharge to      Northwest River Basins Commission, 1969).
                 the ground-water system. The timing and volume of runoff affect                  The Northern Basin and Range Ecoregion in southeastern
                 the establishment and functions of wetlands. Although mountain-            Idaho consists of broad basins between low mountain ranges. Hun-
                 ous areas have sufficient precipitation to supply wetlands, steep          dreds of springs throughout the area provide water for many wet-
                 topography and shifting stream channels can prevent wetland de-            lands. Large wetland areas along the Bear River and most of its tribu-
                 velopment. Runoff in the Snake River Basin in southern Idaho is            taries are generally in direct hydraulic connection with ground water
                 highly regulated by dams; runoff in most other river basins is regu-       (Kjelstrom, 1986). Most of the desert shrubland is grazed or cleared
                 lated to some degree (Kjelstrom, 1986). Storage has decreased              and used for irrigated agriculture, which has decreased wetland
                 spring floodflows downweam from reservoirs, and wetland veg-               vegetation and degraded water quality of nearby wetlands.
                 etation on the flood plain that normally receives moisture during
                 floods must rely mostly on precipitation and shallow ground water          TRENDS
                 for moisture. Diversions and scant precipitation deplete streamflow;
                 as a result, water quality could be degraded, possibly resulting in              Starting in 1805, explorers, pioneers, and trappers followed the
                 changes in wetland functions and wildlife value (Kjelstrom and             waterways through Idaho. The first effects on wetlands occurred
                 others, 1991).                                                             between 1818 and 1827 when beaver were virtually eliminated by
                      Evaporation in the State generally increases from north to south      trapping (Idaho Department of Fish and Game, 1990). Storage of
                 (fig. 2C). Superimposed on this pattern are topographic complexi-          water behind beaver dams creates wetlands, provides water for veg-
                 ties that cause evaporation to decrease with altitude. Evaporation         etation during dry periods, and decreases downstream bank erosion.
                 from surface water ranges from 25 to 35 inches during the growing          Since about 1860, when mining and farming activities began, wet-
                 season and from 30 to 45 inches annually (Farnsworth and others,           lands in Idaho have decreased 56 percent-from about 877,000
                 1982). In Idaho, except for some high mountainous areas, potential         acres to about 386,000 acres (Dahl, 1990). In Idaho, agricultural
                 evaporation exceeds precipitation during the growing season and            practices account for most of the human-caused wetland losses;
                 wetland development is inhibited. The moisture deficit generally           residential and commercial development accounts for most of the
                 prevents the formation of bogs.                                            remaining losses (Idaho Department of Parks and Recreation, 1987).
                      The hydrologic setting and functions of wetlands in Idaho dif-        Of the 19.5 million acres of non-Federal land in Idaho- about one-
                 fer regionally because of differences in climate, soils, geology, veg-     third ofthe State- approximately 33 percent is cropland. Cropland
                 etation, and physiography. Omernik (1987) related these character-         increased by about 400,000 acres from 1967 to 1982. During that
                 istics in order to develop regional patterns that were used to define      time, nearly 10,000 acres of farmland per year were converted to
                 ecoregions (fig. 2D).                                                      urban uses (Soil Conservation Service, 1984). Many small wetlands
                      In the Middle and Northern Rockies Ecoregions, mountain               within farmlands were filled for urban use. In agricultural areas,
                 ranges are separated by valleys and, in places, broad basins (Pacific      conversion to cropland, dewatering for irrigation purposes, contami-
                 Northwest River Basins Commission, 1969; Omernik and Gallant,              nation from nutrients in irrigation-return flow, and overgrazing by
                 1986). The alluvial and outwash deposits in the valleys are porous         livestock contributed to wetland loss or degradation. Livestock graz-
                 and permeable and can store and yield large volumes of water.              ing in wetlands is a complex issue because most of the public land
                 Wetlands appear where less permeable rocks crop out or trap water          is grazed, and, although much of the riparian area on public lands
                 and establish springs and seeps.                                           has been adversely affected, riparian areas are commonly the pri-
                      The Snake River Basin/High Desert Ecoregion (fig. 2D) is a            mary and sometimes the only water supply for livestock that graze
                 gently sloping, semiarid plain that contains small wetlands and pla-       on and rangeland. Results of an inventory of about 250 miles of
                 yas. Most wetlands are along the banks of the Snake River and its          National Forest riparian areas indicated that no single grazing strat-
                 tributaries; many are emergent wetlands vegetated by sedges and            egy was effective for all areas (Clary and Webster, 1989). In urban
                 rushes or are forested and scrub-shrub wetlands dominated by al-           areas, wetland losses are attributable to encroachment by residen-
                 der, willow, and cottonwood (Omernik and Gallant, 1986).                   tial and commercial construction, channelization for drainage, and
                      The Snake River and southern tributaries, such as the Bruneau         dewatering for municipal and industrial purposes.
                 and Owyhee Rivers, have cut deep canyons into the plain and gen-                 Loss of wetlands also can be attributed to dam and reservoir
                 erally are at a lower altitude than the regional water table; there-       construction, mining activities, ground-water pumping, river chan-
                 fore, the river and its tributaries receive perennial inflow from          nelization, erosion and sedimentation, and road and railroad con-
                 ground water (Kjelstrorn, 1992). Small streams are generally at a          struction. From 1860 to the 1930's, placer mining along many miles
                 higher altitude than the regional water table and flow intermittently      of streambeds damaged adjacent wetlands. Tailings from hard-rock
                 in response to surface runofffrom precipitation and snowmelt. Shrub        mining and toxic acidic or alkaline drainage have degraded other
                 and grassland vegetation extends to the banks of intermittent and          wetlands.
                 ephemeral streams. Water held near the surface by low-permeabil-                 Short-term causes of wetland degradation are wildfires, plant
                 ity rock can maintain small wetlands. Where the Snake River first          diseases, extremes in weather, and defoliation by cyclic species such
                 crosses the Idaho-Oregon border, broad valleys have developed              as jackrabbits, tent caterpillars, and grasshoppers (Thomas, 1986).
                 along the Snake, Boise, and Payette Rivers. Wetland acreage has in-        Prolonged droughts, such as the one from 1987 to 1992, have tem-








                      176       National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: STATE SUMMARIES



                      porarily reduced the area or functions of some wetlands.                                        filling, excavating, and placing of structures. The related section 404
                             Some land-use practices have created new wetlands or enlarged                            of the Clean Water Act is the most often-used Federal legislation
                      existing ones. Leaking irrigation ditches, uncapped flowing wells,                              protecting wetlands. Under section 404 provisions, the Corps issues
                      seeps, irrigation tailwater, and irrigation-return flows have increased                         permits regulating the discharge of dredged or fill material into
                      wetland acreage and improved wetland habitat, notably in southern                               wetlands. Permits are subject to review and possible veto by the U.S.
                      Idaho. Excavation of gravel pits and construction of reservoirs also                            Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), and the Fws has review and
                      have increased wetland acreage. However, such increases are small                               advisory roles. Section 401 of the Clean Water Act grants to States
                      compared to losses.                                                                             and eligible Indian Tribes the authority to approve, apply conditions
                             Ratti and Kadlec (1992) estimated that about 9 1,000 acres of                            to, or deny section 404 permit applications on the basis of a pro-
                      wetlands are protected in the National Wildlife Refuge system or                                posed activity's probable effects on the water quality of a wetland.
                      by the State. Federal laws and State and local planning and regula-                                    Most farming, ranching, and silviculture -activities are not sub-
                      tory programs are being used to identify and protect the remaining                              ject to section 404 regulation. However, the "Swampbuster" provi-
                      wetlands.                                                                                       sion of the 1985 Food Security Act and amendments in the 1990
                                                                                                                      Food, Agriculture, Conservation, and Trade Act discourage (through
                      CONSERVATION                                                                                    financial disincentives) the draining, filling, or other alteration of
                                                                                                                      wetlands for agricultural use. The law allows exemptions from pen-
                             Many government agencies and private organizations partici-                              alties in some cases, especially if the farmer agrees to restore the
                      pate in wetland conservation in Idaho. The most active agencies and                             altered wetland or other wetlands that have been converted to agri-
                      organizations and some of their activities are listed in table 1.                               cultural use. The Wetlands Reserve Program of the 1990 Food,
                             Federal wetland activities.-Development activities in Idaho                              Agriculture, Conservation, and Trade Act authorizes the Federal
                      wetlands are regulated by several Federal statutory prohibitions and                            Government to purchase conservation casements from landowners
                      incentives that are intended to slow wetland losses. Some of the more                           who agree to protect or restore wetlands. The Consolidated Farm
                      important of these are contained in the 1899 Rivers and Harbors                                 Service Agency (formerly the Agricultural Stabilization and Con-
                      Act: the 1972 Clean Water Act and amendments; the 1985 Food                                     servation Service) administers the Swampbuster provisions and Wet-
                      Security Act; the 1990 Food, Agriculture, Conservation, and Trade                               lands Reserve Program. The Natural Resources Conservation
                      Act; and the 1986 Emergency Wetlands Resources Act.                                             Service (formerly the Soil Conservation Service) (NRCs) determines
                             Section 10 of the Rivers and Harbors Act gives the U.S. Army                             compliance with Swampbuster provisions and assists farmers in the
                      Corps of Engineers (Corps) authority to regulate certain activities                             identification of wetlands and in the development of wetland pro-
                      in navigable waters. Regulated activities include diking, deepening,                            tection, restoration, or creation plans.
                                                                                                                             The 1986 Emergency Wetlands Resources Act encourages
                                                                                                                      wetland protection through funding incentives. The act requires
                      Table 1. Selected wetland-related activities of government                                      States to address wetland protection in their Statewide Comprehen-
                      agencies and private organizations in Idaho, 1993                                               sive Outdoor Recreation Plans to qualify for Federal funding for
                                                                                                                      State recreational land; the National Park Service (NPS) provides
                      [Sourcei Classification Of 3CtiVitieS is generalized from information provided                  guidance to States in developing the wetland component of their
                           by agencies and organizations. e, agency or organization participates in
                           wetland-related activity; ..., agency or organization does not participate in              plans.
                           wetland-related activity. MAN, management; REG, regulation            'R&C, resto-                The U.S. Forest Service manages about 20 million acres of
                           ration and creation; LAN, land acqwsitior; R&D, research and data collec-                  National Forest in Idaho and is assessing a process to evaluate the
                           tion, 0&1, delineation and inventory]                                                      value and function of each wetland (Bureau of Reclamation, 1992).
                                                                                                                      From 1964 to 1980, forested wetlands were further protected by the
                      Agency or organization                                              lqp@'  J_   0y              designation of about 4 million acres as wilderness areas.
                                                                                                                             The Bureau of Land Management (BLM) manages about 12
                      FEDERAL                                                                                         million acres, of which about 69,000 acres are riparian wetlands
                      Department of Agriculture                                                                       (Bureau of Reclamation, 1992). Waterfowl -habitat management
                        Consolidated Farm Service Agency       ...........................                            areas have been designated on 68 sites within BLM lands, and habi-
                        Forest Service  .................................  ...............................
                        Natural Resources Conservation Service        ................                                tat-improvement projects have been completed on 2,000 acres. In
                      Department of Defense                                                                           the 1970's, the BLm began protecting riparian areas by fencing
                        Army Corps of Engineers    ..............................................            o        stream segments, planting willows and other woody species, build-
                        Military reservations   .....................................................                 ing check dams, and introducing beavers (Thomas, 1988). Intensive
                      Department of the Interior                                                                      inventories of conditions, objectives, plans, and restoration will be
                        Bureau of Land Management        ......................................       e      o        made on 10,400 acres from 1991 to 1995 (Bureau of Land Manage-
                        Bureau of Reclamation      .................................................  0      a
                        Fish and Wildlife Service ... ........................................... . . .               ment, 1991).
                        Geological Survey    ..........................................................                      The FWS manages six National Wildlife Refuges and one wa-
                        National Biological Service    .........................................                      terfowl -production area. The agency is conducting numerous re-
                        National Park Service    ...................................................0                 search and education projects involving wetland enhancement and
                      Environmental Protection Agency      ..................................                         conservation.
                      STATE
                      Department of Agriculture    ...............................................                           The NPS manages about 85,000 acres in Idaho. To date (1993),
                      Department of Fish and Game      .........................................                      no estimates of wetland acreage on those lands have been made,
                      Department of Health and Welfare                                                                       The Bureau of Reclamation (BOR) is carrying out cooperative
                        Division of Environmental Quality    ...............................                          research projects that demonstrate how wetlands and riparian habitat
                      Department of Parks and Recreation       ............................                           can be preserved and enhanced as part of an overall water-resources
                      Department of Transportation     .........................................
                      Department of Water Resources          ...............................00                        management plan. Most BOR wed and- restoration and development
                      SOME COUNTY AND LOCAL GOVERNMENTS                .............                                  projects are multipurpose, but all projects enhance, waterfowl habi-
                      PRIVATE ORGANIZATIONS                                                                           tat in accordance with the North American Waterfowl Management
                        Ducks Unlimited    ..............................................................             Plan of 1986. Research projects near American Falls Reservoir are
                        The Nature Conservancy     ..............................................ooo                  designed to determine the effectiveness of small wetland-area im-








                                                                                                              National Water Surnmary-Wetland Resources: IDAHO                  177



                  poundments on wetland plant communities, to improve quality of                      by construction is not possible; compensation may be made by the
                  irrigation-return flow, and to enhance waterfowl habitat by devel-                  offsite creation, restoration, or enhancement of wetlands. The Uni-
                  oping a large wetland area on the north side of the reservoir (Bureau               versity of Idaho and the Idaho Water Resources Research Institute
                  of Reclamation, 1992).                                                              are conducting projects to assess the effectiveness of constructed
                       The NRCS will provide technical assistance to the BOR in the                   wetlands supplied by irrigation-return flow near Twin Falls and by
                  design and operation of a nutrient and sediment-control system                      sewer effluent from an aquaculture facility near Moscow. Also, the
                  adjacent to Cascade Reservoir (P.H. Calverley, Soil Conservation                    institute, in cooperation with the Idaho Bureau of Mines, is con-
                  Service, written commun., 1992). Three shallow, vegetated wetland                   ducting projects to evaluate wetland design for the reduction of
                  cells and one deepwater pond will be used to improve the water                      heavy metals in runoff from mine-waste sites. The University of
                  quality of irrigation-return flow. The NRCs Aberdeen Plant Materi-                  Idaho's Cooperative Extension System is conducting research on
                  als Center, in cooperation with several Federal and State agencies,                 pollutant and sediment runoff from several small parcels of land on
                  will conduct a long-term project to assemble, evaluate, select, and                 which different grazing practices are used.
                  release for commercial production several improved varieties of ri-                       County and local wetland activities. -Most development in
                  parian wetland plant species (P.H. Calverley, Soil Conservation                     Idaho's wetlands is regulated by Federal and State laws. However,
                  Service, written commun., 1992).                                                    some city and county governments have ordinances and planning
                       The National Water Quality Assessment study of the upper                       and zoning regulations that protect wetland areas and functions.
                  Snake River Basin by the U.S. Geological Survey will address the                    Guidance and assistance to farmers and other landowners for wet-
                  effects of long-term water use on ground- and surface-water qual-                   land conservation are provided by the University of Idaho's Coop-
                  ity, Several wetland areas are within the basin.                                    erative Extension System.
                       State wedand activities. -The Idaho State Water Plan states                          Private wetland activities. -The Nature Conservancy and
                  that, insofar as is possible, the State should assume responsibility                Ducks Unlimited have participated in several projects involving
                  for wetland management and protection (Idaho Water Resource                         acquisition and restoration of wetlands. Other organizations that
                  Board, 1992). Policy plans made by the Idaho Department of Fish                     participate in wetland-protection activities in the State include The
                  and Game for 1991-2005 focus land-acquisition efforts on wetland                    National Wetlands Policy Forum, National Wildlife Federation,
                  areas where habitat protection is critical. Some activities adminis-                Wildlife Council, National Audubon Society, Pheasants Forever,
                  tered by the department in the last 5 years include (1) the develop-                Sierra Club, and Idaho Conservation League. Many other groups
                  ment or protection of about 500 blocks of wetland habitat and nearly                have formed to restore and preserve specific wetland areas. For
                  1,500 waterfowl nesting structures (Habitat Improvement Program);                   example, the Henrys Lake Foundation was formed by summer
                  (2) mitigation for about 11,000 acres of wetland area lost to con-                  homeowners, local ranchers, and business owners to restore the fish-
                  struction of several reservoirs (Wildlife Mitigation Program); (3)                  ery in Henrys Lake. Money was raised to exclude livestock from the
                  acquisition of about 4,300 acres of wetland habitat by use of water-                riparian area along a tributary stream (Chancy and others, 1990).
                  fowl-stamp funds (State Duck Stamp Program); (4) identification                     In 1986, a group of ranchers in south-central Idaho formed the
                  of more than 200 valuable wetlands for protection (Idaho National                   Beaver Committee with the aim of restoring riparian wetlands, re-
                  Heritage Program); (5) encouragement of local participation and                     ducing soil erosion, and improving the productivity of land for live-
                  volunteer efforts to address nonpoint sources of pollution                          stock grazing. About 100 beavers have been relocated to 25 creeks
                  (Antidegradation Program); and (6) the publication and dissemina-                   (High Country News, Paonia, Colo., August 24,1992, p. 1, 10-12).
                  tion of several leaflets and guides dealing with waterways, riparian                In Boise, citizen groups protested the residential development of a
                  areas, wetlands, and aquatic biota (Aquatic Education Program)                      riparian area in the Boise foothills. As a result, a land exchange
                  (Groen, 1991).                                                                      between the city of Boise and the developer will preserve 100 acres
                       The Division of Environmental Quality of the Department of                     of wetlands.
                  Health and Welfare reviews section 404 permit applications to en-
                  sure compliance with State water-quality laws. A permit is not issued               References Cited
                  by the Corps without certification of compliance by the division.
                  Pursuant to section 305(b) of the Clean Water Act, the division sub-                Bureau of Land Management, 1991, Riparian-wetland initiative for the
                  mits to the EPA and the U.S. Congress a biennial assessment of the                        1990's: Bureau of Land Management Report BLMIWO/GI-91/
                  State's surface-water quality, including that in wetlands.                                001+4340, 50 p.
                       Idaho's Statewide Comprehensive Outdoor Recreation Plan was                    Bureau of Reclamation, 1992, Idaho river systems management study, wet-
                  completed by the Department of Parks and Recreation and adopted                           lands report: Denver, Bureau of Reclamation, 155 p.
                                                                                                      Chaney, J.E., Elmore, Wayne, and Plaits, W.S., 1990, Livestock grazing on
                  by the Governor in January 1988. The Department is responsible                            western riparian areas: Eagle, Idaho, Northwest Resource Informa-
                  for maintaining lists of wetlands and endangered plant species un-                        tion Center, Inc., 45 p. f2d printing.]
                  der the plan. The Idaho Wetlands Conservation Priority Plan, pre-                   Clary, W.P., and Webster, B.F., 1989, Managing grazing of riparian areas
                  pared by the Department, calls for the identification of wetlands                         in the intermountain region: U.S. Forest Service, Intermountain Re-
                  warranting priority consideration for protection (Howard, 1991).                          search Station General Technical Report INT-263, 11 p.
                  One of the wetlands identified for priority protection is The Tules                 Cowardin, L.M., Carter, Virginia, Golet, F.C., and LaRoe, E.T., 1979, Clas-
                  (fig. 1), which consists of about 160 acres in an abandoned mean-                         sification of wetlands and deepwater habitats of the United States: U.S.
                  der channel of the Owyhee River. The Department also manages                              Fish and Wildlife Service Report FWS/OBS -79/31, 131 p.
                  about 580 miles of nationally designated wild and scenic rivers that                Dahl, T.E., 1990, Wetlands -Losses in the United States, 1780's to 1980's:
                                                                                                            Washington, D.C., U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Report to Congress,
                  include riparian wetland.                                                                 13 p.
                       The Idaho Department of Water Resources issues and manages                     Farnsworth, R.K., Thompson, E.S., and Peck, E.L., 1982, Evaporation at-
                  surface- and ground-water rights and administers diverse activities                       las for the contiguous 48 United States: National Oceanic and Atmo-
                  that can affect wetlands. The Idaho Department of Transportation                          spheric Administration Technical Report NWS 33, 27 p.
                  analyzes alternative roadway locations and uses construction tech-                  Gruen, Cal, 1991, A look at the players-Federal and State roles, Idaho
                  niques to lessen the degradation or loss of wetlands. When loss or                        Department of Fish and Game role in wetlands protection, in Wetlands
                  degradation occurs, mitigation in the form of restoration or other                        protection in Idaho-Living with "no net loss": Boise, University of
                  compensation is required. A wetland bank in Idaho (Tiedemarm,                             Idaho, Idaho Water Resources Research Institute, [about 140] p.
                  199 1) may be used when mitigation of unavoidable impacts caused                    Howard, Jake, 1991, The role of the Idaho Department of Parks and Recre-
                                                                                                            ation in wetlands protection, in Wetlands protection in Idaho-Liv-








                     178      National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: STATE SUMMARIES



                           ing with "no net loss": Boise, University of Idaho, Idaho Water Re-                 appendix H-The region: Vancouver, Wash., Pacific Northwest River
                           sources Research Institute, [about 140] p.                                          Basins Commission, 147 p.
                     Idaho Department of Fish and Game, 1990, Between land and water-The                  Ratti, J.T., and Kadlec, J.A., 1992, Concept plan for the preservation of
                           wetlands of Idaho: Idaho Department of Fish and Game, Nongame                       wetland habitat of the intermountain west- North American Water-
                           Wildlife Leaflet no. 9, 12 p.                                                       fowl Management Plan: Portland, Oreg., U.S. Fish and Wildlife Ser-
                     Idaho Department of Parks and Recreation, 1987, Idaho wetlands conser-                    vice, 146 p.
                           vation priority plan-An addendum to the 1983 statewide compre-                 Soil Conservation Service, 1984, Idaho's soil and water-Condition and
                           hensive outdoor recreation plan: Boise, Idaho Department of Parks                   trends: Boise, Soil Conservation Service, 24 p.
                           and Recreation, 13 p.                                                          Thomas, A.E., 1986, Riparian protection/enhancement in Idaho: Range-
                     Idaho Water Resource Board, 1992, Idaho State water plan: Boise, Idaho                    lands, v. 8, no. 5, p. 224-227.
                           Department of Water Resources, 56 p.                                           -1988, Seen a riparian lately? Good ones are green!: Idaho Wildlife,
                     Kjelstrom, L.C., 1986, Idaho surface-water resources, in U.S. Geological                  v. 8, no, 5, p. 6-9.
                           Survey, National water summary 1985 -Hydrologic and surface-water              Tiedemarm, R.B., 199 1, Development and use of a wetland bank as a miti-
                           resources: U.S. Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper 2300, p. 207 -                 gation alternative in Idaho, in Wetlands protection in Idaho -Living
                           214.                                                                                with "no net loss": Boise, University of Idaho, Idaho Water Resources
                     - 1992, Strearnflow gains and losses in the Snake River and ground-                       Research Institute, [about 140] p.
                           water budgets for the Snake River Plain, Idaho and eastern Oregon:
                           U.S. Geological Survey Open-File Report 90-172, 71 p.
                     Kjelstrom, L.C., and others, 1991, Idaho floods and droughts, in U.S. Geo-
                           logical Survey, National water summary 1988 - 89 -Hydrologic events            FOR ADDITIONAL INFORMATION: District Chief, U.S. Geological
                           and floods and droughts: U.S. Geological Survey Water-Supply Pa-               Survey, 230 Collins Road, Boise, ID 83702; Regional Wetland Coordina-
                           per 2375, p. 255 -262.                                                         tor, U.S. Fish andWildlife Service, 911 NE llthAvenue, Portland, OR 97232
                     Omernik, J.M., 1987, Ecoregions of the conterminous United States-Map
                           supplement: Annals of the Association of American Geographers,
                           v. 77, no. 1, scale 1:7,500,000.                                                                              Prepared by
                     Ornernik, J.M., and Gallant, A.L., 1986, Ecoregions of the Pacific North-                                         L.C. Kjelstrom,
                           west: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency Report EPA/600/3 -86/                                        U.S. Geological Survey
                           033, 39 p.
                     Pacific Northwest River Basins Commission, 1969, Columbia-North Pa-
                           cific region comprehensive framework study of water and related lands,












































                                                                        U.S. Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper 2425







                                                                                                         National Water Summary-Wetland Resources 179
                                                                                                                                   Illinois
                                                                                                            Wetland Resources
                The diverse wetlands of Illinois, which cover about 3.5 percent of      TYPES AND DISTRIBUTION
                the State, have resulted from the interaction of geologic events,            Wetlands are lands transitional between terrestrial and
                human activities, and hydrologic conditions. The State contains         deepwater habitats where the water table usually is at or near the
                several ecologically significant wetlands. Two examples are Beall       land surface or the land is covered by shallow water (Cowardin and
                Woods on the Wabash River in eastern Illinois and the swamps along      others, 1979). The distribution of wetlands and deepwater habitats
                the Cache River in the southern part of the State. Beall Woods is       in Illinois is shown in figure 2A; only wetlands are discussed herein.
                one of the last near-virgin stands of wet bottom-land forest in the          Wetlands can be vegetated or nonvegetated and are classified
                State, and the Cache River swamps (fig. 1) are among the few bald       on the basis of their hydrology, vegetation, and substrate. In this
                cypress/tupelo gum swamps remaining in southern Illinois. Core          summary, wetlands are classified according to the system proposed
                samples from some of the larger bald cypress trees indicate ages of     by Cowardin and others (1979), which is used by the U.S. Fish and
                more than 1,000 years. The Cache River swamps also are home to          Wildlife Service (FWS) to map and inventory the Natiorfs wetlands.
                a colony of nesting great blue herons (Barickman, 1992).                At the most general level of the classification system, wetlands are
                     Wetlands have many fish and wildlife, environmental-quality,       grouped into five ecological systems: Palustrine, Lacustrine, Riv-
                and socioeconomic values (Tiner, 1984). Illinois wetlands provide       erine, Estuarine, and Marine. The Palustrine System includes only
                feeding, spawning, and nursery grounds for catfish, sunfish, north-     wetlands, whereas the other systems comprise wetlands and
                ern pike, muskie, and walleye. Common birds, such as ducks, tur-        deepwater habitats. Wetlands of the systems that occur in Illinois
                keys, and owls, and threatened or endangered species, such as           are described below.
                American bittern, upland sandpiper, Henslow's sparrow, and north-
                ern harrier, use Illinois wetlands for feeding and nesting sites
                (Barickman, 1992). Deer, muskrat, rabbits, beaver, and other fur-       System                              Wetiand description
                bearers use wetlands as a source of food and shelter. Numerous          Palustrine  .................. Wetlands in which vegetation is predominantly
                reptile and amphibian species also live in the wetlands of Illinois.                           trees (forested wetlands); shrubs (scrub-shrub
                     The environmental quality of aquatic habitats is enhanced by                              wetlands); persistent or nonpersistent emergent,
                wetlands. Wetlands absorb nutrients and remove heavy metals and                                erect, rooted, herbaceous plants (persistent- and
                other contaminants from waters moving through them. Wetlands                                   nonpersistent-emergent wetlands); or sub-
                                                                                                               mersed and (or) floating plants (aquatic beds).
                reduce turbidity and sediment loading and thereby slow the siltation                           Also, intermittently to permanently flooded
                of harbors and navigable rivers and streams (Tiner, 1984).                                     open-water bodies of less than 20 acres in which
                     In addition to the habitat and environmental -quality values of                           water is less than 6.6 feet deep.
                wetlands, they also have socioeconomic benefits such as flood- and      Lacustrine  ................. Wetlands within an intermittently to permanently
                storm-damage protection, erosion control, public water supply, and                             flooded lake or reservoir. Vegetation, when pres-
                production of economically important natural species (Tiner, 1984).                            ent, is predominantly nonpersistent emergent
                                                                                                               plants (nonpersistent-emergent wetlands), or
                Illinois is one of five States whose combined production of peat                               submersed and (or) floating plants (aquatic
                accounts for over 75 percent of the peat mined in the United States.                           beds), or both.
                Wetlands also are the site for many recreational and educational        Riverine  ..................... Wetlands within a channel. Vegetation, when pres-
                activities including hunting and fishing, nature study, boating, paint-                        ent, is same as in the Lacustrine System.
                ing and drawing, and photography.                                            As of the 1980's, 3.5 percent of Illinois, or about 1.25 million
                                                                                        acres, was wetland (Dahl, 1990; Suloway and others, 1992). Most
                                                                                        of the State's wetlands are either palustrine emergent wetlands such
                                                                                        as marshes and wet prairies or palustrine forested wetlands such as
                                                                                        bottom-land hardwood forests and bald cypress swamps. Also, open-
                                                                                        water palustrine wetlands -prirnarily farm ponds-are present
                              'j,                                                       throughout the State (Hubbell, 1987).
                                                                                             On the basis of frequency of occurrence, the largest concen-
                                                                                        tration of wetlands in Illinois is in the northeast. The largest acre-
                                                                                        age of wetlands in Illinois is along the State's major river systems
                                                                                        (Hubbell, 1987). Marshes, wet prairies, and bogs (palustrine emer-
                                                                                        gent, scrub-shrub, or forested wetlands) are most common in the
                                                                                        northeastern part of the State, and bottom-land forests (palustrine
                                                                                        forested wetlands) and swamps (palustrine scrub -shrub or forested)
                                                                                        are present along Illinois rivers.
                                                                                             Dominant plants of marshes are sedges, cattails, and bulrushes.
                                                                7                       Wet prairie dominants include sedges, cordgrass, and blue flag iris.
                                                                                        Silver maple, cottonwood, box elder, red maple, black willow, sy-
                                                                                        camore, and bald cypress are characteristic of bottom-land hard-
                     Figure 1. Swamp along the Cache River in southern                  wood forests and swamps in the State.
                     Illinois. (Photograph by Michael R. Jeffords, Illinois Natural          Federally listed endangered species of Illinois wetlands include
                     History Survey.)                                                   the eastern prairie white-fringed orchid and decurrent false aster.








               180   National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: STATE SUMMARIES





                                                                                                                           ly@
                                                           89-                                                             G

                                                     Rockfo


                                      4V
                                                                                   Chicago
                                                            -@7





                                                                                ac







                                                   41
                                                   earls





                                                                        cph  Daign

                                                                                                         B   SURFICIAL DEPOSITS
                                                    ringriald                                                    Sand and gravel
                                                                                                                 Alluvium
                   %1@                                                                                           Glacial drift
                                                                                                                 Surficial deposits absent













                                                                           Beal ds




                                                                                                                   Central
                                      38-                                                                         Lowland








                      0      25       50 MILES
                      i    I  -L-@
                      0   25   50 KILOMETERS


                                                                                                                                 Interior
                                                                                                                                 Low Plateaus
                                                                                                             Ozark
                                 A    WETLANDS AND DEEPWATER HABITATS                                        Plateaus
                                      Distribution of wetlands and deepwater habitats-
                                        This map shows the approximate distribution of large
                                        wetl ands in the State. Because of limitations of scale                           Coastal Plain
                                        and source material, some weidands are not shown.
                                                                                                                 6@1




































                                           Predominantly wetland                                         C   PHYSIOGRAPHIC DIVISIONS

                                           Predominantly deepwater habitat


               Figure 2. Wetland distribution in Illinois, physical and climatic features that control wetland distribution in the State, and trends in
               development of agricultural land. A, Distribution of wetlands and deepwater habitats. 8, Surficial deposits. C, Physiography. (Sources:
               A, TE. Dahl, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, unpub. data, 1991. B, Voelker and Clarke, 1988; C, Physiographic divisions from Fenneman,
               1946; landforms data from EROS Data Center)








                                                                                                    National Water Surnmary-Wetland Resources: ILLINOIS           181



                 In addition, bald eagles and least terns use bottom lands for habitat        Ackermann, 1990). The remaining precipitation recharges the
                 (Jerry Bade, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, oral commun., 1993).            ground- and surface-water systems. Recharge to the shallow ground-
                 The State of Illinois also maintains a list of endangered species. As        water system takes place in interstream areas of the surficial -drain-
                 of February, 1994, the State list contained 415 endangered species           age system. Aquifers overlain by confining units composed of silt
                 (E) and 96 threatened species (T)-about 40 percent of which are              and clay are recharged by precipitation entering areas where the
                 wetland dependent. Among the State-listed endangered or threat-              aquifers crop out and by slow percolation downward through the
                 ened wetland-plant species are white lady's slipper (E), queen-of-
                 the-prairie (T), water elm (E), and marsh speedwell (T). State-listed
                 animal species include the Illinois chorus frog (T), the Illinois mud
                 turtle (E), sandhill crane (E), black tern (E), bluehead shiner (E),
                 and river otter (E) (Susan Lauzon, Illinois Department of Conser-
                 vation, oral commun., 1994).


                 HYDROLOGIC SETTING
                      Wetlands are present where the geohydrology and physiogra-
                 phy favor the retention of water for extended periods. The location
                 of wetlands in Illinois is strongly affected by its geologic history.
                 Aquifers underlying wetlands in the State are composed of sedimen-
                 tary and metamorphic rocks of various ages overlain by glacial drift.
                 Glacial scouring and subsequent glacial melting at the end of the
                 last ice age left depressions in the glacially derived sediments, or
                 drift, deposited by the glaciers. Glacial drift covers a large area of
                 the State (fig. 2,B) and ranges in thickness from a few to several hun-
                 dred feet (Sherrill and others, 1984). The geologic history of the
                 State has significantly shaped its physiography. Most of Illinois lies
                 in the Central Lowland physiographic province (fig. 2C), where the
                 relatively flat topography is due to glaciation. The greatest relief is
                 present where surface drainage has cut into the glacial deposits and,
                 in some locations, into the underlying bedrock.                                                 1850
                      In Illinois, average annual precipitation (fig. 2D) ranges from
                 about 34 inches per year in the north to 48 inches per year in the
                 extreme south (Wendland and others, 1992). About three-fourths of
                 the precipitation that reaches the land surface is returned to the at-
                 mosphere by evaporation and plant transpiration (LaTbur and

                                                                                                                                                      1870
                                                              34

                                                                  036









                                                                                                                 1900


                                                           AO                                 E     AGRICULTURAL LAND
                                                                                                     In percent
                                                               42                                         Missing data
                                                                44
                                                                                                          25
                  D     PRECIPITATION                            46                                 -     50
                        -40- Utne of equal average annual       48                                  -     75                                          1930
                                precipitation - interval, in
                                 inches, is variable


                 Figure 2. Continued. D, Average annual precipitation, 1961-90. E, Percentage of agricultural land in Illinois counties in 1850, 1870,
                 1900, and 1930. (Sources: D, Wendiand and others, 1992. E, Data from U.S. Census Office, 1853, 1872, 1901; U.S. Census Bureau, 1932.)








                              182          National Water Summary-Welland Resources: STATE SUMMARIES



                              confining units. Water returns to the surface as base flow to streams,                                                             Some wetland acreage has been added through the construc-
                              ponds, and lakes. Ground water moves through shale and dolomite                                                             tion of ponds and reservoirs and through planned welland construc-
                              aquifers in fractures or solution channels. Wetlands develop along                                                          tion. In Wadsworth, 35 miles north of Chicago, Wetlands Research,
                              streams and near glacially formed lakes where ground water dis-                                                             Inc., a nonprofit corporation, is coordinating the Des Plaines River
                              charges.                                                                                                                    Wetlands Demonstration Project. Since 1993, 50 acres of wetlands
                                      In the Central Lowland, wetlands are associated with ground-                                                        have been constructed (Wetlands Research, Inc., 1993). Also, the
                              water discharge into depressions in the extensive glacial drift. In                                                         Cache River Wetlands Project, a joint effort of the Illinois Depart-
                              areas of high precipitation, low surface-water gradients coupled with                                                       ment of Conservation, the FWS, The Nature Conservancy, and Ducks
                              the low permeability of fine-grained surficial deposits can result in                                                       Unlimited, has the primary goal of acquiring and restoring between
                              poor drainage of glacial depressions. The resulting accumulation                                                            55,000 and 60,000 acres of contiguous wetland-upland complexes.
                              of water contributes to wetland formation. Ground-water discharge                                                           The impoundment of streams and farm-pond construction, as well
                              to streams in the Central Lowland also provides sites for wetland                                                           as natural processes, also can result in the creation of wetlands.
                              establishment.
                                      In the Ozark Plateaus, Interior Low Plateaus, and Coastal Plain,                                                    CONSERVATION
                              ground water from drift or underlying bedrock discharges primar-
                              ily to streams, as in the Cache River area and the wetlands along                                                                  Many government agencies and private organizations partici-
                              the Mississippi River. Wetlands also can form where clay or other                                                           pate in wetland conservation in Illinois. The most active agencies
                              fine sediments form a poorly permeable layer that holds water at or                                                         and organizations and some of their activities are listed in table 1.
                              near the land surface, providing a suitable habitat for wetland veg-                                                               Federal wetlandactivities.-Development activities in Illinois
                              etation.                                                                                                                    wetlands are regulated by several Federal statutory prohibitions and
                                                                                                                                                          incentives that are intended to slow wetland losses. Some of the more
                              TRENDS                                                                                                                      important of these are contained in the 1899 Rivers and Harbors
                                                                                                                                                          Act; the 1972 Clean Water Act and amendments; the 1985 Food
                                      Illinois once had vast expanses of wetlands but has lost as much                                                    Security Act; the 1990 Food, Agriculture, Conservation, and Trade
                              as 90 percent of them (by area) since the 1780's (Dahl, 1990; S.P.                                                          Act; the 1986 Emergency Wetlands Resources Act; and the 1972
                              Havera, Illinois Natural History Survey, written commun., 1993)-                                                            Coastal Management Act.
                              sixth in the Nation in terms of percentage loss. A notable example
                              of this loss is the Great Kankakee Swamp (also known as the Grand
                              Marsh). One of the largest marsh-swamp basins in the United States,
                              in the 1830's, this wetland contained more than I million acres of                                                          Table 1. Selected wetland-related activities of government
                              wet prairie and marshes (Mitsch and others, 1979). It is now repre-                                                         agencies and private organizations in Illinois, 1993
                              sented in Illinois by a relatively small tract of wetlands along the                                                        [Source: Classification of activities is generalized from information provided
                              Kankakee River near Momence.                                                                                                    by agencies and organizations. e, agency or organization participates in
                                      Wetlands in the State have been drained and filled since settle-                                                        wetland-related activity; ..., agency or organization does not participate in
                                                                                                                                                              wetland-related activity. MAN, management; REG, regulation; R&C, resto-
                              ment by Europeans began in the 1600's. Of about 8,212,000 acres                                                                 ration and creation; LAN, land acquisition; R&D, research and data collec-
                              of wetlands that were present in the 1780's (Havera, 1992), only                                                                tion; D&I, delineation and inventory]
                              about 1,254,500 acres remained in the 1980's (Dahl, 1990; Suloway
                              and others, 1992). About 6,000 acres remain undisturbed (White,
                              1978). Rates of loss in the State are estimated to be between 4,000                                                         Agency or organization
                              and 6,000 acres per year (Illinois Department of Conservation,                                                              FEDERAL
                              undated).                                                                                                                   Department of Agriculture
                                      In Illinois, the major cause of wetland loss has been artificial                                                     Consolidated Farm Service Agency                  ........................... ...       ... ...       ... ...
                              drainage- primarily to make lands suitable for crop production.                                                              Forest Service        .................................................................               0      0
                              The number of drained acres in Illinois increased from about                                                                 Natural Resources Conservation Service                    ................                            0      e
                              100,000 in the 1870's to nearly 5 million by 1920. Most of the wet-                                                         Department of Commerce
                              land loss occurred between 1890 and 1930 (S.P. Havera, Illinois                                                              National Oceanic and
                                                                                                                                                           Atmospheric Administration             ........................................
                              Natural History Survey, written commun., 1993). At the end of that                                                          Department of Defense
                              period, about 17 percent of land in the State was in drainage dis-                                                           Army Corps of Engineers             ..............................................
                              tricts (Illinois Tax Commission, 1941), and 27 percent of agricul-                                                           Military reservations               .....................................................
                              tural land had been drained either through district activities or by                                                        Department ofthe Interior
                              private action (U.S. Census Bureau, 1981). The percentages of ag-                                                            Fish and Wildlife Service           ..............................................
                                                                                                                                                           Geological Survey          .................................... .....................
                              ricultural land in each Illinois county for the years 1850,1870, 1900,                                                       National Biological Service            ................... ..................... . ... ...    ... . ...
                              and 1930 are shown in figure 2E. The rapid and substantial growth                                                            National Park Service               ............................. .....................
                              in agriculture and the associated expansion of drainage districts in                                                        Environmental Protection Agency               ............ .....................
                              the State during that period paralleled the decline in wetland acre-                                                        STATE
                              age as more and more land was drained for farming.                                                                          Department of Agriculture            ...............................................
                                                                                                                                                          Department of Conservation              ............ ...................  .......... . . . . .
                                      Agricultural expansion was not the sole reason for the decline                                                      Department of Energy and
                              in wetland acreage. The draining of wetlands for housing, transpor-                                                         Natural Resources         ............................................................. ... ...
                              tation, industry, and landfills; stream channelization and dredging                                                         Department of Mines and Minerals                ...............................*
                              for navigation; and reservoir, harbor, and marina construction have                                                         Department of Transportation            .........................................0a
                              also reduced wetland acreage. In addition to acreage loss caused by                                                         Environmental Protection Agency               ..................................ee
                                                                                                                                                          Pollution Control Board              ..................................................... ...0
                              these activities, wetlands have been degraded by point and nonpoint                                                         SOME COUNTY AND LOCAL GOVERNMENTS                            ............. ...  e
                              discharges to surface waters. These discharges are associated with                                                          PRIVATE
                              agricultural, industrial, municipal, and urban runoff, which add                                                            Ducks Unlimited           .............................................................0 0
                              contaminants and sediment to surface waters.                                                                                The Nature Conservancy               ..................................................e e








                                                                                                            National Water Surnmary-Wetland Resources: ILLINOIS                  183



                        Section l0oftheRivers and Harbors Act gives the U.S. Army                     wetland banks. These banks have allowed the county to maintain
                  Corps of Engineers (Corps) authority to regulate certain activities                 no net loss of wetlands within its boundaries and to provide addi-
                  in navigable waters. Regulated activities include diking, deepening,                tional alternatives to developers for compliance with the mitigation
                  filling, excavating, and placing of structures. The related section 404             requirements of the section 404 program. Two additional counties
                  of the Clean Water Act is the most often-used Federal legislation                   are investigating a similar banking concept that requires replace-
                  protecting wetlands. Under section 404 provisions, the Corps issues                 ment of wetlands lost as a result of filling or dredging with wetlands
                  permits regulating the discharge of dredged or fill material into                   of like kind and quality. Several municipalities in Illinois have spe-
                  wetlands. Permits are subject to review and possible veto by the U.S.               cific ordinances protecting wetlands (M.E. Hubbell, Illinois Depart-
                  Environmental Protection Agency, and the Fws has review and ad-                     ment of Conservation, oral commun., 1.993).
                  visory roles. Section 401 of the Clean Water Act grants to States
                  and eligible Indian Tribes the authority to approve, apply conditions
                  to, or deny section 404 permit applications on the basis of a pro-                  References Cited
                  posed activity's probable effects on the water quality of a wetland.
                        Most farn-iing, ranching, and silvicultural activities are not sub-           Barickman, Gene, 1992, Illinois wetlands: The Illinois Steward, Spring
                  ject to section 404 regulation. However, the "Swampbuster" provi-                         1992,p.1-5.
                  sion of the 1985 Food Security Act and amendments in the 1990                       Cowardin, L.M., Carter, Virginia, Golet, F.C., and LaRoe, E.T., 1979, Clas-
                                                                                                            sification of wetlands and deepwater habitats of the United States: U.S.
                  Food, Agriculture, Conservation, and Trade Act discourage (through                        Fish and Wildlife Service Report FWS/OBS-79/31, 131 p.
                  financial disincentives) the draining, filling, or other alteration of              Dahl, T.E., 1990, Wetlands-Losses in the United States, 1780's to 1980's:
                  wetlands for agricultural use. The law allows exemptions from pen-                        Washington, D.C., U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Report to Congress,
                  alties in some cases, especially if the farmer agrees to restore the                      13 p.
                  altered wetland or other wetlands that have been converted to agri-                 Fermeman, N.M., 1946, Physical divisions of the United States: U.S. Geo-
                  cultural use. The Wetlands Reserve Program of the 1990 Food,                              logical Survey special map, scale 1:7,000,000.
                  Agriculture, Conservation, and Trade Act authorizes the Federal                     Goodwin, R.H., and Niering, W.A., 1975, Inland wetlands of the United
                  Government to purchase conservation easements from landowners                             States evaluated as potential registered natural landmarks: National
                  who agree to protect or restore wetlands. The Consolidated Farm                           Park Service Natural History Theme Studies no. 2, 550 p.
                                                                                                      Havera, S.P., 1992, Waterfowl of Illinois -Status and management, Final
                  Service Agency (formerly the Agricultural Stabilization and Con-                          Federal aid performance report: Cooperative Waterfowl Research
                  servation Service) administers the Swampbuster provisions and Wet-                        W-88-R, 1,035 p.
                  lands Reserve Program. The Natural Resources Conservation Ser-                      Hubbell, M.E., 1987, Inventory of Illinois wetlands -The Illinois wetland
                  vice (formerly the Soil Conservation Service) determines compli-                          management program, in Singh, KA, Lee, M.T., and Knapp, HX,
                  ance with Swampbuster provisions and assists farmers in the iden-                         eds,, Proceedings of the American Water Resources Association Illi-
                  tification of wetlands and in the development of wetland protection,                      nois section annual conference, Champaign, Ill., April 28-29, 1987:
                  restoration, or creation plans.                                                           Champaign, III., American Water Resources Association Illinois sec-
                        The 1986 Emergency Wetlands Resources Act and the 1972                              tion, p. 199-204.
                  Coastal Zone Management Act and amendments encourage wetland                        Illinois Department of Conservation, undated, A public guide to Illinois
                                                                                                            wetlands: Springfield, Illinois Department of Conservation, no pagi-
                  protection through funding incentives. The Emergency Welland                              nation.
                  Resources Act requires States to address wetland protection in their                Illinois Tax Commission, 1941, Drainage district organization and finance,
                  Statewide Comprehensive Outdoor Recreation Plans to qualify for                           1879-1937: Springfield, Illinois Tax Commission, 213 p.
                  Federal funding for State recreational land; the National Park Ser-                 LaTour, J.K., and Ackermann, W.C., 1990, Illinois water supply and use, in
                  vice provides guidance to States in developing the wetland compo-                         U.S. Geological Survey, National water summary 1987-Hydrologic
                  nent of their plans. Coastal and Great Lakes States that adopt coastal-                   events and water supply and use: U.S. Geological Survey Water-Sup-
                  zone management programs and plans approved by the National                               ply Paper 2350, p. 235 -242.
                  Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration are eligible for Federal                     Mitsch, W.J., Hutchison, M.D., and Paulson, G.A., 1979, The Momence
                  funding and technical assistance through the Coastal Zone Manage-                         wetlands of the Kankakee River in Illinois -An assessment of their
                                                                                                            value: Illinois Institute of Natural Resources Document 79/17, 55 p.
                  ment Act.                                                                           Sherrill, M.G., Lazaro, TA., and Harbison, L.L., 1985, Illinois ground-water
                        Illinois has six National Wildlife Refuges with a combined area                     resources, in U.S. Geological Survey, National water summary 1984-
                  of nearly 100,000 acres. Goodwin and Niering (1975) evaluated a                           Hydrologic events, selected water-quality trends, and ground-water
                  number of Illinois wetlands for possible registration as National                         resources: U.S. Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper 2275, p. 199-
                  Natural Landmarks. Their list includes nine additional wetland ar-                        204.
                  eas comprising about 7,000 acres.                                                   Suloway, L.B., Hubbell, M.E., and Erickson, Ronald, 1992, Analysis of the
                        State wetland protection- The primary State law governing                           wetland resources of Illinois, v. I -Overview and general results,
                  wetlands is the Interagency Wetland Policy Act of 1989, which sets                        Report to the Department of Energy and Natural Resources: Spring-
                  a goal of no net loss of wetlands due to projects funded by the State.                    field, Ill., Department of Energy and Natural Resources, 35 p.
                                                                                                      Tiner, R.W., Jr., 1984, Wetlands of the United States -Current status and
                  The act is administered through the Illinois Welland Management                           trends: Washington, D.C., U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 59 p.
                  Program of the Illinois Department of Conservation. There is also                   U.S. Census Bureau, 1932, Fifteenth census of the United States: 1930:
                  a Floodplain Management Statute under which the Illinois Depart-                          Washington, D.C., U.S. Department of Commerce, 1,385 p.
                  ment of Transportation issues permits for developments in the 100-                  -1981, 1978 Census of Agriculture, v. 1, State and County Data, pt.
                  year flood plain and for dredging and filling public water bodies.                        13-Illinois: Washington, D.C., U.S. Department of Commerce,
                  Most regulation of wetlands on private lands takes place at the lo-                       717 p.
                  cal level. Wetlands can be owned and protected by the public as                     U.S. Census Office, 185 3, Seventh census of the United States, taken in the
                  County Forest Preserve Districts.                                                         year 1850: Washington, D.C., U.S. Census Office, 1,022 p.
                        County and local wetlandprotection. - Counties and munici-                    -1872, Ninth census of the United States, taken in the year 1870, 3
                  palities can protect wetlands and other sensitive natural areas ei-                       volumes: Washington, D.C., U.S. Census Office, 2,326 p.
                                                                                                      - 1901, Twelfth census of the United States, taken in the year 1900:
                  ther by acquiring them or by enacting ordinances for their protec-                        Washington, D.C., U.S. Census Office, 1,006 p.
                  tion. Protection and acquisition are carried out to protect public                  Welker, D.C., and Clarke, R.P., 1988, Illinois ground-water quality, in U.S.
                  health, safety, and welfare. One Illinois county has established two                      Geological Survey, National water summary 1986-Hydrologic events








                     184      National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: STATE SUMMARIES



                           and ground-water quality: U.S. Geological Survey Water-Supply Pa-
                           per 2325, p. 237 - 244.
                     Wendland, W.M., Kunkel, K.E., Conner, Glen, and others, 1992, Mean
                           1961-1990 temperature and precipitation over the upper midwest:
                           Illinois State Water Survey Research Report 92-01, 27 p.
                     Wetlands Research, Inc., 1993, "Living laboratory" offers unique research
                           opportunities to improve environmental quality: Chicago, Ill., Wet-
                           lands Research, Inc., I I p.
                     White, John, 1978, Illinois Natural Areas Inventory -Survey methods and
                           results: Urbana, Ill., Illinois Natural Areas Inventory Technical Report
                           v. 1, 426 p.


                     FOR ADDITIONAL INFORMATION: District Chief, U.S. Geological
                     Survey, 102 East Main Street, 4th Floor, Urbana, IL 61801; Regional Wet-
                     land Coordinator, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, BHW Federal Building,
                     I Federal Drive, Fort Snelling, MN 55112


                                                     Prepared by
                                  Thomas H. Barringer and Gary 0. Balding,
                                              U.S. Geological Survey


















































                                                                       U.S. Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper 2425








                                                                                                                     National Water Summary-Wetland Resources 185
                                                                                                                                              Indiana
                                                                                                                        Wetland Resources
                  Wtlands cover about 8 13,000 acres of Indiana (Rolley, 199 1)                   summary, wetlands are classified according to the system proposed
                  about 3.5 percent of the State. These wetlands support rich biotic              by Cowardin and others (1979), which is used by the U.S. Fish and
                  communities in freshwater settings across the State, especially in              Wildlife Service (FWS) to map and inventory the Natiorfs wetlands.
                  the north and southwest (fig. 1).                                               At the most general level of the classification system, wetlands are
                       Wetlands have many chemical, physical, and biological func-                grouped into five ecological systems: Palustrine, Lacustrine, Riv-
                  tions. Wetlands trap waterborne sediments, nutrients, and toxic                 erine, Estuarine, and Marine. The Palustrine System includes only
                  chemicals by filtering them out of inflowing water and storing or               wetlands, whereas the other systems comprise wetlands and
                  transforming them. The capacity of wetlands to trap sediment is                 deepwater habitats. Wetlands of the systems that occur in Indiana
                  particularly important in Indiana because surface erosion is a per-             are described below.
                  sistent, long-term result of intensive agricultural activity. Riparian
                  (streamside) wetlands lessen the severity of floods by storing water            System                                  Wetland description
                  temporarily and releasing it gradually, thus reducing flow velocity
                  and delaying and attenuating flood peaks. Vegetation in riparian                Palustrine  .................. Wetlands in which vegetation is predominantly
                  wetlands helps to maintain stream channels by stabilizing the land                                       trees (forested wetlands); shrubs (scrub-shrub
                                                                                                                           wetlands); persistent or nonpersistent emergent,
                  surface, and wetlands around lakes act as buffers to erosion from                                        erect, rooted, herbaceous plants Jpersistent- and
                  waves.                                                                                                   nonpersistent-emergent wetlands); or sub-
                       Wetlands provide habitat for waterfowl, fish, other terrestrial                                     mersed and (or) floating plants (aquatic beds).
                  and aquatic animals, and a wide variety of plant life. Wetlands pro-                                     Also, intermittently to permanently flooded
                  vide resting and feeding places on migration routes, as well as food,                                    open-water bodies of less than 20 acres in which
                  shelter, breeding areas, and nurseries for many animals, including                                       water is less than 6.6 feet deep.
                  species of economic interest in Indiana such as muskrat, fish, ducks,           Lacustrine   ................. Wetlands within an intermittently to permanently
                                                                                                                           flooded lake or reservoir. Vegetation, when pres-'
                  and geese. The State has listed 128 wetland- dependent plant spe-                                        ent, is predominantly nonpersistent emergent
                  cies and over 60 wetland- dependent animal species as endangered,                                        plants (nonpersistent-emergent wetlands), or
                  threatened, or of special concern (Indiana Department of Natural                                         submersed and (or) floating plants (aquatic
                  Resources, 1989).                                                                                        beds), or both.
                       In Indiana, wetlands have considerable recreational, educa-                Riverine  ..................... Wetlandswithin a channel. Vegetation, when pres-
                  tional, and economic value. Common activities in and surrounding                                         ent, is same as in the Lacustrine System.
                  wetlands are bird-watching, hiking, fishing, hunting, swimming, and                   Most Indiana wetlands have been filled or drained. Palustrine
                  boating. Wetlands are important to the fur trapping, lumbering, and             wetlands, which are the most abundant wetlands remaining in the
                  tourist industries, which benefit the economy of the State.                     State, are distributed throughout Indiana in topographic depressions,
                                                                                                  between agricultural fields, and in riparian zones along rivers,
                  TYPES AND DISTRIBUTION                                                          streams, and lakes. Palustrine forested wetlands are the most com-
                       Wetlands are lands transitional between terrestrial and deep-              mon wetlands in Indiana.
                  water habitats where the water table usually is at or near the land                   In the early to mid-I 980's, palustrine forested wetlands covered
                  surface or the land is covered by shallow water (Cowardin and oth-              about 504,000 acres, or approximately 62 percent of the wetland
                  ers, 1979). The distribution of wetlands and deepwater habitats in              area of the State (Rolley, 1991). Palustrine emergent wetlands cov-
                  Indiana is shown in figure 2A; only wetlands are discussed herein.              ered about 143,000 acres (18 percent of total wetland area), and
                       Wetlands can be vegetated or nonvegetated and are classified               scrub-shrub wetlands covered about 42,000 acres (5 percent).
                  on the basis of their hydrology, vegetation, and substrate. In this             Lacustrine and riverine wetlands covered about 99,000 acres (12
                                                                                                  percent). The remaining 3 percent of the wetland area in the State
                                                                                                  contained mixed or undetermined types of wetland.
                                                                                                        Most of the wetlands in Indiana are in the north and along river
                                                                                                  flood plains in the south, particularly the southwest (Rolley, 199 1).
                                                                                                  The northeastern part of the State contains most of Indiana's natu-
                                                                                                  ral lakes and numerous small, isolated wetlands. The northwestern
                                                                                                  part of the State includes the Indiana Dunes National Lakeshore,
                                                                                                  which is on the southern shore of Lake Michigan. Most streams and
                                                                                                  rivers in Indiana flow to the southwest, where many wetlands are
                                                               J  W                               located in the river flood plains of the largest river systems (Indi-
                                                                                                  ana Department of Natural Resources, written commun., 1993).
                                                                                                  Wetlands in the rest of the State consist of small, widely scattered
                                                                                                  wetlands and narrow wetland bands along rivers and streams and
                                                                                                  around reservoirs (Indiana Department of Environmental Manage-
                                                                                                  ment, 1991).
                                                                                                        Indiana has many types of wetlands, most of which are veg-
                                                                                                  etated. The plant composition of vegetated wetlands is determined
                      Figure 1.   Cowles Bog in the Great Marsh, Indiana Dunes                    by factors such as climate, soil type, ground- and surface-water
                      National  Lakeshore. (Photograph by R.J. Shedlock, U.S. Geo-                chemistry, and the extent and duration of flooding. The predomi-
                      logical Survey)                                                             nant vegetation or specific location of a wetland frequently deter-








                                  186           National Water Surnmary-Wetland Resources: STATE SUMMARIES



                                  mines its common name. Familiar common names for some Indiana                                                                             HYDROLOGIC SETTING
                                  wetlands include marsh, wet prairie, swamp, slough, bottom-land
                                  hardwood forest, flatwood, bog, fen, kettle, pothole, dune Swale,                                                                                  The wetlands of Indiana are formed and maintained by water
                                  muck flat, and sinkhole pond. Marshes and wet prairies are palus-                                                                         from precipitation, surface-water runoff, and local and regional
                                  trine emergent wetlands that contain grasses, sedges, or cattails.                                                                        ground-water flow systems. Wetlands generally are in topographic
                                  Swamps, sloughs, and bottom-land hardwood forests are palustrine                                                                          lows, where water from surface runoff collects and where ground
                                  forested and scrub-shrub wetlands typically found along rivers.                                                                           water commonly discharges after periods of heavy precipitation.
                                  Flatwoods are palustrine forested wetlands that form on level, poorly                                                                     Fluctuations in local precipitation and evapotranspiration rates com-
                                  drained soils where the water table is shallow. Bogs and fens are                                                                         bined with local differences in geology, topography, and soil
                                  palustrine wetlands that are generally located in depressions in once-                                                                    characteristics cause transient or seasonal changes in the way that
                                  glaciated areas of Indiana; these wetlands generally contain grasses,                                                                     ground water and surface water interact in a wetland (Meyboom,
                                  other soft-stemmed plants, and peat deposits. Kettles and potholes                                                                        1966; Wilcox, 1986; Winter, 1992; Phillips and Shedlock, 1993).
                                  are emergent and scrub-shrub wetlands that formed in depressions                                                                                   Precipitation in Indiana varies seasonally and geographically.
                                  left after large blocks of ice that were embedded in glacially depos-                                                                     Precipitation falls throughout the year but is greatest from March
                                  ited sediments melted. Dune swales are topographic depressions                                                                            through July (Crompton, 1986). Annual average precipitation ranges
                                  among sand dunes near Lake Michigan that contain palustrine                                                                               from about 36 inches in the northeastern part of the State to about
                                  emergent or scrub-shrub wetlands. Sinkhole ponds are lacustrine                                                                           44 inches in the south-central part. Combined loss from evapora-
                                  wetlands located in plugged sinkholes in areas where limestone                                                                            tion and transpiration is nearly uniform across the State and aver-
                                  bedrock is at or near the surface.                                                                                                        ages 26 inches annually. Annual surface-water runoff averages about



                                                                           LAKE             Indiana Dunes Navonal Ld(eshore                 Fown RWr
                                                                                                                 Spi- Lctk@                 Fen              Nrsh Ltrk@
                                                            Dilk      MICHICAN
                                                                           w1as Bo


                                                                      sty                     P'nhook
                                                                                1,h

                                                                                                                                                                                  A
                                                                            jatp@u Sri 0                                                        Way a                            WETLANDS AND DEEPWATER HABITATS
                                                                    Fish 8       Ij    go
                                                                                                                                                                         41      Distribution of wetlands and deepwater habitats-
                                                                    r                                                             a Lalaigin Be                                      This map shows the approximate distribution of large
                                                                                                                     J_                                                              wetlands in the State. Because of limitations of scale
                                                                                                                                                                                     and source material, some wetlands are not shown

                                                                                                                                                                                             Predominantly wetland
                                                                                           *L        ette                                                                                    Predominantly deepwater habitat
                                                                                                                                                       uncle                                 Area typified by a high density of small wetlands





                                                                                                     In ion olis


                                                                                                                                                                                                                          D

                                                                        Terre Ha its                                                                                                                                               E

                                                                                                                                                   A two                                                                                    PHYSIOGRAPHIC REGIONS
                                                                                                                                                   Pro ,                                                                                       Northern Zone
                                                                                                                                                   Grou d                                                   F                                     A. Calumet Lacustrine Plain
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  B. Valparaiso Morainal Area
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  C. Kankakee Outwash and Lacustrine
                                                                                                     %V It.
                                                                                                                                                             W@4                                                                                         Plain
                                                                                                                                                               85.                                                                                D. Steuben Morainal Lake Area
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  E. Maumee Lacustrine Plain
                                                                                    k.st                                                                                                                                        M              Central Zone
                                                                                                                                                                                                           j            L                         F. Tipton Till Plain
                                                                                                                                                                                                                K                              Southern Zone
                                                                                                                                                                                           G      H                                               G. Wabash Lowland
                                                                                      8 Pigeon kl-p*                                                                                                       I                                      H. Crawford Upland
                                                    lay                                land rn Ar                                                                                                                                                 L. Mitchell Plain
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  J Norman Upland
                                          Twi               Slou h                                                                                                                                                                                K. Scattsburg Lowland
                                      Swamps                      E                                                                                                                                                                               L. Muscatatuck Regional Slope
                                                                                                                                                                            AV
                                                                   Pond              87,                                                                                                                                                          M. Dearborn Upland
                                                          Cypress Slough
                                                                                                     0              25               50 MILES
                                                                                                     i         I     I   I        _j
                                                                                                     0       25         50 KILOMETERS

                                  Figure 2. Wetland distribution in Indiana and physiography of the State. A, Distribution of wetlands and cleepwater habitats. B,
                                  Physiography. (Sources: A, TE. Dahl, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, unpub. data, 1997. B, Physiographic divisions modified from
                                  Schneider, 1966; landforms data from EROS Data Center.)








                                                                                                                                    National     Water Summary-Wetland Resources: INDIANA                              187


                          A. Glaciated areas of northern Indiana                                                                                 9.0 inches, and about 3.5 inches recharges the ground-
                                                                                                            PALUSTRINE WETLANDS                  water system (Clark, 1980). The abundant precipita-
                                                                                                                                                 tion is conducive to the formation and maintenance
                                                                                                                RIVERINE WETLANDS
                              LACUSTRINE WETLANDS                    PALUSTRINE WETLANDS                                                         of wetlands, which were once extensive in Indiana.
                                                                                                                                 E               However, agricultural tile drains, ditches, and straight-
                                                                                                                                                 ened drainages have substantially reduced the reten-
                                                                                            7-"                                                  tion of water and, hence, reduced wetland area in
                                                                                                                                                 many parts of the State.
                                                     ----------                                                                                         Indiana can be divided into three broad physi-
                                                                                                                                                 ographic zones based on surficial and bedrock geol-
                                                                                                                                                 ogy (fig. 2B). The northern zone consists of glacial
                                                                                         Sand and gravel                                         moraine and areas reworked by water from ancient
                                                                                                                                                 and present Lake Michigan. The central zone is a flat
                                                                                                                                                 depositional plain of low relief. The physiography of
                          Glacial till                                                                                                           the southern zone varies and is largely controlled by
                                                                                                                                                 underlying bedrock. Wetland hydrology differs
                                                                                                                                                 among and within these zones.
                          0. Calumet Lacustrine Plain, northwestern Indiana                                                                             In the northern physiographic zone, different
                          NORTH                                                                                             SOUTH                local depositional conditions during glacial advances
                                                                        RIVERINE WETLANDS                                                        and retreats have resulted in a complex surficial aqui-
                                  PALUSTRINE WETLANDS
                                                                                                                                                 fer largely composed of till. Till is a heterogeneous
                                                                                                                a o
                                                                  o
                                                                                                                                                 mixture of clay, silt, sand, gravel,             and boulders that
                          .L.    Dunes                                                                                                           is deposited directly by and underneath a glacier. The
                                                                                   cc
                                                                                                                                                 surficial aquifer in the northern zone is connected to
                                                                                                                                                 deeper aquifer systems in places where the till is thin
                                                                                                                    Sand and gravel              or missing (Shedlock and others, 1993). Wetlands in
                                                                                                                                                 this zone generally are in low, poorly drained areas
                                                                                                                                                 that have standing water (fig. 3A).
                                     lacial till                                                                                                        The northern zone has five physiographic units:
                                                                                                                                                 the Valparaiso Morainal Area, the Steuben Morainal
                                                                                                                                                 Lake Area, the Calumet Lacustrine Plain, the
                                                                                                                Shats and carbonate              Kankakee Outwash and Lacustrine Plain, and the
                                                                                                                     bedrock                     Maumee Lacustrine Plain (fig. 2B). Most of the wet-
                                                                                                                                                 lands that remain in Indiana are in the Valparaiso
                                                                                                                                                 Morainal Area and the Steuben Morainal Lake Area.
                                                                                                                                                 These physiographic units have irregular topography
                          C. Riparian wetlands in southern Indiana                                                                               and as much as 200 feet of relief; numerous small,
                                         PALUSTRINE WETLANDS                                   PALUSTRINE WETLANDS                               poorly integrated streams; and many closed depres-
                                                                                                                                                 sions containing lakes and wetlands, including kettles,
                                                                       RIVERINE WETLANDS                                                         fens, and bogs. Water is supplied to these wet areas
                                                                                                                                                 by precipitation, surface-water runoff and, except in
                                       Bottom-land hardwood forest
                                                                                                                                                 bogs, shallow ground-water flow (fig. 3A). Notable
                                                                                                                                                 wetlands in these areas are Spicer Lake, Marsh Lake,
                                                                                                                                                 Laketon Bog, Pinhook Bog, and Fawn River Fen.
                                                                                                            ------------                                The Calumet Lacustrine Plain, Kankakee
                               ----------            ------------                                                                                Clutwash and Lacustrine Plain, and Maumee Lacus-
                                           Sand, gravel,.nd bo.lders                                                                             trine Plain have flat terrain and once contained ex-
                                                                                                                                                 tensive wetlands in glacial lakes and outwash plains.
                                                                                                                                                 Land in these physiographic units has been nearly
                                                                                                    Bedrock                                      completely ditched and drained. Remaining wetlands
                                                                                                                                                 in these units are mainly in riparian areas. The ex-
                                                                                                                                                 ception is the Calumet Lacustrine Plain, which con-
                                                                      EXPLANATION                                                                tains extensive wetlands in and around the Indiana
                                                Direction of ground-water            C@ Scrub-shrub vegetation                                   Dunes National Lakeshore (fig. 3B). In the Calumet
                                                 flow                                                                                            Lacustrine Plain, major changes in the level of Lake
                                                Average water table                 k111//Il Emergent vegetation                                 Michigan occurred as the glaciers receded. Shoreline
                                                                                  J;@m Farmed crops                                              dune complexes formed sequentially approximately
                                                                                                                                                 parallel to the modern lakeshore. Each new dune line
                                                Forest vegetation                            Organic deposits                                    prevented drainage from the south from reaching the
                                                       Note: Vertical scale greatly exaggerated                                                  lake directly, resulting in the development of a com-
                                                                                                                                                 plex wetland system. The wetland system includes
                          Figure 3. Generalized geohydrologic setting of common wetland types in                                                 Cowles Bog (fig. 1), the largest peatland in Indiana.
                          Indiana. A, Wetlands in glaciated areas of northern Indiana. B, Wetlands in the                                        Peatlands form in depressions where there is poor
                          Calumet Lacustrine Plain of northwestern Indiana, C, Riparian wetlands in                                              drainage, standing water, and water chemistry not
                          bedrock areas of southern Indiana. @Sources: A, Modified from Hartke and others,                                       conducive to plant decay. Plant remains eventually fill
                          1975. B, Modified from Shedlock and others, 1993. C, Modified from Gallaher                                            the original depression and sometimes rise above the
                          and Price, 1966.)                                                                                                      surrounding land surface, forming a peat mound.








                  188     National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: STATE SUMMARIES



                  Cowles Bog, which is sustained in part by ground water and there-             ing, filling, diking, dredging, and damming of wetlands. In addi-
                  fore is by definition a fen, is an example of this process (Wilcox and        tion to the direct loss of wetlands, the biological value of many natu-
                  others, 1986; Shedlock and others, 1993). The wetlands in the In-             ral wetlands has been degraded by contamination by excess nutri-
                  diana Dunes are the only wetlands in the State where a detailed long-         ents, sediments, and toxic chemicals as well as by the spread of
                  term study (Shedlock and others, 1993) has been completed. The                normative plant species that can eliminate native species. The loss
                  hydrology of both the riparian and the sand-dune wetlands in the              and degradation of wetlands and resulting adverse effects on fish
                  Calumet Lacustrine Plain is controlled by precipitation and ground-           and wildlife populations have reduced recreational opportunities and
                  water flow, primarily in shallow flow systems.                                the economic benefits that outdoor recreation can bring to local
                        The central physiographic zone (fig. 2B) consists of one unit-          communities (Indiana Department of Natural Resources, written
                  the Tipton Till Plain, which is a nearly flat to gently rolling glacial       commun., 1993).
                  plain of sandy and silty outwash sediments. At the extreme western                 About I to 3 percent of Indiana's remaining wetlands are lost
                  edge of the plain, the Wabash River and its tributaries have cut as           each year, primarily because of drainage for agricultural purposes
                  deep as 150 feet through the glacial deposits into bedrock. The               (Indiana Division of Fish and Wildlife, written commun., 1993). A
                  Tipton Till Plain has been almost entirely drained for agricultural           survey of wetlands in the northern one-third of Indiana indicated
                  purposes. Remaining wetlands are in stream channels, along the                that by 1987, more than 10 percent of the wetlands in aerial photo-
                  edges of reservoirs, and in small, shallow depressions between ag-            graphs taken between 1981 and 1984 of the northern physiographic
                  ricultural fields. These wetlands are maintained by precipitation and         zone and Wabash River watershed had been drained (Indiana De-
                  local and regional ground-water flow.                                         partment of Natural Resources, 1989).
                        The southern physiographic zone (fig. 2B) was partly covered                 Construction of flood-control reservoirs in the 1960's and
                  by glaciers. There, the surficial aquifer consists of regolith and sedi-      1970's doubled the acreage of open water by permanently flooding
                  mentary deposits of glacial origin. Regolith is unconsolidated,               riparian zones along rivers. Lacustrine wetlands replaced the natu-
                  mostly fine-grained material composed of fragmental, weathered                rally occurring riverine and palustrine wetlands in the process. In
                  bedrock and alluvium overlying unweathered bedrock. The south-                fact, approximately 70 percent of existing lacustrine wetlands and
                  ern zone has seven physiographic units: the Wabash Lowland, the               13 percent of palustrine wetlands in Indiana developed as the re-
                  Crawford Upland, the Mitchell Plain, the Norman Upland, the                   sult of damniing or excavation (Rolley, 199 1). In addition, some new
                  Scottsburg Lowland, the Muscatatuck Regional Slope, and the                   wetlands have formed in reclaimed and unreclaimed spoil areas in
                  Dearborn Upland. Topography and soils differ considerably among               coal-mining zones. However, wetland losses in Indiana have been
                  the units and are primarily controlled by the type of underlying              far greater than wetland gains.
                  bedrock.                                                                           To slow the rate of wetland loss, recent State and Federal laws
                        Most of the wetlands in the southern physiographic zone are             require or encourage wetland protection or creation. For example,
                  in riparian areas along streams and rivers. These wetlands are main-          wetlands have been created by the establishment of compensatory
                  tained by precipitation and local shallow flow systems (fig. 3C).             wetland mitigation sites, especially for transportation-related
                  Some of the largest remaining wetlands in Indiana are in the Wabash           projects. Regulations require that 3 acres be created for each acre
                  and Scottsburg Lowlands and on the Muscatatuck Regional Slope.                destroyed, but the actual success rate is probably much lower (In-
                  These wetlands are in the flood plains, confluences, and backwater            diana Department of Natural Resources, 1989). The Indiana tax
                  areas of the Wabash, Patoka, White, and Ohio Rivers and their tribu-          code encourages wetland protection for sites larger than 10 acres.
                  taries. Notable among these are the flatwoods in the tributaries of           Some farmers have used provisions in Federal wetlands -related leg-
                  the East Fork of the White River, located in the Jefferson Proving            islation to consolidate existing wetlands and create new ones (Indi-
                  Grounds; Little Pigeon Creek Weiland Conservation Area; Twin                  ana Department of Natural Resources, 1989). Some municipalities
                  Swamps; and the Gray Estate and Goose Pond Cypress Sloughs.                   are invoking waste- and stormwater-management regulations to
                  Unusual wetlands in this zone include those in the Wabash Low-                encourage the protection and development of wetlands. River Basin
                  land that have formed in long, narrow surface depressions between             Commissions, notably those of the Kankakee, Maumee, and St.
                  spoil piles in areas mined for coal. Also unusual are the sinkhole            Joseph Rivers, are encouraging or pursuing wetland restoration as
                  wetlands and ponds in the Mitchell Plain, formed where vertical               a flood-control measure that would have the added benefit of recre-
                  solution zones in the carbonate bedrock have become plugged with              ation potential; In addition, the Indiana Department of Natural
                  soil and other debris, and water from precipitation and surface runoff        Resources, FWS, and the Natural Resources Conservation Service
                  has collected. Additionally, the Jasper-Pulaski Fish and Wildlife             (NRCS; formerly known as the Soil Conservation Service) have re-
                  Area is a congregating area and migratory rest stop for eastern               stored more than 600 wetlands totaling 3,000 acres and constructed
                  greater sandhill cranes.                                                      many other wetlands under the Partners for Wildlife program. Wet-
                                                                                                land protection efforts are adversely affected by limited public un-
                  TRENDS                                                                        derstanding of wetland values, lack of information on wetland dis-
                                                                                                tribution and abundance in the State, and insufficient and unen-
                        In the 1780's, before settlement by Europeans, wetlands cov-            forced legislation (Indiana Department of Natural Resources, wri t-
                  ered about 5.6 million acres (24 percent) of Indiana (Indiana De-             ten commun., 1993).
                  partment of Natural Resources, 1989). At that time, and continuing
                  to the present in some communities, wetlands were categorized as              CONSERVATION
                  wastelands that could be made more useful by filling and draining.
                  Federal and State laws encouraged these activities (Read, 1993). By                Many government agencies and private organizations partici-
                  the early 1980's, more than 85 percent of the original wetlands in            pate in wetland conservation in Indiana. The most active agencies
                  Indiana had been destroyed, and only about 813,000 acres of wet-              and organizations and some of their activities are listed in table 1.
                  lands remained (Rolley, 199 1). About 85 percent of vegetated-wet-                 Federal wetland activities. -Development activities in Indi-
                  land losses resulted from conversion of wetlands for agricultural             ana wetlands are regulated by several Federal statutory prohibitions
                  purposes (Indiana Department of Natural Resources, 1989).                     and incentives that are intended to slow wetland losses. Some of the
                        Agricultural, industrial, and residential-development interests         more important of these are contained in the 1899 Rivers and Har-
                  in Indiana still encourage stream channelization and ditching, drain-         bors Act; the 1972 Clean Water Act and amendments; the 1985 Food








                                                                                                                                                               National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: INDIANA                                                   189



                            Table 1. Selected wetland-related activities of government                                                                 cultural use. The Wetlands Reserve Program of the 1990 Food,
                            agencies and private organizations in Indiana, 1993                                                                        Agriculture, Conservation, and Trade Act authorizes the Federal
                            [Source: Classification of activities is generalized from information provided                                             Government to purchase conservation easements from landowners
                                 by agencies and organizations. e, agency or organization participates in                                              who agree to protect or restore wetlands. The Consolidated Farm
                                 wetland-related activity; ..., agency or organization does not participate in                                         Service Agency (formerly the Agricultural Stabilization and Con-
                                 wetland-related activity. MAN, management; REG, regulation; R&C, resto-                                               servation Service) administers the Swampbuster provisions and
                                 ration and creation; LAN, land acquisition; R&D, research and data collec-
                                 tion: 0&1, delineation and inventory]                                                                                 Wetlands Reserve Program. The NRCs determines compliance with
                                                                                                                                                       Swampbuster provisions and assists farmers in the identification of
                                                                                                                                                       wetlands and in the development of wetland protection, restoration,
                            Agency or organization                                                           ;@P   0'              0' 1@'              or creation plans.
                            FEDERAL                                                                                                                            The 1986 Emergency Wetlands Resources Act and the 1972
                            Department of Agriculture                                                                                                  Coastal Zone Management Act and amendments encourage wetland
                               Consolidated Farm Service Agency                  ........................... ...*                                      protection through funding incentives. The Emergency Wetland
                               Natural Resources Conservation Service                         ......... ...    a                                       Resources Act requires States to address wetland protection in their
                            Department of Commerce                                                                                                     Statewide Comprehensive Outdoor Recreation Plans to qualify for
                               National Oceanic and Atmospheric                                                                                        Federal funding for State recreational land; the National Park Ser-
                               Administration       ................................................................. ...e
                            Department of Defense                                                                                                      vice provides guidance to States in developing the wetland compo-
                               Army Corps of Engineers            .............................................. ...9                                  nent of their plans. Coastal and Great Lakes States that adopt coastal-
                            Department of the Interior                                                                                                 zone management programs and plans approved by the National
                               Fish and Wildlife Service           ..............................................                                      Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration are eligible for Federal
                               Geological Survey          .......................................................... . ... ...     9                   funding and technical assistance through the Coastal Zone Manage-
                               National Biological Service           ...............................  ......... ... ... ... ...    *
                               National Park Service          ......................................... 0            0       0     0      0            ment Act.
                            Environmental Protection Agency                .................................. ...                                              State wetland activities. -Currently (1993), no Indiana law
                            STATE                                                                                                                      specifically regulates activities in wetlands, although the Depart-
                            Department of Environmental Management                       ................*                                             ment of Natural Resources is developing a State wetland conserva-
                            Department of Natural Resources                 .................................a                                         tion plan under a grant from the EPA. The scheduled completion date
                            Indiana Geological Survey            ...............................  ............... ... ... ... ...                      for the plan is mid-1995. Regulation and management of Indiana
                            Indiana University
                               School of Public and Environmental Affairs                  ............. ... ...                                       wetlands are performed under the Indiana Water Pollution Control
                            Purdue University                                                                                                          Law, sections 401 and 404 of the Federal Clean Water Act, the In-
                               Department of Forestry and Natural Resources                                    . ... ...                               diana Flood Control Act, the Indiana Preservation of Lakes Stat-
                            State Highway Administration              ......................................... ...                                    ute, the Indiana Nature Preserves Act, and the Indiana Wetland
                            SOME COUNTY AND LOCAL GOVERNMENTS                              .............*                                              Conservation Program. The Indiana Department of Environmental
                            PRIVATE ORGANIZATIONS
                               Ducks Unlimited        .....................  ........................................0                                 Management and the Indiana Department of Natural Resources are
                               Hoosier Environmental Council               ...................................e... ...       ... ...      ...          the principal State agencies that administer the laws and associated
                               Izaak Walton League           .....................................................                                     permit programs.
                               Save the Dunes Council            ................................................                                              The Indiana Water Pollution Control Law gives the Department
                               Sierra Club      ....................................................................... ... ...                        of Environmental Management authority to protect wetlands, which
                               The Nature Conservancy             ..............................................                                       are defined as "waters of the State" for this purpose. Section 401 of
                                                                                                                                                       the Federal Clean Water Act authorizes the Department of Environ-
                                                                                                                                                       mental Management's water-quality certification program. Corps
                                                                                                                                                       section 404 dredge-and-fill applications are reviewed both by the
                            Security Act; the 1990 Food, Agriculture, Conservation, and Trade                                                          Department of Environmental Management to determine whether
                            Act; the 1986 Emergency Wetlands Resources Act; and the 1972                                                               the proposed activities will adversely affect water quality and by
                            Coastal Zone Management Act.                                                                                               the Department of Natural Resources for comment on potential
                                    Section 10 of the Rivers and Harbors Act gives the U.S. Army                                                       environmental impacts and habitat disturbance. The Indiana Flood
                            Corps of Engineers (Corps) authority to regulate certain activities                                                        Control Act requires a Construction in the Floodway Permit from
                            in navigable waters. Regulated activities include diking, deepening,                                                       the Department of Natural Resources in order to construct within
                            filling, excavating, and placing of structures. The related section 404                                                    the floodway of a river or stream and its adjacent wetlands. The
                            of the Clean Water Act is the most often-used Federal legislation                                                          Indiana Preservation of Lakes Statute requires a permit from the
                            protecting wetlands. Under section 404 provisions, the Corps issues                                                        Department of Natural Resources to change the water level or alter
                            permits regulating the discharge of dredged or fill material into                                                          the shoreline or bed of a public freshwater lake. The Indiana Na-
                            wetlands. Permits are subject to review and possible veto by the U.S.                                                      ture Preserves Act established the Division of Nature Preserves
                            Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), and the Fws has review and                                                          within the Department of Natural Resources; the Division is respon-
                            advisory roles. Section 401 of the Clean Water Act grants to States                                                        sible for the inventory, acquisition, dedication, management, and
                            and eligible Indian Tribes the authority to approve, apply conditions                                                      protection of significant natural areas throughout the State, includ-
                            to, or deny section 404 permit applications on the basis of a pro-                                                         ing wetlands, but the program's strict criteria eliminate many wet-
                            posed activity's probable effects on the water quality of a wetland.                                                       lands from consideration. The Division of Fish and Wildlife of the
                                    Most farming, ranching, and silviculture activities are not sub-                                                   Department of Natural Resources administers the Indiana Wetland
                            ject to section 404 regulation. However, the "Swampbuster" provi-                                                          Conservation Program, which also protects and manages "signifi-
                            sion of the 1985 Food Security Act and amendments in the 1990                                                              cant" wetlands in 20 areas (totaling 5,409 acres) acquired by dona-
                            Food, Agriculture, Conservation, and Trade Act discourage (through                                                         tion, by purchase, or as compensation for loss resulting from per-
                            financial disincentives) the draining, filling, or other alteration of                                                     mit violation.
                            wetlands for agricultural use. The law allows exemptions from pen-                                                                 Other State wetland-management activities of the Division of
                            alties in some cases, especially if the farmer agrees to restore the                                                       Fish and Wildlife include several projects in partnership with Fed-
                            altered wetland or other wetlands that have been converted to agri-                                                        eral, other State, and private agencies to conserve and restore wet-








                    190      National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: STATE SUMMARIES



                    lands for wildlife habitat. In addition, the Division administers rec-              Indiana Department of Natural Resources, 1989, Wetlands ... Indiana's en-
                    reation and conservation areas directly and performs management                           dangered natural resource, an appendix to Indiana outdoor recreation
                    activities in about 364,000 acres, mostly lakes and rivers.                               1989-An assessment and policy plan: Indianapolis, Ind., Department
                          County and local wetland activities. -Several counties are                          of Natural Resources, Division of Outdoor Recreation, 19 p.
                    developing wetland programs. For example, LaGrange County in                        Meyboom, Peter, 1966, Unsteady groundwater flow near a willow ring in
                    northeastern Indiana is developing a water-treatment process that                         hummocky moraine: Journal of Hydrology, v. 4, p. 38 -62.
                                                                                                    ,   Phillips, P.J., and Shedlock, R.J., 1993, Hydrology and chemistry of ground-
                    uses created wetlands to protect its natural lakes and streams.                           water and seasonal ponds in the Atlantic Coastal Plain in Delaware,
                          Private wetland organization activities. -Several private or-                       U.S.A.: Journal of Hydrology, v. 141, p. 157-179.
                    ganizations in Indiana are active in the development of wetland regu-               Read, C.J., 1993, Swamped, in Werner, P., ed., The wetlander: Indianapo-
                    lations, policy planning, advocacy, land acquisition and manage-                          lis, Ind., Sierra Club Wetlands Project, v. 2, no. 1, p. 5.
                    ment, environmental education, and research. A few of the many                      Rolley, R.E., 1991, Indiana's wetland inventory: Department of Natural
                    private organizations active in wetlands issues in the State are The                      Resources, Division of Fish and Wildlife, Wildlife Management and
                    Nature Conservancy, whose primary wetland activities are acqui-                           Research Notes 532, 6 p.
                    sition, preservation, and management of wetland areas and associ              -     Schneider, A.F., 1966, Physiography, in Lindsey, A.A., ed., Natural features
                                                                                                              of Indiana: Indianapolis, Indiana Academy of Science, p. 40-56.
                    ated watersheds; the Sierra Club, which has established the Wet-                    Shedlock, R.J., Wilcox, D.A., Thompson, T.A., and Cohen, D.A., 1993,
                    lands Project, an information network to connect individuals,                             Interactions between ground water and wetlands, southern shore of
                    groups, and agencies working on wetland conservation and resto-                           Lake Michigan, USA: Journal of Hydrology, v. 141, p. 127-155.
                    ration; Ducks Unlimited, which supports the conservation and cre-                   Wilcox, D.A., 1986, The effects of deicing salts of water chemistry in
                    ation of waterfowl habitat; and the Izaak Walton League, the Save                         Pinhook Bog, Indiana: Water Resources Bulletin, v. 22, no. 1, p. 57-
                    the Dunes Council, and the Hoosier Environmental Council, which                           65.
                    support public education and efforts to enact wetland protection                    Wilcox, D.A., Shedlock, R.J., and Hendrickson, W.H., 1986, Hydrology,
                    legislation.                                                                              water chemistry and ecological relations in the raised mound of Cowles
                                                                                                              Bog: Journal of Ecology, v. 74, p. 1, 103 -1,117.
                                                                                                        Winter, T.C., 1992, A @hysiographic and climatic framework for hydrologic
                    References Cited                                                                          studies of wetlands, in Robarts, R.D., and Bothwell, M.L., eds., Pro-
                                                                                                              ceedings of the Symposium on Aquatic Ecosystems in Semi-Arid
                    Clark, G.D., ed., 1980, The Indiana water resource: Indianapolis, Indiana                 Regions, 1990: Saskatoon, Saskatchewan, Environment Canada, The
                          Department of Natural Resources, v. 1, 508 p.; v. 11, 94 p.                         National Hydrology Research Institute Symposium Series 7.
                    Cowardin, L.M., Carter, Virginia, Golet, F.C., and LaRoe, E.T., 1979, Clas-
                          sification of wetlands and deepwater habitats of the United States: U.S.
                          Fish and Wildlife Service Report FWS/OBS -79/31, 131 p.
                    Crompton, E.J., 1986, Indiana surface-water resources, in U.S. Geological           FOR ADDITIONAL INFORMATION: District Chief, U.S. Geological Sur-
                          Survey, National water summary 1985 -Hydrologic events and sur-               vey, 5957 Lakeside Boulevard, Indianapolis, IN 46278; Regional Wetland
                          face-water resources: U.S. Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper               Coordinator, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, BHW Federal Building, 1
                          2300, p. 223-228.                                                             Federal Drive, Fort Snelling, MN 55111
                    Gallaher, J.T., and Price, W.E., Jr., 1966, Hydrology of the alluvial deposits
                          in the Ohio River valley in Kentucky: U.S. Geological Survey Water-
                          Supply Paper 1818, 80 p.                                                                                      Prepared by
                    Hartke, E.J., Hill, J.R., and Reshkin, Mark, 1975, Environmental geology                                         Martha A. Hayes,
                          of Lake and Porter Counties, Indiana -An aid to planning: Indiana                                      U.S. Geological Survey
                          Department of Natural Resources, Indiana Geological Survey Special
                          Report 11, Environmental Study 8, 57 p.
                    Indiana Department of Environmental Management, 199 1, Indiana 305(b)
                          report, 1990-199 1: Indianapolis, Ind., Office of Water Management,
                          p. 1-20.



























                                                                      U.S. Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper 2425








                                                                                                                     National Water Summary-Wetland Resources 191

                                                                                                                                                        Iowa
                                                                                                                       We       fland Resources
                  Wtlands provide many benefits, such as attenuating flood-peak                        Prairie-pothole marshes are a familiar type of Iowa wetland.
                  discharges, stabilizing streambanks, and improving water quality                These wetlands occur in the area of latest glaciation of Iowa (fig.
                  by trapping suspended sediment and accumulating or transforming                 2B). Most of the naturally occurring lakes in Iowa also are in this
                  some types of chemical contaminants. Wetlands also are valuable                 area. Bishop (1981) estimated that there are about 36,500 acres of
                  for fish and wildlife habitat. Publicly owned wetland areas provide             natural and artificial prairie-pothole marshes in Iowa. '
                  diverse recreational opportunities.                                                  Other wetlands in Iowa are associated with rivers in the inte-
                       Wetlands cover about 1.2 percent of Iowa. However, about 200               rior and on the eastern and western borders of the State. The wet-
                  years ago more than 11 percent of the State was wetlands (Dahl,                 lands formerly associated with the Missouri River are examples of
                  1990), and they were once a conspicuous feature on the prairie land-            wetlands that have been lost due to channelization, whereas many
                  scape (fig. 1). Fertile soils and abundant wildlife associated with             of the wetlands along the Mississippi River were created as a result
                  the prairie and its wetlands were attractions for early settlers. How-          of lock and dam construction (Iowa Department of Natural Re-
                  ever, when farming became a way of life for the settlers, wetlands              sources, 1988). About 380,000 acres of wetlands are associated with
                  came to be considered obstacles. Today, wetlands are considered by              the rivers and streams of Iowa; most, about 324,785 acres, are along
                  many residents to be valuable resources and important reminders                 the rivers that border the State (Bishop, 1981). Small wetlands oc-
                  of Iowa's natural heritage.                                                     cur in scattered areas throughout Iowa where ground-water dis-
                                                                                                  charge maintains a supply of water that allows wetland vegetation
                  TYPES AND DISTRIBUTION                                                          to develop or where poor surface drainage results in ponding of
                                                                                                  water.
                       Wetlands are lands transitional between terrestrial and
                  deepwater habitats where the water table usually is at or near the              HYDROLOGIC SETTING
                  land surface or the land is covered by shallow water (Cowardin and
                  others, t979). The distribution of wetlands and deepwater habitats                   Wetlands form in areas where there is persistent water at or
                  in Iowa is shown in figure 2A; only wetlands are discussed herein.              near the land surface. Palustrine wetlands in Iowa occur mainly in
                       Wetlands can be vegetated or nonvegetated and are classified               shallow depressions on the land surface. Lacustrine and riverine
                  on the basis of their hydrology, vegetation, and substrate. In this             wetlands occur within deeper water lakes or within the channels of
                  summary, wetlands are classified according to the system proposed               streams, respectively.
                  by Cowardin and others (1979), which is used by the U.S. Fish and                    The interaction between surface water and ground water within
                  Wildlife Service (Fws) to map and inventory the Natiorfs wetlands.              palustrine wetlands is complex. Winter (1989) describes several
                  At the most general level of the classification system, wetlands are            hydrologic settings of wetlands in the northern prairie, including
                  grouped into five ecological systems: Palustrine, Lacustrine, Riv-              wetlands in the area of the most recent glaciation in Iowa (fig. 2B).
                  erine, Estuarine, and Marine. The Palustrine System includes only               Most of the northern-prairie wetlands occur in depressions on the
                  wetlands, whereas the other systems comprise wetlands and                       land surface. These depressions, which occur at various positions
                  deepwater habitats. Wetlands of the systems that occur in Iowa are              on the landscape (fig. 3), were formed by processes related to gla-
                  described below.                                                                cial advances and deposition, slumping, deformation, and collapse
                                                                                                  as ice melted (Prior, 199 1). The landscape where these depressions
                  System                                 Weiland description                      occur is characterized by glacial deposits that are low in permeabil-
                                                                                                  ity and that have a gradual regional land-surface slope. The depres-
                  Palustrine .................. Wetlands in which vegetation is predominantly     sions do not contribute to surface runoff unless the water they con-
                                           trees (forested wetlands); shrubs (scrub-shrub         tain breaches local drainage divides separating them from adjacent
                                           wetlands); persistent or nonpersistent emergent,       depressions (Winter, 1989).
                                           erect, rooted, herbaceous plants (persistent- and
                                           non persistent-e mergent wetlands); or sub-
                                           mersed and (or) floating plants (aquatic beds).
                                           Also, intermittently to permanently flooded
                                           open-water bodies of less than 20 acres in which
                                           water is less than 6.6 feet deep.
                  Lacustrine ................. Wetlands within an intermittently to permanently
                                           flooded lake or reservoir. Vegetation, when pres-
                                           ent, is predominantly nonpersistent emergent
                                           plants @nonpersistent-emergent wetlands), or
                                           submersed and (or) floating plants (aquatic
                                           beds), or both.
                  Riverine ..................... Wetlands within a channel. Vegetation, when pres-
                                           ent, is same as in the Lacustrine System.

                       Dahl (1990) estimated that Iowa has about 421,900 wetland
                  acres. Several types of wetlands are present throughout Iowa
                  Prairie-pothole marshes (emergent wetlands), swamps (forested wet-
                  lands), sloughs, bogs (emergent wetlands), wet meadows (emergent
                  wetlands), fens (emergent and scrub-shrub wetlands), and small
                  ponds are examples of palustrine wetlands. The Lacustrine System                Figure 1.   Prairie-pothole marsh at Freda Haffner Kettlehole State
                  includes large oxbows, natural lakes, and reservoirs. The Riverine              Preserve, Iowa. (Photograph by lean Prior Iowa Department of
                  System includes streams and rivers.                                             Natural Resources.)









                  192     National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: STATE SUMMARIES



                        Ponded water in northern-prairie wetlands usually is continu-          occur in depressions and other low-lying areas, such as meander
                  ous with the water table in the glacial deposits (fig. 3). Wetlands in       scars and stream channels. Water sources for these wetlands include
                  relatively high topographic positions (fig. 3) recharge ground wa-           precipitation, ground-water discharge, and stream overflows. Wa-
                  ter through the infiltration of rainfall, snowmelt, and local surface        ter loss from these wetlands is by evapotranspiration and ground-
                  runoff. Discharge is through evapotranspiration and lateral and              water flow.
                  downward ground-water flow. These topographically higher wet-                     Fens and seeps are wetlands that form on hillslopes where
                  lands depend on adequate precipitation to maintain their supply of           ground-water discharge maintains a source of water to wetland veg-
                  water and are among the first wetland areas to dry up during drought.        etation (Prior, 1991). These wetlands form at the hillside exposures
                        Ground water from elevated sources can discharge to lower              of permeable materials that transmit ground water to the land sur-
                  areas (fig. 3). The lower depressions also can receive surface run-          face (Thompson and others, 1992). Fens and seeps are similar to
                  off. Water in these depressions occurs either as ponded water or as          springs except that the small flow rates do not result in surface run-
                  ground water just below the land surface. Discharge typically is by          off.
                  evapotranspiration. Topographically low wetlands are
                  less susceptible to short-term drought because ground
                  water can continue to flow to them as long as the adja-         B
                  cent water table is higher.
                        Some depressions occur at intermediate positions
                  on the landscape (fig. 3). Ground water can enter these
                  depressions from higher areas and exit by reinfiltrating
                  to ground water. In some wetlands on level land that
                  normally receive ground-water discharge, an increase
                  in water level to above the water table results in re-
                  charge to the ground-water system until evapotranspi-
                  ration lowers the water level in the wetland and ground-                                                                    GLACIATION
                  water discharge resumes.                                                                                                    P@@M Glacial extent during
                        Palustrine wetlands in the flood plains of rivers                                                                         most recent glacial
                                                                                                                                                  maximum


                                    96.                                     94*                                   92@


                                                                                    N                                                          Upper Mississippi
                                              K                                                                                   s            Wildlife and Fish
                                           State                                                                                               R fuge

                        43'                     J


                                   R!
                                                J
                               o C                  V                                                      C"
                                                                                                                                        Du   U-
                                          40




                                                                                                                            cb" R                           Upper Mississippi
                                                                                                                                                            Wildlife and Fish
                                                                                    YJ                                        C@ Idil.                      Refuge


                                      D OWTO 8 N
                                                                                            Walnut N





                                                                                                                            Mark Twain N


                                                                                                  R.    L




                                                                                                                                     0        25       50 MILES
                                                                                                                                     i     I  .  I
                                            WETLANDS AND DEEPWATER HABITATS                                                          0    25    50 KILOMETERS
                                            Distribution of wetlands and cleepwater habitats- This map shows the approximate
                                               distribution of large wetlands in the State. Because of limitations of scale and source
                                               material, some wetlands are not shown

                                                   Predominantly welland

                                                   Predominantly deepwater habitat

                                                   Area typified by a high density of small wetlands

                  Figure 2.   Wetland distribution in Iowa and extent of most recent glaciation. A, Distribution of wetlands and deepwater habitats. B, Extent
                  of most recent glaciation. (Sources: A, TE. Dahl, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, unpub. data, 1991. B, Prior, 1991.)








                                                                                                            National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: IOWA                 193



                  TRENDS                                                                           was created to purchase easements on private land to protect wet-
                                                                                                   lands that otherwise can be lost to agricultural development.
                       The Fws has estimated that Iowa lost 89 percent of its wetland                   Additional increases in wetland area are occurring as a result
                  area-more than 3.5 million acres-between the 1780's and the                      of reservoir construction in Iowa. Small soil-conservation structures
                  1980's (Dahl, 1990). This percentage ranks third in the Nation for               and recreational reservoirs have been constructed in steep, typically
                  loss of wetlands; only California and Ohio have had greater percent-             well-drained terrain that originally might not have contained wet-
                  age losses. The number of acres lost during the same time period                 lands. The impoundment of water behind these structures can lead
                  was exceeded by 15 other States.                                                 to increases in palustrine and lacustrine wetlands. However, the
                       The Iowa Department of Natural Resources estimates that                     number of additional acres resulting from impoundment is expected
                  about 97.5 percent of Iowa's presettlement wetlands has been lost;               to be small compared to the potential additions under the Wetlands
                  36,852 acres remain (Iowa Department of Natural Resources, 1990).                Reserve Program (Jim Ayen, Soil Conservation Service, oral com-
                  The large difference in the wetland-area estimates by different agen-            mun., 1992).
                  cies probably is due, in part, to differences in classification crite-,
                  ria. However, both estimates indicate the large magnitude of wet-                CONSERVATION
                  land loss that has occurred in Iowa during the past 200 years.
                       The primary cause of wetland loss has been agricultural de-                      Many government agencies and private organizations partici-
                  velopment (Iowa Department of Natural Resources, 1990). Prairie                  pate in wetland conservation in Iowa. The most active agencies and
                  potholes have been converted to farmland by draining. The drain-                 organizations and some of their activities are listed in table 1.
                  age has been accomplished by constructing ditches to remove                           Federal wetland activities.-Development activities in Iowa
                  ponded water and installing subsurface drainage tile to lower the                wetlands are regulated by several Federal statutory prohibitions and
                  water table (Bishop, 198 1). Some drained wetlands can be restored               incentives that are intended to slow wetland losses. Some of the more
                  by removal or modification of the drainage system.                               important of these are contained in the 1899 Rivers and Harbors
                       Wetland losses on flood plains are the result of stream                     Act; the 1972 Clean Water Act and amendments; the 1985 Food
                  channelization, flood control, and filling. Channelization can pro-              Security Act; the 1990 Food, Agriculture, Conservation, and Trade
                  duce shorter, higher gradient stream segments, which results in a                Act; and the 1986 Emergency Wetlands Resources Act.
                  declining water table beneath the flood plain. Flood control, either                  Section 10 of the Rivers and Harbors Act gives the U.S. Army
                  by construction of reservoirs or dikes, reduces the potential for                Corps of Engineers (Corps) authority to regulate certain activities
                  streams to overflow and recharge flood-plain depressions. Filling                in navigable waters. Regulated activities include diking, deepening,
                  eliminates the depressions in which water accumulates. The Mis-                  filling, excavating, and placing of structures. The related section 404
                  souri River near Sioux City, Iowa, is an example of a stream seg-                of the Clean Water Act is the most often-used Federal legislation
                  ment that has been channelized and straightened. At Sioux City, the              protecting wetlands. Under section 404 provisions, the Corps issues
                  stream-water level has been lowered about 9 feet by channelization               permits regulating the discharge of dredged or fill material into
                  and construction of a reservoir on the Missouri River about 60 miles             wetlands. Permits are subject to review and possible veto by the U.S.
   4              upstream. Buchmiller (1986) showed that water levels in wetlands                 Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), and the Fws has review and
                  on the flood plain responded directly to changes in the water level              advisory roles. Section 401 of the Clean Water Act grants to States
                  of the Missouri River.                                                           and eligible Indian Tribes the authority to approve, apply conditions
                       The trend in wetland loss might be reversing. The Iowa De-                  to, or deny section 404 permit applications on the basis of a pro-
                  partment of Natural Resources reported an increase of 1,852 wet-                 posed activity's probable effects on the water quality of a wetland.
                  land acres between 1987 and 1990 as a result of a five-State joint                    Most farming, ranching, and silviculture activities are not sub-
                  Federal, State, county, and private-organization program (Iowa                   ject to section 404 regulation. However, the "Swampbuster" provi-
                  Department of Natural Resources, 1990). The program, Prairie                     sion of the 1985 Food Security Act and amendments in the 1990
                  Pothole Joint Venture, hopes to acquire 2,000 acres of land in Iowa              Food, Agriculture, Conservation, and Trade Act discourages
                  and restore 150 wetland areas per year (Iowa Department of Natu-                 (through financial disincentives) the draining, filling, or other al-
                  ral Resources, 1992). Many wetland acres are potential additions                 teration of wetlands for agricultural use. The law allows exemptions
                  under the Wetlands Reserve Program of the 1990 Food, Agricul-                    from penalties in some cases, especially if the farmer agrees to re-
                  ture, Conservation, and Trade Act. The Wetlands Reserve Program                  store the altered wetland or other wetlands that have been converted
                                                                                                                   to agricultural use. The Wetlands Reserve Program of
                                                                                                                   the 1990 Food, Agriculture, Conservation, and Trade
                                                                                                                   Act authorizes the Federal Government to purchase
                       RECHARGE                                    RECHARGE                                        conservation easements from landowners who agree
                       WETILAND    FLOW-THROUGH                    WETLAND       FLOW-THROUGH      DISCHARGE       to protect or restore wetlands. The Consolidated Farm
                                      WETLAND       DISCHARGE                      WETLAND
                                                     WETLAND                                       WETLAND         Service Agency (formerly the Agricultural Stabiliza-
                                                                                                                   tion and Conservation Service) administers the
                                      0C.1 flow                                   Local fl                         Swampbuster provisions and Wetlands Reserve Pro-
                                                                                                                   grain. The Natural Resources Conservation Service
                                      Intermediate flow                       Intermediate flow                    (formerly the Soil Conservation Service) determines
                                                                                                                   compliance with Swampbuster provisions and assists
                                                                                                                   farmers in the identification of wetlands and in the
                                                                                                                   development of wetland protec tion, res toration, or cre-
                                                                                                                   ation plans.
                                                                                       ow







                                                                                                                        The 1986 Emergency Wetlands Resources Act
                                                        EXPLANATION                                                encourages wetland protection through funding incen-
                                                                                                                   tives. The act requires States to address wetland pro-
                                       Direction of ground-water          Average water table                      tection in their Statewide Comprehensive Outdoor
                                        flow                                                                       Recreation Plans to qualify for Federal funding for
                  Figure 3.   Subsurface hydrology of northern-prairie wetlands. (Source: Modified                 State recreational land; the National Park Service pro-
                  from Winter 7 992.)                                                                              vides guidance to States in developingthe wetland








                              194          National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: STATE SUMMARIES



                              Table 1. Selected wetiand-related activities of government                                                                  tion manages small areas of wetlands within highway rights-of-way.
                              agencies and private organizations in Iowa, 1993                                                                            The Department also identifies wetland areas that might be affected
                              [Source: Classification of activities is generalized from information provided                                              by construction projects and can acquire land and create additional
                                    by agencies and organizations. e, agency or organization participates in                                              wetlands to mitigate wetland loss resulting from construction
                                    wetland-related activity;               agency or organization does not participate 'in                               projects.
                                    wetland-related activity. MAN, management; REG, regulation; R&C, restora-
                                    tion and creation; LAN, land acquisition; R&D, research and data collection;                                                  County and local wetland activities.-Wetland management,
                                    0&1, delineation and inventory]                                                                                       restoration and creation, land acquisition, and delineation and in-
                                                                                                                                                          ventory are being conducted by some county and local governments.
                                                                                                                                       'g,                The principal agencies involved are the county conservation boards.
                              Agency or organization                                                          0       4@      Y     <@@                   The extent of activity differs from one county to another.
                              FEDERAL                                                                                                                             Private wetland activities- Several nonprofit private organi-
                              Department of Agriculture                                                                                                   zations are involved in wetland activities in Iowa. Ducks Unlimited,
                                 Consolidated Farm Service Agency                  ...........................                                            the Iowa Natural Heritage Foundation, and Pheasants Forever are
                                 Natural Resources Conservation Service                     ................                                              partners with Federal, State, and local governments in raising funds
                              Department of Defense                                                                                                       for wetland acquisition and restoration. Although land is acquired
                                 Army Corps of Engineers             ..............................................                                       by these organizations, typically it is sold or transferred to public
                              Department of the Interior
                                 Fish and Wildlife Service           ..............................................                                       agencies for management purposes. The Nature Conservancy also
                                 Geological Survey          ..........................................................                                    is active in acquiring land for preservation of endangered plant and
                                 National Biological Service            .........................................                                         animal species as well as ecologically unique habitats. Some of these
                                 National Park Service           ................................ ..................                                      land acquisitions contain wetlands.
                              Environmental Protection Agency                 ............... ..................
                              STATE
                              Department of Natural Resources                                                                                             References Cited
                                 Energy and Geological Resources Division                   ..............
                                 Environmental Protection Division               .......... ..................                                            Bishop, R.A., 198 1, Iowa's wetlands: Proceedings of the Iowa Academy of
                                 Fish and Wildlife Division         ...........................................                                                   Science, v. 88, no. 1, p. 11-16.
                                 Parks, Recreation, and Preserves Division                  ..............e      . ... ...                                Buchmiller, R.C., 1986, Hydrologic reconnaissance and summary of exist-
                              Department of Transportation              .........................................*                                                ing data on surface and ground-water resources in the Missouri River
                              Iowa State University                                                                                                               valley in Woodbury and Monona Counties, Iowa, 1985: U.S. Geologi-
                                 Leopold Center for Sustainable Agriculture                 ............. ...                                                     cal Survey Open-File Report 86-144, 21 p.
                              University of Iowa                                                                                                          Cowardin, L.M., Carter, Virginia, Golet, F.C., and LaRoe, E.T., 1979, Clas-
                                 Hygienic Laboratory          .................................... ................                                               sification of wetlands and deepwater habitats of the United States:
                              SOME COUNTY AND LOCAL GOVERNMENTS                             ...........                                                           Washin ton, D.C., U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Report, FWS/OBS-
                              PRIVATE ORGANIZATIONS                                                                                                                          9
                              Ducks Unlimited         ..................................................................                                          79/31, 131 p.
                              Iowa Natural Heritage Foundation                .................................                                           Dahl, T.E., 1990, Wetlands-Losses in the United States, 1780's to 1980's:
                              Pheasants Forever          .........................  ...................................                                           Washington, D.C., U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Report to Congress,
                              The Nature Conservancy             ..............................................                                                   13 p.
                                                                                                                                                          Iowa Department of Natural Resources, 1988, Iowa wetlands protection
                                                                                                                                                                  plan-A supplement to the Iowa statewide comprehensive outdoor
                              component of their plans.                                                                                                           recreation plan: Des Moines, Iowa Department of Natural Resources,
                                      In addition to its regulatory responsibilities, EPA provides                                           fi-                  11 P.
                              nancial assistance for special studies, development of wetland in-                                                                     1990, Water quality in Iowa during 1988 and 1989: Des Moines, Iowa
                              ventories, and other resource-management tools. Technical assis-                                                                    Department of Natural Resources, p. 3 -69 and 3 -70.
                              tance is available to agencies and the public for wetland-delineation                                                                  1992, Iowa prairie pothole joint venture 1991 status report: Des
                              training, project consultation, and public education. The EPA over-                                                                 Moines, Iowa Department of Natural Resources, 4 p.
                              sees the State's development and implementation of water-quality                                                            Prior, J.C., 199 1, Landforms of Iowa: Iowa City. University of Iowa Press,
                              standards that apply to surface waters, including wetlands. Two                                                                     153 p.
                              agencies have responsibilities for management of most Federal                                                               Thompson, C.A., Bettis 111, E.A., and Baker, R.G., 1992, Geology of Iowa
                              wetlands in Iowa. The Corps has responsibility for about 217,000                                                                    fens: Journal of Iowa Academy of Science, v. 99, no. 2-3, p. 53 -59.
                                                                                                                                                          Winter, T.C., 1989, Hydrologic studies of wetlands in the northern prairie,
                              acres of land that includes wetlands in areas of Federal flood-con-                                                                 in van der Valk, Arnold, ed., Northern prairie wetlands: Ames, Iowa
                              trol projects. The principal areas of these wetlands are along the                                                                  State University Press, p. 16-54.
                              Mississippi River and the four interior flood-control reservoirs in                                                         Winter, T.C., 1992, A physiographic and climatic framework for hydrologic
                              Iowa (Lake Red Rock, Saylorville Lake, Coralville Lake, and                                                                         studies of wetlands, in Robarts, R.D., and Bothwell, M.L., eds., Pro-
                              Rathbun Lake). The FWS manages land at five National Wildlife                                                                       ceedings of the Symposium on Aquatic Ecosystems in Semi-arid
                              Refuges (NWR) that contain wetlands: Upper Mississippi River Wild-                                                                  Regions -Implications for resource management: Saskatoon,
                              life and Fish Refuge, Mark Twain NWR, Union Slough NWR, Desoto                                                                      Saskatchewan, Environment Canada, The National Hydrology Re-
                              Bend NWR, and Walnut Creek NwR. The NPS manages a small amount                                                                      search Institute Symposium Series 7, p. 127-148.
                              of wetland area at Effigy Mounds National Monument.
                                      State wetland activities. - The principal wetlands-management                                                       FOR ADDITIONAL INFORMATION: District Chief, U.S. Geological
                              agency in Iowa is the Iowa Department of Natural Resources. The                                                             Survey, P.O. Box MO, Iowa City, IA 52244; Regional Wetland Coordina-
                              Department manages more than 250,000 acres of public and some                                                               tor, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, BHW Building, I Federal Drive, Fort
                              privately owned wetlands. The Department also is responsible for                                                            Snelling,, MN 55 111
                              implementing Federal wetlands initiatives, such as the North Ameri-
                              can Waterfowl Management Plan. The Environmental Protection                                                                                                              Prepared by
                              Division of the Department ofNatural Resources is responsible for                                                                                                Robert C. Buchmiller,
                              State regulatory actions. The State directly regulates wetlands un-                                                                                              U.S. Geological Survey
                              der provisions of section 401 of the Clean Water Act, and some
                              wetlands are protected for certain uses of water (Iowa Department
                              of Natural Resources, 1990). The Iowa Department of Transporta-

                                                                                                          U.S. Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper 2425








                                                                                                                    National Water Summary-Welland Resources 195

                                                                                                                                                Kansas
                                                                                                                      Wetland Resources
                 Kansas once was covered by an estimated 841,000 acres of wet-                   System                                 Wetland description
                 lands; of that area about 435,400 acres, or 0. 8 percent of the State's         Palustrine  .................. Wetlands in which vegetation is predominantly
                 area, remain (Dahl, 1990). Wetlands in Kansas represent some of                                          trees (forested wetlands); shrubs (scrub-shrub
                 the last aquatic areas available for wildlife and plants. Wetlands                                       wetlands); persistent or nonpersistent emergent,
                 provide habitat for many species of birds, fish, mammals, reptiles,                                      erect, rooted, herbaceous plants (persistent- and
                 and invertebrates. Kansas wetlands are particularly important to                                         nonpersistent-emergent wetlands); or sub-
                                                                                                                          mersed and (or) floating plants (aquatic beds).
                 migratory waterfowl and shorebirds, which depend on the few re-                                          Also, intermittently to permanently flooded
                 maining wetlands in the Central Flyway for food, water, and cover                                        open-water bodies of lessthan 20 acres in which
                 during their seasonal migrations. Cheyenne Bottoms (fig. 1), a large                                     water is less than 6.6 feet deep.
                 freshwater marsh in central Kansas, is considered the most impor-               Lacustrine  ................. Wetlands within an intermittently to permanently
                 tant migration staging point for shorebirds in North America (Wentz,                                     flooded lake or reservoir. Vegetation, when pres-
                 1988). Cheyenne Bottoms also provides habitat for five nationally                                        ent, is predominantly nonpersistent emergent
                                                                                                                          plants (nonpersistent-emergent wetlands), or
                 threatened or endangered species-bald eagle, peregrine falcon,                                           submersed and (or) floating plants (aquatic
                 least tern, piping plover, and whooping crane (Kansas Biological                                         beds), or both.
                 Survey and Kansas Geological Survey, 1987).                                     Riverine  ..................... Wetlands within a channel. Vegetation, when pres-
                      Kansas wetlands are valuable for their hydrologic functions.                                        ent, is same as in the Lacustrine System.
                 By attenuating flood peaks and storing floodwaters, wetlands can
                 protect adjacent and downstream property from flood damage and                       Palustrine wetlands in Kansas include ephemeral wetlands;
                 help control erosion. Wetlands also have important water-quality                marshes; emergent wetlands in ground-water seeps, prairies, and
                 functions, including silt removal, mineral uptake, and nutrient trans-          oxbows; and forested wetlands in riparian areas. Ephemeral wet-
                 formation. Kansas wetlands also are important for recreation, tour-             lands typically are flooded only seasonally; examples are sandhill
                 ism, and esthetic and educational benefits.                                     pools located in the Arkansas River Valley in south-central Kansas
                                                                                                 and playa lakes scattered throughout the southwestern part of the
                                                                                                 State. Marshes occur in low-lying areas associated with river sys-
                 TYPES AND DISTRIBUTION                                                          tems, terraces, and valley basins. Examples of fresh marshes are the
                      Wetlands are lands transitional between terrestrial and deep-              Marais des Cygnes Wildlife Area in east-central Kansas, Jamestown
                 water habitats where the water table usually is at or near the land             Wildlife Area in north-central Kansas, and Cheyenne Bottoms. Salt
                 surface or the land is covered by shallow water (Cowardin and oth-              marshes generally are limited to central Kansas. The largest salt
                 ers, 1979). The distribution of wetlands and deepwater habitats in              marsh in the State is Quivira National Wildlife Refuge, which is
                 Kansas is shown in figure 2A; only wetlands are discussed herein.               located along Rattlesnake Creek. Areas saturated by fresh ground-
                                                                                                 water seepage are discontinuously distributed throughout the State.
                                                                                                 An example of an emergent wetland in a ground-water seep is the
                                                                                                 I I-acre Muscotah Marsh in northeastern Kansas. Prairie wetlands
                                                                                                 occur on nearly level soils on flood plains along rivers, streams, and
                                                                                                 creeks throughout most of the State. The Ninnescah River Basin
                                                                                                 wetlands, associated with the North and South Forks Ninnescah
                                                                                                 Rivers in south-central Kansas, include examples of prairie wetlands
                                                                                                 as well as riparian woodlands. Forested wetlands are located within
                                                                                                 riparian woodlands and forests along major rivers in both the east-
                                                                                                 ern and western parts of the State (Lauver, 1989; Monda, 1992a).
                     45=52-rb __-_
                                                                                                      Lacustrine wetlands in Kansas are primarily in impoundments.
                                                                                                 The Flint Hills National Wildlife Refuge at John Redmond Reser-
                                                                                                 voir and Kirwin National Wildlife Refuge at Kirwin Reservoir are
                                                                                                 wetlands that have developed around lake headwater areas. These
                 Figurell. Blue-winged teal at Cheyenne Bottoms in central                       areas include both lacustrine wetlands and palustrine wetlands (per-
                 Kansas. (Photograph by Mike Blair Kansas Department of Wildlife                 sistent emergent, scrub-shrub, and forested wetlands along the shore
                 and Parks.)                                                                     or in backwater areas).
                                                                                                      Riverine wetlands are most common in the eastern and cen-
                      Wetlands can be vegetated or nonvegetated and are classified               tral parts of the State. They include the beds of shallow, intermit-
                 on the basis of their hydrology, vegetation, and substrate. In this             tent streams and areas less than 6.6 feet deep in perennial streams.
                 summary, wetlands are classified according to the system proposed
                 by Cowardin and others (1979), which is used by the U.S. Fish and               HYDROLOGIC SETTING
                 Wildlife Service (FWS) to map and inventory the Nation's wetlands.
                 At the most general level of the classification system, wetlands are                 The availability of water to sustain wetlands depends on cli-
                 grouped into five ecological systems: Palustrine, Lacustrine, Riv-              matic, hydrologic, and physiographic factors as well as historic and
                 erine, Estuarine, and Marine. The Palustrine System includes only               present land use. Moisture is unevenly distributed across the State.
                 wetlands, whereas the other systems comprise wetlands and                       Average annual precipitation in Kansas ranges from less than 16
                 deepwater habitats. Wetlands of the systems that occur in Kansas                inches in the west to more than 40 inches in the southeast (Jordan,
                 are described below.                                                            1986). In contrast, average annual evaporation potential increases








                        196      National Water Surnmary-Wetland Resources: STATE SUMMARIES



                        from east to west, ranging from less than 44 inches in the northeast                        dant rainfall and high humidity create conditions favorable to wet-
                        to more than 68 inches in the southwest (Farnsworth and others,                             lands (Spanbauer, 1988).
                        1982). Runoff is poorly sustained in the western and central parts                                Wetlands in Kansas are temporarily, seasonally, semiperma-
                        of Kansas because of sparse precipitation, conservation practices,                          nently, or permanently flooded, depending on moisture availabil-
                        and withdrawals of water from streams and associated alluvial aqui-                         ity. The playa lakes in southwestern Kansas are among the most
                        fers, primarily for irrigation. As a result, water deficits can occur                       temporary of palustrine wetlands, occurring in areas of low precipi-
                        during many seasons and years in these parts of the State.                                  tation and high evaporation. Playas are sustained entirely by pre-
                              Differences in topography and geology separate Kansas into                            cipitation and surface drainage. These shallow basins drain areas
                        broad physiographic divisions (fig. 2B). In the Great Plains of west-                       as large as 2,000 acres but are flooded only after heavy rainfall or
                        ern Kansas, surface-water resources are scarce. Wetlands in these                           snowmelt in the spring. The clay soils of the playas tend to prevent
                        areas depend on water from precipitation and, in some areas,                                seepage losses; most water loss is due to evaporation.
                        strearnflow or shallow ground water. In the Central Lowland of                                    Sinks and shallow basins are other types of temporarily flooded
                        eastern Kansas, surface water is more dependable. Water in streams,                         wetlands in Kansas; they are mostly in the Great Plains region. The
                        flood plains, and alluvial aquifers sustains many prairie wetlands                          McPherson Valley Wetlands, a series of shallow lakes that histori-
                        and riparian woodlands and forests. In the Ozark Plateaus, one of                           cally covered a 126-square-mile area south of McPherson, are sinks
                        the wettest and most densely forested areas in Kansas, the abun-                            caused by dissolution of underlying salt formations. The McPherson
                                                                                                                    Valley Wetlands originally included several large, and many small,
                                                                                                                    shallow marshes and two natural lakes (Wilson, 1992). Only one
                                                                                                                    permanently flooded lake remains, along with a few shallow pools
                                                                                                                    and marshes that were not drained. These areas are important for
                                                     Great                                                          migratory waterfowl. Ongoing restoration of the McPherson Val-
                                                         Plains                                                     ley Wetlands is intended to reestablish and protect the seasonally
                                                                            Central                                 and permanently flooded pools (Wilson, 1992).
                                                                                   Lowland                                Sandhill pools - depressions between the low dunes along the
                                                                                                                    Arkansas River northeast of Hutchinson -become filled with wa-
                                                                                                                    ter during the rainy season (Schoewe, 1949). Sandhill pools are
                                                                                                                    poorly drained because of their nearly impervious subsoil. These
                                                                                                                    wetlands can remain flooded, given a seasonally high water table,
                                                                                        Ozark Plateaus              or can vanish during years of low precipitation (Lauver, 1989).
                               B PHYSIOGRAPHIC DIVISIONS

                                                            101.                                   991,                                  97.



                                                                                                                            a esiown
                                                                                                                             i   Area                                     scatah
                                                'j                                                                                                                     marsh    +1.



                                                                                                         L_                                                                              Kansas City
                                    39@
                                                                                                                                                                                    ce
                                                                                                        Hill

                                                                                                                                                                          d-

                                                                                                             Cheyenne BAD
                                                                                                                                                                   Jch.
                                                                                                                 ira  R       ktphqson Valley
                                                                                                                                                     Fl'     N R              d
                                                                                                                                                                              #ildh kea
                                                               Garde  City                                             @R Hutch,


                                                                      Dbdg@ Ci                           S F Ninn'.
                                                                                                  J                                  wic@i




                                               Cinnarroa Nell
                                  37'           Gras*nds


                                        A        WETLANDS AND DEEPWATER HABITATS                                                                                0        25      50 MILES
                                                 Distribution of wertlands and deepwater habitats-                                                              i    I     I
                                                   This map shows the approximate distribution of large                                                         0   25    50 KILOMETERS
                                                   wetlands in the State. Because of limitations of scale
                                                   and source material, some wetlands are not shown

                                                         Predominantly wetland
                                                                                       al ]d





                                                         Predominantly cleepwater habitat

                                                        Area typified by a high density of small wetlands


                        Figure 2. Wetland distribution in Kansas and physiography of the State. A, Distribution of wetlands and cleepwater habitats. 8, Physio-
                        graphy. (Sources: A, TE Dahl, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, unpub. data, 199 1. B, Physiographic divisions from Fenneman, 1946;
                        landforms data from EROS Data Center.)








                                                                                                       National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: KANSAS                   197



                      Wetlands associated with riparian woodlands and forests can                 ian wetland on the flood plain of the Cimarron River is sustained
                 be flooded temporarily or seasonally, depending on the character-                by moisture from ground-water storage when the river is not flow-
                 istics of streams with which they are associated. Riparian forested              ing. The Cimarron River rarely flows, but when floods occur, the
                 wetlands are located primarily along the Missouri, Kansas, Marais                riparian areas are recharged and support new growth of woody
                 des Cygnes, and Neosho Rivers in the Central Lowland, where pre-                 vegetation. Controlled grazing on the Cimarron National Grass-
                 cipitation and runoff are sufficient to sustain streamflows and evapo-           lands, which is managed by the U.S. Forest Service, ensures that
                 ration rates are relatively low. In prairie wetlands, drainage is poor,          some trees will remain among the sagebrush and grasses.
                 and the deep, alluvial soils remain saturated for most of the grow-                   The disappearance of nearly one-half of the State's wetlands
                 ing season (Monda, 1992a). In some years, prairie wetlands along                 has increased the importance of those that remain. Migratory birds
                 flood plains in eastern Kansas may be inundated for several days at              formerly had access to many wetlands as well as to shallow, braided
                 a time (Lauver, 1989).                                                           river channels throughout central Kansas for foraging and resting.
                      Salt flats are seasonally inundated wetlands occurring on                   Draining of these wetlands and the depletion of streamflows in major
                 nearly level ground or within slight depressions. Salinity is high               streams such as the Arkansas River have left only Cheyenne Bot-
                 because of saline ground-water discharge or concentration of dis-                toms and Quivira National Wildlife Refuge as major stopover places
                 solved constituents by evaporation. S a] t flats are located in central          in Kansas. Keeping those areas viable requires manipulation of the
                 Kansas, where naturally saline ground water discharges to surface                hydrologic system to ensure a consistent water supply.
                 streams and pools. Soils in salt flats are saturated but contain stand-               The Kansas Department of Wildlife and Parks manages the
                 ing water only after heavy precipitation (Monda, 1992a).                         19,857-acre Cheyenne Bottoms Wildlife Area (fig. 3). Several ad-
                      Fresh and salt marshes form in low-lying areas that have deep,              verse hydrologic conditions have had to be overcome to maintain
                 poorly drained soils. Marshes range from sernipermanently to per-                shallow water in Cheyenne Bottoms -inadequate precipitation,
                 manently flooded (Monda, 1992a). Salt marshes are restricted to                  declining flows in streams flowing into the area, periodic flooding,
                 salty seepage areas that often contain brackish or stagnant water                and high evaporation and transpiration losses. Evaporation and tran-
                 (Lauver, 1989). Quivira National Wildlife Refuge is sustained by                 spiration account for about 95 percent of the water lost from the
                 water from Rattlesnake Creek. Downstream reaches of the stream                   wetland (Kansas Biological Survey and Kansas Geological Survey,
                 and the marsh itself are natural ground-water discharge areas for                1987). In some years, losses can exceed the amount of water enter-
                 underlying saltwater-bearing formations (Sophocleous, 1992).                     ing the basin and result in an overall deficit and increased salinity
                      Ground-water discharge is a vital source of moisture for some               (Zimmerman, 1990).
                 wetlands in Kansas. Localized artesian conditions cause soils in the                  The management strategy addressing these problems has fo-
                 Muscotah Marsh to be saturated by ground-water seepage. Within                   cused on water storage, supplementation, and drainage. In the
                 the Cimarron National Grasslands in southwestern Kansas, a ripar-                1950's, diked pools were constructed to enhance storage, and dams


                                              98'52'30"                                  98'45'00"                               98' 37'30'
                                                                                                       Deception
                                                                                       "'Hoisington   IC k

                            38'30'00" -
                                                                                                                                   3
                                                                                                                __J
                                                                                                                                          4
                                                                                                                2




                                                                                                                          5


                                                                                                  Cheyenne   Bottoms
                                                      96                                          Wildlife Area                          Lit,%   -J'enn' St

                                       41t                  W12/,                Creek
                                                                nut

                            38'22'30"-
                                                                                Great     i
                                                                                 Send                                     16 6                 Ellinwood




                                                                             Ar

                                                         5                                               EXPLANATION
                                                                                                             Flow direction in
                                                                                                              canal
                                                                                         81               3 Pool number            0      1       2 MILES

                                       .V.                                                                                         0   1    2 KILOMETERS


                            Figure 3. Hydrologic features of Cheyenne Bottoms. (Source: Laurel Yasui, Kansas Department of Wildlife and
                            Parks, written commun., 1992.)








                         198      National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: STATE SUMMARIES



                         and ditches were built to divert water from the Arkansas River                                 GroundwaterUse ControlAream the Walnut Creek Basin, thus lim-
                         through Dry Walnut and Walnut Creeks to supplement natural flows                               iting water withdrawals by all irrigators, municipalities, and indus-
                         from Blood and Deception Creeks. Ongoing activities at Cheyenne                                tries therein. The intent of the restrictions is to restore aquifer re-
                         Bottoms include construction of additional dikes in pool I to cre-                             charge and base flow to Walnut Creek.
                         ate a deeper pool that will decrease evaporation relative to the vol-
                         ume of water stored; installation of pumping stations to facilitate                            TRENDS
                         water transfer among pools; level ditches dug through dense stands
                         of cattails in silted areas of pool 4 to decrease water depth, provide                               According to FWS estimates, Kansas lost 405,600 acres, or 48
                         varied habitat, and allow access to inner waters; and improvements                             percent, of its wetlands between the 1780's and 1980's (Dahl, 1990).
                         to the canal from the Arkansas River to the marsh to reduce evapo-                             In 1890, the State sold 12 major salt marshes in central Kansas, some
                         ration and seepage losses (Grover, 1992).                                                      more than 1,000 acres in size. Many of these wetlands were drained
                               The Kansas Department of Wildlife and Parks holds water                                  and converted to agricultural uses shortly thereafter (Monda,
                         rights for 20,000 acre-feet per year from Walnut Creek and 30,000                              1992b). Draining and conversion to cropland have caused most of
                         acre-feet per year from the Arkansas River, but by the 1980's less                             the wetland losses in Kansas; 40 percent of the losses occurred
                         than 20 percent of the legally protected amount of water was avail-                            between 1955 and 1978 (Tiner, 1984). Most areas drained were
                         able (Karl Grover, Kansas Department of Wildlife and Parks, written                            shallow, palustrine wetlands such as the McPherson Valley Wetlands
                         commun., 1993). Declining flows in the Arkansas River and Wal-                                 and the playa lakes. Only about 500 acres remain of the original
                         nut Creek have resulted from lower water tables caused primarily                               9,000-plus acres in the McPherson Valley Wetlands (Wilson, 1992),
                         by ground-water withdrawals for irrigation, and from decreased                                 and about 70 percent of the original playa lakes are gone (Kansas
                         runoff due to soil and water conservation practices such as terrac-                            Department of Wildlife and Parks, 1992a). Remaining wetlands,
                         ing, construction of water impoundments, and conservation tillage                              despite regulations protecting them, continue to be adversely af-
                         (Kansas Biological Survey and Kansas Geological Survey, 1987;                                  fected by agricultural runoff of chemicals and sediment from sur-
                         Zimmerman, 1990).                                                                              rounding croplands (Kansas Department of Wildlife and Parks,
                               Recognition of the dependence of Cheyenne Bottoms on a                                   199 1). Other causes of wetland loss include depletion of surface and
                         managed hydrologic system resulted in legal action to protect the                              ground water, primarily as a result of irrigation withdrawals. Con-
                         senior water right on Walnut Creek. In 1992, the Chief Engineer of                             struction of flood-control structures and modifications to stream
                         the State Division of Water Resources established an Intensive                                 channels can result in drainage of wetlands or alteration of
                                                                                                                        streamflows entering wetlands. Urban, industrial, and transporta-
                         Table 1. Selected wetland-related activities of government                                     tion-system development also can be detrimental to wetlands (Kan-
                         agencies and private organizations in Kansas, 1993                                             sas Department of Wildlife and Parks, 199 1).
                         [Source: Classification of activities is generalized from information          provided
                             by agencies and organizations. e, agency or organization participates in                   CONSERVATION
                             wetland-related activity; ..., agency or organization does not participate in
                             wetland-related activity. MAN, management; REG, regulation; R&C, resto-                          Many government agencies and private organizations partici-
                             ration and creation; LAN, land acquisition; R&D, research and data collec-
                             tion; D&I, delineation and inventory]                                                      pate in wetland conservation in Kansas. The most active agencies
                                                                                                                        and organizations and some of their activities are listed in table 1.
                                                                                                                              Federal wetland activities.-Development activities in Kan-
                         Agency or organization                                         4P  01        1Y                sas wetlands are regulated by several Federal statutory prohibitions
                         FEDERAL                                                                                        and incentives that are intended to slow wetland losses. Some of the
                         Department of Agriculture                                                                      more important of these are contained in the 1899 Rivers and Har-
                           Consolidated Farm Service Agency       ........................... ...                       bors Act; the 1972 Clean Water Act and amendments; the 1985 Food
                           Forest Service   .................................................................000 0      Security Act; the 1990 Food, Agriculture, Conservation, and Trade
                           Natural Resources Conservation Service       ................ ...                            Act; and the 1986 Emergency Wetlands Resources Act.
                         Department of Defense                                                                                Section 10 of the Rivers and Harbors Act gives the U.S. Army
                           Army Corps of Engineers    ..............................................*                   Corps of Engineers (Corps) authority to regulate certain activities
                           Military reservations      .....................................................0
                         Department of the Interior                                                                     in navigable waters. Regulated activities include diking, deepening,
                           Bureau of Land Management       ......................................*                      filling, excavating, and placing of structures. The related section 404
                           Fish and Wildlife Service  ..............................................*                   of the Clean Water Act is the most often-used Federal legislation
                           Geological Survey    .......................................................... ... ... ... ... protecting wetlands. Under section 404 provi            Isions, the Corps issues
                           National Biological Service    ......................................... ... ...             permits regulating the discharge of dredged or fill material into
                         Environmental Protection Agency      .................................. ...0
                         STATE                                                                                          wetlands. Permits are subject to review and possible veto by the U.S.
                         Biological Survey   ............................................................... ... ... ... ... Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), and the Fws has review and
                         Conservation Commission      ................................................ ...0             advisory roles. Section 401 of the Clean Water Act grants to States
                         Corporation Commission       .................................................. ...0... ... ... ... and eligible Indian Tribes the authority to approve, apply conditions
                         Department of Agriculture                                                                      to, or deny section 404 permit applications on the basis of a pro-
                           Division of Water Resources     ....................................... ...0                 posed activity's probable effects on the water quality of a wetland.
                         Department of Health and Environment      ........................ ...9         0     0
                         Department of Wildlife and Parks     ..................................*0*   0  0     0              Most farming, ranching, and silviculture activities are not sub-
                         Geological Survey    .............................................................. ... ... ... ...0ject to section 404 regulation. However, the "Swampbuster" provi-
                         Water Office   ........................................................................0... ... ... ... sion of the 1985 Food Security Act and amendments in the 1990
                         PRIVATE                                                                                        Food, Agriculture, Conservation, and Trade Act discourages
                         Baker University   ..................................................................          (through financial disincentives) the draining, filling, or other al-
                         Ducks Unlimited   ..................................................................0
                         Kansas Wildscape Federation      ........................................ ... ... ... ...      teration of wetlands for agricultural use. The law allows exemptions
                         Kansas Wildlife Foundation   .............................................0a a                 from penalties in some cases, especially if the farmer agrees to re-
                         National Audubon Society     ............................................... ... ..            store the altered wetland or other wetlands that have been converted
                         Sierra Club  ........................................................................... ... ... ... ... to agricultural use. The Wetlands Reserve Program of the 1990 Food,
                         The Nature Conservancy       ..................................................000             Agriculture, Conservation, and Trade Act authorizes the Federal








                                                                                                 National Water Surnmary-Wetland Resources: KANSAS            199



                Government to purchase conservation easements from landowners              and approval of flood-plain zoning ordinances. The Division also
                who agree to protect or restore wetlands. The Consolidated Farm            regulates placement offill and construction oflevees within the 100-
                Service Agency (formerly the Agricultural Stabilization and Con-           year flood plain, dam construction, stream obstruction, and chan-
                servation Service) (CFsA) administers the Swampbuster provisions           nel modifications. The State Water Project's Environmental Coor-
                and Wetlands Reserve Program. The Natural Resources Conserva-              dination Act requires that various State agencies, including the
                tion Service (formerly the Soil Conservation Service) (NRCS) de-           Department of Wildlife and Parks, State and Extension Forestry, the
                termines compliance with Swamp-buster provisions and assists               Kansas Corporation Commission, and the State Historical Society,
                farmers in the identification of wetlands and in the development of        review applications to the Division of Water Resources for modifi-
                wetland protection, restoration, or creation plans.                        cation of streams and flood plains to determine potential adverse
                     The 1986 Emergency Wetlands Resources Act encourages                  effects on wetlands, fish, and wildlife. These agencies may recom-
                wetland protection through funding incentives. The act requires            mend acceptable alternatives to proposed modifications. The Kan-
                States to address wetland protection in their Statewide Comprehen-         sas Water Office coordinates the manipulation of lake levels in Fed-
                sive Outdoor Recreation Plans to qualify for Federal funding for           eral reservoirs through its Pool Level Management program, which
                State recreational land; the National Park Service provides guidance       can benefit waterfowl by controlling habitat access. The Kansas
                to States in developing the wetland component of their plans.              Water Office monitors minimum desirable strearnflows established
                     Several Federal agencies provide technical and financial assis-       for 23 Kansas streams through the Minimum Desirable Streamflow
                tance for efforts to restore, enhance, or create wetlands and to edu-      program, thus protecting fish, wildlife, and water quality. The Kan-
                cate the public about wetlands. The CFSA, through the Wetland Re-          sas Water Office also oversees water-resource planning and man-
                serve Program, pays for easements on land where the owners are             agement in Kansas through its administration of the State Water
                restoring and protecting wetlands. The Corps provides assistance           Plan. The Kansas Corporation Commission protects the State's fresh
                for infrastructure restoration that affects wetlands and for some fish     and other usable waters through regulation of drilling operations,
                and wildlife habitat-restoration activities. The Corps also supports       surface-pond construction, and oil-and-gas spill cleanup.
                educational efforts through its interpretive programs and video li-              The Kansas Biological Survey is involved in wetland activities
                brary. The EPA provides financial and technical assistance for de-         through research on aquatic ecosystems, identification of Kansas
                velopment of wetland inventories, project consultation, and public         Natural and Scientific areas, and development of models to evalu-
                education. The EPA also oversees the development and implementa-           ate the health of rivers, streams, and wetlands. The Kansas Geologi-
                tion of State water-quality regulations that apply to surface waters,      cal Survey conducts geohydrologic studies related to wetlands in the
                including wetlands. The Fws, through the Partners for Wildlife Pro-        State, such as the evaluation of the stream-aquifer system in the
                grain, offers technical advice and partial compensation to landown-        Rattlesnake Creek Basin, which includes Quivira National Wildlife
                ers who restore, enhance, or create wetlands.                              Refuge.
                     State wettand activities. - State wetlands programs are distrib-            The State Conservation Commission administers the Riparian
                uted among many agencies. The Weiland and Riparian Areas Project           and Weiland Protection Program, in which county conservation
                is a cooperative effort that coordinates State programs for wetland        districts develop comprehensive plans to protect and restore ripar-
                and riparian areas, assists land managers, and promotes public             ian and wetland areas. Assistance from the Commission and the
                awareness of wetland vaues and functions (Monda, 1992b). The               Department of Wildlife and Parks, along with funding from exist-
                project is coordinated through the Kansas Water Office as a multi-         ing local, State, and Federal programs, is used to demonstrate the
                agency effort with grant funding from the EPA.                             water-quality and flood-prevention benefits of riparian and wetland
                     The Department of Wildlife and Parks manages most of the              areas to landowners.
                22,265 acres of State-owned wetlands in Kansas. The agency has                   The Kansas State and Extension Forestry, through the Forestry
                acquired, by purchase or lease, additional acreage in the playa-lakes      Stewardship Program, provides technical assistance to landowners
                region and the McPherson Valley Wetlands through Federal funding           in proper management of riparian forests. Forest Stewardship Plans
                from Fws and, as part of the five-State Playa Lakes Joint Venture,         are developed by District Foresters, with participation by landown-
                from the North American Waterfowl Management Plan (Kansas                  ers, the Department of Wildlife and Parks, and the NRCS. Landown-
                Department of Wildlife and Parks, 1992b). The North American               ers who follow the plan are eligible for financial assistance through
                Waterfowl Management Plan is a multinational program for restor-           the Stewardship Incentive Program, which provides cost-share fund-
                ing waterfowl breeding populations by habitat acquisition and en-          ing for riparian and wetland protection and improvements such as
                hancement. Through its Wildlife Habitat Improvement Program, the           tree planting and maintenance, streambank stabilization, and pres-
                Department of Wildlife and Parks provides financial and technical          ervation offish and wildlife habitat.
                assistance to landowners who improve or develop wildlife habitat                 Private wetland activities.-The Kansas chapter of Ducks
                on private lands.                                                          Unlimited is involved in wetland-habitat conservation. Through its
                     The Kansas Department of Health and Environment addresses             Matching Aid to Restore States Habitat program, Ducks Unlimited
                wetland protection through its nonpoint-source pollution-control           has provided the Department of Wildlife and Parks with matching
                programs, Clean Lakes projects, and Lake and Wetland Monitor-              funds that have been used, as of 1993, to purchase or lease 1,926
                ing Program. Water-quality regulations for wetlands are included           acres for wetland-habitat development. Another 916 acres of exist-
                within antidegradation policies and are used to protect wetlands           ing wetlands have benefited from additional development and res-
                through Clean Water Act section 401 water-quality certification and        toration.
                section 404 permit review (Kansas Department of Health and En-                   Baker University is involved in preservation and research at
                vironment, 1992).Any action involving a discharge of dredged or            three natural areas in northeastern Kansas that contain wetland and
                fill material into a wetland in Kansas must receive a section 401          riparian areas. The Nature Conservancy has cooperated with the
                water-quality certification from the Department of Health and En-          FWS in the acquisition of 6,000 acres adjacent to the Marais des
                vironment as well as a section 404 permit from the Corps. The              Cygnes Wildlife Area., and is building a 5,437-acre preserve near
                Department may approve, make its approval conditional, or deny             Cheyenne Bottoms.
                certification on the basis of water-quality criteria.                            Education and advocacy are as important to wetland protec-
                     Several State agencies administer programs that affect wetlands       tion as are regulation and land acquisition. The Kansas Wildlife
                through regulation of State waters. The Kansas Department of               Federation influences wetland activities in Kansas through educa-
                Agriculture's Division of Water Resources is responsible for review        tion of its members and the public and lobbying of state legislators.








                    200      National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: STATE SUMMARIES



                    The Kansas Wildlife Federation was instrumental in securing fund-                 _1992a, The playa-Oasis of the plains: Pratt, Kansas Department
                    ing for the Kansas Biological Survey and Kansas Geological Sur-                        of Wildlife and Parks video, running time 14:23.
                    vey study of Cheyenn     'e Bottoms and contributed financially to the            _102b, Playa Lakes Management Plan forthe Playa Lakes Joint Ven-
                    lawsuit concerning enforcement of State water laws in the Walnut                       ture of the North American Waterfowl Management Plan: Pratt, Kan-
                    Creek Basin. The Kansas chapters of the Sierra Club and the Na-                        sas Department of Wildlife and Parks, 12 p.
                                                                                                      Lauver, C.L., 1989, Preliminary classification of the natural communities
                    tional Audubon Society also are involved in education and advo-                        of Kansas: Kansas Biological Survey Report 50, 21 p.
                    cacy regarding wetland issues.                                                    Monda, M.J., ed., 1992a, Classification of wetland and riparian areas in
                                                                                                           Kansas: Topeka, Kansas Department of Wildlife and Parks, 30 p.
                    ReferencesCited                                                                           1992b, Weiland and riparian areas in Kansas -Resources in need
                                                                                                           of conservation: Topeka, Kansas Department of Wildlife and Parks,
                    Carney, Edward, 1992, Water quality values, in Monda, M.J., ed., Wetland               63 p.
                          and riparian areas in Kansas -Resources in need of conservation:            Schoewe, W.H., 1949, The geography of Kansas -Part 11, physical geog-
                          Topeka, Kansas Department of Wildlife and Parks, p. 24 -25.                      raphy: Transactions of Kansas Academy of Sciences, v. 52, no. 3,
                    Cowardin, L.M, Carter, Virginia, Golet, F.C., and LaRoe, E.T., 1979, Clas-             p. 261-333.
                          sification ofwetlands and deepwater habitats oftheUnited States: U.S.       Sophocleous, Marios, 1992, Stream-aquifer modeling of the lower Rattle-
                          Fish and Wildlife Service Report FWS/OBS-79/31, 131 p.                           snake Creek basin with emphasis on the Quivira National Wildlife
                    Dahl, T.E., 1990, Wetlands-Losses in the United States, 1780's to 1980's:              Refuge: Kansas Geological Survey Open-File Report 92-10, 29 p.
                          Washington, D.C., U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 13 p.                     Spanbauer, M.K., 1988, Little Balkans: Kansas Wildlife and Parks, v. 45,
                    Farnsworth, R.K., Thompson, E.S., and Peck, E.L., 1982, Evaporation at-                no. 4, p. 6- 10.
                          las for the contiguous 48 United States: National Oceanographic and         Titter, R.W., Jr., 1984, Wetlands of the United States-Current status and
                          Atmospheric Administration Technical Report NWS 33, 27 p.                        recent trends: Washington, D.C., U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 59 p.
                    Fermeman, N.M., 1946, Physical divisions of the United States: Washing-           Wentz, W.A., 1988, An introduction to Cheyenne Bottoms: Kansas Wild-
                          ton, D.C., U.S. Geological Survey special map, scale 1:7,000,000.                life and Parks, v. 45, no. 4, p. 30- 3 1.
                    Grover, Karl, 1992, Cheyenne Bottoms renovation: Kansas Wildlife and              Wilson, Bert, 1992, McPherson Valley Wetlands: Kansas Wildlife and Parks,
                          Parks, v. 49, no. 2, p. 28 - 32.                                                 v. 49, no. 6, p. 21-25.
                    Jordan, P.R., 1986, Kansas surface-water resources, in U.S. Geological            Zimmerman, J.L., 1990, Cheyenne Bottoms-Wetland in jeopardy:
                          Survey, National water summary 1985-Hydrologic events and sur-                   Lawrence, University Press of Kansas, 197 p.
                          face-water resources: U.S. Geological Survey Water- Supply Paper
                          2300, p. 237-244.
                    Kansas Biological Survey and Kansas Geological Survey, 1987, Cheyenne             FOR ADDITIONAL INFORMATION: District Chief, U.S. Geological
                          Bottoms -An environmental assessment: Kansas Geological Survey              Survey, 4821 Quail Crest Place, Lawrence, KS 66049; Regional Weiland
                          Open-File Report 87-5, 719 p.                                               Coordinator, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Fish and Wildlife Enhance-
                    Kansas Department of Health and Environment, 1992, Kansas water qual-             ment, P.O. Box 25486, Denver Federal Center, Denver, CO 80225
                          ity assessment (305(b) report): Topeka, Kansas Department of Health
                          and Environment, 58 p.
                    Kansas Department of Wildlife andParks, 1991,Aplan forKansas wildlife                                            Prepared by
                          and parks -Strategic plan: Topeka, Kansas Department of Wildlife                                         Joan F. Kenny,
                          and Parks, 158 p.                                                                                   U.S. Geological Survey






























                                                                     U.S. Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper 2425







                                                                                                                        National Water Summary-Wetiand Resources 201
                                                                                                                                          Kentucky
                                                                                                                            Wetland Resources
                 WtIands compose less than 2.5 percent of the surface area of                       TYPES AND DISTRIBUTION
                 Kentucky, but these fragile and finite ecosystems have considerable                      Wetlands are lands transitional between terrestrial and
                 environmental, socioeconomic, and esthetic value. Axe Lake Swamp                   deepwater habitats where the water table usually is at or near the
                 (fig. 1) is an example of a scenic wetland in the western part of the              land surface or the land is covered by shallow water (Cowardin and
                 State.                                                                             others, 1979). The distribution of wetlands and deepwater habitats
                       Wetlands contribute to the maintenance of good water quality                 in Kentucky is shown in figure 2A; only wetlands are discussed
                 and can improve degraded waters by reducing suspended- sediment                    herein.
                 concentrations, removing nutrients, and processing various organic                       Wetlands can be vegetated or nonvegetated and are classified
                 and inorganic compounds (Tiner, 1984). A wetland can attenuate                     on the basis of their hydrology, vegetation, and substrate. In this
                 flood peaks and then release the stored water slowly, reducing the                 summary, wetlands are classified according to the system proposed
                 environmental impacts of floods and, in some parts of the State,                   by Cowardin and others (1979), which is used by the U.S. Fish and
                 increasing ground-water recharge. Wetlands are among the world's                   Wildlife Service (FWS) to map and inventory the Natiorfs wetlands.
                 most productive ecosystems, efficiently converting solar energy and                At the most general level of the classification system, wetlands are
                 inorganic nutrients to biomass that supports many terrestrial and                  grouped into five ecological systems: Palustrine, Lacustrine, Riv-
                 aquatic food webs. Wetlands in Kentucky support a diverse com-                     erine, Estuarine, and Marine. The Palustrine System includes only
                 munity of aquatic plants (Beal and Thieret, 1986), including rare                  wetlands, whereas the other systems comprise wetlands and
                 and endangered species that do not exist elsewhere. Wetlands are                   deepwater habitats. Wetlands of the systems that occur in Kentucky
                 vital habitat for many species of waterfowl and other migratory birds              are described below.
                 and are spawning and nursery grounds for many species of game
                 and nongame fishes. Wetlands are home for many amphibian and
                 reptile species, as well as for several game and nongame mammals.                  System                                   Wetland description
                       Recreational opportunities such as hunting, fishing, hiking,                 Palustrine  .................. Wetlands in which vegetation is predominantly
                 nature observation and photography, camping, and canoeing abound                                             trees iforested wetlands); shrubs (scrub-shrub
                 in Kentucky wetlands, affording enjoyment to State residents and                                             wetlands); persistentor nonpersistent emergent,
                 visitors. Recent research on the ecological function of wetlands has                                         erect, rooted, herbaceous plants (persistent- and
                 led to several innovative programs in the State for the use of con-                                          nonpersistent-emergent wetlands); or sub-
                                                                                                                              mersed and (or) floating plants (aquatic beds).
                 structed wetlands to treat residential, agricultural, and acidic mine                                        Also, intermittently to permanently flooded
                 wastewaters.                                                                                                 open-water bodies of less than 20 acres in which
                                                                                                                              water is less than 6.6 feet deep.
                                                                                                    Lacustrine   ................. Wetlands within an intermittently to permanently
                                                                                                                              flooded lake or reservoir. Vegetation, when pres-
                                                                                                                              ent, is predominantly nonpersistent emergent
                                                                                                                              plants (non persistent-emergent wetlands), or
                                                                                                                              submersed and (or) floating plants (aquatic
                                                                                                                              beds), or both.
                                                                                                    Riverine   ..................... Wetlands within a channel. Vegetation, when pres-
                                                                                                                              ent, is same as in the Lacustrine System.

                                                                                                                                                                         eas ly-
                                                                                  A                       Most Kentucky wetlands are palustrine and include at
                                                                                                    in
                                                                                                      g shoreward of rivers and lakes, such as bald cypress swamps,
                                                                                                    bottom-land hardwood forests,emergent wetlands, and small ponds.
                                                                                                    The alluvial flood plains of the Ohio and Mississippi Rivers and their
                                                                                                    tributaries in the Western Kentucky Coal Field and Mississippi
                                                                                                    Embayment physiographic regions (fig. 2B) contain most of the
                                                                                                    State's wetlands. Welland vegetation in those regions is mostly bot-
                                                                                                    tom-land hardwood forest associated with scrub-shrub and emer-
                                                                                                    gent species. Lacustrine wetlands in Kentucky are limited to reser-
                                                                                                    voirs and a few small natural lakes such as Metropolis Lake and Swan
                                                                                                    Lake and are the least abundant type in the State. Riverine wetlands
                                                                                                    also are not abundant in Kentucky, but they are particularly impor-
                                                                                                    tant in the eastern part of the State, where they provide habitat for
                                                                                                    rare and endangered species, protect against shoreline erosion, and
                                                                                                    convey floodwaters (Kentucky Division of Water, 1990).
                                                                                                          The greatest areal extent of wetlands of all types in Kentucky
                                                                                                    is in the Western Kentucky Coal Field. The Clear Creek wetlands,
                                                                                                    located in the Tradewater River Basin, are the largest in this area
                                        Figure 1. Axe Lake Swamp, a forested wetland                and are the most disturbed by human activities. Clear Creek forms
                                        in western  Kentucky. (Photograph courtesy of               intermittent channels through marshes of cattail and other emergent
                                        the Kentucky State Nature Preserves Commis-                 plants, bottom-land hardwood forests, bald cypress swamps, and
                                        sion.)                                                      scattered dead forests. Submersed peat-moss mats can be found in








                                202         National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: STATE SUMMARIES



                                the deeper waters (Hill, 1983). The Clear Creek Basin also contains                                                        where else in the State. Axe Lake Swamp State Nature Preserve
                                the only vegetated riverine wetlands in the Western Kentucky Coal                                                          consists of a bald cypress swamp and bottom-land hardwood forest
                                Field, including both aquatic-bed and nonpersistent-emergent wet-                                                          within the Ohio River flood plain and constitutes a part of the larg-
                                lands. Pondweed, coontail, and water milfoil grow on or below the                                                          est contiguous swamp in Kentucky. The swamp supports eight plant
                                water surface, along with emergent species such as lizard's tail and                                                       and animal species that are rare in the State and provides wintering
                                smartweed (Mitsch and others, 1983). The extensive wetlands of                                                             habitat for thousands of waterfowl. Also located in the Mississippi
                                Cypress Creek, which are adjacent to the creek channel, are com-                                                           Embayment are Metropolis Lake, Murphy's Pond, and Swan Lake,
                                posed of well-developed stands of bald cypress, bottom-land hard-                                                          three wetlands that are classified as "Outstanding Resource Waters"
                                wood forests, and cattail communities (Taylor, 1985). The area sup-                                                        by the Kentucky Natural Resources and Environmental Protection
                                ports a diverse plant and animal community, including waterfowl                                                            Cabinet.
                                and many nongame species such as the bald eagle. The Pond Creek-                                                                  Wetlands in the central and eastern parts of the State are sparse
                                Henderson Sloughs wetland system lies in the northern part of the                                                          and scattered. Swamp forests occur on poorly drained flats and in
                                Western Kentucky Coal Field and has been adversely affected by                                                             shallow depressions in the upper Green River Basin in the Missis-
                                oil-well brines. This area is characterized by a mosaic of bald cy-                                                        sippian Plateaus. Vegetation includes swamp white oak, buttonbush,
                                press swamps and bottom-land hardwood forests, scrub-shrub veg-                                                            lizard's tail, and sedges (Hoagland and Jones, 1992). At least a dozen
                                etation, and open-water emergent vegetation. Wetlands in this area                                                         swamps associated with abandoned river channels or sinking creeks
                                lie within the Mississippi flyway and provide valuable habitat and                                                         (creeks that disappear through a "swallow hole" into solution chan-
                                feeding grounds for migratory waterfowl.                                                                                   nels in the underground limestone bedrock) are located in the In-
                                        In the Mississippi Embayment, there are extensive areas of                                                         ner and Outer Bluegrass regions and the Knobs (Bryant, 1978;
                                wetlands dominated by bald cypress swamps or bottom-land hard-                                                             Meijer and others, 198 1). This type of forested wetland, which oc-
                                wood forests. Terrapin Creek State Nature Preserve is a temporarily                                                        curs on moderately wet upland flats, is now rare in the Bluegrass
                                to permanently flooded cypress swamp that contains several peren-                                                          and the Knobs. Another example of Bluegrass-region wetlands is
                                nial springs. The area supports a number of fish species found no-                                                         in the Sinking Creek Basin (Meijer, 1976). Vegetation includes
                                                                                                                                                           stands of bald cypress, swamp white oak, sedges, and rushes. The
                                                                                                                                                           karst area near Mammoth Cave in the Mississippian Plateaus has
                                                                                                                       Inner Bluegrass                     depressional wetlands on sandstone ridges that contain water for 9
                                                                                                                                                           to 10 months during most years. There are also scattered emergent
                                B       PHYSIOGRAPHIC DIVISIONS                                                                                            wetlands with organic soils in the Cumberland Plateau. Sphagnum
                                                                                                                                                           moss is present at many of these sites in dense mats as much as a
                                                                                                                                                           foot thick, in association with shrubs, sedges, and ferns (Mark
                                                                                             to
                                                                                                 Z&                                                        Evans, Kentucky State Nature Preserves Commission, oral
                                                             Western                                                                                       commun., 1992). Common or characteristic plant species include
                                                             Kentucky                                                                                                                                                                       -veined chain-fern.
                                                             Coal Field                                                                                    spicebush, common alder, cinnamon fern, and net



                                                                                                                                                                                       Covington          39'
                                                  Mississippi
                                                  Embayment

                                A    WETLANDS AND DEEPWATER HABITATS
                                     Distribution of wetlands and deepwater habitats-
                                        This map shows the approximate distribution of large                                                                                             V
                                        wetlands in the State. Because of limitations of scale
                                        and source material, some wetlands are not shown

                                              Predominantly wetland                                                                                        Louis e
                                               Predominantly deepwater habitat                                                                                 iW                         Cr            xingto

                                                                                                                                                           Ft Knox
                                                                                     Pond Creek-                                                             ites one inn
                                                                                     Henderson S   g


                                                                                                                                                                                                                           Lick C-
                                Alrd,op.h, Lokv                                                                                                                                                 B  dhemd'-'
                                                                               1@4       Cled Tr                                                  300                                                mp
                                                                                             le
                       Axe Lale Svvamp                                                                                                            moth Cav                                         For
                  State Nature Prese
                                                                                                                                     own. _a'.                                                                                                                   37-
                                                  Y

                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                       83.


                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            Cumberland Gap
                                ffive                  h,                                                                                                               lag- -                                                              National Historic Park
                                                                                         Fort Campbell        87-                                                                 85.
                                                                                         miiinary neservation
                   13.9.. d. Chi-/ 89@                     Terrapin Creek State
                                                           Nature Preserve                                                                                                                                                   0              25              50 MILES

                                                                                                                                                                                                                             0        25        50 KILOMETERS


                                Figure 2. Weiland distribution in Kentucky and physiography of the State. A, Distribution of wetlands and deepwater                                                                                   habitats. B, Physio-
                                graphy. (Sources: A, TE. Dahl, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, unpub. data, 1991. B, Physiographic divisions modified from McDowell,
                                1986; landforms data from EROS Data Center.)








                                                                                                                                               National Water Surnmary-Wetland Resources: KENTUCKY                                              203


                           HYDROLOGIC SETTING                                                                                                      The greatest areal extent of wetlands in Kentucky is in the
                                                                                                                                           Western Kentucky Coal Field. The region grades from rolling hills
                                 The types and distribution of wetlands in Kentucky are deter-                                             in the south and east to flat flood plains in the northern areas near
                           mined principally by factors that include climate, topography, hy-                                              the Ohio River. Extensive bottom-land hardwood wetlands in this
                           drology, geology, and soil type. Wetlands occur most commonly in                                                part of the State are the result of a shallow water table, poorly drained
                           areas where precipitation exceeds evapotranspiration and runoff or                                              soils, and frequent overbank flooding following seasonal precipita-
                           where there are perennial sources of ground water. Seasonally, pre-                                             tion (Harker and others, 1981). Bottom-land hardwood forest, either
                           cipitation is least from August through October; during these                                                   seasonally flooded or temporarily flooded, is the major wetland type
                           months, ground-water inflows help to maintain saturation in wet-                                                (Mitsch and others, 1983). Valleys of major streams and their tribu-
                           land soils.                                                                                                     taries are wide, flat, and filled with thick alluvium or glacial de-


                           A. Western Kentucky Coal Field                                                                                                                                                 EXPLANATION
                                                                                                                                                                                                                    Generalized direction of
                                        PERCHED WETLANDS                                                                                                                                                              ground-water flow
                                        PALUSTRINE WETLANDS                                       MINED-AREA WETLAND
                                                                                                    PALUSTRINEWETLAND                                        FLOOD-PLAIN WETLANDS                                   Generalized water table
                                                                                                   Abandoned                                                     PALUSTRINE WETLANDS
                                                                                                    coal-mine                                                                                               C@      Scrub-shrub vegetation
                                                                                   C2             strip bench            Mine-spoil
                                                                                              Q.                           pile                                          RIVERINE WETLANDS
                                                                                                                                                                                                                    Forest vegetation
                                                                                                  lf,110,1111\@tl thb    11
                                            I                                                   - ---------                                                                                                         Emergent vegetation


                                                                                                                                                    ----- --------                                                  Solution conduit
                                                                                                                                                                        11101 Allu@ium                              Fracture
                                                                                       Shale and efttone                                                                                                   F171-    Spoil

                                                                                                                                                                                                                    Silt and clay


                           B. Bluegrass and Knobs
                                      UPLAND                      FLUVIAL TERRACE                                                                                posits (fig. 3A). The associated flood plains contain
                                     PLATEAU                     PAL IUSTRINE WETLAND                                                                            many riparian wetlands. Soils near the Green, Pond,
                                                                                                                                                                 Tradewater, and Rough Rivers are thick and not well
                                                                                                                   FLOOD-PLAIN WETLANDS                          drained. The gentle slope of the Tradewater River and
                                                                        ---- --                                         PALLISTRINE WETLANDS                     many of its tributaries (less than I foot per mile) re-
                                                                                                                                                   r-            sults in floods that peak and subside slowly, fostering
                                                           T_                                             le                   RIVERINE WETLANDS                 storage in associated alluvial wetlands. Base flow in
                                                                                                                                                                 streams and water in wetlands commonly are sustained
                                               Shale                                                                                                             by discharge of ground water from permeable lime-
                                                                                                                                                                 stone (Quinones and others, 1983). Many areas within
                           Limestone                                                                                                                             the  Wes    te rn Kentucky Coal Field have been altered by
                                                                                                                                                                 strip mining, Which has changed drainage character-
                                                                                                                                                                 istics. Swamp forests are left as stands of dead timber
                                                                                                                                                                 following disruption of the natural hydrology. Many
                                                                                                                                                                 of these areas are in transition to persi stent- emergent
                           C. Mississippian Plateaus                                                                                                             or aquatic-bed wetlands. Abandoned coal-mine strip
                                                                                                    PAILLISTRINE WETLAND                                         benches typically contain topographic depressions in
                                                                                                                                                                 which small wetlands form, and seepage through
                           I                     S;nkinsr creek                                           Karst Valley                                           mine-spoil piles commonly supports wetlands on or
                                                                                                                                                                 below the piles.
                                                                                                                                                                         Far western Kentucky is in the Mississippi
                                       SinkWes,                                                                                                                  Embayment. The region has low relief and is charac-
                                                                                                         Alt"
                                                                  Reg.kh                                                                                         terized by gently rolling uplands and wide, shallow
                                                                                                                            All
                                                                                                                                                                 valleys. Extensive bottom-land hardwood forests are
                                                                                                                                                                 found along Mayfield and Obion Creeks and Bayou de
                                                                                                           vv/        444                                        Chien. Much of the. flood plain of these streams is
                                                                                                                                                                 composed of unconsolidated alluvium underlain by
                                                                                                                                                                 saturated sand and gravel. Other areas within the Mis-
                                                                                                                                                                 sissippi Embayment have extensive deposits of loess
                                                                                                                                                                 or glacially derived outwash. The water table gener-
                                                                                                                                                                 .11y - shallow, and the region has some of the most
                                                            Unnest ne


                                                                                                                                                                 productive aquifers in the State (Davis and others,
                           Figure 3.      Generalized geohydrologic setting of representative wetlands in                                                        1973). Much of western Kentucky is subject to flood-
                           Kentucky.     A, Western Kentucky Coal Field. B, Fractured bedrock and terrace                                                        ing by the Mississippi and Ohio Rivers, sometimes for
                           deposits in the Inner and Outer Bluegrass regions and the Knobs. C, Karst terrane                                                     prolonged periods. This periodic inundation is a pri-
                           in the Mississippian Plateaus.                                                                                                        mary source of water for riparian wetlands.








                       204       National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: STATE SUMMARIES



                              Wetlands in the central and eastern parts of the State gener-                              conflicts of interest arise between advocates of wetland protection
                       ally are associated with karst terrane or are located on poorly                                   and advocates of resource development. In addition to loss, wetlands
                       drained flood plain or upland soils. Swamp forests in the Knobs and                               also can be degraded by water pollution. Acidic mine drainage from
                       the Bluegrass region grow along the Green, Licking, Dix, and Ken-                                 coal-mining activities is common in the Western Kentucky Coal
                       tucky Rivers and also occur on high-level terrace deposits at eleva-                              Field region, and water having low pH and high sulphur or iron
                       tions of 600 to 1,000 feet (fig. 3B). Forested wetlands in the Knobs                              concentrations causes severe damage to plant and animal commu-
                       have formed on alluvium or low-permeability shale, whereas Blue-                                  nities (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 1992). In the Mississippi
                       grass-region forested wetlands typicafly are in alluvium underlain                                Embayment, nonpoint-source inputs of nutrients, pesticides, and
                       by limestone and shale. Brodhead Swamp Forest, located in the                                     sediments can exceed the capacity of wetlands to absorb, filter, and
                       Mississippian Plateaus, is in a sinkhole basin underlain by limestone                             transform those pollutants to less harmful forms, resulting in deg-
                       and drained in the subsurface. The wetland is fed by several inter-                               radation or loss of wetlands. Other pollutants such as industrial
                       mittent springs as well as by surface runoff (Hannan and Lassetter,                               wastewater and pesticides have deleterious short-term and long-term
                       1982) and typically contains surface water for I I months of the year.                            effects on wetlands.
                       At other locations in the Mississippian Plateaus, wetlands form in
                       sinkholes and karst valleys that are subject to flooding (fig. 3C). In                            CONSERVATION
                       the karst area surrounding Mammoth Cave, shallow depressional
                       wetlands are sustained by the surficial aquifer on the tops of sand-                                  Many government agencies and private organizations partici-
                       stone ridges. An underlying layer of compact, poorly permeable soil                               pate in wetland conservation in Kentucky. The most active agen-
                       holds water in the soil at the surface. Scattered emergent wetlands                               cies and organizations and some of their activities are listed in
                       with organic soils form at the base of gentle to steep slopes in val-                             table 1.
                       leys, ravines, and canyons in the southeastern Cumberland Plateau.                                    Federal wetland activities. -Development activities in Ken-
                       These midelevation wetlands are fed by acidic ground-water seep-                                  tucky wetlands are regulated by several Federal statutory prohibi-
                       age from stratified and fractured bedrock aquifers.                                               tions and incentives that are intended to slow wetland losses. Some
                                                                                                                         of the more important of these are contained in the 1899 Rivers and
                       TRENDS                                                                                            Harbors Act; the 1972 Clean Water Act and amendments; the 1985
                              Wetlands are sensitive to changes in normal patterns of water                              Table 1. Selected wetland-related activities of overnment
                       storage and movement (Mitsch and Gosselink, 1996). Changes in                                                                                                  9
                       hydrologic conditions, such as those associated with resource de-                                 agencies and private organizations in Kentucky, 1993
                       velopment or other human activities, commonly result in wetland                                   [Source: Classification of activities is generalized from information provided
                                                                                                                             by agencies and organizations. o, agency or organization participates in
                       loss or degradation. On the basis of the distribution of hydric soils                                 wetland-related activity; ..., agency or organization does not participate in
                       as described by the Kentucky Division of Conservation (1982),                                         wetland-related activity. MAN, management; REG, regulation; R&C, resto-
                       Kentucky once had more than 1.6 million acres of wetlands. By                                         ration and creation; LAN, land acquisition; R&D, research and data collec-
                       1977, about 929,000 acres (58 percent) of the State's original wet-                                   tion; D&I, delineation and inventory]
                       lands had been lost, primarily through drainage and subsequent
                       conversion to cropland and pastureland. Losses were greatest in
                       western Kentucky, amounting to 52 percent of the State's bottom-                                  Agency or organization                                      0@   0@1   13@ 40' 1@11&
                       land hardwood forests. By 1990, Kentucky's remaining wetland                                      FEDERAL
                       acreage was estimated to be between 387,000 acres (John Hefner,                                   Department of Agriculture
                       U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, written commun., 1993) and 650,000                                Consolidated Farm Service Agency       ........................... ...
                       acres (Kentucky Division of Water, 1992), representing a total State                              Forest Service   .................................................................0
                                                                                                                         Natural Resources Conservation Service       ................ ...
                       loss of about 60 to 76 percent since predevelopment times.                                        Department of Defense
                              Only 20 percent of the remaining naturally occurring wetlands                              Army Corps of Engineers      ............. ___ ..................
                       in Kentucky are forested. In addition to losses from logging and                                  Military reservations        .....................................................0
                       conversion to agricultural land, the disproportionate loss of bottom-                             Department of the Interior
                       land hardwoods might have been due to stream channelization. As                                   Fish and Wildlife Service    ..............................................*
                                                                                                                         Geological Survey    .......................................................... . ... ...
                       flood frequency and duration are reduced, long-term changes in                                    National Biological Survey        .....................  .............
                       species composition occur; typically, riparian species are lost.                                  National Park Service        ................................................... ... ... ... ...
                              The FwS estimated that, as of 1983, losses of wetlands in Ken-                             Office of Surface Mining     ..............................................
                       tucky were continuing at a rate of about 3,600 acres annually (Tiller,                            Environmental Protection Agency   ..................................
                       1984). The primary cause of wetland loss in the State has been                                    Tennessee Valley Authority   ..............................................
                                                                                                                         STATE
                       conversion of bottom-land hardwood forests for agricultural use.                                  Geological Survey  .............................................................. ... ...
                       Although loss due to agricultural conversion continues, the rate has                              Natural Resources and Environmental
                       declined because of changes in government subsidy programs, de-                                   Protection Cabinet
                       clining agricultural-commodity prices, and the overall scarcity of                                Division of Conservation     ............................................... ... ... ...
                       remaining forested wetlands. Other hydrologic alterations, such as                                Division of Water   ............................................................ ...
                       channelization for flood control, highway construction, and modi-                                 Surface Mining Reclamation and
                                                                                                                         Enforcement    .................................................................... ...
                       fications associated with industrial and commercial development,                                  State Nature Preserves Commission      .........................*
                       continue to adversely affect wetland resources in Kentucky. How-                                  Tourism Cabinet
                       ever, the loss due to those causes also is declining in response to                               Fish and Wildlife Resources    ........................................a
                       expansion and enforcement of regulations.                                                         Transportation Cabinet       ..................................................0
                              Surface coal mining disturbs as much as 4,000 acres per year                               Water Resources Research institute     ......................... ... ..
                                                                                                                         PRIVATE ORGANIZATIONS
                       of the more than 2.9 million acres of land in the Western Kentucky                                Ducks Unlimited  ..................................................................
                       Coal Field region (Mitsch and others, 1983). More than 114,000                                    Kentucky Resources Council   ........................................... ... ...
                       acres of wetlands, principally bottom-land hardwood forests, could                                The Nature Conservancy       ..................................................0
                       eventually be affected. Owing to the economic importance of coal,                                 Riverfields  ............................................................................0








                                                                                                National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: KENTUCKY               205



                 Food Security Act; the 1990 Food, Agriculture, Conservation, and            waterfowl and has constructed approximately 100 acres of new
                 Trade Act; and the 1986 Emergency Wetlands Resources Act.                   wetlands as a part of their nationwide "Taking Wings Initiative." The
                       Section 10 of the Rivers and Harbors Act gives the U.S. Army          Department of Defense has asked the FWS to identify all wetlands
                 Corps of Engineers (Corps) authority to regulate certain activities         on Fort Knox and Fort Campbell Military Reservations and to con-
                 in navigable waters. Regulated activities include diking, deepening,        duct a survey of threatened and endangered species in wetlands on
                 filling, excavating, and placing of structures. The related section 404     these properties. The NPs has inventoried wetlands in the four NPS
                 of the Clean Water Act is the most often-used Federal legislation           properties in Kentucky. Cumberland Gap National Historic Park is
                 protecting wetlands. Under section 404 provisions, the Corps issues         working with the Kentucky State Nature Preserves Commission to
                 permits regulating the discharge of dredged or fill material into           study midelevation peatlands that are located within park bound-
                 wetlands. Perinits are subject to review and possible veto by the U.S.      aries, Fed by acidic seeps, these wetlands support a mixed commu-
                 Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), and the Fws has review and           nity of shrub and emergent plants as well as scattered dense mats
                 advisory roles. Section 401 of the Clean Water Act grants to States         of sphagnum moss.
                 and eligible Indian Tribes the authority to approve, apply conditions            State wetland activities. -Kentucky has not adopted specific
                 to, or deny section 404 permit applications on the basis of a pro-          wetland regulations (Aldy, 1992). Wetlands are specifically defined
                 posed activity's probable effects on the water quality of a wetland.        in State water-quality standards and regulatory statutes. The State
                       Most farming, ranching, and silviculture activities are not sub-      administers the Clean Water Act section 401 water-quality certifi-
                 ject to section 404 regulation. However, the "Swampbuster" provi-           cation program, and wetlands are included in the definition of sur-
                 sion of the 1985 Food Security Act and amendments in the 1990               face waters. The Kentucky Division of Water is the point of contact
                 Food, Agriculture, Conservation, and Trade Act discourages                  for administering the State water-quality certification review proc-
                 (through financial disincentives) the draining, filling, or other al-       ess of section 404 permit applications (Hannan and others, 1986).
                 teration of wetlands for agricultural use. The law allows exemptions        The Kentucky Natural Resources and Environmental Protection
                 from penalties in some cases, especially if the farmer agrees to re-        Cabinet has assembled an interagency working group to explore
                 store the altered wetland or other wetlands that have been converted        mitigation options to curtail the loss of Kentucky's bottom-land
                 to agricultural use. The Wetlands Reserve Program of the 1990 Food,         hardwood forests.
                 Agriculture, Conservation, and Trade Act authorizes the Federal                  Although the Fws has not yet completed its inventory of
                 Government to purchase conservation easements from landowners               Kentucky's wetlands, under a Memorandum ofAgreement, the Ken-
                 who agree to protect or restore wetlands. The Consolidated Farm             tucky Department of Fish and Wildlife Resources has provided
                 Service Agency (formerly the Agricultural Stabilization and Con-            funds to the Kentucky Division of Water to digitize all the FWS
                 servation Service) adn-iinisters the Swampbuster provisions and Wet-        National Wetlands Inventory maps for Kentucky. The digitized in-
                 lands Reserve Program. The Natural Resources Conservation                   formation will become a part of the Kentucky Natural Resources
                 Service (formerly the Soil Conservation Service) determines com-            and Environmental Protection Cabinet's geographic information
                 pliance with Swampbuster provisions and assists farmers in the iden-        system. In addition to having an active wetlands-acquisition pro-
                 tification of wetlands and in the development of wetland protection,        gram, the Kentucky Department of Fish and Wildlife Resources
                 restoration, or creation plans.                                             offers technical guidance in wetland identification and restoration
                       The 1986 Emergency Wetlands Resources Act encourages                  to landowners and developers. The Department also participates in
                 wetland protection through funding incentives. The act requires             the New Madrid Wetlands Project, a four-State initiative to protect
                 States to address wetland protection in their Statewide Comprehen-          important waterfowl habitat in the lower Mississippi River valley.
                 sive Outdoor Recreation Plans to qualify for Federal funding for            The proposal, developed to further the goals of the North Ameri-
                 State recreational land; the National Park Service (NPS) provides           can Waterfowl Management Plan, includes acquisition and manage-
                 guidance to States in developing the wetland component of their             ment of 39,000 acres of wetlands in Kentucky.
                 plans.                                                                           The Kentucky State Nature Preserves Commission has recom-
                       The EPA Wetlands Planning Unit has initiated an Advance Iden-         mended several wetlands for conservation and protection (Hannan
                 tification project in the Western Kentucky Coal Field. The project          and others, 1986). These areas were chosen on the basis of the pres-
                 is a joint initiative between the EPA, the Corps, and the State and         ence of threatened or endangered species, the presence of critical
                 includes wetlands in four counties. The goals of the project are to         habitat or an Outstanding Resource Water (as designated by the
                 increase public and industry awareness of wetland values and to             Kentucky Natural Resources and Environmental Protection Cabi-
                 generate information on wetland resources for regulatory agencies           net), and the imminence of destruction or alteration. They also
                 making permit decisions. The EPA has also awarded the Kentucky              manage a number of existing wetland preserves and foster the pro-
                 Natural Resources and Environmental Protection Cabinet, Division            tection of other wetlands in the State through a system of registry
                 of Water, a project funded by the EPA State/Tribal Wetland Develop-         and dedication agreements with private individuals.
                 ment Grant Program. The goal of this project is to collect biologi-              Private welland activities. -Most of Kentuckys wetlands are
                 cal, chemical, and physical data from minimally degraded wetland            privately owned. The Nature Conservancy is active in land acqui-
                 sites to develop biological standards for the assessment of wetland         sition and stewardship of wetlands in Kentucky. The group also
                 health.                                                                     participates in joint management, along with various State agencies
                       The Fws Regional Wetlands Concept Plan (U.S. Fish and Wild-           and private individuals, of several wetlands in the Mississippi
                 life Service, 1992) identified areas of wetlands in Kentucky that           Embayment as well as the Horse Lick Creek wetland system in the
                 warrant protection because of their resource value, vulnerability, and      Knobs. The Kentucky Resources Council is an environmental ad-
                 scarcity. Among them are approximately 6,000 acres in the Cypress           vocacy organization that provides legal and technical support to local
                 Creek area of the Western Kentucky Coal Field. This tract is recog-         government and public interest groups to ensure the full and fair
                 nized as habitat for several State-listed threatened or endangered          implementation of the Clean Water Act with respect to wetlands in
                 species, contains five archeological sites, and is recognized as an         the State. Riverfields is a group of concerned private citizens that
                 important wetland area by the Kentucky State Nature Preserves               owns and manages two wetland areas, including bottom-land hard-
                 Commission.                                                                 wood forest in the alluvial flood plain of the Ohio River near Lou-
                       Several other Federal agencies conduct wetland-related activi-        isville. They strongly emphasize public education in their activities.
                 ties in the State. The Forest Service (FS) is inventorying wetlands
                 in the Daniel Boone National Forest. The FS manages wetlands for








                    206      National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: STATE SUMMARIES



                    References Cited                                                                     Kentucky Division of Conservation, 1982, Kentucky soil and water conser-
                                                                                                              vation program, Part I -Overview and appraisal of soil and water re-
                    Aldy, J.E., Jr., 1992, Trends in wetland regulation and the future of                     sources: Frankfort, Kentucky Natural Resources and Environmental
                          Kentucky's wetlands program: Frankfort, Kentucky Natural Resources                  Protection Cabinet, Division of Conservation, 46 p.
                          and Environmental Protection Cabinet, 115 p.                                   McDowell, R.C., 1986, The Geology of Kentucky -A text to accompany
                    Beal, E.O., and Thieret, J.W., 1986, Aquatic and wetland plants of Kentucky:              the geologic map of Kentucky: U.S. Geological Survey Professional
                          Kentucky Nature Preserves Commission, Scientific and Technical                      Paper 115 I-H, 76 p.
                          Series 5, 314 p.                                                               Meijer, Willem, 1976, Notes on the flora of the Sinking Creek system and
                    Bryant, W.S., 1978, Unusual forest type, hydro-mesophytic, for the Inner                  Elkhorn source areas in the Inner Bluegrass region of Kentucky: Trans-
                          Bluegrass Region of Kentucky: Castanea, v. 43, p. 129-137.                          actions of the Kentucky Academy of Science, v. 37, p. 77- 84.
                    Cowardin, L.M., Carter, Virginia, Golet, F.C., and LaRoe, E.T., 1979, Clas-          Meijer, Willem, Campbell, J.J.N., Setser, Howard, and Meade, L.E., 198 1,
                          sification of wetlands and deepwater habitats of the United States: U.S.            Swamp forests on high terrace deposits in the Bluegrass and Knobs
                          Fish and Wildlife Service Report FWS/OBS -79/31, 131 p.                             Regions of Kentucky: Castanea, v. 46, p. 122 -135.
                    Davis, R.W., Lambert, T.W., and Hansen, A.J., Jr., 1973, Subsurface geol-            Mitsch, W.J., and Gosselink, J.G., 1986, Wetlands: New York, Van Nostrand
                          ogy and ground-water resources of the Jackson Purchase region, Ken-                 Reinhold, 539 p.
                          tucky: U.S. Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper 1987, 66 p.                   Mitsch, W.J., Taylor, J.R., Benson, K.B., and Hill, P.L., Jr., 1983, Atlas of
                    Hannan, R.R., Fisher, W.L., Justis, Catherine, and Cicerello, R.R., 1986,                 wetlands in the principal coal surface mining region of western Ken-
                          Wetland protection strategies for Kentucky: Frankfort, Technical Re-                tucky: U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Report FWS/OBS - 82n2, 134 p.
                          port of the Kentucky Nature Preserves Commission, 146 p.                       Quinones, Fred, York, K.L., and Plebuch, R.O., 1983, Hydrology of Area
                    Hannan, R.R., and Lassetter, J.S., 1982, The vascular flora ofthe Brodhead                34, Eastern region, Interior Coal Province, Kentucky, Indiana, and
                          Swamp Forest, Rockcastle County, Kentucky: Transactions of the                      Illinois: U.S. Geological Survey Water-Resources Investigations Re-
                          Kentucky Academy of Science, v. 43, p. 43 - 49.                                     port 82-638, 32 p.
                    Harker, D.F., Jr., Warren, M.L., Camburn, K.E., and Cicerello, R.R., 198 1,          Taylor, J.R., 1985, Community structure and primary productivity of for-
                          Aquatic biota and water-quality survey of the Western Kentucky                      ested wetlands in western Kentucky: Louisville, Kentucky, University
                          Coalfield: Frankfort, Technical Report of the Kentucky Nature Pre-                  of Louisville, Ph.D. dissertation, p. 11-39.
                          serves Commission, 896 p.                                                      Tiner, R.W., Jr., 1984, Wetlands of the United States -Current status and
                    Hill, P.L., Jr., 1983, Wetland-stream ecosystems of the Western Kentucky                  recent trends: Washington, D.C., U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 59 p.
                          Coalfield-Environmental disturbance and the shaping of aquatic                 U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 1992, Regional wetlands concept plan -
                          community structure: Louisville, Kentucky, University of Louisville,                Emergency Wetlands Resources Act, Southeast Region: U.S. Fish and
                          Ph.D. dissertation, 290 p.                                                          Wildlife Service, 259 p.
                    Hoagland, B.W., and Jones, R.L., 1992, Wetland and riparian flora of the
                          upper Green River basin, south-central Kentucky: Transactions of the
                          Kentucky Academy of Science, v. 53, p. 141-153.                                FOR ADDITIONAL INFORMATION: District Chief, U.S. Geological
                    Kentucky Division of Water, 1990, 1990 Kentucky report to Congress on                Survey, 2301 Bradley Avenue, Louisville, KY 40217; Regional Wetland
                          water quality: Frankfort, Kentucky Natural Resources and Environ-              Coordinator, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 1875 Century Building, Suite
                          mental Protection Cabinet, 187 p.                                              200, Atlanta, GA 80845
                    -1992, 1992 Kentucky report to Congress on water quality: Frank-
                          fort, Kentucky Natural Resources and Environmental Protection Cabi-                                           Prepared by
                          net, 187 p.                                                                                     Kim H. Haag and Charles J. Taylor,
                    Kentucky Environmental Quality Commission, 1992, State of Kentucky's
                          environment- A report of progress and problems: Frankfort, Ken-                                        U.S. Geological Survey
                          tucky Environmental Quality Commission, 332 p.
































                                                                      U.S. Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper 2425








                                                                                                                     National Water Summary-Wetland Resources 207
                                                                                                                                     Louisiana
                                                                                                                       Wetland Resources
                 Wetlands contribute to the economic, cultural, and ecological                    the Nation. State wetlands provide year-round habitat for eight en-
                 diversity of Louisiana. Presently, wetlands cover less than one-third            dangered species and four threatened species. Many species of
                 of the State but are estimated to have covered about one-half of the             neotropical songbirds use Louisiana wetlands for resting and feed-
                 State before the arrival of Europeans (Dahl, 1990). Wetlands have                ing habitat during migration. The State's wetlands provide winter
                 greatly influenced the cultural development of the State's inhabi-               habitat for many other species of birds, including the Arctic per-
                 tants. American Indians occupied villages along these highly pro-                egrine falcon and about one-half of the ducks, geese, and other
                 ductive lands, as evidenced by the many shell mounds in these areas.             waterfowl that use the Mississippi Flyway. Large numbers of wa-
                 Traditional Indian cultures still exist in Louisiana near the wetlands           terfowl from the Central Flyway winter in the southwestern part of
                 that influenced the development of their traditions. The Acadian                 the State.
                 (Cajun) culture developed in the isolation of southern Louisiana                      Wetlands in Louisiana are important in flood control and re-
                 wetlands, and the popularity of Cajun cuisine today is directly re-              duce the effects of storm surges associated with hurricanes. Wendell
                 lated to the foods available from those areas. Major cities and towns            Curole of the Lafourche Parish Levee District has stated that I mile
                 such as New Orleans, Houma, Morgan City, and Lake Charles de-                    of marsh reduces a storm surge by 1 foot (The Advocate, Baton
                 veloped close to wetlands because of the wealth of natural resources             Rouge, April 18, 1993). As coastal wetlands are lost, this natural
                 available.                                                                       wetland function commonly is replaced by expensive storm surge
                       Wetlands are a major source of income for the people of Loui-              projects (levees and gated structures) to protect coastal communi-
                 siana. Shellfish and finfish revenues from coastal and inland wa-                ties such as New Orleans and Houma. Wetlands also are being used
                 ters are estimated at $680 million annually (Keithly, 199 1). In 1984,           as tertiary wastewater-treatment alternatives for small municipali-
                 Louisiana was ranked first in the Nation in fisheries landings and               ties such as Thibodaux and, in general, serve as filters or traps for
                 second in fisheries value. In 1986, 28.6 percent of the commercial               sediment, nutrients, and pollutants carried by water passing through
                 fish harvested in the Nation came from Louisiana; in 1991, that                  them.
                 number dropped to 10.9 percent (The Advocate, Baton Rouge, April
                 18, 1993). The decline in Louisiana's commercial landings is be-                 TYPES AND DISTRIBUTION
                 lieved to be related to coastal-wetland losses in the State. All of the
                 commercially valuable fish species spend all or part of their life cycle              Wetlands are lands transitional between terrestrial and deep-
                 in wetlands. Further, as recently as 1984, 40 percent of the Natiorfs            water habitats where the water table usually is at or near the land
                 wild furs and bides came from Louisiana wetlands (Louisiana De-                  surface or the land is covered by shallow water (Cowardin and oth-
                 partment of Wildlife and Fisheries, written commun., 1984). Loui-                ers, 1979). The distribution of wetlands and deepwater habitats in
                 siana wetlands also generate funds from recreational uses such as                Louisiana is shown in figure 2A; only wetlands are discussed herein.
                 hunting, fishing, and bird watching. There are 17 National Wildlife                   Wetlands can be vegetated or nonvegetated and are classified
                 Refuges, 28 State Wildlife Management and Refuge Areas, 7 State                  on the basis of their hydrology, vegetation, and substrate. In this
                 Parks, I National Park, and numerous State commemorative sites                   summary, wetlands are classified according to the system proposed
                 located entirely or partly within wetlands. In addition to these ar-             by Cowardin and others (1979), which is used by the U.S. Fish and
                 eas, The Nature Conservancy has two coastal preserves and five                   Wildlife Service (FWS) to map and inventory the Natior@s wetlands.
                 forested preserves in wetland areas (David Pashley, The Nature                   At the most general level of the classification system, wetlands are
                 Conservancy, oral commun., 1993).                                                grouped into five ecological systems: Palustrine, Lacustrine, Riv-
                       Ecologically, the rich diversity of plant and animal life in Loui-         erine, Estuarine, and Marine. The Palustrine System includes only
                 siana wetlands is a priceless natural heritage for both the State and            wetlands, whereas the other systems comprise wetlands and
                                                                                                  deepwater habitats. Wetlands of the systems that occur in Louisi-
                                                                                                  ana are described below.



                                                                                                  System                                 Weiland description

                                                                                                  Palustrine .............. Nontidal and tidal-freshwater wetlands in which
                                                                                   -law
                                                                                                                           vegetation is predominantly trees (forestedwet-
                                                                                                                           lands); shrubs (scrub-shrub wetlands); persistent
                                                                                                                           or nonpersistent emergent, erect, rooted herba-
                                                                                                                           ceous plants (persistent- and nonpersistent-
                                                                                                                           emergent wetlands); or submersed and (or)
                                                                                                                           floating plants (aquatic beds). Also, intermit-
                                                                                                                           tently to permanently flooded open-water bod-
                                                                                                                           ies of less than 20 acres in which water is less
                                                                                                                           than 6.6 feet deep.
                                                                                                  Lacustrine ................. Nontidal and tidal-freshwater wetlands within an
                                                                                                                           intermittently to permanently flooded lake or
                                                                                                                           reservoir larger than 20 acres and (or) deeper
                                                                                                                           than 6.6 feet. Vegetation, when present, is pre-
                                                                                                                           dominantly nonpersistent emergent plants (non-
                           Figure 1. A freshwater forested wetland on the shore of                                         persistent-emergent wetlands), or submersed
                           Lake Pontchartrain near La Branche. This wetland, which                                         and (or) floating plants (aquatic beds), or both.
                           is near the New Orleans metropolitan area, is threatened               Riverine ..................... Nontidal and tidal-freshwater wetlands within a
                           by urban encroachment and runoff. (Photograph by                                                channel. Vegetation, when present, is same as
                           Dennis K. Demcheck, U.S. Geofogical Survey)                                                     in the Lacustrine System.








                    208     National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: STATE SUMMARIES



                    Estuarine ................... Tidal wetlands in low-wave-energy environments     associated with natural levees and spoil banks statewide. This type
                                             where the salinity ofthe water is greater than 0.5      of wetland also has developed on some floating marshes in South-
                                             part per thousand (ppt) and is variable owing to
                                             evaporation and the mixing of seawater and              ern Louisiana. Nontidal and tidal fresh marshes are most common
                                             freshwater.                                             in southern Louisiana.
                    Marine  ....................... Tidal wetlands that are exposed to waves and cur-     Coastal wetlands, mostly salt marshes (estuarine emergent
                                             rents of the open ocean and to water having a           wetlands), include about 2.5 million acres in Louisiana. About 40
                                             salinity greater than 30 ppt.                           percent of the State's coastal marshes are classified as fresh/inter-
                                                                                                     mediate (salinity 0.5-8.3 ppt, average 3.3 ppt), about 38 percent
                         Palustrine wetlands, which include swamps, scrub -shrub wet-                as brackish (salinity 1.0 - 18.4 ppt, average 8.0 ppt), and about 22
                    lands, nontidal and tidal fresh marshes, and ponds, are the most                 percent as saline (salinity greater than 18.4 ppo (Louisiana Depart-
                    common wetlands in Louisiana. Palustrine wetlands accounted for                  ment of Culture, Recreation and Tourism, 1988; S.N. Gagliano,
                    approximately 78 percent of the wetlands in Louisiana in the 1970 s              Coastal Environments, Inc., written commun. 199 1). In the 1970's,
                    and are distributed statewide. The most common palustrine wetlands               coastal wetlands accounted for approximately 22 percent of the
                    are swamps (forested wetlands) which contribute about 59 percent                 wetlands in Louisiana. Louisiana coastal marshes represent an es-
                    of the State's wetlands. Swamps in Louisiana are mostly cypress-                 timated 35 to 40 percent of the coastal marshes and about 25 per-
                    tupelo gum swamps along the major rivers, bayous, and streams. In                cent of all coastal wetlands in the conterminous United States.
                    the 1970's, swamps had an area of between 5.6 and 6.8 million acres              Coastal wetlands in Louisiana are in the Western Gulf Coastal Plain,
                    statewide, 3.0 million acres of which were in the Mississippi Allu-              Mississippi Alluvial Plain, and the Southern Coastal Plain ecore-
                    vial Plain (fig. 2B) (Louisiana Department of Culture, Recreation                gions.
                    and Tourism, 1988). Palustrine scrub-shrub wetlands are typically



                         94'                                             92'




                                                     oA,                                                                                          ECOREGIONS
                                                                          J                                                                         A. Western Gulf Coastal Plain
                                                                                                                     B                              B.  South Central Plains
                                                                                                                                                    C.  Sout heastern Plains
                                                                                                                                                          issippi Alluvial Plain
                                                                                                                                                    D.  Miss
                                                                                                                                                    E.  Mississippi Valley Loess Plains
                                                                                qf                                                                  F.  Southern Coastal Plain
                    32@                                                               %V


                                                                                                                                             E          C


                                                                                                                     A
                                                                                                                                       D                        41





                                                                                                                        90


                                                                              >



                                                           X               4                                                                0           25     50 MILES
                                                                                                a      ug                                   i     I
                                                                                                                                            0     25    50 KILOMETERS
                                            Lake                 Lafa a                                          Li@3 A.-
                                                             M

                         3                                                                                                                  41.






                               A

                               WETLANDS AND DEEPWATER HABITATS
                               Distribution of wetlands and cleepwater habitats-         0
                                  This map shows the approximate distribution of large
                                  wetlands in the State. Because of limitations of scale
                                  and source material, some wetlands are not shown                            M E X I C 0

                                      Predominantly welland
                               F-7 Predominantly cleepwater habitat
                               I @

                    Figure 2. Welland distribution in Louisiana and ecoregions of the State. A, Distribution of wetlands and deepwater habitats. 9, Ecoregions.
                    (Sources: A, TE. Dahl, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, unpub. data, 199 1. B, Omernik, 1987.)







                                                                                                   National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: LOUISIANA                209


                 HYDROLOGIC SETTING                                                             bottom-land hardwood forests dominated by oak, hickory, and other
                                                                                                hardwoods. Conversely, increased flooding or higher water tables
                      Wetland hydrology is affected by regional and local geology,              can result in the conversion of bottom-land hardwood-forest wet-
                 topography, soil characteristics, and climate. Water in wetlands can           lands to cypress-tupelo gum swamps. Excessive flooding, either in
                 come from either surface- or ground-water sources or from both.                depth or duration, can result in the conversion of swamp to open-
                 Wetlands can function as storage reservoirs for streams or sources             water, emergent, or scrub-shrub wetlands because of the lack of
                 of recharge for ground-water systems. Water in small nontidal wet-             growth of new trees and the drowning of existing trees. The flood
                 lands is typically supplied by local shallow ground-water flow sys-            plain of the Atchafalaya River, the largest distributary of the Mis-
                 tems and localized runoff. Larger wetlands can receive discharge               sissippi River, contains the best known example of a forested wet-
                 from or provide recharge to regional as well as local ground-water             land in Louisiana. The Atchafalaya River swamp is the largest hard-
                 systems. Soils that underlie wetlands determine the rate at which              wood swamp in the country. The delta developing at the mouth of
                 water percolates downward to recharge the ground-water system or               the Atchafalaya River is one of the few areas of the State where the
                 discharges from it. Precipitation in Louisiana, which averages be-             shoreline (and associated marshland) is expanding.
                 tween 50 to 60 inches per year (Newton, 1972), provides much of                     The types of coastal wetlands (fresh, intermediate, brackish,
                 the surface-water runoff that maintains the State's wetlands.                  and saline) and their distribution are dependent upon the availabil-
                      Most wetlands in Louisiana are closely associated with the                ity of freshwater, frequency of storm-induced salinity maximums,
                 State's major rivers, bayous, and streams (fig. 2A). The Mississippi           and alterations to local hydrology caused by construction of oil- and
                 River and its shifting delta have created most of the State's estua-           gas-well access canals. All of these variables contribute to a con-
                 rine and palustrine wetlands. The Mississippi River drains about               tinual advance and retreat of wetlands in the coastal areas of Loui-
                 40 percent of the conterminous 48 States and parts of Canada (Craig            siana.
                 and others, 1979). Large quantities of sediment were deposited
                 annually in the Mississippi River flood plain and along coastal                TRENDS
                 Louisiana before the installation of flood-control levees along the
                 main channel of the river. The deposition of this sediment has re-                  Louisiana has lost about 46 percent of its wetlands (about 7.4
                 sulted in the largest deltaic land mass in North America (Louisiana            million acres) since the 1700's, when Europeans first began modi-
                 Department of Culture, Recreation and Tourism, 1988). Deltaic                  fying the continent's geographic features (Dahl, 1990). Palustrine
                 deposition at the mouth of the Mississippi River has been a dynamic            wetlands, primarily swamps, have decreased from an estimated 11.3
                 process; several deltas have formed over the last 5,000 years (fig. 3).        million acres to as little as 5.6 million acres in the 1970's. In the
                 Older deltas have eroded and deteriorated as the next delta was                Mississippi Alluvial Plain, there has been a decline in palustrine
                 formed (Coleman and Gagliano, 1964; Frazier, 1967).                            wetlands from about 4.3 million acres in 1957 to about 3.0 million
                      The hydrology of swamps along rivers, bayous, and streams is              acres in 1977 (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 1992). The decline
                 characterized by annual cycles of flooding and dewatering. Plant               in palustrine wetlands was due, in large part, to land clearing for
                 communities in these swamps typically are dominated by cypress                 agricultural purposes. Other causes of wetland loss include flood-
                 and tupelo gum trees. The value of these swamps to fish popula-                control projects, oil and gas exploration, lignite and gravel mining,
                 tions and overall aquatic productivity depends upon the renewal of             construction of catfish and crawfish ponds, dredging and filling for
                 nutrients and oxygenated water that takes place during these annual            residential and commercial development, solid-waste disposal, and
                 cycles. Reduced flooding can result in a conversion of swamps into             highway construction. The rate of loss of palustrine wetlands is



                           BY                        92'                        91o                         90,                          891
                                                        louses 1-$               1                            11                         1
                                                                              Baton Rouge                                  MISSISSIPPI
                                                                                                                                     '&=port@`1--@-
                         LOUISIANA          Crowley .1-    ette    =q     ne                            Lake
                                                                                                    Pontchartrain
                                                    Abb  ri Is             onvill                 e    r

                                                             Fran lin
                  30'                                                                    Ini
                                          White
                                           Lake                                              oum                              Breton
                                                                                                                              Soundj
                                                          I     Atchafalaya
                                                                   Bay


                           EXPLANATION
                           Mississippi River Delta Complexes
                           = Maringouin
                               Teche                                    G-fof1qe.ic-
                                    I /A



                  29*      =St. Bernard
                               Lafourche
                               Placluernines (most recent)
                                                         0   10 20 30 MILES
                                                         i I I I ''I
                                                      1 0 10 20 30 KILOMETERS

                     Figure 3. Prehistoric and present-day Mississippi River Delta complexes. (Source: Kolb and Van Lopik, 1966.)








                           210         National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: STATE SUMMARIES



                           thought to have been slowed by the "Swampbuster" provisions of                                                 disrupted historic north-south sheet-flow runoff in coastal areas.
                           the Food Security Act of 1985 and the 1990 Food, Agriculture,                                                         Use of the Atchafalaya River Basin as a floodway and the ex-
                           Conservation, and Trade Act, which provides for the purchase of                                                tensive construction of access canals (and associated spoil banks)
                           wetlands from farmers. However, although palustrine wetland loss                                               have resulted in the conversion of parts of the cypress-tupelo gum
                           has slowed, it is still considered to be substantial.                                                          swamp in the basin to other types of wetlands, Wetlands created by
                                  Major causes ofcoastal wetland loss in Louisiana are a decrease                                         these changes in the hydrologic system include bottom-land forests
                           in suspended- sediment load in the major streams due to dams and                                               in areas of rapid deposition, scrub-shrub wetlands along spoil banks,
                           channelization and leveeing of the Mississippi River (Kesel, 1988,                                             and emergent wetlands at the mouth of the Atchafalaya and in open-
                           1989); dredging of canals for oil and gas exploration, navigation,                                             water areas of the basin that have filled by sediment.
                           and pipeline installation; dredging, filling, and drainage for devel-                                                 Coastal-wetland loss in Louisiana is a critical issue within the
                           opment; drainage for conversion to crop production or pasture;                                                 State. About 4 million acres of coastal wetlands existed in the State
                           subsidence; erosion; marsh "eat-outs" by nutria; and hurricanes.                                               at the beginning of the 1900's (Dunbar and others, 1992). Since that
                           About 8 percent of the State's coastal marshes have been dredged,                                              time, the Fws estimates that more than 900,000 acres of these coastal
                           creating canals and associated spoil banks. About one-half of the                                              wetlands have been lost (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 1992).
                           State's coastal marsh losses can be attributed to or related to canal                                          Seventy-three percent (654,000 acres) of the loss Occurred between
                           construction (Scaife and others, 1983).                                                                        the 1950's and 1970's. The U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (Corps)
                                  The overall balance between land gain (shoreline accretion) and                                         has estimated that since 1930, 17.8 percent of the land in the south-
                           land loss (shoreline erosion) in Louisiana has been one of net gain                                            ern coastal plain has been lost. (Dunbar and others, 1992). The
                           in wetland area over most of the last 5,000 years (Coleman and                                                 highest coastal land-loss rates occurred from 1956 to 1974 (fig. 4),
                           Gagliano, 1964) because of the abandonment of existing deltas and                                              and the largest loss occurred along the present-day Mississippi River
                           creation of new deltas by the Mississippi River. In the last 100 years,                                        Delta (Dunbar and others, 1992). Estimated land-loss rates for the
                           however, this trend has been reversed because of human alteration                                              Louisiana coast during 1978 to 1987 range from about 40 to 64.5
                           of the Mississippi River and the Louisiana coastal ecosystems.                                                 square miles per year (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 1992; Tem-
                           Construction of flood-control levees along the Mississippi River and                                           plet and Meyer-Arendt, 1986). Recent estimates indicate a slight
                           its major tributaries and the dredging of canals in the Mississippi-                                           decrease in erosion rates, which were estimated to be between M
                           Atchafalaya River Delta have deprived flood-plain and delta wet-                                               and 40 square miles per year in 1990. However, this decrease might
                           lands of sediment needed to prevent wetland loss caused by erosion                                             be a result of the decreased availability of highly erodable organic
                           or submergence.                                                                                                sediments relative to more erosion-resistant soils that have a higher
                                  Levee construction began as early as the 1700's in and near                                             percentage of clays and silts, rather than to restoration efforts (S.M.
                           New Orleans; however, construction of levees on a large scale did                                              Gagliano, Coastal Environments, Inc., oral commun., 199 1). Dunbar
                           not begin until after the disastrous flood of 1927. Dams constructed                                           and others (1992) reached similar conclusions and predicted that
                           on the Missouri River and its tributaries in the mid-1950's trapped                                            natural land-loss rates will continue to decrease slowly until a back-
                           sediment and further reduced the sediment available to wetlands in                                             ground rate of approximately 0. 17 percent per year is reached.
                           southern Louisiana. Wetland loss was further accelerated by con-                                                     Loss of coastal wetlands is closely associated with the loss of
                           struction of navigation and oil - and gas-well access canals that ex-                                          fisheries productivity and revenue. The conversion of wetlands to
                           posed fresh        and intermediate wetlands to more saline water and                                          open water also represents a threat to oil and gas wells now located

                                                                     930                                  92'                                   91,                                    90,                                   89,


                                                                                                                                                                                                       MISSISSIPPI
                           31'                                                                LO
                                                                                                                                                         _77
                                                                                                   UISIANA





                                                                                                                                           0 Baton Roug

                                                           0 Lake Charles                   0Crowley 0 Lafayette                                  _- ;6/                   Po tc artr in
                                                                                                                                 onal onvillEP
                           30o                                                                      .40
                                                                                                        Ab eville                                                     New I

                                                                                                            rl-      :ranklin

                                                                                        -i-Whif
                                                                                                                                                            'Hourn i



                                           EXPLANATION
                                           Rate of land loss in square
                                             miles per year
                           29*                    0.0 - 1.0
                                                  1.0 - 2.0
                                                  2.0 - 3.0                                                                         0.1f of M.Xiro
                                                  3.0 - 4.0              0    10    20    30 MILES
                                                                         I 1 11 11         1
                                                                         0 10 20 30 KILOMETERS                                                                                                                                             J
                                                                                       E7       t@Ab





                           Figure 4. Average coastal land-loss rates in Louisiana, 1956 to 1974. (Source: Dunbar and others, 1992.)








                                                                                                                                                          National Water Su             mmary-Wetland Resources: LOUISIANA                                        211



                           in the coastal wetlands. The State and Federal governments have                                                           of structures. The related section 404 of the Clean Water Act is the
                           recognized the problems associated with the loss of wetlands and                                                          most often-used Federal legislation protecting wetlands. Under
                           have dedicated as much as $30 million annually for the mitigation                                                         section 404 provisions, the Corps issues permits regulating the dis-
                           of coastal wetland loss through the State Coastal Restoration Pro-                                                        charge of dredged or fill material into wetlands, Permits are sub-
                           gram and the Federal Coastal Wetlands, Planning, Protection, and                                                          ject to review and possible veto by the U.S. Environmental Protec-
                           Restoration Act of 1990.                                                                                                  tion Agency, and the Fws has review and advisory roles. Section 401
                                                                                                                                                     of the Clean Water Act grants to States and eligible Indian Tribes
                           CONSERVATION                                                                                                              the authority to approve, apply conditions to, or deny section 404
                                                                                                                                                     permit applications on the basis of a proposed activity's probable
                                   Many government agencies and private organizations partici-                                                       effects on the water quality of a wetland.
                           pate in wetland conservation in Louisiana. The most active agen-                                                                   Most farming, ranching, and silviculture activities are not sub-
                           cies and organizations and some of their activities are listed in table                                                   ject to section 404 regulation. However, the "Swampbuster" provi-
                           I .                                                                                                                       sion of the 1985 Food Security Act and amendments in the 1990
                                   Federal wetland activities. -Development activities in Loui-                                                      Food, Agriculture, Conservation, and Trade Act discourage (through
                           siana wetlands are regulated by several Federal statutory prohibi-                                                        financial disincentives) the draining, filling, or other alteration of
                           tions and incentives that are intended to slow wetland losses. Some                                                       wetlands for agricultural use. The law allows exemptions from pen-
                           of the more important of these are contained in the 1899 Rivers and                                                       alties in some cases, especially if the farmer agrees to restore the
                           Harbors Act; the 1972 Clean Water Act and amendments; the 1985                                                            altered wetland or other wetlands that have been converted to agri-
                           Food Security Act; the 1990 Food, Agriculture, Conservation, and                                                          cultural use. The Wetlands Reserve Program of the 1990 Food,
                           Trade Act; the 1986 Emergency Wetlands Resources Act; and the                                                             Agriculture, Conservation, and Trade Act authorizes the Federal
                           1972 Coastal Zone Management Act.                                                                                         Government to purchase conservation easements from landowners
                                   Section 10 of the Rivers and Harbors Act gives the Corps au-                                                      who agree to protect or restore wetlands. The Consolidated Farm
                           thority to regulate certain activities in navigable waters. Regulated                                                     Service Agency (formerly the Agricultural Stabilization and Conser-
                           activities include diking, deepening, filling, excavating, and placing                                                    vation Service) administers the Swampbuster provisions and Wet-
                                                                                                                                                     lands Reserve Program. The Natural Resources Conservation
                           Table 1. Selected wetland-related activities of government                                                                Service (formerly the Soil Conservation Service) determines com-
                           agencies and private organizations in Louisiana, 1993                                                                     pliance with Swampbuster provisions and assists farmers in the iden-
                                                                                                                                                     tification of wetlands and in the development of wetland protection,
                           [Source: Classification of activities is generalized from information provided                                            restoration, or creation plans.
                                by agencies and organizations. 9, agency or organization participates in                                                      The 1986 Emergency Wetlands Resources Act and the 1972
                                wetland-related activity;                agency or organization does not participate in
                                wetland-related activity. MAN, management; REG, regulation; R&C, res-                                                Coastal Zone Management Act and amendments encourage wetland
                                toration and creation; LAN, land acquisition; R&D, research and data col-                                            protection through funding incentives. The Emergency Wetland
                                lection; D&I, delineation and inventory]                                                                             Resources Act requires States to address wetland protection in their
                                                                                                                                                     Statewide Comprehensive Outdoor Recreation Plans to qualify for
                                                                                                              q>       C@                            Federal funding for State recreational land; the National Park Ser-
                           Agency or organization                                                          0       o'           '0'                  vice (NPS) provides guidance to States in developing the wetland
                           FEDERAL                                                                                                                   component of their plans. Coastal States that adopt coastal-zone
                           Department ofAgriculture                                                                                                  management programs and plans approved by the National Oceanic
                              Consolidated Farm Service Agency                ........................... ...                                        and Atmospheric Administration are eligible for Federal funding and
                              Forest Service       ......................... ..............................*                                         technical assistance through the Coastal Zone Management Act.
                              Natural Resources Conservation Service                    ................ ...
                           Department of Commerce                                                                                                             The Federal Government has been involved with wetlands in
                              National Oceanic and Atmospheric                                                                                       Louisiana dating back to the Swamp Land Act of 1849. This act
                              Administration       ......................... .......................................                                 granted to Louisiana all swamp and overflow lands then unfit for
                           Department of Defense                                                                                                     cultivation to help in controlling floods in the Mississippi River
                              Army Corps of Engineers           .............................................. ...                                   Valley by construction of levees and drains (Shaw and Fredine,
                           Department of the Interior
                              Fish and Wildlife Service         ..............................................                                       197 1). Massive flooding by the Mississippi River in 1927 resulted
                              Geological Survey         .......................................................... ... ... ... ...                   in the Flood Control Act of 1928. This act provides comprehensive
                              Minerals Management Service                 ...................................*0                                      flood control for the lower Mississippi River Valley below Cairo,
                              National Biological Service             .........................................-. ... ...   -                        Ill., by authorizing the Corps to construct and maintain levees, flood-
                              National Park Service             ........... .......................................         0      0                 ways, channel modifications, and various control structures. A]-
                           Environmental Protection Agency                ..................................                -      a
                           STATE                                                                                                                     though the act provided much-needed relief from flooding, it has
                           Department of Agriculture            ...............................................                                      adversely affected the wetland resources in the Louisiana coastal
                           Department of Environmental Quality                ........................... ... 0                                      zone.
                           Department of Health and Human Resources                       ............. ... ...        ... ...                                In November 1990, Congress passed Public Law 101-646, the
                           Department of Natural Resources                 ................................. ...0                                    Coastal Wetlands Planning, Protection, and Restoration Act, which
                           Department of Transportation and Development                     ........   ...    0
                           Department of Wildlife and Fisheries               ............................                                           provides Federal funding (matched by State funding) for the plan-
                           Governor's Office of Coastal Activities               ...............                                                     ning and implementation of projects for the protection and restora-
                           REGIONAL, PARISH, AND LOCAL                                                                                               tion of coastal wetlands. The act directs the development of an an-
                           Levee boards        .......................................................................                               nual priority-project list, ranked in order of cost effectiveness and
                           Some parish governments              .....................................                                                consisting of small-scale projects that can be substantially com-
                           PRIVATE ORGANIZATIONS                                                                                                     pleted within 5 years. The act also requires development of a com-
                           Coalition to Restore Coastal Louisiana                ......................... ... ...     ... ...     ...
                           Gulf Coast Conservation Association                ............................ ... ...     ...                           prehensive restoration plan for the entire Louisiana coast.
                           Lake Pontchartrain Basin Foundation                ........................... ... ...                                             Large tracts of land, many containing wetlands, are managed
                           Louisiana Wildlife Federation              .......................................... ... ..                              by the FWS, U.S. Department of Defense, and the NPS. The plans
                           National Audubon Society             ...............................................0                                     for these lands are subject to a review process that allows local
                           The Nature Conservancy               ..................................................0                                  groups and individuals to have input into the planning process that








                     212      National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: STATE SUMMARIES


                     determines the future direction management agencies pursue for                       References Cited
                     economic, ecological, and recreational development of these lands.                   Coleman, J.M., and Gagliano, S.M., 1964, Cyclic sedimentation in the
                           State wetland activities. -The Louisiana Department of Wild-                        Mississippi River deltaic plain: Transactions of the Gulf Coast Asso-
                     life and Fisheries Land Acquisition Program is funded primarily by                        ciation of Geological Societies, v. 14, p. 67 - 80.
                     duck-stamp and hunting-license revenues. Wetlands are given high                     Cowardin, L.M., Carter, Virginia, Golet, F.C., and LaRoe, E.T., 1979, Clas-
                     priority in the acquisition of lands. The Department's Refuge Divi-                       sification of wetlands and deepwater habitats of the United States: U.S.
                     sion manages almost 200,000 acres of coastal wetlands in four sepa-                       Fish and Wildlife Report FWS/OBS-79/31, 131 p.
                     rate refuges. Providing waterfowl habitat is the primary purpose for                 Craig, N.J., Turner, R.E., and Day, J.W., 1979, Land loss in coastal Louisi-
                     these refuges. The Department's Natural Heritage Program's primary                        ana (USA): Environmental Management, v. 3, no. 2, p. 133-134.
                     mission is the identification and indexing of unique natural habi-                   Dahl, T.E., 1990, Wetlands -Losses in the United States, 1780's to 1980 s:
                     tats in Louisiana, which includes many wetlands. The Department                           Washington D.C., U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Report to Congress,
                                                                                                               13 p.
                     also administers the Statewide Environmental Investigation pro-                      Dunbar, J.B., Britsch, L.D., and Kemp, E.B., 111, 1992, Land loss rates-
                     gram, which encourages mitigation offish and wildlife habitat loss                        Report 3, Louisiana Coastal Plain: U,S. Army Corps of Engineers
                     caused by local, State, or Federal development projects.                                  Technical Report GL - 90 - 2, 65 p.
                           The Louisiana Department of Natural Resources' Coastal                         Frazier, D.E., 1967, Recent deltaic deposits of the Mississippi River: Their
                     Management Division administers the Coastal Use Permitting Pro-                           development and chronology: Transactions of the Gulf Coast Asso-
                     gram. This program provides guidelines for the permitting of                              ciation of Geological Societies, v. 17, p. 287- 315.
                     coastal-zone developmental activities in the least environmentally                   Keithly, Walter, 1991, Louisiana seafood industry study-A summary:
                     damaging manner. Coastal-use permits are required for any activ-                          Louisiana Seafood Promotions and Marketing Board, 32 p.
                                                                                                          Kesel, R.H., 1988, The decline in the suspended load of the lower Missis-
                     ity in the coastal zone except those specifically exempted by the                         sippi River and its influence on adjacent wetlands: Environmental
                     Louisiana State Legislature. The Coastal Management Division                              Geology and Water Sciences, v. H, no. 3, p. 271-28 1.
                     Coastal Zone Program reviews Federal activities in the coastal zone                          1989, The role of the Mississippi River in wetland loss in south-
                     to ensure consistency with State coastal -management plans.                               eastern Louisiana, U.S.A.: Environmental Geology and Water Sci-
                           The Louisiana Coastal Wetlands Conservation and Restoration                         ences, v. 13, no. 3, p. 183 -193.
                     Program is administered by the Office of Coastal Restoration and                     Kolb, C.R., and Van Lopik, J.R., 1966, Depositional environments of the
                     Management within the Department of Natural Resources. The pro-                           Mississippi River deltaic plain, southeastern Louisiana, in Shirley,
                     gram implements specific projects that are designed to conserve,                          M.L. and Ragsdale, J.A., eds., Deltas: Houston Geological Society,
                     enhance, restore, and create coastal vegetated wetlands through an                        p. 16-62.
                     annually updated priority plan approved by the Louisiana State Leg-                  Louisiana Department of Culture, Recreation and Tourism, 1988, Louisi-
                                                                                                               ana wetlands priority conservation plan: Baton Rouge, Louisiana
                     islature. The program is funded from State oil and gas severance                          Department ofCulture, Recreation and Tourism, Office of State Parks,
                     taxes placed in a Coastal Wetlands Conservation and Restoration                           Division of Outdoor Recreation, 64 p.
                     Trust Fund.                                                                          Newton, M.B., Jr., 1972, Atlas of Louisiana: Louisiana State University,
                           Other State agencies actively involved in regulation or data                        School of Geoscience Miscellaneous Publication 72-1, p. 10.
                     collection in the coastal zone include the Department of Environ-                    Omernik, J.M., 1986, Ecoregions ofthe United States-Map supplement:
                     mental Quality, Department of Agriculture, Department of Health                           Annals ofthe Association ofAmerican Geographers, v. 77, no. 1, scale
                     and Human Resources, and the Department of Transportation and                             1:7,500,000.
                     Development. For example, the Department of Environmental Qual-                      Scaffe, W.W., Turner, R.E., and Costanza, R,, 1983, Coastal Louisiana re-
                     ity is responsible for the enforcement of water-quality standards                         cent land loss and canal impacts: Environmental Management, v. 7,
                                                                                                               p. 433-442.
                     within the State's wetlands.                                                         Shaw, S.P. and Fredine, C.G., 197 1, Wetlands of the United States, their
                           Regional, parish, and local wetland activities. -Parish gov-                        extent and their value to waterfowl and other wildlife: U.S. Fish and
                     ernments in the Louisiana coastal zone have an interest in preserv-                       Wildlife Service Circular 39, 67 p.
                     ing and restoring wetlands. The Terrebonne Parish government                         Templet, P.H., and Meyer-Arendt, K.J., 1996, Louisiana wetland loss and
                     (which contains Houma), for example, has a coastal-wetlands res-                          sea level rise -A regional management approach to the problem, in
                     toration program. Vermilion Parish (which contains Abbeville) has                         Kusler, J.A., Quarnmen, M.L., and Brooks, Gail, eds., Proceedings
                     a Coastal Restoration Advisory Committee that participates in the                         of the National Weiland Symposium -Mitigation and Impacts and
                     Coastal Wetlands Planning, Protection, and Restoration Act process                        Losses, Oct. 8-10, 1986, New Orleans: Berne, N.Y., Association of
                     Some city and parish governments have strong regulatory or land'                          State Wettand Managers, p. 230-237.
                                                                                                          U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 1992, Regional wetlands concept plan;
                     acquisition programs that provide wetlands protection beyond that                         Emergency Wetlands Resources Act, Southeast Region: Atlanta, Ga.,
                     which is required by the State. Others are less able to develop strong                    U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 249 p.
                     local protection programs, owing to budgetary constraints.
                           Private wetland activities. -Private organizations in Louisi-
                     ana are important as advocates of wetland conservation and pro-                      FOR ADDITIONAL INFORMATION: District Chief, U.S. Geological
                     tection. Louisiana has many private-interest groups that keep the                    Survey, 3535 S. Sherwood Forest Boulevard, Suite 120, Baton Rouge, LA
                     public informed on wetland issues, organize citizen networks, and                    70816; Regional Weiland Coordinator, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 1875
                     lobby for wetland-protection measures. The National Audubon So-                      Century Building, Suite 200, Atlanta, GA 30345
                     ciety and The Nature Conservancy have purchased wetlands in
                     Louisiana for preservation.                                                                                         Prepared by
                                                                                                                     Charles R. Demas and Dennis K. Demcheck,
                                                                                                                                  U.S. Geological Survey








                                                                       U.S. Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper 2425







                                                                                                                                                            National Water Summary-Wetland Resources 213
                                                                                                                                                                                                    Maine
                                                                                                                                                               Wetland Resources
                       Maine is rich in wetland resources. About 5 million acres, or one-                                         System                                               Wetland description
                       fourth of the State, is wetland. Maine has a wide variety of wetlands,                                     Palustrine      .................. Nontidal and tidal-freshwater wetlands in which
                       ranging from immense inland peatlands to salt marshes and mud                                                                                vegetation is predominantly trees (forested wet-
                       flats along the coast.                                                                                                                       lands); shrubs (scrub-shrub wetlands); persistent
                              Wetlands are an integral part of Maine's natural resources.                                                                           or nonpersistent emergent, erect, rooted herba-
                       Wetlands provide essential habitat for certain types of wildlife and                                                                         ceous plants (persistent- and nonpersistent-
                                                                                                                                                                    emergent wetlands); or submersed and (or)
                       vegetation, including rare and endangered species. They are used                                                                             floating plants (aquatic beds). Also, intermit-
                       for timber and peat; hunting, fishing, and shellfishing; education                                                                           tently to permanently flooded open-water bod-
                       and research; and bird, wildlife and plant observation, all of which                                                                         ies of less than 20 acres in which water is less
                       boost tourism and the general economy. Wetlands also provide flood                                                                           than 6.6 feet deep.
                       control, bank and shoreline- erosion control, sediment retention,                                          Lacustrine      ................. Nonticial and tidal -f reshwate r wetlands within an
                       water filtration, and nutrient uptake. In recognition of the impor-                                                                          intermittently to permanently flooded lake or
                                                                                                                                                                    reservoir larger than 20 acres and (or) deeper
                       tance of wetlands, many government and private organizations have                                                                            than 6.6 feet. Vegetation, when present, is pre-
                       worked to preserve wetlands and educate the public about wetland                                                                             dominantly nonpersistent emergent plants (non-
                       values. For example, the Maine Department of Conservation owns                                                                               persistent-emergent wetlands), or submersed
                       most of Maine's largest bog -the Great Heath (fig. 1), and wetlands                                                                          and (or) floating plants (aquatic beds), or both.
                       in Acadia National Park and Rachel Carson National Wildlife Ref-                                           Riverine     ..................... Nontidal and tidal-freshwater wetlands within a
                       uge are visited by thousands of people each year.                                                                                            channel. Vegetation, when present, is same as
                                                                                                                                                                    in the Lacustrine System.
                                                                                                                                  Estuarine      ................... Tidal wetlands in low-wave-energy environments
                                                                                                                                                                    where the salinity of the water is greater than 0.5
                                                                                                                                                                    part per thousand (ppt) and is variable owing to
                                                                                                                                                                    evaporation and the mixing of seawater and
                                                                                                                                                                    freshwater.

                                                                                                                                  Marine      ....................... Tidal wetlands that are exposed to waves and cur-
                                                                                                                                                                    rents of the open ocean and to water having a
                                                                                                                                                                    salinity greater than 30 ppt.

                                                                                                                                         Widoff (1988) estimated Maine's wetland area to be about
                                                                                                                                  5,199,200 acres, whereas Tiner and Veneman (1989) classified
                                                                                                                                  6,460,000 acres as wetland. The estimate by Tiner and Veneman
                                                                                                                                  (1989) was calculated from Natural Resources Conservation Ser-
                                                                                                                                  vice (NRCS, formerly the Soil Conservation Service) estimates of
                                                                                                                                  the distribution of hydric (wet) soils, and is considered high because
                       Figure 1.          Fall foliage in an extensive dwarf-shrub community in                                   it includes drained soils and hydric soils that occur in somewhat
                       Maine's Great Heath. A raised bog that has a coalesced dome, the                                           poorly drained areas that are not wetland. The estimate by Widoff
                       Great Heath is Maine's largest continuous open bog. (Photograph                                            (1988) is a compilation of earlier inventories. It estimates that wet-
                       by Bob Johnston, Maine Geological Survey)                                                                  lands in Maine comprise about 5,041,700 acres of palustrine, 87,500
                                                                                                                                  acres of marine, and 70,000 acres of estuarine wetlands. Acreage
                                                                                                                                  for riverine and lacustrine wetlands is unknown.
                       TYPES AND DISTRIBUTION                                                                                             The distribution of wetlands in Maine is influenced by physi-
                                                                                                                                  ography (fig. 2B). Many large wetlands occur in the Seaboard Low-
                              Wetlands are lands transitional between terrestrial and deep-                                       land of eastern Maine. In the White Mountain Section of western
                       water habitats where the water table usually is at or near the land                                        Maine, wetlands occur primarily in narrow valleys separating moun-
                       surface or the land is covered by shallow water (Cowardin and oth-                                         tains and foothills. Wetlands are distributed throughout the New
                       ers, 1979). The distribution of wetlands and deepwater habitats in                                         England Upland of central and northern Maine but occur mainly in
                       Maine is shown in figure 2A; only wetlands are discussed herein.                                           broad valleys between uplands of moderate relief. In many areas of
                              Wetlands can be vegetated or nonvegetated and are classified                                        the State, small wetlands are interrelated and form large wetland
                       on the basis of their hydrology, vegetation, and substrate. In this                                        complexes.
                       summary, wetlands are classified according to the system proposed                                                 Palustrine forested wetlands that have organic-rich mineral
                       by Cowardin and others (1979), which is used by the U.S. Fish and                                          soils are commonly referred to as swamps, whereas wetlands that
                       Wildlife Service (FWS) to map and inventory the Natiorfs wetlands.                                         have organic soils over mineral soils are called peatlands. Widoff
                       At the most general level of the classification system, wetlands are                                       (1988) estimated that Maine contains at least 3,000,000 acres of
                       grouped into five ecological systems: Palustrine, Lacustrine, Riv-                                         wooded swamp. Swamps in southern Maine are dominated by hard-
                       erine, Estuarine, and Marine. The Palustrine System includes only                                          wood communities similar to those in southern New England wet-
                       wetlands, whereas the other systems comprise wetlands and                                                  lands. Silver maple and black ash are characteristic in flood plains
                       deepwater habitats. Wetlands of the systems that occur in Maine are                                        of major rivers, red maple swamps typically occur in poorly drained
                       described below.                                                                                           basins and along small streams, and black willow-alder swamps tend








                                214         National Water Surnmary-Wetland Resources: STATE SUMMARIES



                                to dominate small watercourses and swales (Maine Natural Heri-                                                                     Peatlands (palustrine forested, scrub-shrub, emergent, and
                                tagelProgram, 1991). A few wetlands in southern Maine contain spe-                                                         moss-lichen wetlands) occur throughout Maine and have been esti-
                                cies at the northern extent oftheir range, such as Atlantic white cedar                                                    mated to comprise about 700,000 acres (Widoff, 1988). The terms
                                and black gum. Forested wetlands in northern Maine are dominated                                                           bog and fen are used to define peatland types in some classifica-
                                by communities similar to those in Canadian wetlands. For example,                                                         tion systems (Davis and Anderson, 199 1). Bogs are acidic, nutrient
                                red spruce-balsam fir swamps typically occur in poorly'drained                                                             poor, and have a low species diversity, whereas fens are less acidic
                                basins and borders of streams; northern white cedar swamps occur                                                           and have higher nutrient levels and species diversity. Typically, the
                                in similar settings that have higher alkalinity; and black spruce,                                                         herbaceous layer in bogs is dominated by sphagnum moss, whereas
                                larch, and northern white cedar predominate in forested peatlands.                                                         in fens it is dominated by sedges and mosses. Maine has numerous
                                        Palustrine scrub-shrub vegetation grows in most wetlands,                                                          peatland types, including some that have a restricted distribution
                                generally as a transitional community to open water or upland, or                                                          in the State (fig. 2C). For example, ribbed fens (fens that have lin-
                                between emergent wetlands and forested wetlands. Alder, willow,
                                and sweet gale are characteristic of shrub swamps. Scrub-shrub veg-
                                etation in peatlands comprises predominantly broad-leaved ever-
                                green shrubs such as leatherleaf, bog laurel, and labrador tea as well                                                                              B
                                as stunted black spruce and larch. Peatlands that have large expanses
                                of dwarf shrubs are referred to locally as heaths (Worley, 198 1).



                                                                                                                                                                                                                            PHYSIOGRAPHIC DIVISIONS
                                                                                                                                                                                                            'A                   A. New England Upland Section
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                 B. White Mountain Section
                                                                                        A                                                                                                                                        C. Seaboard Lowland Section

                                                                                                                                                                                  B
                                                                                                          Ir



                                                                       70'@
                                                                                                                                                                                                                        c


                                                                                                           %

                                                                                                        ass

                                                                                                                                                                                                                        C
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                                                          46"
















                                                                                                                                                   A


                                                     hitk.     t, ..
                                                     ic4   rest                                                                   dia National Park
                                                                                                                       CIO,
                                    44'                                                                               P-.t-.,          0               215           50 MILES                                                     PEATLANDS
                                                                                                                 Acai@Zational Park
                                                        Q                                                                              0        25         50 KILOMETERS                                                              Fens
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  7_71 Unpatterned forest and
                                                                                   M-rv                                                                                                                                                     open fens
                                                                       C-.         M@e
                                                                       B-Y         [email protected]`          WETLANDS AND DEEPWATER HABITATS                                                                                                        Ribbed fens
                                                               S.-                                Distribution of wetlands and deepwater habitats-                                                                                    Bogs
                                    Rachel   rson             B-Y                                    This map shows the approximate distribution of large
                                                         Well.                                       wetlands in the State. Because of limitations of scale                                                                              Flat bogs
                                  Wells Nall    uli*                                                 and source material, some wetlands are not shown
                                    Research a&                                                                                                                                                                                          Domed bogs
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                               Concentric bogs
                                                                                                            Predominantly wetland                                                                                                        M Eccentric bogs
                                                                                                            Predominantly deepwater habitat                                                                                              = Coastal bogs

                                Figure 2.            Wetland distribution, physiography, and distribution of peatland types in Maine. A, Distribution of wetlands and deepwater
                                habitats. B, Physiography. C, Distribution of peatland types. (Sources: A, TE. Dahl, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, unpub. data, 1991.
                                B, Physiographic divisions (rom Fenneman, 1946; landforms data from EROS Data Center C, Davis and Anderson, 7991.)








                                                                                                    National Water Surnmary-Wetland Resources: MAINE            215



                ear patterns created by ridges of peat and vegetation separated by           timing and duration of the presence of water affects water chemis-
                elongate hollows or shallow pools) occur in northern and northwest-          try, soil development, and plant communities in wetlands. Although
                ern Maine (Sorenson, 1986); flat bogs occur in all but southwest-            wetness plays a large role in the determination of wetland type, many
                ern and southeastern Maine; and domed bogs (bogs that have raised            ecologic functions of wetlands depend upon other characteristics
                surface profiles) occur in eastern Maine (Worley, 198 1). Domed              such as size, position of the wetland in a drainage network, or
                bogs exhibit different landforms, including concentric bogs (domed           sources of water (Brinson, 1993). The type of wetland that devel-
                bogs that have ringing crescent-shaped pools), eccentric bogs                ops in any particular setting is determined by complex interactions
                (domed bogs on valley slopes), and coastal-plateau bogs (domed               between hydrology and other factors such as climate, physiography,
                bogs that have flattened raised surfaces and steep margins). Coastal -       geology, biology, and site history.
                plateau bogs and eccentric bogs are rare in the United States and                 Maine's climate provides moisture necessary for wetland for-
                reach their southern limit for the Northeastern United States in             mation and cool temperatures that allow peat to accumulate. Pre-
                Maine (Davis and Anderson, 1991).                                            cipitation and fog are frequent. Most climatic variables that affect
                     Palustrine emergent wetlands, commonly referred to as fresh-            vegetation differ greatly across Maine, largely owing to the south-
                water marshes, cover a small area in Maine relative to forested and          west-northeast orientation of mountains and coastline. For example,
                scrub-shrub wetlands. In southern and central Maine, marshes are             mean annual precipitation, potential evapotranspiration, mean an-
                typically associated with lakes or slow streams. In general, cattails        nual temperature, and the frost-free period decrease from the coast
                are characteristic of deeper water or permanently flooded marshes;           to northwestern Maine (McMahon, 1990). Climatic conditions play
                grasses predominate in areas that have permanently saturated min-            a role in the unusual diversity of peatland types in Maine. For ex-
                eral soils, such as swales; and sedges typically occur in permanently        ample, coastal-plateau bogs exist only in areas along Maine's north-
                saturated or seasonally flooded peatlands or areas that have muck            ern coast where precipitation is high, fog is frequent, and tempera-
                soils.                                                                       ture is moderate.
                     Most of Maine's rivers and lakes have some areas that have slow              The distribution of wetlands in Maine is partly determined by
                reaches or shallow water where submersed, floating, or emergent              physiography, glacial deposits, and the underlying bedrock. Areas
                aquatic vegetation is established. These wetlands are very impor-            of steep topography do not retain water long enough for wetlands
                tant to the biological productivity of rivers and lakes. As a result of      to develop. Given favorable hydrologic conditions, wetlands form
                recent increases in beaver populations, many riverine and riparian           on drainage divides and near mountain tops. For example, several
                palustrine wetlands have been flooded behind beaver dams. This               ridge-top subalpine bogs occur in the Mahoosuc Range (Johnson,
                flooding can be detrimental to existing wetlands but also can cre-           1985). Most of Maine's wetlands, however, are in lowlands, valleys,
                ate wetlands that have high value to some wildlife, such as water-           and depressions that have more favorable hydrologic conditions for
                fowl.                                                                        wetlands.
                     Along Maine's coast the predominant wetlands are mud flats,                  Much of the low-lying area of Maine is covered by stratified
                rocky shores, beaches and bars, reefs, and aquatic beds (marine and          clay, silt, sand, and gravel deposited during periods of glaciation by
                estuarine wetlands). These habitats total about 125,500 acres                glacial meltwater in streams and lakes (Cameron, 1989). Most up-
                (Widoff, 1988). Maine also has about 34,000 acres of salt and brack-         lands are composed of bedrock mantled by glacial till, an unstrati-
                ish marshes (estuarine emergent wetlands) (Widoff, 1988). Many               fied mixture of clay, silt, sand, gravel, and boulders. Both till and
                salt and brackish marshes are small, and fringe creeks and indenta-          fine-grained sediments (clay and silt) can restrict drainage and re-
                tions in the rocky coast. Jacobson and others (1987) divided Maine s         tain surface water. Thus, wetlands occur over till in central and
                coast into four physiographic subsections in which salt marshes              northern Maine and at higher altitudes; over fine-grained glacial lake
                differ in character and distribution. The southwestern coast is char-        deposits in portions of some valleys of central Maine, such as the
                acterized by bays having sandy beaches behind which large salt               West Branch of the Penobscot; and over fine-grained marine depos-
                marshes have developed, such as those of the Wells Embayment and             its in the lowlands of coastal Maine and areas reaching inland along
                Saco Bay. These are generally irregularly flooded marsh commu-               major river valleys.
                nities dominated by saltmeadow cordgrass and black grass. The                     Some Maine valleys contain deposits of coarse-grained strati-
                south-central coast is characterized by fluvial marshes in the upper         fied drift (sand and gravel). These coarse-grained deposits can trans-
                parts of narrow embayments, such as those of the Damariscotta and            mit ground water to overlying wetlands. Some glacial landforms,
                Sheepscot Rivers. This area of the coast also contains some tidally          such as ridges (eskers), hills (drumlins, kames, and moraines), de-
                influenced freshwater wetlands (palustrine and riverine wetlands),           pressions (kettles), and terraces and plains (outwash) can create
                such as those in Merry Meeting Bay at the confluence of the                  conditions favorable for wetlands by disrupting drainage patterns,
                Kennebec and Androscoggin Rivers. The north-central coast, includ-           attenuating runoff, or retaining water. For example, in east-central
                ing Penobscot Bay, is a high-energy environment where marshes                Maine, numerous wetlands are found in kettles that formed when
                exist only as fringes bordering a few protected coves. The north-            ice blocks buried by glacial outwash melted (Timson and Pickart,
                eastern coast is characterized by narrow marshes that form along             1992). These kettles either filled with water to form kettle ponds or
                the base of coastal bluffs. These are generally regularly flooded            passed through several successional stages of infilling to become
                marsh communities dominated by saltmarsh cordgrass.                          kettle-hole bogs. In other areas, eskers may block drainage and cre-
                                                                                             ate areas of swampy terrain. On occasion, roads without adequate
                HYDROLOGIC SETTING                                                           culverts can have similar effects.
                                                                                                  Interactions between hydrology and vegetation can be illus-
                     Wetlands are hydrologic features that occur wherever climate            trated by peatlands and coastal wetlands. In peatlands, vegetation
                and physiography favor the retention of water (Winter, 1992). Wet-           patterns are determined largely by water chemistry and movement
                lands are found along rivers, lakes, and estuaries where flooding is         (Damman and French, 1987). For instance, bogs receive little in-
                likely to occur; in isolated depressions surrounded by upland where          put from runoff or ground water and rely on precipitation (includ-
                surface water collects; and on slopes and surface drainageways or            ing fog) and windblown dust as sources for water, nutrients, and
                where ground water discharges to the land surface in spring or seep-         minerals. Vegetation in bogs commonly occurs in concentric zones
                age areas. Soil saturation favors the growth of wetland plants and           caused by the scarcity of nutrients and minerals available in the
                the development of wetland soils. Water can be either present on             center of the bog and the increased availability of nutrients and
                the surface of wetlands, or it can keep underlying soils saturated           minerals along bog margins. Fens also receive water from precipi-
                near the surface with no surface water present (Tiner, 1991). The            tation but rely on ground water and runoff for input of minerals and








                               216          National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: STATE SUMMARIES



                               nutrients. Vegetation patterns in coastal wetlands respond to a wide                                                        Table 1. Selected wetland-related activities of government
                               range of'physiographic, chemical, and biological processes that are                                                         agencies and private organizations in Maine, 1993
                               influenced by tidal energy (Mitsch and Gosselink, 1986). For in-                                                            [Source: Classification of activities is generalized from information provided
                               stance, the tidal range in Maine doubles from south to north, where                                                              by agencies and organizations. e, agency or organization participates in
                               it has a range of about 20 feet. In northeastern Maine, tidal flood-                                                             wetiand-related activity; .., agency or organization does not participate in
                                                                                                                                                                vvetland-related activity. MAN, management; REG, regulation; R&C, res-
                               ing creates a sharp contrast between subtidal and terrestrial habi-                                                              toration and creation; LAN, land acquisition; R&D, research and data col-
                               tats and tends to compact and enhance the zonation of vegetation                                                                 lection; D&I, delineation and inventory]
                               in Maine's salt marshes (Fefer and Shettig, 1980). As a result of high
                               tidal energy, a shortage of sediment, and a steep, rocky coast, many
                               coastal environments that are colonized by vegetation in other States                                                       Agency or organization                                                                           ly-
                               occur as rocky shores and extensive mud flats in Maine.                                                                     FEDERAL
                                                                                                                                                           Department of Agriculture
                                                                                                                                                             Consolidated Farm Service Agency                  ........................... ...
                               TRENDS                                                                                                                        Forest Service       .................................................................0
                                       Dahl (1990) estimated that Maine has lost about 20 percent of                                                         Natural Resources Conservation Service                    ................ ...
                                                                                                                                                           Department of Commerce
                               its wetlands since about the 1780's. However, this may be an over-                                                            National Oceanic and
                               estimate because it was based on hydric soil mapping units (R.W.                                                              Atmospheric Administration              ........................................0
                               Tiner, Fish and Wildlife Service, written commun., 1993). Changes                                                           Department of Defense
                               in land use have led to losses of both wetlands and contiguous up-                                                            Army Corps of Engineers            ..............................................0
                               land fringes. The history of wetland loss in Maine is largely a his-                                                          Military reservations              .....................................................0
                               tory of the State's urban and agricultural development. Early in                                                            Department ofthe Interior
                                                                                                                                                             Fish and Wildlife Service          ..............................................9     0       0      0        0
                               Maine's history, expansion of fishing and farming communities                                                                 Geological Survey                  .......................................................... ... .. ... ...a  ...
                               along the coast resulted in the filling of many coastal wetlands. Later,                                                      National Biological Service            ......................................... ... ... ...   ..     0
                               many flood-plain wetlands were filled or converted to agricultural                                                            National Park Service              ...................................................oo       0      *        0
                               use as development spread upstate along inland waterways. In the                                                            Environmental Protection Agency               .................................. ...                    0        0
                               past few decades, most losses have been a consequence of develo                                                             STATE
                                                                                                                                              p-           Department of Agriculture            ...............................................0
                               ment and urbanization (Widoff, 1988). Other factors that can de-                                                            Department of Conservation
                               stroy wetlands or affect wetland functions include road building,                                                             Bureau of Parks and Recreation               .................................*
                               creation of reservoirs, agricultural activities, peat harvesting, tim-                                                        Bureau of Public Lands             ................................................. ... ... ...
                               ber harvesting, hydropower releases, inadequate bridge and culvert                                                            Forest Bureau ...     ..................................................  ............*
                               sizing, navigation improvements, and air or water pollution. Most                                                             Land Use Regulation Commission                 ..............................e
                                                                                                                                                             Maine Geological Survey            ............................................. ... ...
                               Federal and State regulations focus on minimizing wetland losses                                                            Department of Economics and
                               from these and other sources. The cumulative effect of loss or al-                                                          Community Development
                               teration of wetlands in Maine is likely to be an important issue in                                                           Natural Areas Program              .................................................
                               the future.                                                                                                                 Department of Environmental Protection                  .....................      0     0       0      0        0
                                                                                                                                                           Department of Inland Fisheries and Wildlife                 ...............o       *     *       *      *        0
                                                                                                                                                           State Planning Office                .......................: ................................ .. ...0  ...
                               CONSERVATION                                                                                                                State university programs            ................................................ ... ... ... ...   0        0
                                                                                                                                                           LOCAL
                                       Many government agencies and private organizations partici-                                                         Soil and Water Conservation Districts               .......................... ... ...
                               pate in wetland conservation in Maine. The most active agencies                                                             Some county, town, and city governments                   ..................
                               and organizations and some of their activities are listed in table 1.                                                       PRIVATE ORGANIZATIONS
                                       Federal wetland activities. -Development activities in Maine                                                        Maine Coast Heritage Trust                   .................................... ...
                                                                                                                                                           The Nature Conservancy               ..................................................0
                               wetlands are regulated by several Federal statutory prohibitions and                                                        Private colleges and universities                ............  ................ ... ...  ... ...
                               incentives that are intended to slow wetland losses. Some of the more
                               important of these are contained in the 1899 Rivers and Harbors
                               Act; the 1972 Clean Water Act and amendments; the 1985 Food                                                                 wetlands for agricultural use. The law allows exemptions from pen-
                               Security Act; the 1990 Food, Agriculture, Conservation, and Trade                                                           alties in some cases, especially if the farmer agrees to restore the
                               Act; and the 1986 Emergency Wetlands Resources Act.                                                                         altered wetland or other wetlands that have been converted to agri-
                                       Section 10 of the Rivers and Harbors Act gives the U. S. Army                                                       cultural use. The Wetlands Reserve Program of the 1990 Food,
                               Corps of Engineers (Corps) authority to regulate certain activities                                                         Agriculture, Conservation, and Trade Act authorizes the Federal
                               in navigable waters. Regulated activities include diking, deepening,                                                        Government to purchase conservation casements from landowners
                               filling, excavating, and placing of structures. The related section 404                                                     who agree to protect or restore wetlands. The Consolidated Farm
                               of the Clean Water Act is the most often-used Federal legislation                                                           Service Agency (formerly the Agricultural Stabilization and Con-
                               protecting wetlands. Under section 404 provisions, the Corps issues                                                         servation Service) administers the Swampbuster provisions and Wet-
                               permits regulating the discharge of dredged or fill material into                                                           lands Reserve Program. The NRCs determines compliance with
                               wetlands. Permits are subject to review and possible veto by the U.S.                                                       Swampbuster provisions and assists farmers in the identification of
                               Environmental Protection Agency, and the Fws has review and ad-                                                             wetlands and in the development of wetland protection, restoration,
                               visory roles. Section 401 of the Clean Water Act grants to States                                                           or creation plans.
                               and eligible Indian Tribes the authority to approve, apply conditions                                                              The 1986 Emergency Wetlands Resources Act and the 1972
                               to, or deny section 404 permit applications on the basis of a pro-                                                          Coastal Zone Management Act and amendments encourage wet] and
                               posed activity's probable effects on the water quality of a wetland.                                                        protection through funding incentives. The Emergency Wetland
                                       Most farming, ranching, and silviculture activities are not sub-                                                    Resources Act requires States to address wetland protection in their
                               ject to section 404 regulation. However, the "Swampbuster" provi-                                                           Statewide Comprehensive Outdoor Recreation Plans to qualify for
                               sion of the 1985 Food Security Act and amendments in the 1990                                                               Federal funding for State recreational land; the National Park Ser-
                               Food, Agriculture, Conservation, and Trade Act discourage (through                                                          vice (NPS) provides guidance to States in developing the wetland
                               financial disincentives) the draining, filling, or other alteration of                                                      component of their plans. Coastal States that adopt coastal-zone








                                                                                                      National Water Surnmary-Wetland Resources: MAINE               217



                management programs and plans approved by the National Oceanic                 riculture, Bureau of Production and Marketing, assists by setting
                and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) are eligible for Federal                 up best-management practices and reviewing permits for farming
                funding and technical assistance through the Coastal Zone Manage-              activities near great ponds and wetlands.
                ment Act.                                                                            The Department of Environmental Protection also administers
                      Federal agencies manage many wetlands in Maine. The FWS                  sections 305(b) and 401 of the Clean Water Act. Section 305(b)
                manages wetlands in Waterfowl-Protection Areas, National Fish                  requires States to submit biennial water-quality-assessment reports
                Hatcheries, and National Wildlife Refuges. Also, the Fws adminis-              to Congress and the EPA, a part of which specifically addresses water
                ters wetland-acquisition programs such as the Partners for Wildlife            quality in wetlands. Section 401 requires State water-quality certi-
                Program, which helps restore wetlands on private lands, and the                fication before a section 404 permit may be issued. Other laws ad-
                North American Waterfowl Management Plan, a cooperative pro-                   ministered by the Department that protect wetlands include the Dam
                gram that provides funding for purchasing wetlands and contigu-                Registration, Abandonment and Water Level Act and the Site Loca-
                ous uplands. The NPS manages wetlands in Acadia National Park and              tion of Development Law. The Department also works closely with
                along the Appalachian Trail and the Allagash River. The Nps has                other State and Federal agencies. For example, wetland losses due
                designated 15 sites as National Natural Landmarks in Maine, sev-               to road building are minimized through cooperation between the
                eral of which are entirely wetland. Some of these are protected by             Maine Department of Transportation and the Department of Envi-
                the State, and others are protected voluntarily by individual land-            ronmental Protection. The Corps has issued a Maine State Program-
                owners. Wetlands also are managed by the U.S. Forest Service in                matic General Permit which allows permit work that would have
                the White Mountain National Forest, and by NOAA at the Wells                   otherwise required a Corps permit to be approved through the De-
                National Estuarine Research Reserve.                                           partment of Environmental ProtectioWs permitting process.
                      Federal agencies provide funding for research and inventory                    Other State agencies manage, research, and inventory wetlands.
                of Maine wetlands. The Fws has funded research on peatland ecol-               The Department of Inland Fisheries and Wildlife may designate
                ogy (Damman and French, 1987) and is funding a study of wetland                buffers around wetlands of high value, such as emergent wetlands,
                trends in selected coastal areas in cooperation with the Gulf of               and around features such as deer yards or eagle nests, many of which
                Maine Council. The NPS is inventorying wetlands in Acadia National             are in or contiguous to wetland areas. The Department of Environ-
                Park. The EPA funds the Casco Bay Estuary Project with the goal of             mental Conservation, Maine Geological Survey, has inventoried
                minimizing adverse environmental impacts from the use and devel-               Maine's peatland resources (Cameron and others, 1984) and coastal
                opment of land and marine resources. The Wells National Estua-                 wetlands, has served as the lead agency for cooperative projects with
                rine Research Reserve is available for Federal, State, public, and             the USGS, investigates surficial geology and coastal processes in
                private research projects. The U.S. Geological Survey (Usos), with             wetland areas, and furnishes information such as Fws National Wet-
                cooperative funding from State agencies, has inventoried peatlands             land Inventory maps to the public. The Maine Department of Eco-
                in Maine (Cameron, 1989) and studied the hydrology of Denbow                   nomic and Community Development, Natural Areas Program, con-
                Heath and the Great Heath (Nichols, 1983).                                     ducts an inventory and information-management program focused
                      State wetland activities. -Maine protects wetlands primarily             on endangered and rare plants and exemplary natural communities
                through administration of the Natural Resources Protection Act and             and has an official register of Maine Critical Areas and a mandate
                the Mandatory Shoreland Zoning Act by the Maine Department of                  to effect voluntary conservation of these areas, more than 100 of
                Environmental Protection and through activities of the Department              which are wetlands. The program has published reports describing
                of Conservation, Land Use Regulation Commission. The Natural                   many of these critical areas.
                Resources Protection Act protects freshwater and coastal wetlands,                   State land acquisition is coordinated for all agencies by the
                great ponds, rivers and streams, and other significant wildlife habi-          Maine State Planning Office. In the last 5 years, the State Planning
                tats. Any proposed alteration in or within 100 feet of protected ax-           Office has purchased about 48,000 acres of land with a $35 million
                eas requires a permit from the Department of Environmental Pro-                bond from the Land for Maine's Future Program funded by Maine
                tection. Regulated wetlands include freshwater wetlands of 10 or               voters in 1987. Several purchases were entirely wetland. Ownership
                more acres and coastal and flood-plain wetlands regardless of size.            of State lands is divided among three agencies- the Bureau ofParks
                For regulatory purposes, the act establishes three classes of wetlands         and Recreation, the Bureau of Public Lands, and the Department
                (Maine Department of Environmental Protection, 1990). Each class               of Inland Fisheries and Wildlife. The Bureau of Public Lands ad-
                is assigned a value based on the wetland's functions. Class I wet-             ministers 450,000 acres of Public Reserved Lands, an estimated 5
                lands receive the greatest protection owing to their biological func-          percent ofwhich are wetlands (Widoff, 1988). The Bureau ofParks
                tions. These are wetlands such as coastal wetlands; great ponds; and           and Recreation owns a few thousand acres of wetland within State
                wetlands that provide habitat for endangered or threatened plants              parks and the Allagash Wilderness Waterway. Inland Fisheries and
                and animals, unique natural communities, or significant wildlife               Wildlife manages about 32 major Wildlife Management Areas, many
                habitat as defined by the Maine Department of Inland Fisheries and             of which contain wetlands as their primary feature.
                Wildlife and the Atlantic Sea Run Salmon Commission. Class 11                        County and local wetland activities. -Municipalities are ac-
                wetlands are rated largely by hydrologic functions. These are wet-             tive in wetland protection in Maine. Under the Mandatory Shore-
                lands such as large emergent marshes, (nonforested) peatlands,                 line Zoning Act, every municipality is empowered to adopt, admin-
                flood-plain wetlands, and wetlands within 250 feet of rivers, streams,         ister, and enforce its own shoreland zoning ordinance and map. Some
                lakes, or coastal wetlands. Class III wetlands include forested wet-           towns have imposed stricter regulations than the act requires. On
                lands and wet meadows not located near open water. The act does                the local level, town code enforcement officers often have first con-
                not regulate the cutting of most forested wetlands.                            tact with individuals and developers whose activities in wetlands
                      The Mandatory Shoreline Zoning Act, administered by the                  areas are regulated under the Natural Resources Protection Act and
                Department of Environmental Protection, requires municipalities                Mandatory Shoreline Zoning Act. The Department of Economics
                in coastal areas to establish land-use controls for all land areas within      and Community Development, Office of Community Development,
                set distances of rivers, ponds, and wetlands. Land-use controls in             runs a Code Enforcement, Training, and Certification Program to
                the unorganized territories of northern Maine are established by the           train local code enforcement officers on State wetland rules and
                Land Use Regulation Commission. Zoning maps produced by the                    regulations.
                commission set buffers around scrub -shrub and emergent wetlands                     Private wetland activities. -Private organizations perform
                and also around streams and lakes. The Maine Department ofAg-                  complementary functions that cannot readily be accomplished by








                     218      National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: STATE SUMMARIES


                     governmental agencies. For example, wetlands research is conducted                     Johnson, C.W., 1985, Bogs of the northeast: Hanover, N.H., University Press
                     in several academic departments at the University of Maine and at                            of New England, 269 p.
                     other colleges and universities in the State. Private organizations                    Maine Department of Environmental Protection, 1990, Natural Resources
                     such as The Nature Conservancy can provide rapid action in put-                              Protection Act Wetland Protection Rules-Chapter 310: Augusta,
                                                                                                                  Maine Department of Environmental Protection, 13 p.
                     chase of property. The Maine Chapter of The Nature Conservancy                         Maine Natural Heritage Program, 199 1, Natural landscapes of Maine - A
                     owns 83 preserves, many which are entirely wetlands. The Maine                               classification of ecosystems and natural communities: Augusta, De-
                     Coast Heritage Trust is a land-conservation organization that facili-                        partment of Economic and Community Development, 77 p.
                     tates donation of easements and land transactions for conservation                     McMahon, J.S., 1990, The biophysical regions of Maine: Orono, Univer-
                     purposes. Through their activities, some important natural areas that                        sity of Maine, M.S. thesis, 119 p.
                     include wetlands have been designated as "forever wild." Other                         Mitsch, W.J., and Gosselink, J.G., 1986, Wetlands: New York, Van Nostrand
                     organizations involved with protection of Maine's wetlands or with                           Reinhold, 539 p.
                     some wettand holdings include 73 local land trusts, the Maine                          Nicho .Is, W.J., Jr., 1983, Hydrologic data for the Great and Denbow Heaths
                     Audubon Society, the National Audubon Society, the Society for the                           in eastern Maine, October 198 1- October 1982: U.S. Geological Sur-
                     Protection of New Hampshire Forests, the New England Wildflower                              vey Open-File Report 83 - 865, 34 p.
                                                                                                            Sorenson, E.R., 1986, Ecology and distribution of ribbed fens in Maine:
                     Society, Ducks Unlimited, the Izaak Walton League, and many oth-                             Augusta, Maine State Planning Office, Critical Areas Program, Plan-
                     ers. Individuals, timber companies, and other private landowners                             ning Report 81, 171 p.
                     own most of Maines wetlands, and many actively pursue wetland                          Timson, B.S., and Pickart, G., 1992, Inventory of glacial kettles, kettle-hole
                     conservation.                                                                                ponds, and kettle-hole bogs: Augusta, Maine State Planning Office,
                                                                                                                  Critical Areas Program, 240 p.
                                                                                                            Tiner, R.W., 199 1, Maine wetlands and their boundaries-A guide for code
                     References Cited                                                                             enforcement officers: Augusta, Maine Department of Economic and
                     Brinson, M.M., 1993, Changes in the functioning of wetlands along envi-                      Community Development, Office of Comprehensive Planning, 72 p.
                           ronmental gradients: Wetlands, v. 13, no. 2, p. 65-74.                           Tiner, R.W., and Veneman, P.L., 1989, Hydric soils of New England:
                     Cameron, C.C., 1989, Peat and its occurrence as a resource in Maine, in                      Amherst, Mass., University of Massachusetts Cooperative Extension,
                           Tucker, R.D., and Marvinney, R.G., eds., Studies in Maine geology,                     Revised Bulletin C-183R, 27 p.
                           v. 5: Augusta, Maine Department of Conservation, Maine Geological                Widoff, Lissa, 1988, Maine Wetlands Conservation Priority Plan: Augusta,
                           Survey, p. 125 -146@                                                                   Maine State Planning Office, Bureau of Parks and Recreation, 117 p.
                     Cameron, C.C., Mullen, M.K., Lepage, C.A., and Anderson, W.A., 1984,                   Winter, T.C., 1992, A physiographic and climatic framework for hydrologic
                           Peat resources of Maine: Maine Geological Survey Bulletins 28-32.                      studies of wetlands, in Robarts, R.D., and Bothwell, M.L., eds., Aquatic
                     Cowardin, L.M., Carter, Virginia, Golet, F.C., and LaRoe, E.T., 1979, Clas-                  ecosystems in semi-arid regions -Implications for resource manage-
                           sification of wetlands and deepwater habitats of the United States: U.S.               ment, 1992: Saskatoon, Saskatchewan, The National Hydrology Re-
                           Fish and Wildlife Service Report FWS/OBS - 79/31, 131 p.                               search Institute Symposium Series 7, Environment Canada, p. 127-
                     Dahl, T.E., 1990, Wetlands-Losses in the United States, 1780's to 1980's:                    148.
                           Washington D.C., U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Report to Congress,              Worley, I.A., 1981, Maine Peatlands: Augusta, Maine State Planning Of-
                           13 p.                                                                                  fice, Critical Areas Program, Planning Report 73, 387 p.
                     Damman, A.W.H., and French, T.W., 1987, The ecology of peat bogs of the
                           glaciated northeastern United States-A community profile: U.S. Fish
                           and Wildlife Service Biological Report 85(7.16), 114 p.                          FOR ADDITIONAL INFORMATION: District Chief, U.S. Geological Sur-
                     Davis, R.B., and Anderson, D.S., 1991, The eccentric bogs of Maine-A                   vey, 26 Ganneston Drive, Augusta, ME 04330; Regional Weiland Coordi-
                           rare wetland type in the United States: Maine State Planning Office,             nator, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 300 Westgate Center Drive, Hadley,
                           Critical Areas Program, Planning Report 93, 169 p.                               MA01035
                     Fefer, S.I., and Shettig, P.A. (principal investigators), 1980, An ecological
                           characterization of coastal Maine (north and cast of Cape Elizabeth):                                            Prepared by
                           U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Report FWS/OBS-80/29, v. 1-6,                                                David S. Armstrong,
                     Fermeman, N.M., 1946, Physical divisions of the United States: Washing-                                         U.S. Geological Survey
                           ton D.C., U.S. Geological Survey special map, scale 1:7,000,000.
                     Jacobson, H.A., Jacobson, G.L., and Kelley, J.T., 1987, Distribution and
                           abundance of tidal marshes along the coast of Maine: Estuaries, v. 10,
                           no. 2, p. 126 -13 1.
























                                                                         U.S. Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper 2425








                                                                                                                                                            National Water Summary-Watland Resources 219
                          Maryland and the District of Columbia
                                                                                                                                                               Wetiand Resources
                       Wands cover about 9.3 percent of Maryland and the District                                                 by Cowardin and others (1979), which is used by the U.S. Fish and
                       of Columbia. Many of these wetlands harbor unique and endangered                                           Wildlife Service (Fws) to map and inventory the Natiorfs wetlands.
                       species of plants and animals, and life is abundant in all of them.                                        At the most general level of the classification system, wetlands are
                       Some the most familiar wetlands in the region are the tidal marshes                                        grouped into five ecological systems: Palustrine, Lacustrine, Riv-
                       of the Chesapeake Bay (fig. 1).                                                                            erine, Estuarine, and Marine. The Palustrine System includes only
                              Wetlands have many physical, chemical, and biological func-                                         wetlands, whereas the other systems comprise wetlands and
                       tions. For example, wetlands trap waterborne sediments, nutrients,                                         deepwater habitats. Wetlands of the systems that occur in Maryland
                       and toxic chemicals by filtering them out of inflowing water and                                           and the District of Columbia are described below.
                       either storing or transforming them. Coastal-zone and flood-plain
                       wetlands mitigate the effects of flooding from runoff and tides by                                         System                                               Wetland description
                       reducing flow velocity, storing water temporarily, and releasing it
                       gradually. Vegetation in riparian wetlands maintains stream chan-                                          Palustrine      .................. Nontidal and tidal-freshwater wetlands in which
                       nels by stabilizing the banks, and tidal wetlands impede erosion by                                                                          vegetation is predominantly trees (forested wet-
                       storm surges and waves. One of the most important functions of wet-                                                                          lands); shrubs (scrub-shrub wetlands); persistent
                                                                                                                                                                    or noripersistent emergent, erect, rooted herba-
                       lands is as habitat for waterfowl, wildlife, and a wide variety of plant                                                                     ceous plants (persistent- and nonpersistent-
                       life. Wetlands provide food, shelter, resting places on migration                                                                            emergent wetlands); or submersed and (or)
                       routes, breeding areas, and nurseries for many animals including                                                                             floating plants (aquatic beds). Also, intermit-
                                                                                                                                                                    tently to permanently flooded open-water bod-
                       species of economic importance in Maryland such as ducks, geese,                                                                             ies of less than 20 acres in which water is less
                       oysters, blue crabs, and several kinds of finfish. Many rare and en-                                                                         than 6.6 feet deep.
                       dangered plant species are adapted to conditions present only irl                                          Lacustrine       ................. Nontidal and tidal-freshwater wetlands within an
                       wetlands.                                                                                                                                    intermittently to permanently flooded lake or
                              Maryland's wetlands have considerable historic and economic                                                                           reservoir larger than 20 acres and (or) deeper
                       value. Humans have inhabited Maryland's coastal wetlands for thou-                                                                           than 6.6 feet. Vegetation, when present, is pre-
                                                                                                                                                                    dominantly nonpersistent emergent plants (non-
                       sands of years, and unique cultures have developed there. Wetlands                                                                           persistent-emergent wetlands), or submersed
                       provide outdoor educational, recreational, and financial opportu-                                                                            and (or) floating plants (aquatic beds), or both.
                       nities -hunting, commercial and sport fishing, bird watching, and                                          Riverine     ..................... Nontidal and tidal-freshwater wetlands within a
                       tourism- all benefit Maryland's economy.                                                                                                     channel. Vegetation, when present, is same as
                                                                                                                                                                    in the Lacustrine System.
                       TYPES AND DISTRIBUTION                                                                                     Estuarine      ................... Tidal wetlands in low-wave-energy environments
                                                                                                                                                                    where the salinity of the water is greater than 0.5
                              Wetlands are lands transitional between terrestrial and deep-                                                                         part per thousand (ppt) and is variable owing to
                       water habitats where the water table usually is at or near the land                                                                          evaporation and the mixing of seawater and
                       surface or the land is covered by shallow water (Cowardin and oth-                                                                           freshwater.
                       ers, 1979). The distribution of wetlands and deepwater habitats in                                         Marine      ....................... Tidal wetlands that are exposed to waves and cur-
                                                                                                                                                                    rents of the open ocean and to water having a
                       Maryland and the District of Columbia is shown in figure 2A; only                                                                            salinity greater than 30 ppt.
                       wetlands are discussed herein.
                              Wetlands can be vegetated or notivegetated and are classified                                               Palustrine wetlands comprise most (57 percent) of the wetlands
                       on the basis of their hydrology, vegetation, and substrate. In this                                        in Maryland and the District of Columbia, followed by estuarine
                       summary, wetlands are classified according to the system proposed                                          wetlands (42 percent). Ninety percent of wetlands in Maryland and
                                                                                                                                  the District of Columbia are vegetated. The predominant vegetation
                                                                                                                                  or specific location of a wetland frequently determines its common
                                                                                                                                  name. Dune slacks are topographic depressions among sand dunes
                                                                                                                                  on the Eastern Shore (the part of Maryland on the Delmarva Pen-
                                                                                                                                  insula) that contain palustrine emergent or scrub-shrub wetlands.
                                                                                                                                  Delmarva bays are topographic depressions on the Delmarva Pen-
                                                                                                                                  insula that often contain seasonally flooded palustrine emergent,
                                                                                                                                                 ub, or forested wetlands. Swamps or swamp forests are
                                                                                                                                  palustrine tidal or nontidal forested wetlands. Seeps are small
                                                                                                                                  palustrine wetlands formed around springs; the pH of the water can
                                                                                                                                  be neutral, acidic (in sandstone), or alkaline (in carbonate rocks).
                                                                                                                                  Peatlands are palustrine emergent, scrub-shrub, or forested wetlands
                                                                                                                                  that have organic soils. A type of peatland called a bog in Maryland
                                                                                                                                  is permanently saturated by ground water and is, therefore, actu-
                                                                                                                                  ally a fen. Seasonal sinkhole wetlands are seasonally wet palustrine
                                          Figure 1. Wetlands on the Eastern Shore of the Chesa-                                   emergent wetlands that form in sinkholes in areas underlain by lime-
                                          peake Bay. Local variation in topography, soil char-                                    stone. Wet meadows are spring-fed palustrine emergent wetlands.
                                          acteristics, and hydrology are reflected in the vegeta-                                 Seagrass beds are estuarine aquatic-bed wetlands in which eelgrass
                                          tion patterns. (Photograph by David F Usher, U.S.                                       commonly is the predominant vegetation. Riverine and lacustrine
                                          Geological Survey.)                                                                     aquatic-bed wetlands, in which submersed aquatic vegetation such








                   220     National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: STATE SUMMARIES


                   as wild celery and hydrilla. predominate, are known locally as SAV            HYDROLOGIC SETTING
                   wetlands (for "submersed aquatic vegetation"). Salt and brackish
                   marshes are estuarine emergent wetlands in which the predominant                   Maryland and the District of Columbia can be divided into
                   vegetation is tolerant of water that ranges from brackish to salty.           three geohydrologic regions for purposes of discussing wetland
                   Small scrub-shrub wetlands commonly are associated with salt                  hydrology: the Coastal Plain; a central region consisting of the Pied-
                   marshes.                                                                      mont, Blue Ridge, and Valley and Ridge physiographic provinces;
                        Maryland covers an area that extends from the Atlantic Ocean             and the Appalachian Plateaus (fig. 2B).
                   into the Appalachian Mountains. About 590,800 acres (9.3 percent)                  Coastal Plain.-The relatively flat Coastal Plain physiographic
                   of Maryland's land area is wetland (R.W. Tiner, U.S. Fish and Wild-           province rises from below sea level to about 100 feet above sea level
                   life Service, oral commun., 1992). Tidal and nontidal wetlands each           on the Delmarva Peninsula east of the Chesapeake Bay and to about
                   comprise about one-half of the wetland acreage. The size and dis-             200 feet above sea level in southern Maryland west of the Chesa-
                   tribution of tidal wetlands are determined primarily by local topog-          peake Bay (James, 1986). The Coastal Plain is underlain by uncon-
                   raphy and tidal range. The distribution of nontidal wetlands is de-           solidated sediments. More than 90 percent of Maryland's total wet-
                   termined by local topography, soil characteristics, and geohydro-             land area, including all of its estuarine wetlands, is in this province
                   logic conditions. Tidal wetlands occur in or near the Chesapeake              (Tiner, 1987).
                   Bay and its tributaries or behind barrier islands on the Atlantic coast,           Recharge of the ground-water system in this region is mainly
                   whereas nontidal wetlands occur throughout the State. The most                by infiltration of precipitation and occurs in interstrearn, areas. Dis-
                   abundant wetland type in Maryland is palustrine forested wetland,             charge occurs by seepage to streams, estuaries, and the ocean. Many
                   which covers about 286,300 acres, nearly one-half the total wetland           Coastal Plain wetlands are in discharge areas of coastal and ripar-
                   area in the State. Next most abundant is estuarine emergent wet-              ian zones. The low-lying areas of the Coastal Plain contain exten-
                   land, covering about 203,400 acres. Maryland also has about 2,000             sive wetlands in the form of seagrass beds, salt marshes, and tidal
                   acres of riverine, 1,400 acres of lacustrine, and 700 acres of ma-            and nontidal freshwater marshes and swamps. These wetlands have
                   rine wetlands (mostly beaches and sand bars).                                 complex hydrology; streamflow, ground-water flow, and tidal flow
                        The District of Columbia has about 840 acres of wetlands                 all are components. The many rivers and streams of the Coastal Plain
                   (Guerrero, 1993); most are in the Coastal Plain along the Chesa-              have forested wetlands in the bottom lands along the channels. These
                   peake and Ohio (c&o) Canal and the tidal reaches of the Potomac               wetlands are sustained by local and regional ground-water flow
                   and Anacostia Rivers. Only a few acres of the District's wetlands             systems and overbank flooding during storms. The width of forested
                   are in the Piedmont Province, About 62 percent of the District's              wetlands in streamside areas often is reduced by artificial draining
                   wetlands are riverine aquatic beds. Most of those are in the Anacostia        and conversion of the land for agricultural use.
                   River and the C&O Canal. About 34 percent of the District's wetlands               The Coastal Plain can be divided into two subregions of dif-
                   are palustrine and are located along the Potomac and Anacostia                fering hydrology: the Eastern Shore and the area of the Coastal Plain
                   Rivers and Rock Creek and on Theodore Roosevelt Island. Sixty per-            west of the Chesapeake Bay. Inland, the Eastern Shore is poorly
                   cent of these palustrine wetlands are emergent, 16 percent are scrub-         drained and has small depressional palustrine wetlands (Delmarva
                   shrub, and 24 percent are forested. About 4 percent of the Districts          bays) and narrow bands of palustrine wetlands along ditches,
                   wetlands are hicustrine.                                                      streams, and rivers that drain areas from inland to the coasts (fig.




                                       79-   Fin-zel Swamp                                       77                           76-
                   cranesville                                         -71
                    Swamp                                                @[email protected]
                               . Za&H
                                                                                           Pa                                               A
                                                                                                       _v
                                                                                                                                            WETLANDS AND DEEPWATER
                                             0      10  20   30 MILES
                                                                                                                                             HABITATS
                                             0  10  20 30 KILOMETERS
                                                                                                         imor
                                                                                                                                            Distribution of wetlands and
                                                                                                                                             deepwater habitats-
                                                                                                                                              Because of I imitations of scale
                                                                                                                                              and source material, the
                                                                         mcKee uesner miam                                                    distribution is approximate, and
                                                                           ManagemeIArea                                                39'   some wetlands are not shown
                                                                        Ch-.p-k,, ..d Ohi. C-1                                                     Predominantly wetland
                                                                                   Washington D.Ca

                                  B                                                                                                                Predominantly deepwater
                       A                         C                                                                                                  habitat
                                                         D


                        B


                        PHYSIOGRAPHIC DIVISIONS
                                                           E
                        Province                                         E                                                                                 AT1,ANTfC
                          A. Appalachian Plateaus                                                                                                          OCEAN
                          B. Valley an,
                          C. Blue Ridge
                          D. Piedmont
                          E. Coastal Plain



                   Figure 2. Weiland distribution in Maryland and the District of Columbia and physiography of the State and District. A, Distribution of
                   wetlands and cleepwater habitats. H, Physiography. (Sources: A, TE. Dahl, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, unpub. data, 1991. B, Physi-
                   ographic divisions from Fenneman, 1946; landforms data from EROS Data Center)








                                                                                       National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: MARYLAND AND THE DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA                                                                          221



                            A. Coastal Plain-Eastern Shore                                                                                                                                    EXPLANATION
                                                                                                                 PALUSTRINE WETLANDS                                  Direction of ground-water                 C@      Scrub-shrub vegetation
                                                                                                                r___1                                                   flow
                                                                            PALUSTFINE WETLANDS
                                                                                                                                                                      Average water table
                                                                                                                   F                                                                                                    Forest vegetartion
                                                                              RIVERINE WETLANDS                                      E                                Water table near Delm
                                                                             r-1                   -                                                                                               arva
                              ESTUARINE WETLANDS                                                                                                                        bays in wet season
                            r--------   I                                                                                                                                                                               Emergent vegetation
                                                                                                                                                                      Water table near Delmarva
                                                     iE                                                                                                                 bays in dry season                              Farmed crops

                                                                                                                      Surficial send                         - Direction of ground-water                                Submersed aquatic
                                                              --------                                                    quifer                                        flow near Delmarva bays                           vegetation
                                                                                                                                                                        in wet season                                   Organic deposits
                                      Fine-grained                                                                                                           - Direction of ground-water
                            Sal star ,, deposits                                                                                              Aquifer                   flow near Delmarva bays
                                                                                                                                                                        in dry season
                                                                                               00offnifto lrlw
                                                           Aquifer                                                                                                              Note: Vertical scale greatly exaggerated

                                                                                                                                                                Figure 3. Generalized geohydrologic setting of
                            B. Coastal Plain-West of the Chesapeake Bay                                                                                         wetlands in three regions of Maryland and the Dis-
                                                                                                                                                                trict of Columbia. A, Coastal Plain- Eastern Shore.
                             PALUSTRINE WETLANDS                                                                                                                8, Coastal Plain -west of the Chesapeake Bay.
                                                                                 PALUSTRINE WETLANDS
                                                                                                                                                                C, Central region. D, Appalachian Plateaus.
                                                                                    Flood-plain swamps
                                                                                                                            ESTUARINE WETLANDS
                                                                                    RIVERINE WETLANDS                                             r@
                                                                                                                                                                3A). Extensive estuarine marshes occur along the
                                                                                                                                                                western shore of the peninsula and in the inland bays
                                                                                                                                                       2        on the eastern shore of the peninsula.
                                                       -------                                                                                         12               Delmarva bays occur in several different settings,
                                                 Surficial sand                                                                                        6        most commonly in the poorly drained center of the
                                                     aquifer                                                                       ------                       Delmarva Peninsula. Delmarva bays are connected to
                                                                                                                                                                local shallow ground-water systems, which differ in
                                                                                                                                   Freshwater '11,              areal extent, hydrochemistry, and degree of fluctuation
                                   confined aquifer                                                                                           /Saltwater        of the water table (Hall and Malcom, 1990). Local flow
                                                                                                                                                                patterns can vary seasonally because the depth of the
                                                                                                                                                                water table around and below Delmarva bays is directly
                            C. Central region                                                                                                                   related to seasonal rainfall. Areas of ground-water dis-
                                                                                                                                                                charge during wet seasons can be areas of ground-
                                         PALUSTRINr WETLAND                                                                                                     water recharge during dry seasons (fig. 3A) (Phillips
                                                                                                                                                                and Shedlock, 1993).
                                                                                                                                                                        West of the Chesapeake Bay, the geohydrology
                            Regolith                                 PALU  .STRINE WETLAND                       PALUSTRINE WETLANDS                            of the surficial aquifer is complex, and the local pat-
                                                                                                                                              r=                terns of ground-water flow are not well understood.
                                                                                                                    Flood-plain wamps                           Patterns of ground-water flow shown in figure 3B are
                            Crystalline or                                                                                                                      based on general geohydrologic principles described
                            sedimentary                                                                                     RIVERINE WETLAND
                              b.drock                                                                                                                           by Winter (1988, 1992). West of the bay, flood-plain
                                                                                                                                                                swamps are abundant along rivers and streams. These
                                                                                                                                      E                         wetlands are maintained by local and regional ground-
                                                                                                                                                                and surface-water flow systems. In a few areas,
                                                                                                                                                                peatlands, locally called bogs, occur in topographic
                                                                                                     Bedrock                                                    lows. These wetlands are hydraulically connected to
                                                                                                                                                                the local ground-water flow network. Seep wetlands
                                                                                                                                                                occur along the Fall Line (fig. 2B), which marks the
                            D. Appalachian Plateaus                                                                                                             boundary between the sediments of the Coastal Plain
                                            PALUSTRINE WETLANDS                                                                                                 and the higher altitude crystalline rocks of the Pied-
                                                                                                                                                                mont Province.
                                                                                                                                                                        Maryland's Coastal Plain has many notable wet-
                                                                               PALUSTRINE WETLANDS                                                              lands. The Pocomoke River swamp has extensive
                               $andston.                                                                                                                        stands ofbald cypress trees. In the Blackwatter National
                                                                                                                        PALUSTRINE WETLANDS                     Wildlife Refuge, brackish marshes grade into tidal
                                   state                                                                                                I
                                                                                                 &                         Flood-plain swamps"                  freshwater marshes. Zekiah Swamp is a forested wet-
                                     Sandstone                                                                                                                  land that adjoins a freshwater emergent marsh along
                                                                                                                                  RIVERINEWETLAND               the Wicornico River. In the Jug Bay wetlands on the
                                                                                                                                              E                 Patuxent River, tidal freshwater marshes grade into
                                                Shale                                    urne.                                                P                 tidal and nontidal forested wetlands.
                                                                                                                                                                        Central region.-The central region has consid-
                                                                                                                                                                erably more topographic relief than the Coastal Plain.
                                                                            Sandstone                                                                           The gently rolling hills of the Piedmont Province are
                                                                                                                                                                as much as 800 feet above sea level, and the mountains








                    222    National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: STATE SUMMARIES



                    of the Blue Ridge Province rise to more than 1,600 feet. Altitudes           wetland types in the region include seeps and flood-plain swamps.
                    in the Valley and Ridge Province range from about 400 feet in the            The peatlands generally are spring fed and have acidic water, al-
                    valleys to about 1,500 feet on ridges (James, 1986). The central             though some are buffered by limestone. The predominant vegeta-
                    region is underlain by crystalline and consolidated sedimentary              tion in many peatlands is shrubs and grasses, but some have open
                    bedrock that has been subjected to considerable folding and fault-           sphagnum mats. Notable wetlands in the Appalachian Plateaus are
                    ing and that is overlain by a regolith of variable thickness. Regolith,      large peatlands such as Finzel Swamp, The Glades, and Cranesville
                    which forms the land surface nearly everywhere, is a layer of un-            Swamp, which is a classic northern peatland.
                    consolidated, mostly fine-grained material composed of fragmen-
                    tal, weathered bedrock and alluvium overlying unweathered bed-               TRENDS
                    rock.
                         Recharge of the ground-water system in the central region is                 In the 1780's, about 1,650,000 acres, or 24 percent, of Mary-
                    by infiltration of precipitation, mostly in the forested uplands. Most       land (Dahl, 1990) and about 8,700 acres, or 20 percent, of the Dis-
                    of the precipitation seeps into a thick, permeable soil layer, and most      trict of Columbia (Department of Consumer and Regulatory Affairs,
                    of that water moves laterally through the soil to surface depressions        1990) were wetland. At that time, and for 2 centuries thereafter,
                    or streams. Water that moves below the soil zone enters the regolith,        wetlands were regarded as a public nuisance -a source of disease
                    and much of that water seeps into the underlying bedrock. Ground             and useful only if they could be turned into dry land (Maryland
                    water discharges from the regolith or bedrock by evapotranspira-             Conservation Commission, 1909). The influence of agricultural,
                    tion, as seeps or springs, or directly into streams (fig. 3Q. Much of        tourism, recreational, and industrial interests led to the draining,
                    the ground water available to wetlands in the region is held in the          dredging, filling, diking, and damming of wetland areas and to ex-
                    regolith (Metzgar, 1973).                                                    tensive stream channelization. These practices -in combination
                         Most of the wetlands in the central region are in valleys or other      with other human activities such as forestry; mining; crop tillage;
                    surface depressions. These topographic lows often indicate the pres-         increased pesticide, herbicide, nutrient, and sediment loading from
                    ence of fracture zones in the bedrock. Fracture zones are more sus-          upland activities; urban development and pollution; natural impacts
                    ceptible than unfractured zones to weathering and erosion, which             such as saltwater intrusion caused by sea-level rise and ground sub-
                    allows the evolution of topographic depressions, and they are the            sidence; wave-generated erosion; and hurricanes -have contributed
                    major pathways of ground-water movement through bedrock (Heath,              to widespread wetland loss or degradation. About 590,800 wetland
                    1984). Water is more likely to be discharged into depressions than           acres, or about 9.3 percent of the land surface, remain in Maryland
                    into other areas. For example, the source of water in the Germantown         (R.W. Tiner, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, oral commun., 1992)
                    Bog is primarily ground water and, although no streams flow into             a loss of about 64 percent since the 1780's.
                    this peatland, a stream flows out of it. Wetlands in the Piedmont                 When the District of Columbia was established in the 1790's,
                    Province include peatlands; flood-plain emergent marshes; chemi-             dredging and filling of wetlands to control disease and flooding
                    cally neutral, acidic, and alkaline seeps; seasonal sinkholes; and           began immediately. By the 1920's, most of the streams and springs
                    farm ponds. Wetlands in the Blue Ridge Province include isolated             that once drained into the Potomac and Anacostia Rivers were dry
                    peatlands and forested wetlands in seepage areas smaller than I acre         or enclosed in pipes (Williams, 1989). Most of the palustrine wet-
                    and surrounded by forest. Wetlands are rare in the Valley and Ridge          lands that those springs and streams supported have been covered
                    Province, but those that are there include seeps, forested flood-plain       by monuments, buildings, and parks. By 1992, only about 840 acres
                    wetlands, and wet meadows.                                                   of wetlands, or about 10 percent of the wetland area in the 1780's,
                         Notable wetlands in the Piedmont Province include the                   remained. The Department of Public Works and the U.S. Army
                    Germantown Bog (a fen rather than a true bog) and flood-plain                Corps of Engineers (Corps) are directing wetl and- restoration
                    marshes such as those in the McKee Beshers Wildlife Management               projects in the Anacostia River basin, where most of the District's
                    Area. The isolated wetlands in the Blue Ridge Province, such as the          remaining tidal wetlands are located.
                    acidic seeps in Catoctin Mountain National Park, are essential habi-
                    tats for rare and endangered plants. Wetlands also provide impor-            CONSERVATION
                    tant habitat in the Valley and Ridge Province, where the major wet-
                    lands are flood-plain swamps of the Potomac River and its tributar-               Many government agencies and private organizations partici-
                    ies and wet meadows in the area around Hagerstown.                           pate in wetland conservation in Maryland and the District of Co-
                         Appalachian Plateaus.-The valleys and mountains of the                  lumbia. The most active agencies and organizations and some of
                    Appalachian Plateaus range from 1,500 to 3,000 feet above sea level          their activities are listed in table 1.
                    (James, 1986). The Appalachian Plateaus are characterized by se-                  Federal wetland activities.-Development activities in Mary-
                    verely eroded, flat-lying to gently folded shale, sandstone, coal, and       land and the District of Columbia wetlands are regulated by several
                    limestone. The landscape consists of mountain crests, ridges, and            Federal statutory prohibitions and incentives that are intended to
                    hilltops that are formed of or capped by sandstone; wide, elongated          slow wetland losses. Some of the more important of these are con-
                    valleys of intermediate altitude; and narrow, steep-sided valleys            tained in the 1899 Rivers and Harbors Act; the 1972 Clean Water
                    (Abbe, 1902).                                                                Act and amendments; the 1985 Food Security Act; the 1990 Food,
                         Recharge of the ground-water system in this region is by infil-         Agriculture, Conservation, and Trade Act; the 1986 Emergency
                    tration of precipitation. Recharge primarily occurs in outcrop ar-           Wetlands Resources Act; and the 1972 Coastal Zone Management
                    eas of sandstone formations in the uplands between streams (Heath,           Act.
                    1984). Discharge from the ground-water system is through seeps,                   Section 10 of the Rivers and Harbors Act gives the Corps au-
                    springs, and streams (fig. 3D).                                              thority to regulate certain activities in navigable waters. Regulated
                         Most of the wetlands in this region are in wide valleys and to-         activities include diking, deepening, filling, excavating, and plac-
                    pographic lows in shale beds and along contacts and bedding planes           ing of structures. The related section 404 of the Clean Water Act is
                    in the bedrock. Small wetlands are isolated from the surface-water           the most often-used Federal legislation protecting wetlands. Under
                    system, but large wetlands drain into streams. For example, streams          section 404 provisions, the Corps issues permits regulating the dis-
                    draining from Finzel Swamp (also known as Cranberry Swamp), a                charge of dredged or fill material into wetlands. Permits are subject
                    large peatland, are the headwaters for the Savage River. Peatlands           to review and possible veto by the U.S. Environmental Protection
                    are the largest wetland complexes in the Appalachian Plateaus; other         Agency (EPA), and the Fws has review and advisory roles. Section








                                                                                               National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: MARYLAND AND THE DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA                                                                                     223



                            Table 1. Selected wetland-related activities of government agencies                                                        pliance with Swampbuster provisions and assists farmers in the iden-
                            and private organizations in Maryland, 1993                                                                                tification of wetlands and in the development of wetland protection,
                            [Source: Classification of activities is generalized from information provided                                             restoration, or creation plans.
                                 by agencies and organizations. e, agency or organization participates in                                                      The 1986 Emergency Wetlands Resources Act and the 1972
                                 wetiand-related activity; ..., agency or organization does not participate in                                         Coastal Zone Management Act and amendments encourage wetland
                                 wetland-related activity. MAN, management; REG, regulation; R&C, resto-
                                 ration and creation; LAN, land acquisition; R&D, research and data collec-                                            protection through funding incentives. The Emergency Wetland
                                 tion; D&I, delineation and inventoryl                                                                                 Resources Act requires States to address wetland protection in their
                                                                                                                                                       Statewide Comprehensive Outdoor Recreation Plans to qualify for
                                                                                                                                                       Federal funding for State recreational land; the National Park Ser-
                            Agency or organization                                                  10'0                  11Y 4@ 41                    vice (NPS) provides guidance to States in developing the wetland
                            FEDERAL                                                                                                                    component of their plans. Coastal States that adopt coastal-zone
                            Department of Agriculture                                                                                                  management programs and plans approved by the National Oceanic
                              Consolidated Farm Service Agency                   ........................... ...*                                      and Atmospheric Administration are eligible for Federal funding and
                              Natural Resources Conservation Service                     ................ ... *                                        technical assistance through the Coastal Zone Management Act.
                            Department of Commerce                                                                                                             State wetland activities- Maryland's Wetlands and Riparian
                              National Oceanic and                                                                                                     Rights Act and Non-Tidal Wetlands Protection Act and Chapters 20
                              Atmospheric Administration               ........................................00
                            Department of Defense                                                                                                      and 21 ofthe District ofColumbia Code contain State-level require-
                              Army Corps of Engineers                  ..............................................**                                ments for construction activities in wetlands. To obtain permits for
                            Department of the Interior                                                                                                 altering wetlands in Maryland, a joint State-Federal application must
                              Fish and Wildlife Service                ..............................................0                                 be submitted to the Maryland Department of the Environment's
                              Geological Survey          ..........................................................                                    Water Resources Administration, which will route it to the appro-
                              National Biological Survey               .......................................... ... ... ... ...
                              National Park Service                    ...................................................00 a                         priate regulatory agencies. The Department of the Environment ad-
                            Environmental Protection Agency               ..........  ....................... ...                                      ministers the Maryland wetland-protection acts and is responsible
                            STATE                                                                                                                      for State compliance with section 305(b) of the Clean Water Act,
                            Department of the Environment                                                                                              which requires States to submit water-quality-assessment reports to
                              Water Management Administration                   ...........................*                                           Congress and the EPA biennially. These reports must specifically ad-
                            Department of Natural Resources                                                                                            dress water quality in wetlands. The Department of the Environ-
                              Chesapeake Bay and Watershed Programs                        .............s
                              Natural Heritage Program                 ............................................9                                   ment also administers section 401 of the Clean Water Act, which
                              Program Open Space                       ..................................................... .. .. ...                 requires State water-quality certification before a section 404 per-
                            Office of State Planning                   ............. ......................................                            mit may be issued.
                            State Highway Administration               .........................................                                               Other regulatory activities are conducted by the Department
                            University of Maryland                     ...................................................... ... ... ... ...          of Natural Resources, the Office of State Planning, and the State
                            DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA                       -
                            Department of Consumer and                                                                                                 Highway Administration. All activities in tidal wetlands are con-
                            Regulatory Affairs         .............................................................. ... ... ...  ... ...             ducted under the Department of Chesapeake Bay and Watershed
                            Department of Public Works                 ............................................* a                                 Programs; other activities are conducted by the Department's Natu-
                            Metropolitan Council of Governments                  .......................... ...                                        ral Heritage and Greenways and Resource Planning Programs, by
                            Soil and Water Conservation District                ............................*                                          the Greenways Commission, by the Department of the Environ-
                            SOME COUNTY AND LOCAL GOVERNMENTS                              .............*
                            PRIVATE ORGANIZATIONS                                                                                                      ment's Mining Program, and by the University of Maryland. The
                            Chesapeake Bay Foundation                  ........................................... ...0... ...     ... ...             Maryland Natural Heritage Program supervises wetland manage-
                            Environmental Concern, Inc                 . ........................................... ... ...                           ment on State-owned lands and administers land-acquisition pro-
                            Maryland Land Trust Alliance               ..........................................0                                     grams. The Department of Natural Resources'Greenways Program
                            The Nature Conservancy                     ..................................................a                             and the Greenways Commission work to maintain the integrity of
                                                                                                                                                       natural areas and to integrate them with recreational use. The Mining
                                                                                                                                                       Program has a small wetlands mitigation and restoration program
                                                                                                                                                       in the Appalachian Plateaus region. Several academic departments
                                                                                                                                                       and the Center for Environmental and Estuarine Studies at the Uni-
                            401 of the Clean Water Act grants to States and eligible Indian Tribes                                                     versity of Maryland conduct wetlands research.
                            the authority to approve, apply conditions to, or deny section 404                                                                 Most wetlands in the District of Columbia are owned by the
                            permit applications on the basis of a proposed activity's probable                                                         NPS, which maintains them and monitors wetland restoration and
                            effects on the water quality of a wetland.                                                                                 creation efforts along the Anacostia River. Permits for wetland al-
                                    Most farming, ranching, and silviculture activities are not sub-                                                   teration in the District ofColumbia must be obtained from the Corps
                            ject to section 404 regulation. However, the "Swampbuster" provi-                                                          and the Department of Consumer and Regulatory Affairs.
                            sion of the 1985 Food Security Act and amendments in the 1990                                                                      County and local wetland activities- County and local gov-
                            Food, Agriculture, Conservation, and Trade Act discourage (through                                                         ernments have enacted zoning restrictions on development in wet-
                            financial disincentives) the draining, filling, or other alteration of                                                     lands and created many conservation programs. Some counties
                            wetlands for agricultural use. The law allows exemptions from pen-                                                         (Baltimore, Harford, and Anne Arundel) have wetland programs.
                            alties in some cases, especially if the farmer agrees to restore the                                                       Prince Georges County has received partial authority from the State
                            altered wetland or other wetlands that have been converted to agri-                                                        to implement the State Nontidal Wetland program. Other coopera-
                            cultural use. The Wetlands Reserve Program of the 1990 Food,                                                               tive programs among State and local government agencies and pri-
                            Agriculture, Conservation, and Trade Act authorizes the Federal                                                            vate organizations coordinate regional programs and management
                            Government to purchase conservation easements from landowners                                                              and protection efforts, particularly around the District of Colum-
                            who agree to protect or restore wetlands. The Consolidated Farm                                                            bia and the Chesapeake Bay.
                            Service Agency (formerly the Agricultural Stabilization and Con-                                                                   Private wetland activities- Private organizations with inter-
                            servation Service) administers the Swampbuster provisions and                                                              ests in wetlands in Maryland and the District of Columbia are ac-
                            Wetlands Reserve Program. The Natural Resources Conservation                                                               tive primarily in regulation and policy planning, land acquisition
                            Service (formerly the Soil Conservation Service) determines com-                                                           and management, research, and adult and professional education.









                      224      National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: STATE SUMMARIES



                      A few of the many organizations in the region are the Chesapeake                        Maryland Conservation Commission, 1909, Reclamation of swamps, in
                      Bay Foundation (regulation and policy planning), the Maryland                                 Report for 1908-1909: Baltimore, Maryland Conservation Commis-
                      Land Trust Alliance and The Nature Conservancy (land acquisition                              sion, p. 137-144.
                      and management), Environmental Concern, Inc. (research and adult                        Metzgar, R.G., 1973, Wetlands in Maryland: Annapolis, Maryland Depart-
                      and professional education), and Alliance for the Chesapeake B                                ment of State Planning Publication 157, 80 p.
                                                                                                      ay      Phillips, P.J., and Shedlock, R.J., 1993, Hydrology and chemistry of ground
                      (adult and professional education).                                                           water and seasonal ponds in the Atlantic coastal plain in Delaware,
                                                                                                                    U.S.A.: Journal of Hydrology, v. 141, p. 157 -178.
                      References Cited                                                                        Tiner, R.W., 1987, Mid-Atlantic wetlands-A disappearing natural trea-
                                                                                                                    sure: Newton Corner, Mass., U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service and U.S.
                      Abbe, Cleveland, Jr., 1902, The physiography of Garrett County, in Mary-                      Environmental Protection Agency cooperative publication, 28 p.
                            land Geological Survey, Garrett County: Baltimore, Maryland Geo-                  Williams, G.P., 1989, Washington, D.C.'s vanishing springs and waterways,
                            logical Survey, p. 27-54.                                                               in Moore, J.E., and Jackson, J.S., eds., Geology, hydrology, and his-
                      Cowardin, L.M., Carter, Virginia, Golet, F.C., and LaRoe, E.T., 1979, Clas-                   tory of the Washington, D.C., area: Alexandria, Va., American Geo-
                            sification of wetlands and deepwater habitats ofthe United States: U.S.                 logical Institute, p. 76-94.
                            Fish and Wildlife Service Report FWS/OBS-79/31, 131 p.                            Winter, T.C., 1988, A conceptual framework for assessing cumulative im-
                      Dahl, T.E., 1990, Wetlands -Losses in the United States, 1780's to 1980's:                    pacts on the hydrology of nontidal wetlands: Environmental Manage-
                            Washington, D.C., U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Report to Congress,                    ment, v. 12, no. 5, p. 605 - 620.
                            13 p.                                                                             -1992, Aphysiographic and climatic framework for hydrologic stud-
                      Department of Consumer and Regulatory Affairs, 1990, 1990 Report to the                       ies of wetlands, in Robarts, R.D., and Bothwell, M.L., eds., Proceed-
                            U.S. Environmental Protection Agency and U.S. Congress pursuant                         ings of the Symposium on Aquatic Ecosystems in Semi-Arid Re-
                            to Section 305(b) Clean Water Act (P.L. 97-117): Washington, D.C.,                      gions -Implications for resource management, 1990: Saskatoon, Sas-
                            Department of Consumer and Regulatory Affairs, 123 p.                                   katchewan, Environment Canada, The National Hydrology Research
                      Fenneman, N.M., 1946, Physical divisions of the United States: Washing-                       Institute Symposium Series 7, p. 127-147.
                            ton, D.C., U.S. Geological Survey special map, scale 1:7,000,000.
                      Guerrero, V.C., 1993, Inventory and status of wetlands in the District of
                            Columbia: Washington, D.C., District of Columbia Department of                    FOR ADDITIONAL INFORMATION: District Chief, U.S. Geological
                            Consumer and Regulatory affairs, 80 p.                                            Survey, 208 Carroll Building, 8600 LaSalle Road, Towson, MD 21204;
                      Hall, Tom, and Malcom, Hope, 1990, Inventory of natural resource areas                  Regional Welland Coordinator, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 300 Westgate
                            within the Chesapeake Bay region, v. I-Maryland: Annapolis, Md.,                  Center Drive, Hadley, MA 01035
                            U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 24 p.
                      Heath, R.C., 1984, Ground-water regions of the United States: U.S. Geo-
                            logical Survey Water-Supply Paper 2242, 78 p.                                                                      Prepared by
                      James, R.W., Jr., 1986, Maryland and the District of Columbia surface-water                                           Martha A. Hayes,
                            resources, in U.S. Geological Survey, National water summary 1985 -                                         U.S. Geological Survey
                            Hydrologic events and surface-water resources: U.S. Geological Sur-
                            vey Water-Supply Paper 2300, p. 265-270.




































                                                                          U.S. Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper 2425







                                                                                                                                           National Water Summary-Wetland Resources 2-25
                                                                                                                                     Massachusetts
                                                                                                                                               Wetland Resources
                     Wflands cover about I I percent of Massachusetts (Dahl, 1990)                                   deepwater habitats. Wetlands of the systems that occur in Massa-
                     and are an important component of the State's water resources.                                  chusetts are described below.
                     Wetlands are valued and protected by the State for the environmen-
                     tal and economic benefits they provide, such as flood control, miti-                            System                                         Wetland description
                     gation of storm damage, water-quality improvement, maintenance
                     of ground-water supplies, wildlife habitat, and spawning and nurs-                              Palustrine   .................. Nontidaf and tidal-freshwater wetlands in which
                     ery habitat for many of the estuarine and marine fish and shellfish                                                           vegetation is predominantly trees (forested wet-
                     that support the State's sport-fishing and seafood industries (fig. 1).                                                       lands); shrubs (scrub-shrub wetlands); persistent
                                                                                                                                                   or noripersistent emergent, erect, rooted herba-
                     Most wetland functions are tied to the presence, movement, qual-                                                              ceous plants (persistent- and nonpersistent-
                     ity, and quantity of water in wetlands (Carter and others, 1979). For                                                         emergent wetlands); or submersed and (or)
                     example, flood-plain wetlands along the Charles River provide natu-                                                           floating plants (aquatic beds). Also, intermit-
                     ral storage and a reduction of floodwaters such that the least-cost                                                           tently to permanently flooded open-water bod-
                                                                                                                                                   ies of less than 20 acres in which water is less
                     solution to prevent future flooding was to acquire and protect the                                                            than 6.6 feet deep.
                     wetlands (U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, 1971). Massachusetts                                    Lacustrine    ................. Nontidal and tidal-freshwater wetlands within an
                     wetlands provide not only the functions and values for which they                                                             intermittently to permanently flooded lake or
                     are protected by the State but other benefits such as scenic beauty                                                           reservoir larger than 20 acres and (or) deeper
                     and recreational opportunities. The benefits that Massachusetts'                                                              than 6.6 feet. Vegetation, when present, is pre-
                     wetlands provide are a reflection of the diversity of the State's wet-                                                        dominantly nonpersistent emergent plants (non-
                                                                                                                                                   persistent-emergent wetlands), or submersed
                     land resources.                                                                                                               and (or) floating plants (aquatic beds), or both.
                                                                                                                     Riverine   ..................... Nontidal and tidal-freshwater wetlands within a
                     TYPES AND            DISTRIBUTION                                                                                             channel. Vegetation, when present, is same as
                                                                                                                                                   in the Lacustrine System.
                           Wetlands are lands transitional between terrestrial and deep-                             Estuarine    ................... Tidal wetlands in low-wave-energy environments
                     water habitats where the water table usually is at or near the land                                                           where the salinity of the water is greater than 0.5
                     surface or the land is covered by shallow water (Cowardin and oth-                                                            part per thousand (ppt) and is variable owing to
                                                                                                                                                   evaporation and the mixing of seawater and
                     ers, 1979). The distribution of wetlands and deepwater habitats in                                                            freshwater.
                     Massachusetts is shown in figure 2A; only wetlands are discussed                                Marine    ....................... Tidal wetlands that are exposed to waves and cur-
                     herein.                                                                                                                       rents of the open ocean and to water having a
                           Wetlands can be vegetated or nonvegetated and are classified                                                            salinity greater than 30 ppt.
                     on the basis of their hydrology, vegetation, and substrate. In this
                     summary, wetlands are classified according to the system proposed                                     The most recent inventory of Massachusetts wetlands, per-
                     by Cowardin and others (1979), which is used by the U.S. Fish and                               formed during 1975-77 by the Fws National Wetlands Inventory
                     Wildlife Service (Fws) to map and inventory the Nation's wetlands.                              Project, mapped about 590,000 acres of wetlands in the State (Tiner,
                     At the most general level of the classification system, wetlands are                            1992). According to Metzler and Tiner (1992), the maps are at least
                     grouped into five ecological systems: Palustrine, Lacustrine, Riv-                              95 percent accurate. Palustrine wetlands are the most common
                     erine, Estuarine, and Marine. The Palustrine System includes only                               wetland type in the State, followed by estuarine and marine wet-
                     wetlands, whereas the other systems comprise wetlands and                                       lands (fig. 2B); all together, they constitute about 99 percent, by area,
                                                                                                                     of the State's wetlands. The combined area of lacustrine and river-
                                                                                                                     ine wetlands makes up the remaining less than 1 percent of wetland
                                                                                                          @@7,,!     acreage. A description of Massachusetts' Most common wetland
                                                                                                                     types follows.
                                                                                                                           Falustrine wetlands.-Vegetated palustrine wetlands in Mas-
                                                                                                                     sachusetts include ponds and shallow lakes in which the dominant
                                                                                                                     vegetation is floating or submersed (aquatic-bed wetlands); fresh-
                                                                                                                     water marshes, fens, and bogs dominated by herbaceous plants
                                                                                                                     (emergent wetlands); and bogs and swamps dominated by shrubs
                                                                                                                     or trees (scrub-shrub or forested wetlands). Vernal pools are small,
                                                                                                                             ally flooded wetlands that occur throughout Massachusetts.
                                                                                                                     season
                                                                                                                     Because most vernal pools dry up, they are devoid of fish and thus
                                                                                                                     provide a safe breeding habitat for many amphibian and invertebrate
                                                                                                                     species.
                                                                                                                           Palustrine forested wetlands constitute 56 percent of the State's
                                                                                                                     wetlands (Tiner, 1992) and consist primarily of red maple swamps
                                       Figure 1. Namskaket Marsh on Cape Cod. This                                   with some evergreen forested wetlands. Red maple grows in most
                                       wetland is the site of U.S. Geological Survey studies                         inland wetlands because it tolerates a wide range of flooding and
                                       that monitor the development and fate of a wastewater                         soil-saturation conditions (Metzler and Tiner, 1992). The vegeta-
                                       plume moving toward this tidal wetland. (Photograph                           tion found with red maple, in the understory and intermixed or
                                       courtesy of Kelsey-Kennard Photographers, Chatham,                            codominating in the canopy, differs according to nutrient conditions
                                       Mass.)                                                                        and water regime. Atlantic white cedar wetlands, the most common








                                  226            National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: STATE SUMMARIES



                                                                                                                                                                                        71'

                                                                                                                                                                                                           Parlef River
                                                                                                                                                                                                           WR
                                                                73'


                                                                                                                                                              L;


                                                                                                                                                 to                                                                     0       10           20        30 MILES
                                                                                                                                                                                                           42           j        I           I
                                               je4p Pitt  A d                                                                                                               Minu7w                         oric             I       I        I
                                                                                                                                                                      -93                                               0  10     20         30 KILOMETERS
                                                                                                                                                                              Bdat

                                                                                                                                                                         b


                                                                                                                                                          ar. 0

                                                                                           S    n   field

                                                                                                                                                                                          H        rn
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                         42'

                                                                                                                                                                                in                                                                                  Cape Cod
                                       A            WETLANDS AND DEEPWATER HABITATS                                                                                                                                                             Nandalke            National Seashore
                                                    D
                                                            b                                                                                                                                                                                    Lb
                                                      istri ution of wetlands and deepwaterr habitats
                                                        This map shows the approximate distribution of large                                                                             In
                                                                                                                                                                                          of
                                                        wetl:nds in the State. Because of limitations of scale
                                                        and ource material, some wetlands are not shown                                                                                                    9                      a%FP 41
                                                                Predominantly wetland                                                                                                                      Bedfo .4             aquoh Bay                    Monornoy Island NWR
                                                                                                                                                                                                                             National Estuarine
                                                               Predominantly deepwater habitat                                                                                                                               Research Reserve
                                                                                                                                                                                                   d> IZ3  @6;' "C@

                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                 d
                                                                                                                                                                                                              Martha's
                                                                                                                                                                                                           4@-
                                                                                   Marine wetlands                                                                                                            Vineyard
                                                                                   6.6 percent (38,700)

                                                                                                   Estuarine wetlands
                                                                                                   13.4 percent (79,300)                                                                           Green Mountain Section
                                                                                                        Lacustrine and                                                                             II      I     Connecticut                 I
                                                                                                        riverine wetlands                                                                                  I  4alley Lowland
                                                                                                        0.7 percent (4,270 acres)

                                                              Palustrine wetlands
                                                                    79.3 percent                                                                                                                   I            New England
                                                                  1468,000 acres)
                                                                                                                                                                                                                            rac-
                                                                                                                                                                                                                        P-1



                                                                                                                                                                                                   New England
                                                 RELATIVE AND ACTUAL ACREAGE                                                                                                                       Upland Section
                                          OF WETLAND TYPES IN MASSACHUSETTS


                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                D
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        Coasted Plain


                                                                                         %


                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                   PHYS OGRAPHIC
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            I(
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                         DIVISIONS










                                                                                                                                                                                           63      'P      00

                                                  C               STRATIFIED-DRIFT DEPOSITS

                                                                                Stratified-d rift deposits


                                  Figure 2. Wetland distribution and types in Massachusetts and physical
                                  features that control wetland distribution in the State. A, Distribution of
                                  wetlands and deepwater habitats. B, Relative area of wetland types in the
                                  mid-I 970's. C, Area covered by stratified -drift deposits. D, Physiography.
                                  (Sources: A, TE. Dahl, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, unpub. data, 199 1.
                                  B, Tiner 1992. C, B. D. Stone, U.S. Geological Survey, written commun.,
                                  1991. D, Physiographic divisions from Fenneman, 1946; landforms data
                                  from EROS Data Center)








                                                                                                National Water Surnmary-Wetland Resources: MASSACHUSETTS                      227



                  evergreen forested wetlands, are concentrated south of Boston and                  lands are adapted to low-nutrient conditions. Kettle ponds in the
                  form isolated wetlands in western and north-central Massachusetts                  Coastal Plain provide a habitat for plants that grow only on the ex-
                  and in the Connecticut River Valley (Sorrie and Woolsey, 1987).                    posed, sandy shores of nutrient-poor, acidic ponds and require sea-
                        Lacustrine and riverine Wetlands.-Although present through-                  sonal water-table fluctuations (Henry Woolsey, Natural Heritage and
                  out the State, lacustrine and riverine wetlands comprise only a small              Endangered Species Program, written commun., 1993).
                  percentage of Massachusetts' wetland area. These freshwater wet-                         Glacial lakes occupied the Connecticut Valley Lowland and
                  lands generally are restricted to the littoral zone between the shore              Seaboard Lowland of Massachusetts, depositing extensive areas of
                  and deepwater habitat and, if vegetated, have only aquatic-bed or                  flat, nearly impermeable stratified drift (Schafer and Hartshorn,
                  nonpersistent emergent vegetation. The majority ofriverine wetlands                1965). Impermeable stratified drift that was deposited in a marine
                  occur adjacent to the Connecticut River (Tiner, 1992). Wetlands in                 environment underlies areas of the Seaboard Lowland to the north
                  the shallows of rivers or lakes are classified as palustrine wetlands              of and surrounding Boston (Stone and Peper, 1982). These coastal
                  if there is persistent emergent vegetation present.                                areas were depressed by the weight of glacial ice to beneath even
                        Estuarine and marine wetlands.-Estuarine and marine wet-                     the lowered sea level but rose rapidly after deglaciation to expose
                  lands account for 20 percent of the State's total wetland acreage. In              marine sediments. The low relief and impermeable materials of these
                  Massachusetts, marine wetlands consist of exposed intertidal flats                 areas slow the drainage of surface-water, promoting the formation
                  and beaches and minor acreages of rocky shores and aquatic beds.                   and maintenance of wetlands. Sources of water for these wetlands
                  Estuarine wetlands consist of salt and brackish marshes (emergent                  include precipitation, ground-water discharge, and river overflow.
                  and scrub-shrub wetlands) that have developed behind coastal dunes                 Slow drainage leads to acidic, low-nutrient conditions through the
                  and in protected coves and embayments along the coast and estuar-                  accumulation of plant metabolic wastes and through the gradual
                  ies. These wetlands are commonly vegetated by grasses and aquatic                  depletion of nutrients as water flows through the wetland. Because
                  plants. Sparsely vegetated estuarine flats and beaches, alternately                of the low slope, small drainage obstructions can form large wet-
                  flooded by tide or exposed to air, also are present.                               lands-such as the 6,000-acre Hockomock Swamp near Taunton,
                                                                                                     the 1,500-acre Cedar Swamp near Westborough, and the 1,000-acre
                  HYDROLOGIC SETTING                                                                 Acushnet Cedar Swamp near New Bedford.
                                                                                                           Within the bedrock and till-covered hills of the New England
                        Wetlands form in geologic, topographic, and hydrologic set-                  Upland and Taconic Sections, wetlands occur primarily in depres-
                  tings that enhance the accumulation and retention of ground water,                 sions where surface runoff and ground-water discharge collect. The
                  surface water, or both for a period of time. Hydrologic processes                  depressions have no outflow or have drainage controlled by bedrock
                  are the primary factor determining the existence of wetlands; even                 sills, stratified drift, beaver dams, or manmade structures. Seepage
                  if the geologic and topographic settings are favorable for wetland                 wetlands can form where the ground-water table intersects or is close
                  formation, unfavorable hydrologic conditions can inhibit wetland                   to the land surface - on concave slopes and at breaks in slope. How-
                  formation (Winter, 1988). On an annual basis, precipitation exceeds                ever, these wetlands are permanently saturated only if ground-water
                  evapotranspiration losses in Massachusetts, resulting in an annual                 discharge is perennial; otherwise, the wetlands are seasonally satu-
                  moisture surplus. Hydrology, therefore, favors the formation and                   rated for varying periods of time (Winter, 1988). Wetlands also form
                  maintenance of wetlands throughout the State, and wetland loca-                    in river valleys, where they occupy kettle holes in stratified drift or
                  tion is determined primarily by geologic and topographic controls.                 areas modified by the erosion and deposition of rivers-in aban-
                        Massachusetts was almost completely covered by ice during                    doned river channels, behind levees and overbank sediments adja-
                  the last glaciation; the ice margin reached its maximum extent at                  cent to rivers, and in backswamp areas. As water moves through soil
                  Martha's Vineyard and Nantucket Island. Large quantities of gla-                   and surficial materials, it is enriched in nutrients for plant growth.
                  cial drift were deposited over bedrock throughout the State. This                  The longer the flowpath beneath the surface, the more the water is
                  sediment was left in place as deposited from the ice as till or was                enriched. Wetlands in upland till and bedrock depressions are pri-
                  eroded and reworked by glacial meltwater and deposited as strati-                  marily areas of discharge from nutrient-poor, local to intermediate
                  fied drift. Till is exposed at the land surface, primarily on upland               ground-water flow systems, whereas wetlands in lowland valleys
                  hilltops and slopes. Stratified drift was deposited in topographically             receive discharge from nutrient-ertriched, intermediate and regional
                  low areas where glacial meltwater collected-major lowlands such                    ground-water flow systems.
                  as the Coastal Plain Province, the Seaboard Lowland and Connecti-                        As vegetation became established after ice retreat and devel-
                  cut Valley Lowland Sections, and in stream and river valleys through-              oped in response to the warming of climate, open-water areas filled
                  out the New England Upland, Green Mountain, and Taconic Sec-                       with sediment and organic matter to become wetlands or remained
                  tions (fig. 2C and 2D). Although stratified drift covers only 44 per-              lakes with wetland habitats fringing open water. Studies of upland
                  cent of Massachusetts, 68 percent of wetlands are underlain by this                wetlands in Connecticut have shown that wetlands developed over
                  deposit (Motts and O'Brien, 1981). In general, the percentage of                   many divergent paths in the time since glaciation; however, all wet-
                  land containing wetlands decreases from east to west in the State;                 lands have been strongly affected by postsettlement agricultural and
                  this decrease can be directly attributed to the distribution of strati-            industrial practices (Thorson, 1990; Thorson and Harris, 1991).
                  fied drift.                                                                        Many wetlands resulted from colonial agricultural practices and the
                        Inland wetlands.- Surficial materials of the Coastal Plain,                  creation of ice ponds and mill ponds for water-powered industries.
                  which encompasses Cape Cod, Martha's Vineyard, and Nantucket                             Beavers have created many wetlands in Massachusetts by
                  Island, consist primarily of permeable stratified drift characterized              flooding uplands and narrow river valleys. Beaver populations in
                  by low relief. Despite the low relief, surface water does not collect              Massachusetts have been successfully reestablished and now occupy
                  in these areas because of the rapid infiltration of precipitation.                 all suitable habitats in the State (Thomas Decker, Massachusetts
                  Wetlands occur in the numerous kettle holes that intersect the                     Division of Fisheries and Wildlife, oral commun., 1993). Beaver-
                  ground-water table and receive water from ground-water discharge                   created wetlands have many of the positive aspects associated with
                  and precipitation. Kettle holes, closed topographic depressions, were              wetlands - including habitat for waterfowl and other wildlife, flood
                  created by the melting of stagnant ice blocks that were embedded                   control, sediment control, fish production, and recreational and
                  in glacial sediments. Kettle holes pit the surface of stratified drift             esthetic values -but the property damage beaver ponds may cause
                  throughout the State. Because ground water moves relatively rap-                   can result in conflict between beavers and humans (Decker and
                  idly through the surficial materials of this area, plants in these wet-            Cooper, 1991).








                               228          National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: STATE SUMMARIES



                                       Tidal wetlands.-Tidal wetlands are present along coastal ar-                                                       Table 1. Selected wetland-related activities of government
                               eas of the State in the Coastal Plain and the Seaboard Lowland. Tidal                                                      agencies and private organizations in Massachusetts, 1993
                               wetlands form a broad continuum from marine to estuarine, river-                                                           [Source: Classification of activities is generalized from information provided
                               ine, and palustrine wetlands. The effects of wave energy and salin-                                                              by agencies and organizations. o, agency or organization participates in
                               ity on the wetlands diminish along this continuum. Tidal wetlands                                                                wetland-related activity;               agency or organization does not participate in
                                                                                                                                                                wetland-related activity. MAN, management; REG, regulation; R&C, res-
                               receive freshwater from upland areas through ground-water dis-                                                                   toration and creation; LAN, land acquisition; R&D, research and data col-
                               charge, stream overflow, and hillslope runoff. Regional ground-water                                                             lection; D&I, delineation and inventory]
                               discharge is greatest near the break in slope between upland and
                               coastal areas, and intermediate and local ground-water flow systems
                               increase in importance in areas that have less topographic relief                                                          Agency or organization                                                           ;0      0-   J.              Z@@
                               (Winter, 1988). Floodwater resulting from high tides or stormflows                                                         FEDERAL
                               maybe temporarily stored in the wetland. The drainage of flood-                                                            Department of Agriculture
                               water and hillslope runoff from the wetland surface is slowed by                                                             Consolidated Farm Service Agency                  ........................... ... 0    ... ...       ... ...
                               the low slope of coastal areas.                                                                                              Forest Service        ................................................................. ... ... ... ... ...
                                       The major factors affecting the development and persistence                                                          Natural Resources Conservation Service                    ................ ...
                                                                                                                                                          Department of Commerce
                               of tidal wetlands are the rate of sea-level rise, the tidal regime, the                                                      National Oceanic and
                               supply of sediments to the wetland, and the ability of plants to Sur-                                                        Atmospheric Administration               ........................................0
                               vive submergence by saltwater (Redfield, 1972). Unless the submer-                                                         Department of Defense
                               gence of tidal wetlands by rising sea level is counteracted by the                                                           Army Corps of Engineers             ..............................................0
                               vertical accretion of the wetland by sediment deposition and plant                                                           Military reservations          .....................................................0          . ... ...
                                                                                                                                                          Department of the Interior
                               accumulation, the wetland will drown and become a deepwater                                                                  Fish and Wildlife Service           ..............................................0    0      0      0      0
                               habitat. As the last glacial ice melted and water was returned to the                                                        Geological Survey          .......................................................... ... ...
                               sea, sea level rose, encroaching upon land and submerging many                                                               National Biological Service             ......................................... ... ...
                               stream and river valleys to form estuaries. Tidal wetlands either have                                                       National Park Service            ...................................................0
                               migrated inland along estuaries, river valleys, and coastal slopes,                                                        Environmental Protection Agency               .................................. ...
                               or the wetlands have been completely submerged. Most existing                                                              STATE
                                                                                                                                                          Department of Environmental Management                      ................9
                               saltwater wetlands in New England are younger than 4,000 years                                                             Department of Environmental Protection
                               and might have thick freshwater deposits below saltwater peat                                                                Division of Water Pollution Control               ............................*
                               (Redfield, 1972). Presently, tidal wetlands exist in a narrow setting                                                        Division of Water Supply           ...............................................0
                               between rising sea level and expanding coastal development. The                                                              Division of Wetlands and Waterways                  ........................ ...
                               migration of these wetlands inland, as sea level continues to rise, is                                                     Department of Fisheries, Wildlife and
                                                                                                                                                          Environmental Law Enforcement                 ....................................
                               hindered by the previous destruction of coastal-margin wetlands and                                                        Massachusetts Environmental Policy Act Unit                     ........... ...
                               by present development in low-lying uplands.                                                                               Metropolitan District Commission              ..................................0
                                                                                                                                                          University of Massachusetts             ........................................... ... ... ... ...
                                                                                                                                                          TOWN AND CITY CONSERVATION COMMISSIONS
                               TRENDS                                                                                                                     PRIVATE ORGANIZATIONS
                                                                                                                                                          Ducks Unlimited       ...................  .............................................. ... ...
                                       The Fws estimates that Massachusetts has lost 28 percent of                                                        Massachusetts Audubon Society                 ...................................0
                               its original wetlands over the 200-year period between the 1780's                                                          The Nature Conservancy             ..................................................0
                               and the 1980's (Dahl, 1990). Agricultural and urban expansion in                                                           The Trustees of Reservations             ..........................................0
                               the Boston, Cape Cod, and Connecticut River Valley areas have
                               caused many wetland losses (Motts and O'Brien, 198 1). There are
                               no statewide estimates of recent wetland losses or alteration; how-
                               ever, wetland losses and alterations continue in Massachusetts de-                                                         Some of the more important of these are contained in the 1899
                               spite Federal and State regulation. In southeastern Massachusetts,                                                         Rivers and Harbors Act; the 1972 Clean Water Act and amendments;
                               about 1,300 acres of vegetated wetlands were either lost or altered                                                        the 1985 Food Security Act; the 1990 Food, Agriculture, Conser-
                               from 1977 to 1986 through agriculture, development, and conver-                                                            vation, and Trade Act; and the 1986 Emergency Wetlands Resources
                               sion of vegetated wetlands to open water (Tiner and Zinni, 1988).                                                          Act.
                                       Since 1978 there have been more than 51,000 permit applica-                                                                Section 10 of the Rivers and Harbors Act gives the U.S. Army
                               tions submitted to the Department of Environmental Protection for                                                          Corps of Engineers (Corps) authority to regulate certain activities
                               work proposed in or near wetlands in the State. More than 9,000                                                            in navigable waters. Regulated activities include diking, deepening,
                               applications were submitted in 1991; about one-third of these ap-                                                          filling, excavating, and placing of structures. The related section 404
                               plications were from Cape Cod and the southeastern part of the                                                             of the Clean Water Act is the most often-used Federal legislation
                               State, one-third were for projects proposed in and around metro-                                                           protecting wetlands. Under section 404 provisions, the Corps issues
                               politan Boston, and the remaining one-third were for projects in                                                           permits regulating the discharge of dredged or fill material into
                               central and western Massachusetts (Massachusetts Division of                                                               wetlands. Permits are subject to review and possible veto by the U.S.
                               Wetlands and Waterways, 1991).                                                                                             Environmental Protection Agency, and the Fws has review and ad-
                                                                                                                                                          visory roles. Section 401 of the Clean Water Act grants to States
                               CONSERVATION                                                                                                               and eligible Indian Tribes the authority to approve, apply conditions
                                                                                                                                                          to, or deny section 404 permit applications on the basis of a pro-
                                       Many government agencies and private organizations partici-                                                        posed activity's probable effects on the water quality of a wetland.
                               pate in wetland conservation in Massachusetts. The most active                                                                     Most farming, ranching, and silviculture activities are not sub-
                               agencies and organizations and some of their activities are listed in                                                      ject to section 404 regulation. However, the "Swampbuster" provi-
                               table 1.                                                                                                                   sion of the 1985 Food Security Act and amendments in the 1990
                                       Federal wetland activities.-Development activities in Mas-                                                         Food, Agriculture, Conservation, and Trade Act discourage (through
                               sachusetts wetlands are regulated by several Federal statutory pro-                                                        financial disincentives) the draining, filling, or other alteration of
                               hibitions and incentives that are intended to slow wetland losses.                                                         wetlands for agricultural use. The law allows exemptions from pen-








                                                                                           National Water Surnmary-Wetland Resources: MASSACHUSETTS                    229



                 alties in some cases, especially if the farmer agrees to restore the           of 1:5,000. The wetland maps will provide a detailed inventory of
                 altered wetland or other wetlands that have been converted to agri-            the extent and condition of the State's wetlands to be used to iden-
                 cultural use. The Wetlands Reserve Program of the 1990 Food,                   tify illegal wetland alterations and quantify wetland losses. In ad-
                 Agriculture, Conservation, and Trade Act authorizes the Federal                dition, important wetlands are selected for permanent deed restric-
                 Government to purchase conservation easements from landowners                  tions prohibiting activities that impair wetland functions. At present
                 who agree to protect or restore wetlands. The Consolidated Farm                (1993), 46,000 acres of coastal wetlands and 8,000 acres of inland
                 Service Agency (formerly the Agricultural Stabilization and Con-               wetlands are protected by deed restrictions.
                 servation Service) administers the Swampbuster provisions and Wet-                   The Department of Environmental Protection is integrating the
                 lands Reserve Program. The Natural Resources Conservation                      401 water-quality certification program with wetland permitting
                 Service (formerly the Soil Conservation Service) determines com-               under the State's Wetland Protection Act. Under section 401 of the
                 pliance with Swampbuster provisions and assists farmers in the iden-           Federal Clean Water Act, any activity that results in a discharge,
                 tification of wetlands and in the development of wetland protection,           including that of fill into wetlands or State waters, that also requires
                 restoration, or creation plans.                                                a Federal permit must obtain a 401 water-quality certification stat-
                      The 1986 Emergency Wetlands Resources Act and the 1972                    ing that the activity will not result in violation of State surface-water-
                 Coastal Zone Management Act and amendments encourage wetland                   quality standards. Many activities exempted under the Wetland Pro-
                 protection through funding incentives. The Emergency Wetland                   tection Act will be in the Department of Environmental Protection's
                 Resources Act requires States to address wetland protection in their           jurisdiction under the 401 certification program. Use of the anti-
                 Statewide Comprehensive Outdoor Recreation Plans to qualify for                degradation provisions of State surface-water-quality standards on
                 Federal funding for State recreational land; the National Park Ser-            wetlands defined as "waters of the Commonwealth" provides en-
                 vice (NPS) provides guidance to States in developing the wetland               hanced wetland protection. Antidegradation provisions provide for
                 component of their plans. Coastal States that adopt coastal-zone               the protection of existing uses in wetlands and the level of water
                 management programs and plans approved by the National Oceanic                 quality necessary to maintain those uses. No degradation is allowed
                 and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) are eligible for Federal                 in areas designated as Outstanding National Resource Waters, such
                 funding and technical assistance through the Coastal Zone Manage-              as National Wil   'dlife Refuges, National Parks, State parks, wildlife
                 ment Act.                                                                      areas, and other areas of ecological significance. Vernal pools that
                      Federal agencies are responsible for the proper management                have been certified by the State are designated as Outstanding Re-
                 of wetlands on public lands under their jurisdiction. The FWs pro-             source Waters and therefore have added protection through section
                 tects and manages wetlands in four National Wildlife Refuges in                401 and its antidegradation provisions.
                 Massachusetts: approximately 3,300 acres of salt marsh and fresh-                    The Department of Environmental Management is the primary
                 water wetlands in the Parker River National Wildlife Refuge, 1,000             land-management and natural -resource planning agency in the State.
                 acres of flood-plain wetlands along the Nashua River within the                The Department is the largest landholder in Massachusetts, having
                 Oxbow National Wildlife Refuge, flood-plain wetlands along 12                  270,000 acres of State forests, parks, beaches, and wildlife areas
                 miles of the Concord and Sudbury Rivers of the Great Meadows                   that include wetlands. As a part of its land- stewardship plans, the
                 National Wildlife Refuge, and 2,750 acres of marine, estuarine, and            Department oversees many activities and programs including re-
                 palustrine wetlands in the Monomoy Island National Wildlife Ref-               search and data collection, land-resource inventory, coastal-dune
                 uge. The NPS protects, manages, and studies many diverse wetlands              restoration, and natural area programs. The Wildlands Program sets
                 in the Minuteman National Historic Park and the Cape Cod National              aside areas of State forests and parks that contain examples of unique
                 Seashore. The Corps manages about 1,000 acres of wetlands at dams              plant communities or geologic formations in the State. The Office
                 and reservoirs located throughout the State and 8,000 acres of wet-            of Water Resources, within the Department of Environmental Man-
                 lands in the Charles River Natural Valley Storage Project.                     agement, is involved in two significant programs related to wet-
                      State wetland activities.-All State agencies that have respon-            lands -the river-basin planning program and the watershed-pro-
                 sibilities for wetland protection, management, and planning are                tection and flood-prevention facilities program (Michael Gildes-
                 managed by the Executive Office of Environmental Affairs chaired               game, Office of Water Resources, written commun., 1993). The
                 by the Secretary of Environmental Affairs. The principal authority             river-basin planning program analyzes the water resources of each
                 of this office is to implement and oversee State policies that pre-            basin and develops recommendations for regional and community
                 serve, protect, and regulate natural resources and the environmen-             water-resources management that balance the consumptive needs
                 tal integrity of the Commonwealth of Massachusetts. The Water                  of municipal, industrial, and commercial water withdrawals with the
                 Resources Commission establishes statewide water-resources poli-               instrearn flow needed to maintain natural resources such as wet-
                 cies for agencies within the Executive Office of Environmental                 lands, wildlife, and fisheries. The 35-year-old cooperative Federal
                 Affairs. In 1990, the Water Resources Commission adopted a policy              and State watershed-protection and flood-prevention facilities pro-
                 of no net short-term loss of wetlands and a net long-term gain of              gram maintains and preserves about 5,000 acres of open space as-
                 wetlands; the policy incorporates the principles of avoidance or               sociated with 32 flood-prevention facilities across the State. Instal-
                 minimization of adverse impacts on wetlands and full compensa-                 lation of these structures has promoted the development of new
                 tory mitigation for unavoidable wetland losses (Massachusetts Di-              wetlands and has enhanced wildlife habitat, public recreation, and
                 vision of Wetlands and Waterways, 1991). Primary responsibility                water supply. The Waquoit Bay National Estuarine Research Re-
                 to implement this policy was delegated to the Department of Envi-              serve, located on the southern coast of Cape Cod, is cooperatively
                 ronmental Protection.                                                          managed by the Department of Environmental Management and
                      The Department of Environmental Protection's Division of                  NOAAS Sanctuaries and Reserves Division. The 2,250-acre reserve
                 Wetlands and Waterways implements two complementary programs                   was created under section 315 of the Federal Coastal Zone Man-
                 for wetland protection-the Wetlands Protection Program and the                 agement Act and has barrier beach, salt pond, salt marsh, and open-
                 Wetlands Conservancy Program. The Wetlands Protection Program                  water habitats. The reserve serves as a natural laboratory and is the
                 functions primarily through permitting and enforcement by local                site of several interagency research projects.
                 conservation commissions. The program handles appeals and pro-                       The Department of Fisheries, Wildlife and Environmental Law
                 vides training, technical assistance, and enforcement support to               Enforcement protects and manages the State's wild and living natu-
                 conservation commissions. The Wetlands Conservancy Program is                  ral resources, including rare and endangered plant and animal spe-
                 mapping the State's wetlands through aerial photography at a scale             cies. Wetland protection is part of the overall mission of the De-








                     230      National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: STATE SUMMARIES



                     partment-the protection of natural ecosystems. Critical wildlife                    Metzler, K.J., and Tiner, R.W., 1992, Wetlands of Connecticut: Corinecti-
                     habitats are protected by an aggressive land-acquisition program that                    cut State Geological and Natural History Survey Report of Investiga-
                     emphasizes the natural corridors formed by rivers, streams, and their                    tions No. 13, 115 p.
                     associated wetlands. The Natural Heritage and Endangered Species                    Motts, W.S., and O'Brien, A.L., 198 1, Geology and hydrology of wetlands
                     Program, which is funded primarily through voluntary income tax                          in Massachusetts: University of Massachusetts, Water Resources Re-
                                                                                                              search Center Publication 123, 147 p.
                     contributions, inventories rare- and endangered-species habitats in                 Redfield, A.C., 1972, Development of a New England salt marsh: Ecologi-
                     the State.                                                                               cal Monographs, v. 42, p. 201-237.
                          Local wetland activities.-The local conservation commissions                   Schafer, J.P., and Hartshorn, J.H., 1965, The Quaternary of New England,
                     of the 351 cities and towns in Massachusetts implement the State's                       in Wright, H.E., Jr., and Frey, D.G., eds., The Quaternary of the United
                     Welland Protection Act with jurisdiction over any work in, over, or                      States: Princeton, N.J., Princeton University Press, p. 113-128.
                     adjacent to water bodies, wetlands, rivers, and streams within each                 Sortie, B.A., and Woolsey, H.L., 1987, The status and distribution of At-
                     municipality. No person may dredge, fill, or alter wetlands without                      lantic white cedar in Massachusetts, in Laderman, A.D., Atlantic white
                     notifying the local conservation commission in writing to explain                        cedar wetlands: Boulder, Colo., Westview Press, p. 135 -137.
                     the proposed work. In addition, cities and towns may enact local                    Stone, B.D., and Peper, J.D., 1982, Topographic control of the deglaciation
                                                                                                              of eastern Massachusetts -Ice lobation and the marine incursion, in
                     wetland bylaws, which can provide more stringent wetland and re-                         Larson, G.J., and Stone, B.D., eds., Late Wisconsinan glaciation of
                     source protection than that specified in the State's Welland Protec-                     New England: Dubuque, Iowa, Kendall/Hunt Publishing Company,
                     tion Act. Commissions consist of three to seven volunteer members                        p. 145 -163.
                     appointed directly by local elected authorities.                                    Thorson, R.M., 1990, Development of small upland wetlands-A strati-
                          Private wetland activities.-Private organizations in Massa-                         graphic study in northeastern Connecticut: University of Connecti-
                     chusetts are active in land acquisition and management, research,                        cut, School of Engineering Final Report JHR 90 -191, 285 p.
                     education, and policy review and planning. The Massachusetts                        Thorson, R.M., and Harris, S.L., 1991, How "natural" are inland wetlands?
                     Audubon Society owns 22,000 acres of land containing wetlands.                           An example from the Trail Wood Audubon Sanctuary in Connecticut,
                     The Trustees of Reservations owns and manages 18,000 acres of land                       USA: Environmental Management, v. 15, p. 675 - 687.
                                                                                                         Tiner, R.W., Jr., 1992, Preliminary national wetland inventory report on
                     in the State with historic, scenic, or ecological value. Ducks Unlim-                    Massachusetts'wetland acreage: Newton Corner, Mass., U.S. Fish and
                     ited provides technical and financial assistance to Federal and State                    Wildlife Service National Wetlands Inventory Project, 5 p.
                     agencies in order to protect waterfowl habitat in Massachusetts.                    Tiner, R.W., Jr. and Zinni, William, Jr., 1988, Recent wetlands trends in
                                                                                                              southeastern Massachusetts: Newton Corner, Mass., U.S. Fish and
                                                                                                              Wildlife Service National Wetlands Inventory Project, 9 p.
                     References Cited                                                                    U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, 197 1, Charles River study, appendix H-
                     Carter, Virginia, Bedinger, M.S., Novitzki, R.P., and Wilen, W.O., 1979,                 Flood management plan formulation: Waltham, Mass., U.S. Army
                          Water resources and wetlands, in Greeson, P.E., Clark, J.R., and Clark,             Corps of Engineers, 32 p.
                          J.E., eds., Wetlands functions and values -The state of our under-             Winter, T.C., 1988, A conceptual framework for assessing cumulative im-
                          standing -Proceedings of the National Symposium on Wetlands, No-                    pacts on the hydrology of nontidal wetlands: Environmental Manage-
                          vember 1978: Minneapolis, Minn., American Water Resources Asso-                     ment, v. 12, p. 605-620.
                          ciation, p. 344-376.
                     Cowardin, L.M., Carter, Virginia, Golet, F.C., and LaRoe, E.T., 1979, Clas-
                          sification of wetlands and deepwater habitats ofthe United States: U.S.        FOR ADDITIONAL INFORMATION: District Chief, U.S. Geological
                          Fish and Wildlife Service Report FWS/OBS-79/31, 131 p.                         Survey, 28 Lord Rd., Suite 280, Marlborough, MA 01752; Regional Wet-
                     Dahl, T.E., 1990, Wetlands-Losses in the United States, 1780's to 1980's:           lands Coordinator, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 300 Westgate Center,
                          Washington, D.C., U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Report to Congress,           Hadley, MA 01035
                          13 p.
                     Decker, Thomas, and Cooper, Jeanne, 199 1, Evaluation of damage by bea-
                          vers to highways and the economic costs to cities and towns in Mas-                                           Prepared by
                          sachusetts: Westboro, Massachusetts Division of Fisheries and Wild-                                        Sandra L. Harris,
                          life Technical Report, 14 p.                                                                           U.S. Geological Survey
                     Fenneman, N.M., 1938, Physiography of Eastern United States: New York,
                          McGraw-Hill, 714 p.
                     Massachusetts Division of Wetlands and Waterways, 199 1, Wetlands white
                          paper: Boston, Massachusetts Department of Environmental Protec-
                          tion, 64 p.






















                                                                       U.S. Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper 2425








                                                                                                                   National Water Summary-Wetland Resources 231
                                                                                                                                   Michigan
                                                                                                                    Wetland Resources
                Wtiands cover about 15 percent of Michigan. They are ecologi-                        There is no current (1993) estimate of statewide wetland acre-
                cally and economically valuable to the State. Wetlands provide shore-           age in each of the systems. However, the Michigan Department of
                line protection as well as temporary flood storage. Wetlands pro-               Natural Resources has inventoried land cover and land use; the re-
                tect water quality by removing excess nutrients and sediments from              sult is the Michigan Resource Inventory System (MIRIS). Wetland
                surface and ground water. Michigan's wetlands, such as Tobico                   classifications were developed specifically for this inventory sys-
                Marsh shown in figure 1, provide important wildlife habitat and have            tem. Classes of wetlands under this scheme are lowland conifers,
                a significant role in maintaining a high level of biological diversity.         1,826,402 acres; lowland hardwoods, 2,484,430 acres; wooded
                Most freshwater fish depend on wetlands at some stage in their life             wetland, 263,684 acres (palustrine forested wetlands under the
                cycle. Birds use wetlands as migratory resting places, for breeding             Cowardin and others [1979] classification system); shrub/scrub wet-
                and feeding grounds, and as cover from predators. Wetlands, such                land, 1,186,150 acres (palustrine scrub-shrub wetlands); aquatic-
                as those in Seney National Wildlife Refuge, are a preferred habitat             bed wetland, 60,863 acres (rooted and floating vascular aquatic-bed
                for muskrat, beaver, otter, mink, and raccoon. Some rare or threat-             wetlands); emergent wetland, 419,061 acres (persistent- and non-
                ened animals rely on wetlands, and 91 of 238 plant species listed as            persistent-emergent wetlands; and unvegetated flats, 3,926 acres
                threatened or endangered by the State grow in wetland habitats                  (unconsolidated- shore wetlands). The results of the MIRIS inventory
                (Cwikiel, 1992). Wetlands benefit the State's tourist and outdoor               are similar to the 1953 U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service inventory
                recreation industries by providing opportunities for activities such            (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 1955); wooded and scrub/shrub
                as hunting, fishing, trapping, hiking, canoeing, birdwatching, na-              wetlands are the most common wetland types in Michigan. Emer-
                ture photography, and viewing wildflowers. Blueberries and wild                 gent wetlands make up a relatively small percentage of the State's
                rice are produced commercially in Michigan wetlands. In the early               total wetlands.
                1980's, Michigan was one of five States that together produced 75                    Wetlands were estimated by Dahl (1990) to occupy about 5.6
                percent of the peat mined in the United States.                                 million acres of Michigan in the mid-1980's. There are more than
                                                                                                6.2 million acres of wetlands classified under MIRIS. However, under
                TYPES AND DISTRIBUTION                                                          the classification scheme for mims, lowland conifers and lowland
                                                                                                hardwoods are primarily wetlands but may also include some areas
                     Wetlands are lands transitional between terrestrial and deep-              that would be defined as uplands based on regulatory definitions
                water habitats where the water table usually is at or near the land             (Michigan Department of Natural Resources, 1992).
                surface or the land is covered by shallow water (Cowardin and oth-                   In 1972, the Department of Natural Resources conducted a
                ers, 1979). The distribution of wetlands and deepwater habitats in              shorelands inventory and identified 105,855 acres of Great Lakes
                Michigan is shown in figure 2A; only wetlands are discussed herein.             coastal wetlands (Michigan Department of Natural Resources,
                     Wetlands can be vegetated or nonvegetated and are classified               1973). It has been estimated that coastal wetland acreage in Michi-
                on the basis of their hydrology, vegetation, and substrate. In this             gan has been as much as 369,000 acres in the past (Jaworski and
                summary, wetlands are classified according to the system proposed               Raphael, 1978). Michigan coastal wetlands are distributed among
                by Cowardin and others (1979), which is used by the U.S. Fish and               the Great Lakes in the following proportions: 37 percent along Lake
                Wildlife Service (Fws) to map and inventory the Nationlis wetlands.             Huron; 28 percent along Lake Michigan; 16 percent along the St.
                At the most general level of the classification system, wetlands are            Clair River, Lake St. Clair, and the Detroit River area; 13 percent
                grouped into five ecological systems: Palustrine, Lacustrine, Riv-              along Lake Superior; and 6 percent along Lake Erie (Michigan
                erine, Estuarine, and Marine. The Palustrine System includes only               Department of Natural Resources, 1992).
                wetlands, whereas the other systems comprise wetlands and deep-
                water habitats. Wetlands of the systems that occur in Michigan are
                described below.



                System                                 Wetland description                                                 7

                Palustrine .................. Wetlands in which vegetation is predominantly
                                         trees (forested wetlands); shrubs   (scrub-shrub
                                         wetlands); persistent or nonpersistent emergent,
                                         erect, rooted, herbaceous plants (persistent- and
                                         nonpersistent-emergent wetlands); or sub-
                                         mersed and (or) floating plants (aquatic beds).
                                         Also, intermittently to permanently flooded
                                         open-water bodies of less than 20 acres in which
                                         water is less than 6.6 feet deep.
                Lacustrine ................. Wetlands within an intermittently to permanently
                                         flooded lake or reservoir. Vegetation, when pres-
                                                                                                                                                        n
                                         ent, is predominantly nonpersistent emergent
                                         plants (nonpersistent-emergent wetlands), or
                                         submersed and (or) floating plants (aquatic
                                         beds), or both.                                        Figure 1.  Tobico Marsh, a coastal wetland along the shore
                Riverine ..................... Wetlands within a channel. Vegetation, when pres- of Saginaw Bay. (Photograph by Erin A. Lynch, U.S. Geo-
                                         ent, is same as in the Lacustrine System.              logical Survey.)








               232    National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: STATE SUMMARIES


                                                                                   Along Lake Michigan from Muskegon north to Empire, wet-
                                                                               lands are associated with wide, low-gradient tributary mouths that
                                                                               extend inland for several miles. Beaver Island has extensive wetlands.
                                                                               The shoreline from Empire to the Straits of Mackinac contains few
                                                                               wetlands. The Upper Peninsula shoreline of Lake Michigan is com-
                                         Is Royale                             posed of rocky points and headlands with sandy or marshy bay heads
                                         National Park                         (Herdendorf and others, 1981).
                                   Isle Royale                                     Along the Lake Superior shoreline of Michigan, wetlands are
                                                                               most common along the Keweenaw Bay waterway and at tributary
                                                                               mouths in Marquette and Chippewa Counties. The Isle Royale shore-
                                                                               line and islands and the mainland shores of the St. Marys River
                                                                               contain wetlands (Herdendorf and others, 1981).
                                                                                   The Michigan shoreline of western Lake Erie consists of low-
                                                                               lying marshes (emergent wetland) and sand beaches (unconsoli-



                                                           I A K E S IJ PER 10 R
                                                                   Pictured Rocks
                                                                    National 86
                                                                    Lakeshore                  St M- River




                                                                                                                   Drummond
                                                                                                            84'     Island
                                                                                                                      46'

                                                                                    raft-fM-khrunc.
                                                                          Beaverlslandl@



                                                                 Sleeping Bear Ounes
                                                                  National Lakeshore


                                                                                                                                C'
                                                                        Einrpiir.                                               _Z
                                                                               e% it                 A.
                                                                                                          urcri lorial@orest




                                    0      25      50 MILES                                                                       44'
                                                                                                                              rtH pe
                                                                                                        To Mars
                                    0   25   50 KILOMETERS
                                                                                                                            d in


                                                                                                                           0
                                                                                                                           0
                                                                                                                        era
                                                                                                                                 E





                                                                                                                       t
                                                                                                                       t


                                                                                          pids
               A                                                                                       L'using                    Ita


                WETLANDS AND DEEPWATER HABITATS
                                                                                                                                   st cl.h
                Distribution of wetlands and deepwater habitarts-
                  This map shows the approximate distribution of large wetlands
                                                                                                                               Detroit
                  in the State. Because of limitations of scale and source material,
                      watl
                  some   ands are not shown

                     Predominantly wetland                                                                                    42-

                     Predominantly deepwater habitat
                                                                                                                           LAKE ERIE
                     Area typified by a high density of small wetlands

                Figure 2. Wetland distribution and climatological features in Michigan. A, Distribution of wetlands and deepwater habitats. (Source: A,
                TE. Dahl, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, unpub. data, 1991.)








                                                                                                National Water Surnmary-Wetland Resources: MICHIGAN             233



                dated-shore wetland). The shoreline of Lake Huron from the Straits          a function of climatic, physiographic, and hydrologic factors such
                of Mackinac to Drummond Island generally consists of plains al-             as precipitation and runoff patterns, evaporation potential, topog-
                ternating with outcrops of limestone and dolomite. These plains are         raphy, and configuration of the water table. In Michigan, a favor-
                generally composed of clays and contain marshes. The beaches                able water budget coupled with impeded drainage promot6 ample
                along the northern part of the Saginaw Bay are occasionally inter-          soil moisture for wetland development in depressions, many of which
                rupted by wetlands. Most of the southeastern part of Saginaw Bay            were formed by glaciation. Precipitation (fig. 2B) in the form of
                is marshy with shallow water inshore. From Sand Point to Port               rain and snow averages approximately 31 inches annually. Lake-
                Austin the shore is composed of sand beaches with a bluff of un-            effect precipitation is prevalent in near-shore areas but also affects
                even sand ridges. The sand ridges parallel the shoreline and alter-         areas farther inland. Surface waters, including wetlands, are con-
                nate with wetlands. The area from Port Hope to the St. Clair River          stantly replenished by precipitation. Runoff (fig. 2C) varies geo-
                contains few wetlands. Along Lake St. Clair, the St. Clair River, and       graphically and seasonally. It is greatest in areas where snowfall
                the Detroit River, the only extensive natural areas that have not been      accumulation is heaviest (Miller and Twenter, 1986).
                developed are the St. Clair River Delta wetlands and wetlands on                 The topographic character of Michigan was largely determined
                islands at the mouth of the Detroit River (Herdendorf and others,           by glaciation. Glacial lobes channeled through parts of the Great
                1981).                                                                      Lakes and deposited thick layers of drift material. The bulk of this
                     Approximately 18,000 acres of wetlands line Saginaw Bay (15            drift accumulation may have been developed before the latest gla-
                percent of the drainage basin) and comprise the largest remaining           cial period. Areas bordering the Lower Peninsula and in a broad belt
                freshwater coastal wetland system in the Nation. Tobico Marsh (fig.         extending southwest from the Saginaw River Basin beyond Lansing
                1) is an enclosed lagoon bordered on the east by a narrow coastal           consist of flat drift deposits. Glacial lake waters covered much of
                barrier at Saginaw Bay and on the west by sand ridges. Emergent             these areas. There are more than 35,000 mapped lakes and ponds,
                wetlands occupy approximately 1,260 acres of Tobico Marsh. They             and 36,350 miles of rivers and streams in Michigan (Sweat and Van
                contain many bird species and are attractive to waterfowl during            Til, 1987). Nearly all of the lakes and associated wetlands in the
                migration. The Tuscola County Wetlands also are a part of the               lower peninsula occupy depressions in the surface of the glacial
                Saginaw Bay shoreline. They lie south of the Tobico Marsh and are           deposits. The Escanaba River Basin, in the center of the Upper
                confined to a relatively thin coastal and nearshore zone. In contrast       Peninsula of Michigan, covers an area of 925 square miles. As much
                to the Tobico Marsh, the Tuscola County Wetlands are open to wave           as 400 square miles of the southern part of the basin is covered by
                action from Saginaw Bay. The wetlands occupy depressions within             wetlands (Miller and Twenter, 1986). These wetlands are the rem-
                the premodern shoreline, clay flats, and lagoons at present lake level,     nants of an old glacial lake.
                and sandbars in the nearshore zone (Michigan Department of Natu-                 Kettle lake wetlands are common in upland areas within the
                ral Resources, 1993).                                                       Great Lakes Basin. Kettle lakes are formed by the incorporation of
                                                                                            ice blocks in material that washed out from a melting glacial ice
                HYDROLOGIC SETTING                                                          front. Where the melting ice block left a basin in the drift that pen-
                                                                                            etrated the water table, kettle lakes were formed. These lakes differ
                     Wetlands form where there is a persistent water supply at or           in shape and size. In general, depth does not exceed 165 feet. The
                near the land surface. The location and persistence of the supply is        most common wetlands in kettle lakes are bogs. Kettle lakes can








                                                      32


                                                                                                                  74
                                              32
                                                                  Z*








                                                                                                                                    j6





                 B                                                                              C

                 PRECIPITATION                                                                  RUNOFF                                                         10
                 -28- Line of equal annual                                                      -12- Line of equal annual runoff-
                          precipitation- Interval, in                                                   Interval, in inches, is
                          inches, is variable     40                                                    variable


                Figure 2. Continued. Wetland distribution and climatological features in Michigan. 8, Annual precipitation. C, Runoff. (Sources: B and C,
                Miller and Twenter 1986; landforms data from EROS Data Center.)








                                234          National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: STATE SUMMARIES



                                eventually become bog lakes through a series of steps. First, the lake                                                     ral Resources, 1993). Since the 1850's, 9,420 acres of wetlands have
                                is fringed by floating mats of sedges that grow inward and encroach                                                        been lost on the southeast coast of Saginaw Bay (Herdendorf and
                                upon the open water. Eventually the mat covers the entire lake sur-                                                        others, 1981).
                                face, and sphagnum moss and shrubs of the heath family become
                                established. When growth exceeds decomposition, the lake basin                                                             CONSERVATION
                                begins to fill and peat deposits form. Ultimately, a succession of
                                vegetation types may lead to a climax terrestrial forest (Herdendorf                                                               Many government agencies and private organizations partici-
                                and others, 198 1).                                                                                                        pate    in wetland conservation in Michigan. The most active agen-
                                        Freshwater coastal wetlands are extensive in Michigan. The                                                         cies and organizations and some of their activities are listed in table
                                occurrence, distribution, and diversity of coastal wetlands is, in part,                                                   I .
                                determined by the morphology of the Great Lakes shoreline. Most                                                                    Federal wetland activities. -Development activities in Michi-
                                Great Lakes wetlands develop in lagoons or flood ponds that form                                                           gan wetlands are regulated by several Federal statutory prohibitions
                                just landward of the shoreline. Glacial drift generally forms the                                                          and incentives that are intended to slow wetland losses. Some of the
                                upland boundaries, whereas barriers are created by water-laid sand,                                                        more important of these are contained in the 1899 Rivers and Har-
                                gravel, or cobble. Upland peninsulas formed by bedrock outcrops                                                            bors Act; the 1972 Clean Water Act and amendments; the 1985 Food
                                or resistant soil provide protection for shallow water areas cut into                                                      Security Act; the 1990 Food, Agriculture, Conservation, and Trade
                                the shoreline. Riparian (streamside) wetlands extend inland along                                                          Act; the 1986 Emergency Wetlands Resources Act; and the 1972
                                the flood plains and banks of tributary streams entering the lake                                                          Coastal Zone Management Act.
                                basin. Their extent is a function of flood-plain width, which is great-                                                            Section 10 of the Rivers and Harbors Act gives the U.S. Army
                                est along larger streams with broad flood plains and least where                                                           Corps of Engineers (Corps) authority to regulate certain activities
                                streambanks are steep. It is difficult to distinguish between some                                                         in navigable waters. Regulated activities include diking, deepening,
                                riparian wetlands and those of embayed or barrier-lagoon systems                                                           filling, excavating, and placing of structures. The related section 404
                                because most tributary streams enter the lakes through lagoons and                                                         of the Clean Water Act is the most often-used Federal legislation
                                bays (Geis, 1985).                                                                                                         protecting wetlands. Under section 404 provisions, the Corps issues
                                        Sediments in the lagoon of the Tobico Marsh where emergent
                                and submergent wetlands are present are composed of peats of vari-                                                         Table 1. Selected wetland-related activities of government
                                able consistency or a mixture of peat with fine sand. Tobico Marsh                                                         agencies and private organizations in Michigan, 1993
                                has one outlet -a small creek at the southern end of the marsh.                                                            [Source: Classification of activities is generalized from information provided
                                During low water levels the lagoon is effectively sealed from Sag-                                                               by agencies and organizations. e, agency or organization participates in
                                inaw Bay. Because the lagoon becomes sealed arid, therefore, lacks                                                               wetland-related activity;               agency or organization does not participate in
                                                                                                                                                                 wetland-related activity. MAN, management; REG, regulation; R&C, restora-
                                the flushing action that occurs in more open coastal wetlands, it                                                                tion and creation; LAN, land acquisition; R&D, research and data collection;
                                could evolve into a peat bog (Herdendorf and others, 1981).                                                                      D&I, delineation and inventory]
                                        Coastal wetlands are, in general, younger than inland wetlands
                                in Michigan because glacial ice receded from most of the Lower
                                Peninsula approximately 12,000 years ago and the Great Lakes                                                               Agency or organization                                                  4@
                                reached their present water levels less than 3,000 years ago. There-                                                       FEDERAL
                                fore, coastal wetlands are at most 3,000 years old, whereas inland                                                         Department of Agriculture
                                wetlands can be as old as 12,000 years. Coastal wetlands do not                                                               Consolidated Farm Service Agency                ........................... ...
                                mature to the same extent as inland wetlands. Short-term, tempo-                                                              Forest Service       .................................................................
                                rary water-level fluctuations and long-term, cyclic water-level                                                               Natural Resources Conservation Service                    ................ ...
                                changes can cause vegetation dieback, wetlands erosion, or lateral                                                         Department of Defense
                                                                                                                                                              Army Corps of Engineers           ..............................................
                                displacements of vegetative zones. These changes result in constant                                                           Marine Reserve         .............................................................. ... ...
                                rejuvenation of coastal wetlands (Herdendorf and others, 198 1).                                                              National Guard       ................................................................ ... ...
                                                                                                                                                           Department ofthe Interior
                                                                                                                                                              Fish and Wildlife Service         ..............................................
                                TRENDS                                                                                                                        Geological Survey         ..........................................................
                                                                                                                                                              National Biological Service           ......................................... ... .. ... ...
                                        The Fws has estimated that, from the 1780's to the 1980's,                                                            National Park Service             ...................................................0..a    0
                                wetland area in Michigan decreased by 50 percent-from about                                                                Environmental Protection Agency                .................................. ...
                                11.2 million to about 5.6 million acres (Dahl, 1990, p. 6). Most                                                           STATE
                                wetland loss in Michigan has been caused by drainage for agricul-                                                          Department of Natural Resources
                                tural purposes. Most drainage occurred before 1930. However, from                                                             Fisheries Division        ...........................................................0
                                                                                                                                                              Forest Management Division              .......................................9
                                1934 through 1940, the Works Progress Administration and Fed-                                                                 Land and Water Management Division                    .....................e
                                eral Relief Agencies drained parts of Michigan to control malaria-                                                            Surface Water Quality Division             ...................................9
                                carrying mosquitoes. Most drainage occurred in the southern one-                                                              Wildlife Division      ..............................................................
                                third of the State -the area containing most of the important agri-                                                        Department of Transportation             .........................................
                                cultural lands. Notations of bogs of 50 to 100 acres along Elk Creek                                                       SOME COUNTY AND LOCAL GOVERNMENTS                              ............. ...
                                                                                                                                                           PRIVATE ORGANIZATIONS
                                and a swamp as far as the eye could see were in an 1852 diary entry                                                        Clinton River Watershed Council               .................................... ... ...
                                of O.H. Perry describing a trip across the "thumb district" of east-                                                       Detroit Audubon Society              .................................................. ... ...
                                ern Michigan; most of these bogs have been drained. Industrializa-                                                         Dow Chemical Company .               .................................................. ... ...
                                tion has damaged wetlands along the Saginaw River and from the                                                             Ducks Unlimited         .................................................................. .. . .00
                                St. Clair River to Lake Erie. The moraine-till plain area of the cen-                                                      Future Farmers of America            .............................................. ... ...0
                                tral Lower Peninsula is the only other major area significantly dam-                                                       General Motors          ...................................................................
                                                                                                                                                           Michigan Duck Hunters Association                  .............................
                                aged by drainage (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 1955).                                                                   Michigan Wildlife Habitat Foundation               ...........................
                                        Approximately 37,000 acres of emergent marsh are thought to                                                        The Nature Conservancy               ..................................................
                                have existed around Saginaw Bay prior to development in the area.                                                          Tipp of the Mitt Watershed Council               ...............................
                                More than one-half of the basin's original wetlands have been                                                              Waterfowl USA           ................................................................... ... ...
                                drained, filled, altered, or destroyed (Michigan Department of Natu-                                                       Wetlands Conservation Association                  ....................  ........







                                                                                                         National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: MICHIGAN                     235



                 permits regulating the discharge of dredged or fill material into                   value could be significantly reduced. The Corps retains jurisdiction
                 wetlands. Permits are subject to review and possible veto by the U.S.               over Rivers and Harbors Act and section 404 permitting in Great
                 Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), and the Fws has review and                   Lakes coastal areas, their connecting waterways, and major tribu-
                 advisory roles. Section 401 of the Clean Water Act grants to States                 taries to the upstream limit of Federal navigability In these areas,,
                 and eligible Indian Tribes the authority to approve, apply conditions               both a Corps and a Michigan Department of Natural Resources
                 to, or deny section 404 permit applications on the basis of a pro-                  permit are required for activities in wetlands (Cwikiel, 1992).
                 posed activity's probable effects on the water quality of a wetland.                      Michigan currently (1993) is developing a Wetland Conserva-
                       Most farming, ranching, and silviculture activities are not sub-              tion Strategy. The strategy will focus on nonregulatory efforts
                 ject to section 404 regulation. However, the "Swampbuster" provi-                   throughout the State by (1) wetland education and outreach, (2) rec-
                 sion of the 1985 Food Security Act and amendments in the 1990                       lamation of wetlands to restore lost public benefits, (3) attention to
                 Food, Agriculture, Conservation, and Trade Act discourage (through                  wetland water-quality concerns, (4) coordination of existing wet-
                 financial disincentives) the draining, filling, or other alteration of              land-management practices (including support of the North Ameri-
                 wetlands for agricultural use. The law allows exemptions from                       can Waterfowl Management Plan), and (5) identification and pro-
                 penalties in some cases, especially if the farmer agrees to restore                 tection of Michigatfs rare and unique wetlands. The strategy is due
                 the altered wetland or other wetlands that have been converted to                   to be completed by January 1995.
                 agricultural use. The Wetlands Reserve Program of the 1990 Food,                          County and local wetland activities. -In addition to their usual
                 Agriculture, Conservation, and Trade Act authorizes the Federal                     planning and zoning responsibilities, several municipalities in the
                 Government to purchase conservation easements from landowners                       following Michigan counties have adopted ordinances or guidelines
                 who agree to protect or restore wetlands. The Consolidated Farm                     to protect wetlands or to mitigate unavoidable wetland losses:
                 Service Agency (formerly the Agricultural Stabilization and Conser-                 Allegan, Antrim, Charlevoix, Cheboygan, Genesee, Grand Traverse,
                 vation Service) administers the Swampbuster provisions and Wet-                     Ingham, Kalamazoo, Livingston, Monroe, Oakland, St. Clair, Wash-
                 lands Reserve Program. The Natural Resources Conservation                           tenaw, and Wayne Counties.
                 Service (formerly the Soil Conservation Service) determines com-                          Private wetland activities. -The Tipp of the Mitt Watershed
                 pliance with Swampbuster provisions and assists farmers in the iden-                Council offers a wetland- delineation service and a planning and
                 tification of wetlands and in the development of wetland protection,                zoning program to promote water-quality protection. The Wetlands
                 restoration, or creation plans.                                                     Conservation Association is actively pursuing wetland restoration
                       The 1986 Emergency Wetlands Resources Act and the 1972                        projects. The Wetlands Foundation of West Michigan assists with
                 Coastal Zone Management Act and amendments encourage wetland                        the design, funding, and permitting of projects that restore, enhance,
                 protection through funding incentives. The Emergency Wetlands                       or create wetlands primarily for habitat values.
                 Resources Act requires States to address werland protection in their                      Other organizations and industries that participate in wetland-
                 Statewide Comprehensive Outdoor Recreation Plans to qualify for                     protection activities in the State include Citizens for Alternatives
                 Federal funding for State recreational land; the National Park Ser-                 to Chemical Contamination, Clean Water Action, Clinton River
                 vice (NPS) provides guidance to States in developing the wetland                    Watershed Council, Detroit Audubon Society, Dow Chemical Com-
                 component of their plans. Coastal and Great Lakes States that adopt                 pany, East Michigan Environmental Action Council, Environmen-
                 coastal-zone management programs and plans approved by the                          tal Protection Council of Oakland County, Friends of Rose Town-
                 National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration are eligible for                    ship, Friends of the Crystal River, Friends of the Rouge, Galien River
                 Federal funding and technical assistance through the Coastal Zone                   Watershed Council, General Motors, Grand River Preservation
                 Management Act.                                                                     Coalition, Huron River Watershed Council, Lake Michigan Federa-
                       Federal agencies are responsible for the proper management                    tion, League of Women Voters of Michigan, Leelanau Conservancy
                 of wetlands on public land under their jurisdiction. The U.S. Forest                Watershed Council, Michigan Audubon Society, Michigan Lake and
                 Service manages as much as 588,000 acres of wetlands in three                       Stream Associations Inc., Michigan United Conservation Clubs,
                 National Forests in Michigan: Huron-Manistee (65,000 acres),                        Northern Michigan Environmental Action Council, Sierra Club
                 Hiawatha (as much as 423,000 acres), and Ottawa National Forests                    Mackinac Chapter, Upper Peninsula Environmental Coalition, Water
                 (as much as 100,000 acres). The NPS manages approximately 3,600                     and Air Team for Charlevoix, and West Michigan Environmental
                 acres of wetlands in Sleeping Bear Dunes National Lakeshore, as                     Action Council. The activities of these groups are diverse and in-
                 well as wetland acreage in Isle Royale National Park and Pictured                   clude participating in the planning and zoning process, s          .erving as
                 Rocks National Lakeshore.                                                           information clearinghouses, commenting on or assisting citizens in
                       State wetland activities. - The Michigan Department of Natu-                  commenting on dredge and fill applications, engaging in or provid-
                 ral Resources assumed administration of the section 404 wetlands                    ing expert witnesses for wetland litigation, restoring wetlands, ob-
                 program in October 1984. The principal statutory authority for the                  taining conservation easements, and many others.
                 Michigan wetlands program is Public Act 203, the Goemaere-Ander-
                 son Weiland Protection Act of 1980. This act, in conjunction with                   References Cited
                 several other State statutes and regulations, is the basis for Michigaifs
                 wetland conservation program. The act requires persons involved                     Cowardin, L.M., Carter, Virginia, Golet, F.C., and LaRoe, E.T., 1979, Clas-
                 in the following activities to obtain a permit from the Michigan                          sification of wetlands and deepwater habitats of the United States: U.S.
                 Department of Natural Resources: placing fill in a wetland; dredg-                        Fish and Wildlife Service Report FWS/OBS-79/31, 131 p.
                 ing or removal of soil or minerals from a wetland; constructing,                    Cwikiel, Wilfred, 1992, Michigan wetlands-Yours to protect (2d ed.):
                 operating, or maintaining any use or development in a wetland; and                        Conway, Mich., Tipp of the Mitt Watershed Council, 84 p.
                 draining surface water from a wetland. The act also authorizes regu-                Dahl, T.E., 1990, Wetlands -Losses in the United States, 1780's to 1980's:
                                                                                                           Washington D.C., U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 13 p.
                 lation of wetlands by local governments through wetland ordinances                  Geis, JW., 1985, Environmental influences on the distribution and com-
                 (Warbuch and others, 1990).                                                               position of wetlands in the Great Lakes Basin, in Prince, H.H, and
                       The EPA maintains Federal oversight of the State program, in-                       D'Itri, F.M., eds., Coastal wetlands: Chelsea, Mich., Lewis Publish-
                 cluding veto authority. The EPA routinely reviews Public Notices for                      ers, Inc., p. 15 - 3 1.
                 permit applications for "major discharges." Major discharges are                    Herdendorf, C.E., Hartley, S.M., and Barnes, M.D., 198 1, Fish and wild-
                 defined, in part, as (1) greater than 10,000 cubic yards of fill; (2)                     life resources of the Great Lakes coastal wetlands within the United
                 discharges that contain toxic materials; and (3) discharges into ar-                      States-Volume one, Overview: Washington, D.C., Biological Ser-
                 eas determined to be unique, or where the waterway's commercial








                     236     National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: STATE SUMMARIES



                          vices Program, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Report FWS/OBS-81/            U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 1955, Wetlands inventory of Michigan:
                          02-v. 1, 469 p.                                                                  Minneapolis, Minn., U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 41 p.
                     Jaworski, Eugene, and Raphael, C.N., 1978, Fish, wildlife, and recreational      Warbuch, J.D., Wyckoff, M.A., and Williams, Kristine, 1990, Protecting
                          values of Michigarfs coastal wetlands: Lansing, Michigan Department              inland lakes-A watershed management guidebook: Lansing, Mich.,
                          of Natural Resources report, 209 p.                                              Planning and Zoning Center, Inc., in cooperation with Clinton River
                     Michigan Department of Natural Resources, 1973, Shoreland inventory:                  Watershed Council and the Michigan Department of Natural Re-
                          Lansing, Mich., Division of Land and Resource Programs, 18 p.                    sources, 192 p.
                     - 1992, Water quality and pollution control in Michigan, 1992 report:
                          Lansing, Michigan Department of Natural Resources, Surface Water
                          Quality Division, Michigan 305(b) Report, v. 12, 307 p.
                     -1993, Saginaw Bay national watershed initiative, Saginaw Bay water-             FOR ADDITIONAL INFORMATION: District Chief, U.S. Geological
                          shed wetland facts: Lansing, Michigan Department of Natural Re-             Survey, 6520 Mercantile Way, Suite 5, Lansing, MI 48911; Regional Coor-
                          sources Communication Fact Sheet.                                           dinator, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, BHW Building, I Federal Drive,
                     Miller, J.B., and Twenter, F.R., 1986, Michigan surface-water resources, in      Fort Snelling, MN 55 111
                          U.S. Geological Survey, National water summary 1985 -Hydrologic
                          events and surface-water resources: U.S. Geological Survey Water-
                          Supply Paper 2300, p. 277 -284.                                                                           Prepared by
                     Sweat, MJ., and Van Til, R.L., 1987, Michigan water supply and use, in                          Erin A. Lynch and Marcus C. Waldron,
                          U.S. Geological Survey, National water summary 1987-Hydrologic                                      U.S. Geological Survey
                          events and water supply and use: U.S. Geological Survey Water- Sup-
                          ply Paper 2350, p. 305-312.



















































                                                                     U.S. Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper 2425








                                                                                                                   National Water Summary-Wetland Resources 237
                                                                                                                               Minnesota
                                                                                                                     Wetland Resources
                 Minnesota is famous for its many takes; wetlands in the State,                  of Natural Resources, 1984), although estimates range from about
                 however, cover more than three times the area of lakes. About one-              5.2 million acres (Anderson and Craig, 1984) to about 7.2 million
                 fifth of Minnesota is wetland. These wetlands provide numerous                  acres (Minnesota Department of Natural Resources, 1978) and de-
                 benefits to the people and wildlife of the State. Wetlands provide              pend on the definition chosen for organic soil and on data compila-
                 flood control by temporarily retaining stormwater runoff, and they              tion methods. Palustrine wetlands on mineral soil cover about 3.5
                 reduce erosion of lakeshores and streambanks. Wetlands improve                  million acres (Anderson and Craig, 1984). The total acreage of
                 downstream water quality by capturing suspended particulates, dis-              palustrine wetlands in Minnesota, both peatlands and mineral-soil
                 solved nutrients, and contaminants such as heavy metals and agri-               wetlands, is thus about 9.5 million acres.
                 cultural pesticides. Wetlands provide essential habitat for waterfowl,               Peatlands can be categorized as either fens or bogs. Sometimes
                 furbearers, and other wildlife (Carter and others, 1979). Minnesota's           the word "bog" is informally applied to peatlands in general, but
                 wetlands also are especially valuable for their vegetation. Many of             most peatlands in Minnesota are more properly called fens. Fens
                 the State's rarest plant species and most distinctive plant communi-            are peatlands that receive nutrients from ground water or runoff that
                 ties are found only in wetlands (Coffin and Pfarmmuller, 1988).                 has contacted mineral soil. Fens exist statewide but are more com-
                 Probably the rarest type of wetland in the State is a type of peatland          mon in the north, where conditions are more favorable for peat ac-
                 called a calcareous fen (fig. 1).                                               cumulation. There are many different types of fens, corresponding
                                                                                                 to the wide range of possible hydrologic, climatic, and nutrient con-
                 TYPES AND DISTRIBUTION                                                          ditions. Open fens (persistent-emergent wetlands) in the conifer-
                                                                                                 hardwood forest zone (fig. 2B) commonly have sedge-dominated
                      Wetlands are lands transitional between terrestrial and deep-              communities. Swamp-forest fens (forested or scrub-shrub wetlands)
                 water habitats where the water table usually is at or near the land             in this zone typically are covered by larch, black spruce, or north-
                 surface or the land is covered by shallow water (Cowardin and oth-              ern white cedar, with an understory of low shrubs, sedges, and
                 ers, 1979). The distribution of wetlands and deepwater habitats in              mosses (Glaser, 1992; Minnesota Department of Natural Resources,
                 Minnesota is shown in figure 2A; only wetlands are discussed herein.            1993). Fens in the prairie and deciduous forest-woodland zones
                      Wetlands can be vegetated or nonvegetated and are classified               typically have a scattered cover of shrubs such as willow and dog-
                 on the basis of their hydrology, vegetation, and substrate. In this sum-        wood and a continuous ground cover of various sedges, grasses, and
                 mary, wetlands are classified according to the system proposed by               forbs (scrub-shrub or persistent-emergent wetlands). A rare type of
                 Cowardin and others (1979), which is used by the U.S. Fish and                  these fens is a calcareous fen (fig. 1), which receives upwelling
                 Wildlife Service (Fws) to map and inventory the Natiorfs wetlands.              ground water rich in calcium carbonate.
                 At the most general level of the classification system, wetlands are                 Bogs are peatlands that receive nutrients only from precipita-
                 grouped into five ecological systems: Palustrine, Lacustrine, Riv-              tion and windblown dust. Consequently, bog water has low nutrient
                 erine, Estuarine, and Marine. The Palustrine System includes only               concentrations, and a continuous mat of sphagnum moss acidifies
                 wetlands, whereas the other systems comprise wetlands and                       the water (Gorham and others, 1985). Bogs have a low diversity of
                 deepwater habitats. Wetlands of the systems that occur in Minne-                species because few plants are adapted to these low-nutrient, acid
                 sota are described below.                                                       conditions (Glaser and others, 1981; Glaser, 1992). Bogs in Min-
                                                                                                 nesota typically are peat mounds covered by black spruce with an
                 System                                 Wetland description                      understory of broad-leaved evergreen shrubs and sphagnum moss
                 Palustrine  .................. Wetlands in which vegetation is predominantly    (forested wetlands). Some bogs have a stunted tree and shrub com-
                                          trees (forested wetlands); shrubs (scrub-shrub         munity (scrub-scrub wetland) near the center. Nonforested patches
                                          wetlands); persistent or nonpersistent emergent,       of bog dominated by sedge (persistent-emergent wetlands) are less
                                          erect, rooted, herbaceous plants (persistent- and      common but can occur where the peat is too wet for black spruce
                                          nonpersistent-emergent wetlands); or sub-
                                          mersed and (or) floating plants (aquatic beds).
                                          Also, intermittently to permanently flooded
                                          open-water bodies of less than 20 acres in which
                                          water is less than 6.6 feet deep.
                 Lacustrine  ................. Wetlands within an intermittently to permanently
                                          flooded lake or reservoir. Vegetation, when pres-
                                          ent, is predominantly nonpersistent emergent
                                          plants (n onpersistent-e merge nt wetlands), or
                                          submersed and (or) floating plants (aquatic
                                                                                                                                                          7
                                          beds), or both.
                 Riverine  ..................... Wetlands within a channel. Vegetation, when pres-
                                          ent, is same as in the Lacustrine System.                                   t
                                                                                                                                                         7

                      Most Minnesota wetlands are categorized as palustrine because
                 they have vegetation that remains standing all year. Most of these
                 wetlands have an organic soil and are thus peatlands. A simplified
                 definition of organic soil is one with an upper layer of partly de-             Figure 1.   Sioux Nation Fen.    This type of wetland,
                 composed plant material (peat) at least 12 inches (Wright and oth-              a patterned calcareous fen, is rare in Minnesota.
                 ers, 1992) to 16 inches (Cowardin and others, 1979) thick. Peadands             (Photograph byjames E. Almendinger U.S. Geo-
                 cover about 6 million acres in Minnesota (Minnesota Department                  logical Survey)








                      238     National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: STATE SUMMARIES











                                                 A

                                                                                                              Glacial Lake
                                                                                                              Agassiz area

                                                                B                                                     A

                                                                VEGETATION ZONES

                                                                  A. Conifer-hardwood forest zone
                                                                  B. Deciduous forest-woodland zone                                         A
                                                                  C. Prairie zone                                                                      C
                                  C                                                                                                                   PHYSIOGRAPHY
                                                                                                                               B
                                                                                                                                                        A. Flat terrain (glacial-lake plains
                                                              B                                                                                             and outwash plains)
                                                                                                                                        A               B. Rolling to hilly terrain (mostly
                                                                                                                                                            glacial-till plains and end
                                                                                                                 Alexandri                                  moraines)
                                                                                                                 Moraine   area
                                                                                                                                                        C. Dissected terrain (areas not
                                                                                                                                                            covered by most recent
                                                    96'                                                                          B                          glacial aclvance@

                                                                 so,



                                                                                                                  92@


                                                                      Rd
                                48"


                                               411


                                     Z



                                                                                           ir







                                                                    MP

                                                                    es   Ibn    ob





                                                                                                                               WETLANDS AND DEEPWATER HABITATS
                                                                                          of I0.                               Distribution of wetlands and deepwater habitats-
                                                                                                                                         p
                                                                                                                                  This me shows the approximate distribution of large
                                                                                                                                  wetlands in the State. Because of limitations of scale
                                                                                                                                  and source material, some wetlands are not shown

                                                                                                    t"                                Predominantly wetland

                                                                                                                                      Predominantly cleepwater habitat
                                              ux                                 q-t
                                                                                      JR
                                                                                                                                      Area typified by a high density of small wetlands


                                                                                                                     r
                                                                                                    Ro     a
                                       44'
                                                                                                 477
                                                                                                                     1              0      25       50 MILES

                                                                                     Albert Le                                      0   25   50 KILOMETERS



                      Figure 2. Wetland distribution and related biotic and physical features in Minnesota. A, Distribution of wetlands and cleepwater
                      habitats. 8, Vegetation zones. C, Physiography. (Sources: A, TE Dahl, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, unpub. data, 1991. B, Minnesota
                      Department of Natural Resources, 1993. C, Adapted from Wright, 1972.)







                                                                                                        National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: MINNESOTA                     239


                   to grow, or where fire has removed the black spruce (Glaser, 1992;                 HYDROLOGIC SETTING
                   Minnesota Department of Natural Resources, 1993).
                        Palustrine wetlands on mineral soil are present statewide. In                       The hydrology of wetlands is determined by climate, vegeta-
                   the western and southern parts of Minnesota, these wetlands com-                   tion, physiography, and geology. Climate determines the net mois-
                   monly are called prairie potholes. These shallow depressions may                   ture supply, which is the difference between input of precipitation
                   have open water near the center surrounded by emergent marsh or                    and loss by evaporation and plant transpiration. Physiography and
                   wet meadow (persistent emergent wetland) in which broad-leaved                     geology influences not only the movement of water on and below
                   sedges, grasses, and bulrushes predominate. In the eastern and                     the land surface but also the dissolved mineral content of the water.
                   northern parts of Minnesota, palustrine wetlands on mineral soil                         Differences in climate across Minnesota cause differences in
                   commonly are swamps (forested or scrub-shrub wetlands) in which                    vegetation and moisture supply. Average annual temperature, which
                   either hardwood or conifer trees or shrubs predominate (Minnesota                  influences evaporation and transpiration, ranges from about 36 *F
                   Department of Natural Resources, 1993).                                            (degrees Fahrenheit) in the north to about 46 'F in the south (Baker
                        Lacustrine and riverine wetlands commonly have beds of non-                   and Strub, 1965). Average annual precipitation ranges from about
                   persistent- emergent, submersed, or floating aquatic plants. Most of               20 inches in the west to about 30 inches in the east (Baker and oth-
                   the 3 million acres of Minnesota lakes are in the central and north-               ers, 1967). These climatic gradients contribute to a diagonal zona-
                   eastern parts of the State. Probably the best known lacustrine wet-                tion of major vegetation types and effective moisture, from the
                   lands are wild rice beds (nonpersistent-emergent wetlands), which                  warm, dry prairie zone in the south and west to the cool, moist
                   occupy about 150,000 to 200,000 acres of shallow lakes (John                       conifer-hardwood forest zone in the northeast (fig. 2B). Peatlands
                   Persell, Minnesota Chippewa Tribe, written commun., 1993).                         are more common in the conifer-hardwood forest zone than else-
                                                                                                      where in Minnesota, because the relatively cool and wet conditions
                                                                                                      help preserve the peat.
                    A                                                                                       Seasonal and year-to-year changes in climate cause changes in
                     UPGRADIENT                                                 DOWNGRADIENT          the moisture supply. Some prairie potholes receive different amounts
                                               PALUSTRINE WETLAND                                     of snowmelt runoff and ground-water inputs from year to year and
                                                                                                      consequently change from shallow emergent marshes to open-wa-
                                       Area of         'D           Area of                           ter ponds persisting for several years (Eisenlohr and others, 1972;
                                ground-water discharge        ground-water recharge
                                                                                                      LaBaugh and others, 1987). Drought hinders peat accumulation
                   ---------                                                                          because drying allows rapid microbial decomposition of the peat
                                                                                                      and makes it susceptible to fire. Peatlands consequently tend to be
                                              Wetland or pond sediment                                more common in the northeastern part of the State, which usually
                                                                                                      escapes severe drought (Borchert and Yaeger, 1968).
                                                                                                            Physiography (fig. 2C) influences surface-water drainage and,
                                                                                                      consequently, wetland type and distribution. The last glacial advance
                                                                                                      did not cover the extreme southeastern and southwestern corners
                                                                                                      of the State. Wetlands are less common in these older areas because
                                                                                                      the naturally dissected terrain has few basins remaining. Most ter-
                                              0                     500FEET
                                              L                      I                                rains in the State, however, were formed during the last glacial ad-
                                              VERTICAL SCALE EXAGGERATED                              vance. Glacial-till plains and end moraines are gently rolling to hilly
                    B                                                                                 terrains that cover much of the State. The low infiltration capacity
                                                                                                      of the clayey soil of these terrains in west-central and southern
                       Bluff                                                                          Minnesota enhances overland runoff, which can collect in prairie
                                                                                                      potholes. The Alexandria Moraine area (fig. 2C) coincides with the
                   ----- -                                         PALUSTRINE WIETLAN.DS              statewide diagonal climate-vegetation zonation and forms the core
                                                Calcareous Fen                                        of a region with a high density of wetlands intermixed with uplands
                                                                              RIVERINE WETLAND        (fig. 2A). Glacial-lake plains and outwash plains are relatively flat
                                                                                                      terrains where large peatlands can develop if the water table is high
                                                   Feet                                               and the moisture supply is sufficiently large and constant. The lack
                             Glacial drift                             --- - - - --                   of large peatlands on the western part of the Glacial Lake Agassiz
                                                                                                      area (fig. 2C) may be caused by the moisture supply being insuffi-
                                                                                                      cient or variable.
                                                                                                            Geology affects ground-water flow and chemistry. Ground-
                                       Bedrock                                        Bedrock         water discharge occurs where ground water seeps out of an aquifer
                                                                                                      into the wetland; ground-water recharge occurs where water from
                                              0                    10,00 FEET                         the wetland percolates into an aquifer (fig. 3A). Wetlands in the State
                                              VERTICAL SCALE EXAGGERATED                              commonly receive ground-water discharge, the amount and qual-
                                                                                                      ity of which can affect the vegetation. Some prairie potholes are sites
                                                 EXPLANATION                                          of naturally focused ground-water recharge, where overland runoff
                                    Ground-water flow                    Bulrush                      from the surrounding upland basin collects in the pothole before
                                    Water table                          Grass                        percolating into the surficial aquifer (LaBaugh and others, 1987).
                                                                                                            The influence of hydrology, particularly grourid-water hydrol-
                               IRV Cattail                         MW Sedge                           ogy, on wetlands is demonstrated by two examples. The first example
                                                                         Spill. Rush                  is the Red Lake peatland in northwestern Minnesota. This peatland
                                                                                                      is a complex of fens and bogs with distinctive shapes and internal
                   Figure 3. Hydrologic interaction between wetlands and ground                       patterns related to slight differences in water chemistry and flow
                   water. A, Conceptual ground-water discharge and recharge in a                      (Heinselman, 1963; Glaser and others, 1981; Glaser, 1992). Fens
                   wetland. B, Conceptual ground-water flow under a calcareous fen                    develop where upwelling ground water reaches the peatland surface
                   in the Minnesota River Valley.                                                     and flows laterally through the upper layer of fibrous peat. A pat-








                               240          National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: STATE SUMMARIES



                               terned fen sometimes develops in which the vegetation structure                                                            the western boundary of the Red Lake peatland is apparently con-
                               forms alternating ridges and troughs oriented at right angles to the                                                       trolled by the climatic moisture supply, the peatiand might be di-
                               direction of this slow surface flow. The ridges and troughs may be                                                         minished by warmer and drier climates resulting from natural cli-
                               10 to 50 feet wide (Heinselman, 1963), with the ridges occupied by                                                         mate cycles or, hypothetically, human-induced global warming. Such
                               low shrubs and the troughs by sedges or pools. The vast fens of the                                                        drier climates also could desiccate shallow prairie potholes, as in
                               Red Lake peatland provide the regional setting atop which bogs can                                                         the past.
                               develop. Bogs in the Red Lake peatland have formed on peat mounds
                               raised above the influence of upwelling ground water (Siegel and                                                           CONSERVATION
                               Glaser, 1987; Glaser, 1992; Siegel, 1992). The flow of fen water
                               around the bogs can cause them to have a streamlined shape,                                                                        Many government agencies and private organizations partici-
                               rounded on the upgradient margin and extended to a long tail on                                                            pate in wetland conservation in Minnesota. The most active agen-
                               the downgradient margin.                                                                                                   cies and organizations and some of their activities are listed in table
                                       The second example of the influence of ground-water hydrol-                                                        I .
                               ogy on wetlands is calcareous fens (fig. 3B), which are rare in Min-                                                               Federal wetland activities. -Development activities in Min-
                               nesota. Calcareous fens typically have significant amounts of up-                                                          nesota. wetlands are regulated by several Federal statutory prohibi-
                               welling ground water rich in calcium carbonate and surface slopes                                                          tions and incentives that are intended to slow wetland losses. Some
                               that drain excess water (Curtis, 1971; Eggers and Reed, 1987;                                                              of the more important of these are contained in the 1899 Rivers and
                               Thompson and others, 1992). These wetlands can be found in the                                                             Harbors Act; the 1972 Clean Water Act and amendments; the 1985
                               Minnesota River Valley on terraces at the base of the bluffs that form                                                     Food Security Act; the 1990 Food, Agriculture, Conservation, and
                               the valley wall. The high water table in the bluffs provides the nec-
                               essary hydraulic pressure to force ground water to upwell at the fen.
                               The fens generally lie above flood stages of the Minnesota River                                                           Table 1. Selected wetiand-related activities of government
                               and slope toward the river, protecting against inundation from the                                                         agencies and private organizations in Minnesota, 1993
                               river and providing drainage of excess water from the fen. As much                                                         [Source: Classification of activities is generalized from information provided
                               as 25 feet of peat can accumulate over the zone of upwelling ground                                                              by agencies and organizations. e, agency or organization participates in
                                                                                                                                                                wetland-related activity; ..., agency or organization does not participate in
                               water. Calcareous fens are sensitive not only to activities such as                                                              wetland-related activity. MAN, management; REG, regulation; R&C, res-
                               ditching or filling but also to more subtle causes of degradation. For                                                           toration and creation; LAN, land acquisition; R&D, research and data col-
                               example, pumping nearby wells could lower the natural hydraulic                                                                  lection; D&I, delineation and inventory]
                               pressures under the fen and reduce the amount of upwelling ground
                               water, and changing the land use in the ground-water recharge area
                               upgradient from the fen could change both the quantity and quality                                                         Agency or organization                                                          1001
                               of the water available to the fen. Calcareous fens demonstrate that                                                        FEDERAL
                               simply protecting the area of the wetland itself is not enough to                                                          Department of Agriculture
                               ensure that the wetland will remain undamaged.                                                                                Consolidated Farm Service Agency                 ........................... ...      ... ...       ... ...
                                                                                                                                                             Forest Service      .................................................................
                                                                                                                                                             Natural Resources Conservation Service                    ................
                               TRENDS                                                                                                                     Department of Commerce
                                                                                                                                                             National Oceanic and Atmospheric
                                       Most changes in Minnesota wetlands during the last 150 years                                                          Administration      ................................................................. ... ... ...   ... ...
                               have been caused by human activities. Estimates of wetland acre-                                                           Department of Defense
                               ages before settlement of the area by Europeans in the mid-1800's                                                             Army Corps of Engineers            ..............................................0
                                                                                                                                                          Department ofthe Interior
                               range from about 15 to 18 million acres; as much as one-half (by                                                              Fish and Wildlife Service          ..............................................0
                               area) of Minnesota's original wetlands might have been lost since                                                             Geological Survey                  .......................................................... ... ... ... ...0
                               presettlement times (Anderson and Craig, 1984; Tirier, 1984; Dahl,                                                            National Biological Service            ......................................... ... ... ... ...    0
                               1990). Most of the wetland loss has been the result of drainage for                                                           National Park Service              ...................................................00            0        0
                               agriculture. By the early 1980's, more than 70 percent of Minnesota's                                                      Environmental Protection Agency                .................................. ...*
                                                                                                                                                          STATE
                               originally poorly drained mineral soils in the prairie zone had been                                                       Board of Water and Soil Resources                 ............................... ...0
                               drained (Anderson and Craig, 1984). The loss of wetlands in the                                                            Department of Military Affairs            ........................................*
                               largely agricultural basin of the Minnesota River may cause in-                                                            Department of Natural Resources
                               creased flushing of water, nutrients, and soil from the uplands into                                                          Division of Fish and Wildlife          .........................................0
                               the river ecosystem. The northern peatlands also have been affected                                                           Division of Forestry               ...................  ....................................0
                                                                                                                                                             Division of Minerals               .......................................................*
                               by human activities. During the early 1900's, several northern coun-                                                          Division of Waters                 .......................................................... ...
                               ties went bankrupt as a result of funding the ditching of peatlands                                                           Office of Planning                 ........................................................... ... ... ... ... ...
                               on the Glacial Lake Agassiz plain. Because of the flat landscape,                                                          Department of Transportation              ......................................... . . .        0     .        0
                               the ditches were largely ineffective in draining the peatlands; how-                                                       Environmental Duality Board               ........................................... ...0... ...      ... ...
                               ever, ditching might have altered peatland vegetation hundreds of                                                          Pollution Control Agency              ...................................  .............. ...0...  ... 0       ...
                                                                                                                                                          University of Minnesota               .................................................... ... ... ... ...0
                               feet from the ditches (Glaser and others, 198 1; Bradof, 1992). Small                                                      COUNTY AND LOCAL
                               areas of peatland have been mined for horticultural purposes, logged                                                       Counties and cities                   ............................................................
                               for black spruce, or cultivated for specialty crops. The use of peat                                                       Soil and water conservation districts               ........................... ...0     0
                               as a fuel, however, has not been economical to date (Keirstead,                                                            Townships       ............................................................................ ...0*
                               1992).                                                                                                                     Watershed districts                   ............................................................ ...00
                                       Wetlands are sensitive to climate change also. About 7,000                                                         SOVEREIGN NATIONS
                                                                                                                                                          Native American tribes                .....................................................
                               years ago the water table in parts of Minnesota was as much as 20                                                          PRIVATE ORGANIZATIONS
                               feet lower than at present, and many prairie potholes were probably                                                        Ducks Unlimited        .................................................................. ... ...*
                               dry (Digerfeldt and others, 1992). The climate then became increas-                                                        Izaak Walton League                   ......................................................... ... ...0
                               ingly moist, and by 4,500 years ago peat began to form in the rem-                                                         National Audubon Society              ...............................................*   0
                               nant Glacial Lake Agassiz plain (Glaser and others, 198 1). Because                                                        The Nature Conservancy                ..................................................0*








                                                                                              National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: MINNESOTA               241



                Trade Act; the 1986 Emergency Wetlands Resources Act; and the               manent easements to some privately owned wetlands and for pub-
                1972 Coastal Zone Management Act.                                           lie education. The law promotes wetland preservation by allowing
                     Section 10 of the Rivers and Harbors Act gives the U.S. Army           tax-exempt status for wetlands of high value. The law essentially
                Corps of Engineers (Corps) authority to regulate certain activities         fills the gap in wetland protection between larger, deepwater habi-
                in navigable waters. Regulated activities include diking, deepening,        tats, which are already protected by Minnesota statute, and agri-
                filling, excavating, and placing of structures. The related section 404     cultural wetlands that are already covered by the Federal "Swamp-
                of the Clean Water Act is the most often-used Federal legislation           buster" provisions. The Board of Water and Soil Resources is the
                protecting wetlands. Under section 404 provisions, the Corps issues         State agency responsible for promulgating rules to determine wet-
                permits regulating the discharge of dredged or fill material into wet-      land value and to mitigate wetland losses, and local governmental
                lands. Permits are subject to review and possible veto by the U.S.          units are responsible for carrying out the rules (table 1). Also in-
                Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), and the Fws has review and           cluded in the legislation are provisions to prohibit degradation of
                advisory roles. Section 401 of the Clean Water Act grants to States         calcareous fens and to protect about 150,000 acres of ecologically
                and eligible Indian Tribes the authority to approve, apply conditions       significant peatlands.
                to, or deny section 404 permit applications on the basis of a pro-                The Department of Natural Resources has a variety of respon-
                posed activity's probable effects on the water quality of a wetland.        sibilities concerning wetlands and administers about 5.3 million
                     Most farming, ranching, and silviculture activities are not sub-       acres of State land, almost one-half of which may be wetlands, in
                ject to section 404 regulation. However, the "Swampbuster" provi-           addition to about 3 million acres of lakes. The Department's Divi-
                sion of the 1985 Food Security Act and amendments in the 1990               sion of Waters oversees permit applications for nearly all activities
                Food, Agriculture, Conservation, and Trade Act discourage (through          below the ordinary high-water level in the "protected waters and
                financial disincentives) the draining, filling, or other alteration of      wetlands" of the State, which include virtually all water bodies that
                wetlands for agricultural use. The law allows exemptions from pen-          have open water or nonwoody vegetation, are deeper than about 6
                alties in some cases, especially if the farmer agrees to restore the        inches, and are larger than 10 acres (2.5 acres in incorporated areas).
                altered wetland or other wetlands that have been converted to agri-         The Department's Division of Fish and Wildlife acquires lands and
                cultural use. The Wetlands Reserve Program of the 1990 Food,                currently (1993) manages over 700,000 acres, a significant portion
                Agriculture, Conservation, and Trade Act authorizes the Federal             of which are wetlands (Tom Landwehr, Minnesota Department of
                Government to purchase conservation easements from landowners               Natural Resources, oral commun., 1993). Within the Division of
                who agree to protect or restore wetlands. The Consolidated Farm             Fish and Wildlife, the Natural Heritage program identifies and clas-
                Service Agency (formerly the Agricultural Stabilization and Con-            sifies natural biologic communities, including wetlands; the Scien-
                servation Service) administers the Swampbuster provisions and Wet-          tific and Natural Areas program acquires sites of ecological signifi-
                lands Reserve Program. The Natural Resources Conservation                   cance to the State, notably rare wetland types such as patterned fen
                Service (formerly the Soil Conservation Service) determines com-            and calcareous fen; and the Ecological Services section performs
                pliance with Swampbuster provisions and assists farmers in the iden-        environmental reviews and will help develop a Statewide Compre-
                tification of wetlands and in the development of wetland protection,        hensive Wetland Conservation Plan. The Department of Natural
                restoration, or creation plans.                                             Resources' Division of Forestry helps manage most State-owned
                     The 1986 Emergency Wetlands Resources Act and the 1972                 land and also is chairing a public and private interagency commit-
                Coastal Zone Management Act and amendments encourage wetland                tee to develop nonregulatory best-management practices to protect
                protection through funding incentives. The Emergency Wetland                wetlands from forestry activities. The Department's Division of
                Resources Act requires States to address wetland protection in their        Minerals is responsible for applying the rules of the 1991 Wetland
                Statewide Comprehensive Outdoor Recreation Plans to qualify for             Conservation Act on lands from which metallic minerals or peats
                Federal funding for State recreational land; the National Park Ser-         are mined. The Division of Minerals also sponsored a survey of peat
                vice (NPS) provides guidance to States in developing the wetland            deposits in the State, including their type, distribution, and thick-
                component of their plans. Coastal States that adopt coastal-zone            ness (Minnesota Department of Natural Resources, 1981). The
                management programs and plans approved by the National Oceanic              Department of Natural Resources' Office of Planning is responsible
                and Atmospheric Administration are eligible for Federal funding and         for the State Comprehensive Outdoor Recreation Plan document
                technical assistance through the Coastal Zone Management Act.               required by Federal legislation and coordinates the environmental
                     Federal agencies research wetlands and manage those on pub-            review process within the Department of Natural Resources.
                lic land under their jurisdiction. The U.S. Forest Service (FS) is re-           Other State agencies also are involved with wetland protection
                sponsible for more than 2.8 million acres, with an unknown acre-            or management. The Environmental Quality Board determines
                age of wetlands, in the Chippewa and the Superior National For-             which activities affecting Wetlands are subject to the environmen-
                ests and supports research in peatland ecology and hydrology. The           tal review process. The Water Quality Division of the Pollution
                NPS manages over 140,000 acres in Minnesota, with an unknown                Control Agency reviews permit applications for all discharges to
                acreage of wetlands. The FWS manages about 500,000 acres, much              wetlands and other waters of the State, pursuant primarily to sec-
                of which is wetland, in 12 National Wildlife Refuges and numerous           tions 401 and 402 of the Federal Clean Water Act. The Pollution
                smaller waterfowl production areas in Minnesota. The Corps has              Control Agency also produces a biennial report monitoring state-
                wetland-management and restoration programs, especially in the              wide water quality, pursuant to section 305(b) of the act. The De-
                Mississippi River lowlands. The EPA laboratory in Duluth is study-          partment of Transportation is responsible for applying the Weiland
                ing effects of sedimentation and agricultural chemicals on prairie          Conservation Act rules to all State transportation projects that af-
                potholes. The U.S. Geological Survey, with cooperative funding              fect wetlands; this responsibility involves wetland impact assess-
                from State agencies, is studying the hydrology of small agricultural        ment as well as wetland restoration and creation. The Department
                wetlands and calcareous fens.                                               of Military Affairs manages the 53,000-acre Camp Ripley military
                     State and local wetland activities.-The centerpiece of                 reservation and has an active program of wetland management in
                Minnesota's efforts to protect wetlands is the Weiland Conserva-            cooperation with other State agencies.
                tion Act of 199 1, which works toward a no-net-loss goal. The intent             Sovereign nation wetland activities. -Tribal councils of Na-
                of the law is to avoid or minimize wetland losses; where wetland            tive American people in Minnesota strive to create, restore, or en-
                loss is unavoidable, the loss must be mitigated by replacement with         hance wetlands for waterfowl and wild rice production, particularly
                a wetland of equal public value. The law also provides funds for per-       on reservations or on traditionally harvested lands. The U.S. Bu-








                      242      National Water Summary-Wetiand Resources: STATE SUMMARIES



                      reau of Indian Affairs helps provide funding for wetland projects                     Glaser, P.H., 1992, Vegetation and water chemistry, in Wright, H.E., Jr.,
                      through the Circle of Flight and Water Resources program.                                  Coffin, B.A., and Aaseng, N.E., eds., The patterned peatlands of
                            Private wetland activities. -The National Audubon Society                            Minnesota: Minneapolis, University of Minnesota Press, p. 15-26.
                      manages three wildlife sanctuaries that contain wetlands, conducts                    Glaser, P.H., Wheeler, G.A., Gorham, Eville, and Wright, H.E., Jr., 1981,
                      a public education program about wetlands, and is performing re-                           The patterned mires of the Red Lake peatland, northern Minnesota-
                                                                                                                 Vegetation, water chemistry and landforms: Journal of Ecology, v. 69,
                      search for the EPA by investigating the effectiveness of past wetland-                     p. 575-599.
                      mitigation efforts. The Nature Conservancy actively seeks to pur-                     Gorham, Eville, Eisenreich, S.J., Ford, Jesse, Santelmann, MX, 1985, The
                      chase and protect ecologically significant wetlands. Ducks Unlim-                          chemistry of bog waters, in Stumm, Werner, ed., Chemical processes
                      ited provides funds for wetland restoration and for State or Federal                       in lakes: New York, John Wiley and Sons, p. 339-363.
                      agencies to purchase and manage wetlands for waterfowl produc-                        Heinselman, M.L., 1963, Forest sites, bog processes, and peatland types in
                      tion. The Izaak Walton League also provides funds for wetland res-                         the Glacial Lake Agassiz region, Minnesota: Ecological Monographs,
                      toration or creation. Private organizations that are involved in the                       v. 33, no. 4, p. 327-374.
                      protection of Minnesota wetlands include the Fish and Wildlife                        Keirstead, M.E., 1992, Management of Minnesota's peatlands and their
                      Legislative Alliance, Minnesota Conservation Federation, Minne-                            economic uses, in Wright, H.E., Jr., Coffin, B.A., and Aaseng, N.E.,
                                                                                                                 eds., The patterned peatlands of Minnesota: Minneapolis, University
                      sota Native Plant Society, Minnesota Waterfowl Association, Pheas-                         of Minnesota Press, p. 285-299.
                      ants Forever, Project Environment Foundation, Sierra Club, Trout                      LaBaugh, J.W., Winter, T.C., Adomaitis, V.A., and Swanson, G.A., 1987,
                      Unlimited, and others.                                                                     Hydrology and chemistry of selected prairie wetlands in the Cotton-
                                                                                                                 wood Lake area, Stutsman County, North Dakota, 1979-1982: U.S.
                                                                                                                 Geological Survey Professional Paper 1431, 26 p.
                      References Cited                                                                      Minnesota Department of Natural Resources, 1978, Peatlands -Minnesota,
                                                                                                                 Wisconsin, Michigan: St. Paul, Minnesota Department of Natural
                      Anderson, J.P., and Craig, W.J., 1984, Growing energy crops on Minnesota s                 Resources map, approximate scale 1:1,750,000.
                            wetlands - The land use perspective: Minneapolis, University of Min-            -198 1, Minnesota peat program final report: St. Paul, Minnesota De-
                            nesota Center for Urban and Regional Affairs, 95 p.                                  partment of Natural Resources Division of Minerals, 93 p.
                      Baker, D.G., Haines, D.A., and Strub, J.H., Jr., 1967, Climate of Minne-                      1984, Recommendations for the protection of ecologically signifi-
                            sota, part V-Precipitation facts, normals, and extremes: University                  cant peatlands in Minnesota: St. Paul, Minnesota Department of Natu-
                            of Minnesota Agricultural Experiment Station Technical Bulletin 254,                 ral Resources, 57 p., 16 maps.
                            43 p.                                                                           -1993, Minnesota's native vegetation-A key to natural communi-
                      Baker, D.G., and Strub, J.H., Jr., 1965, Climate of Minnesota, part III-                   ties, version 1.5: St. Paul, Minnesota Department of Natural Resources
                            Temperature and its application: St. Paul, University of Minnesota                   Natural Heritage Program, I 10 p.
                            Agricultural Experiment Station Technical Bulletin 248, 63 p.                   Siegel, D.I., 1992, Groundwater hydrology, in Wright, H.E., Jr., Coffin, B.A.,
                      Borchert, J.R., and Yaeger, D.P., 1968, Atlas of Minnesota resources and                   and Aaseng, N.E., eds., The patterned peatlands of Minnesota: Min-
                            settlement: St. Paul, Minnesota State Planning Agency, 262 p.                        neapolis, University of Minnesota Press, p. 163-172.
                      Bradof, K.L., 1992, Ditching of Red Lake peatland during the homestead                Siegel, D.I., and Glaser, P.H., 1987, Groundwater flow in a bog-fen com-
                            era, in Wright, H.E., Jr., Coffin, B.A., and Aaseng, N.E., eds., The                 plex, Lost River peatland, northern Minnesota: Journal of Ecology,
                            patterned peatlands of Minnesota: Minneapolis, University of Min-                    v. 75, p. 743-754.
                            nesota Press, p. 263-284.                                                       Thompson, C.A., Bettis, E.A., 111, and Baker, R.G., 1992, Geology of Iowa
                      Carter, Virginia, Bedinger, M.S., Novitzki, R.P., and Wilen, W.O., 1979,                   fens: Journal of the Iowa Academy of Science, v. 99, no. 2 -3, p. 53 -
                            Water resources and wetlands, in Greeson, P.E., Clark, J.R., and Clark,              59.
                            J.E., eds., Wetland functions and values -The state of our understand-          Titter, R.W., Jr., 1984, Wetlands of the United States-Current status and
                            ing -Proceedings of the National Symposium on Wetlands, Novem-                       recent trends: Washington, D.C., U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 59 p.
                            ber 1978: Minneapolis, American Water Resources Association,                    Wright, H.E., Jr., 1972, Physiography of Minnesota, in Sims, P.K., and
                            p. 344-376.                                                                          Morey, G.B., eds., Geology of Minnesota, a centennial volume: Min-
                      Coffin, Barbara, and Pfarmmuller, Lee, eds., 1988, Minnesota's endangered                  neapolis, Minnesota Geological Survey, p. 561-578.
                            flora and fauna: Minneapolis, University of Minnesota Press, 473 p.             Wright, H.E., Jr., Coffin, B.A., and Aaseng, N.E., eds., 1992, The patterned
                      Cowardin, L.M., Carter, Virginia, Golet, F.C., and LaRoe, E.T., 1979, Clas-                peatlands of Minnesota: Minneapolis, University of Minnesota Press,
                            sification of wetlands and deepwater habitats of the United States: U.S.             327 p.
                            Fish and Wildlife Service Report FWS/OBS-79/31, 131 p.
                      Curtis, J.T., 1971, The vegetation of Wisconsin: Madison, The University
                            of Wisconsin Press, 657 p.                                                      FOR ADDITIONAL INFORMATION: District Chief, U.S. Geological
                      Dahl, T.E., 1990, Wetlands-Losses in the United States, 1780's to 1980's:             Survey, 2280 Woodale Drive, Mounds View, MN 55112; Regional Wetland
                            Washington, D.C., U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Report to Congress,            Coordinator, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, BHW Building, I Federal
                            13 p.                                                                           Drive, Fort Snelling, MN 55425
                      Digerfeldt, Gunnar, Almendinger, J.E., and Bjbrck, Svante, 1992, Recon-
                            struction of past lake levels and their relation to groundwater hydrol-
                            ogy in the Parkers Prairie sandplain, west-central Minnesota:                                                  Prepared by
                            Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoccology, v. 94, p. 99-118.                                     James E. Almendinger,
                      Eggers, S.D., and Reed, D.M., 1987, Wetland plants and plant communi-                                          U.S. Geological Survey
                            ties of Minnesota and Wisconsin: St. Paul, U.S. Army Corps of Engi-
                            neers, 201 p.
                      Eisenlohr, W.S., Jr., and others, 1972, Hydrologic investigations of prairie
                            potholes in North Dakota, 1959-68: U.S. Geological Survey Profes-
                            sional Paper 585-A, 102 p., 3 p1s.









                                                                         U.S. Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper 2425








                                                                                                                                                                                                       National Water Summary-Wetland Resources 243
                                                                                                                                                                                                                        mississi P1
                                                                                                                                                                                                             Wetland Resources
                             Wetlands occupy more than 13 percent of the surface area in                                                                              TYPES AND DISTRIBUTION
                             Mississippi (Dahl, 1990) and have greatly influenced the develop-                                                                                  Wetlands are lands transitional between terrestrial and deep-
                             ment of the State. The first European settlers found large tracts of                                                                     water habitats where the water table usually is at or near the land
                             bottom-land forests (forested wetlands) in the swamps bordering the                                                                      surface or the land is covered by shallow water (Cowardin and oth-
                             Mississippi River and other river systems (fig. 1) and in the marshes                                                                    ers, 1979). The distribution of wetlands and deepwater habitats in
                             (emergent wetlands) and swamps (forested and scrub-shrub wet-                                                                            Mississippi is shown in figure 2A; only wetlands are discussed
                             lands) along the Gulf of Mexico. The forested wetlands in the allu-                                                                      herein.             .
                             via] plain of the Mississippi River provided timber resources of bald                                                                              Wetlands can be vegetated or nonvegetated and are classified
                             cypress, water oak, and tupelo gum that have been cleared and har-                                                                       on the basis of their hydrology, vegetation, and substrate. In this
                             vested continuously for the last 200 years. The cleared land opened                                                                      summary, wetlands are classified according to the system proposed
                             up rich, fertile delta soils to agriculture (U.S. Fish and Wildlife                                                                      by Cowardin and others (1979), which is used by the U.S. Fish and
                             Service, 1992).                                                                                                                          Wildlife Service (Fws) to map and inventory the Natiorils wetlands.
                                      Mississippi wetlands provide important habitat for several                                                                      At the most general level of the classification system, wetlands are
                             endangered and threatened species, including the bald eagle (Curtis                                                                      grouped into five ecological systems: Palustrine, Lacustrine, Riv-
                             James, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, written commun., 1993).                                                                           erine, Estuarine, and Marine. The Palustrine System includes only
                             Also, 5 National Wildlife Refuges, 6 National Forests, I National                                                                        wetlands, whereas the other systems comprise wetlands and
                             Seashore, 22 State Wildlife Management Areas, and 20 State parks                                                                         deepwater habitats. Wetlands of the systems that occur in Missis-
                             contain wetland areas within their boundaries. Wetlands in Missis-                                                                       sippi are described below.
                             sippi are a key part of the Lower Mississippi Valley Joint Venture
                             program for the restoration of Mississippi Flyway waterfowl popu-
                             lations (Lower Mississippi Valley Joint Venture Management Board,                                                                        System                                                              Wetland description
                             1990).                                                                                                                                   Pa I ustrine        .................. Nontidal and tidal-freshwater wetlands in which
                                      Wetlands trap suspended sediment, nutrients, and certain                                                                                                                   vegetation is predominantly trees (forested wet-
                             classes of pesticides and other organic contaminants (Boto and                                                                                                                      lands); shrubs (scrub-shrub wetlands); persistent
                             Patrick, 1979; Deason, 1989; German, 1989). Dissolved nutrients,                                                                                                                    or nonpersistent emergent, erect, rooted herba-
                             sediments, and sediment-associated compounds such as trace met-                                                                                                                     ceous plants (persistent- and nonpersistent-
                                                                                                                                                                                                                 emergent wetlands); or submersed and (or)
                             als, pesticides and other organic compounds, and bacteria are                                                                                                                       floating plants (aquatic beds). Also, intermit-
                             trapped or transformed during their passage through wetlands in                                                                                                                     tently to permanently flooded open-water bod-
                             receiving and outgoing waters (Kadlec and Kadlec, 1979). Inland                                                                                                                     ies of less than 20 acres in which water is less
                             wetlands provide flood storage, erosion control, outdoor recreation,                                                                                                                than 6.6 feet deep.
                             water-quality improvement for surface water, recharge areas for                                                                          Lacustrine           ................. Nontidal and tidal-freshwater wetlands within an
                             ground water, and habitat for fish and wildlife. Coastal wetlands                                                                                                                   intermittently to permanently flooded lake or
                                                                                                                                                                                                                 reservoir larger than 20 acres and (or) deeper
                             provide buffer areas to absorb storm surges and floods, outdoor                                                                                                                     than 6.6 feet. Vegetation, when present, is pre-
                             recreation opportunities, water-quality improvement, and important                                                                                                                  dominantly nonpersistent emergent plants (non-
                             habitat for nursery and feeding areas for fish and wildlife. Coastal                                                                                                                persistent-ernergent wetlands), or submersed
                             wetlands in Mississippi are important in supporting a $50 million                                                                                                                   and (or) floating plants (aquatic beds), or both.
                             commercial and recreational fishery (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Ser-                                                                         Riverine        .....................  Nonticlal and tidal-freshwater wetlands within a
                             vice, 1992).                                                                                                                                                                        channel. Vegetation, when present, is same as
                                                                                                                                                                                                                 in the Lacustrine System.
                                                                                                                                                                      Estuarine          ................... Tidal wetlands in low-wave-energy environments
                                                                                                                                                                                                                 where the salinity of the water is greater than 0.5
                                                                                                                                                                                                                 part per thousand (ppt) and is variable owing to
                                                                                                                                                                                                                 evaporation and the mixing of seawater and
                                                                                                                                                                                                                 freshwater.
                                                                                                                   't                                                 Marine        .......................  Tidal wetlands that are exposed to waves and cur-
                                                                                                         Ad @'*
                                                                                                                                                                                                                 rents of the open ocean and to water having a
                                                                                                                                                                                                                 salinity greater than 30 ppt.
                                                                                                                                                        ''so

                                                                                                                                                                                In the mid-1980's, wetlands covered about 4,067,000 acres of
                                                                                                        . ............                                                Mississippi's 30,309,120 total land acres (Dahl, 1990). Palustrine
                                                                                                                                                                      wetlands in Mississippi include bogs, swamps, riverbank pioneer
                                                                                                                                                                      habitat, bottom-land forests, bayheads, coastal flatwoods, and
                                                                                                                                                                      savannahs (Ruple, 1992). Bottom-land forests (forested wetlands),
                                                                                                                                                                      swamps (forested or scrub-shrub wetlands), and fresh marshes
                                                                                                                                                                      (emergent wetlands) account for most of Mississippi's wetland acre-
                                                                                                                                                                      age (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 1992). The Mississippi Allu-
                                                                                                                                                                      via] Plain (fig. 2B) has the greatest concentration ofthose wetlands,
                                                                                                                                                                      but significant expanses ofwetlands occupy the flood plains ofmajor
                                             Figure 1. Flood-plain forest and wetlands on the lower                                                                   rivers and their tributaries throughout the State.
                                             Wolf River. (Photograph by Dennis K. Demcheck, U.S.                                                                                Estuarine wetlands are the second-most common wetlands in
                                              Geological Survey.)                                                                                                     Mississippi. Of about 77,500 acres of coastal marsh, 99 percent is








                    244      National Water Surnmary-Wetland Resources: STATE SUMMARIES



                    estuarine, and I percent is fresh. There also are about 343,000 acres          systems. Larger wetlands may interact with both local and regional
                    of mud flats and 9,000 acres of cypress-tupelo gum swamp (estua-               ground-water flow systems.
                    rine forested wetlands) (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 1992).                    Fire frequency, the time interval between fires on a wetland,
                                                                                                   is important in determining the successional state of a wetland
                    HYDROLOGIC SETTING                                                             (Ruple, 1992). In large part, fire frequency determines the kinds of
                                                                                                   vegetation present in a wetland and, therefore, the character of the
                         The combination of hydrology, fire frequency, substrate and               wetland itself. For example, if a marsh or wet slough goes for de-
                    soil characteristics, and climate produces the characteristics that are        cades without a fire, then the wetland typically develops into a scrub-
                    unique to Mississippi's wetlands (Ruple, 1992). The existence of               shrub or hardwood forest. This succession happens because the lack
                    wetlands depends on geologic and physiographic conditi6ns that                 of fire allows woody plants to replace herbaceous plants as the domi-
                    favor the retention of water and on the hydrologic processes that              nant vegetation present, changing the appearance of the wetland and
                    allow the water to persist at a given site (Winter and Woo, 1990).             the kinds of organisms using it (Ruple, 1992).
                         Wetland hydrology involves complex water-flow patterns that                   Soil composition determines the rate at which water percolates
                    are affected by regional and local geology, topography, soil charac-           downward from a wetland to recharge the ground-water system or
                    teristics, and climate. Wetlands commonly form in topographic lows             discharges from the ground-water system into a wetland. Fluctua-
                    where ground-water discharge and runoff collect. Water in small                tions in local precipitation can combine with local variations in
                    wetlands typically is supplied by local shallow ground-water flow              geology to create transient or seasonal changes in the interactions
                                                                                     as-                35'
                                          A











                                       87'

                                                                                                                                                               C
                                                                                                                                   B


                                         or


                                                             .0


                                                                                                                                        D

                                                                                                      33'

                                                     nther

                                                   George ildl' gernem

                                                                                                                                          E
                                               0   atio Frt
                                                                                             Med Mi







                                                                                                                   ECOREGIONS
                                                                                                                   A. Southeastern Plain sachians            F
                                                                                                                   B. Southwestern Appal
                                                                                                                   C. Interior PI
                                                                                                                   D. Mississippi Alluvial Plain
                                                                                                                   E. Mississippi Valley Loses Plain
                                                                            *0% H      r                           F. Southern Coastal Plain



                                                   A                                                31'
                                                                                                           WETLANDS AND DEEPWATER HABITATS
                             0       25        50 MILES                                                    Distribution of wetlands and deepwater habitats-
                                                                                                              This map shows the approximate distribution of large
                                                                                                 S.           wetlands in the State. Because of limitations of scale
                             0   25    50 KILOMETERS                              G    3a W                   and source material, some wetlands are not shown

                                                                                                                   Predominantly wetland

                                                                                                                   Predominantly deepwater habitat
                                                                                    MiAs@ippi GO
                                                                                    Islands National SBashore


                      Figure 2. Wetland distribution and ecoregions in Mississippi. A, Distribution of wetlands and deepwater habitats. H, Ecoregions.
                      (Sources: A, TE. Dahl, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, unpub. data, 1991. B, Onnernik, 1987.)








                                                                                            National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: MISSISSIPPI           245



                of ground water and surface water. However, in Mississippi, pre-          and continued survival of these palustrine forested and palustrine
                cipitation is abundant, averaging 50 to 68 inches per year across the     scrub-shrub wetlands depends on whether these areas are able to
                State (Lamonds and Boswell, 1986). These high annual rainfall             undergo continued flooding and dewatering cycles. Disruption of
                averages minimize the transient or seasonal changes in the interac-       the cycle can change the composition of the forest or shrub com-
                tions of the ground and surface waters.                                   munity or cause the disappearance of woody vegetation altogether,
                    Most palustrine wetlands in Mississippi are closely associated        depending on the nature of the disruption. For example, when a
                with the State's major flood plains and are directly and indirectly       forested or scrub-shrub wetland is leveed and drained, resulting in
                affected by the Mississippi River. The flood plain of the Mississippi     limited access for floodwaters, water-tolerant trees or shrubs are
                River is an area of relatively flat slope that has been subjected to      ultimately replaced by upland vegetation. Conversely, when a wet-
                frequent flooding. Flooding has resulted in the evolution of large        land is permanently flooded, such as by reservoir construction, re-
                areas of backwater swamps vegetated by water-tolerant trees such          cruitment of new trees or shrubs ceases, and the aging forest or
                as cypress, tupelo gum, water oak, and red maple. The existence           scrub-shrub community eventually disappears.
                                                                                               The lower Yazoo River Basin contains one of the largest nearly
                                                                                          contiguous forested wetlands remaining in Mississippi, comprising
                                                                                          about 140,000 acres of bottom-land forest. The core of these for-
                                                                                          ested wetlands includes the 60,000-acre Delta National Forest and
                                                                                          the 27,000-acre Panther Swamp National Wildlife Refuge. The
                                                                                          Yazoo River Basin supports threatened and endangered species such
                                                                                          as the bald eagle, wood stork, Louisiana black bear, and pondberry.
                                                                                          It also serves as a haven for migratory waterfowl and neotropical
                                              M o                         Ky              birds (Creasman and others, 1992). Wetlands, such as those asso-
                Mississippi River                                                         ciated with the Yazoo River Basin, directly affect the quality of the
                  Alluvial Plain                                                          water that passes through them. The Yazoo River Basin wetlands
                                                                   Tenn                   have acted as traps for nutrients, suspended sediments, and pesti-
                                                                                          cides in agricultural runoff within this intensively farmed region of
                                          Ark                                             the State, thus helping to maintain the water quality of streams and
                                                                                          rivers. However, the result has been accelerated sediment deposi-
                                                                                          tion within the open-water areas and swamps, subsequent conver-
                                                                                          sion of swamps to bottom-land forests, and uptake of pesticides by
                                             La           Miss                            the wildlife that live in the basin (Mississippi Department of Envi-
                                                                                          ronmental Quality, 1992).




                     Original forested wetlands                                                 Current forested wetlands
                      (historical reconstruction)                                                             1991
                                    1883














                                                      M













                                                       ..........





                Figure 3. Reduction of forested wetlands in the Mississippi River Alluvial Plain, 1883-1991. (Creasman and others, 1992).








                                246         National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: STATE SUMMARIES



                                TRENDS                                                                                                                     Table 1. Selected vvetland-related activities of government
                                                                                                                                                           agencies and private organizations in Mississippi, 1993
                                        The Mississippi Alluvial Plain extends more than 700 miles                                                         [Source: Classification of activities is generalized from information provided
                                from southern Illinois to the Gulf of Mexico. Historically, this area                                                           by agencies and organizations. e, agency or organization participates in
                                supported more than 21 million acres of forested wetlands in seven                                                              welland-related activity;               agency or organization does not participate in
                                                                                                                                                                wetland-related activity. MAN, management; REG, regulation; R&C, res-
                                States (fig. 3). Conversion of the forest to agricultural use has re-                                                           toration and creation; LAN, land acquisition; R&D, research and data col-
                                duced what was a vast wetland system to a scattered patchwork                                                                   lection; D&I, delineation and inventory]
                                totaling about 4.9 million acres (Creasman and others, 1992).
                                        Mississippi began losing wetlands shortly after the arrival of
                                European settlers. In 1850, the U.S. Congress, with the objective                                                          Agency or organization
                                of controlling floods in the Mississippi Valley, passed the second                                                         FEDERAL
                                of the Swamp Land Acts, which granted to Mississippi 3,347,860                                                             Department of Agriculture
                                acres of swamp and overflow lands considered unfit for cultivation                                                           Consolidated Farm Service Agency                  ........................... ...     ... ...       ... ...
                                (Shaw and Fredine, 1971). The Flood Control Act of 1928 was                                                                  Forest Service        ................. ...............................................0      0             0
                                passed by Congress as a result of the disastrous 1927 floods. The                                                            Natural Resources Conservation Service                    ................ ...
                                act provides comprehensive flood control for the lower Mississi i                                                          Department of Commerce
                                                                                                                                             ppi             National Oceanic and
                                Valley downstream from Cairo, 111. The act authorizes the U.S. Army                                                          Atmospheric Administration              ........................................
                                Corps of Engineers (Corps) to construct and maintain levees, flood-                                                        Department of Defense
                                ways, channel modifications, and various control structures. The                                                             Army Corps of Engineers            .............................................. ...
                                passage of these and other flood-contTol acts resulted in the con-                                                         Department of the Interior
                                                                                                                                                             Fish and Wildlife Service          ..............................................
                                version of thousands of acres of wetlands to agriculture (Shaw and                                                           Geological Survey          .........................................................
                                Fredine, 1971).                                                                                                              National Biological Service            ........................................ ... ... ... ...
                                        In 1937 there were about 1,750,000 acres ofpalustrine forested                                                       National Park Service              ...................................................
                                and palustrine scrub-shrub wetlands in Mississippi. By 1987 the                                                            Environmental Protection Agency                .................................
                                area had decreased to about 600,000 acres (U.S. Fish and Wildlife                                                          STATE
                                                                                                                                                           Department of Environmental Duality                 ...........................
                                Service, 1992) - a 66-percent reduction in those kinds of wetlands.                                                        D epa rtment of Wildl fe, Fishe ries, and Pa rks             .............
                                Wetland loss in Mississippi from the 1780's to the 1980's was about                                                        Natural Heritage Program             ................................................ ... ... ... ... ...
                                59 percent (Dahl, 1990). In 1992 the FwS reported that almost all                                                          COUNTY AND LOCAL
                                of the cleared land in the major wetland areas was being farmed,                                                           Diamondhead         ..................................................................... . ... .. ...
                                although substantial areas were considered marginal for crop pro-                                                          Jordan Rivers Shores          ........................................................ ... 0
                                                                                                                                                           Timber Ridge      ........................................................................ ... 0
                                duction because of the flood risks. Some of these marginal farm-                                                           PRIVATE ORGANIZATIONS
                                lands are reverting back to scrub-shrub wetlands as they remain                                                            Ducks Unlimited        ..................................................................
                                fallow. Further, the rate of loss of bottom-land forests in Mississippi                                                    Eco-MS      ................................................................................
                                has recently decreased because of a decline in the agricultural                                                            Gulf Coast Conservation Association                ............................ ... ... ... ...       ...
                                economy and an increase in the recreational value of these forested                                                        Gulf Islands Conservancy, Inc           . ........................................ ... ...
                                wetlands. Threats to the remaining inland wetlands in Mississippi                                                          Mississippi Coast Audubon Society                ..............................
                                                                                                                                                           Mississippi Wildlife Federation            .......................................
                                include drainage and flood-protection projects, dredging and stream                                                        Save the Pascagoula, Inc             . ................................................ ... ... ... ...
                                channelization, alteration ofdrainage patterns, construction ofdikes                                                       Sierra Club, Mississippi Chapter            .....................................
                                and levees, discharge of pollutants, erosion (U.S. Fish and Wildlife                                                       The Nature Conservancy, Mississippi Field Office
                                Service, 1992), and grazing. The introduction of normative plant or
                                animal species, such as nutria (an aggressive herbivore), and the
                                disturbance of resident fauna, such as removal ofbeaver populations,                                                       Food Security Act; the 1990 Food, Agriculture, Conservation, and
                                also are threats to Mississippi's remaining inland wetlands (Ruple,                                                        Trade Act; the 1986 Emergency Wetlands Resources Act; and the
                                1992).                                                                                                                     1972 Coastal Zone Management Act.
                                        Coastal wetland loss in Mississippi since 1930 exceeds 8,500                                                              Section 10 of the Rivers and Harbors Act gives the Corps au-
                                acres and has been primarily caused by industrial and urban devel-                                                         thority to regulate certain activities in navigable waters. Regulated
                                opment (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 1992). Losses have de-                                                             activities include diking, deepening, filling, excavating, and plac-
                                creased since passage of the Coastal Wetlands Protection Act in                                                            ing of structures. The related section 404 of the Clean Water Act is
                                1973. Continued threats to coastal wetlands in Mississippi include                                                         the most often-used Federal legislation protecting wetlands. Under
                                erosion from sea-level rise, subsidence, barrier-island migration,                                                         section 404 provisions, the Corps issues permits regulating the dis-
                                dredging and filling, discharge of pollutants, sedimentation,                                                              charge of dredged or fill material into wetlands. Permits are subject
                                bulkheading, and alteration of water-excbange patterns between                                                             to review and possible veto by the U.S. Environmental Protection
                                marshes and open water by installation ofdikes and weirs (U.S. Fish                                                        Agency (EPA), and the Fws has review and advisory roles. Section
                                and Wildlife Service, 1992).                                                                                               401 ofthe Clean WaterAct grants to States and eligible Indian Tribes
                                                                                                                                                           the authority to approve, apply conditions to, or deny section 404
                                CONSERVATION                                                                                                               permit applications on the basis of a proposed activity's probable
                                                                                                                                                           effects on the water quality of a wetland.
                                        Many government agencies and private organizations partici-                                                               Most farming, ranching, and silviculture activities are not sub-
                                pate in wetland conservation in Mississippi. The most active agen-                                                         ject to section 404 regulation. However, the "Swampbuster" provi-
                                cies and organizations and some of their activities are listed in table                                                    sion of the 1985 Food Security Act and amendments in the 1990
                                1 .                                                                                                                        Food, Agriculture, Conservation, and Trade Act discourage (through
                                        Federal wetland activities. -Development activities in Mis-                                                        financial disincentives) the draining, filling, or other alteration of
                                sissippi wetlands are regulated by several Federal statutory prohi-                                                        wetlands for agricultural use. The law allows exemptions from pen-
                                bitions and incentives that are intended to slow wetland losses. Some                                                      alties in some cases, especially if the farmer agrees to restore the
                                of the more important of these are contained in the 1899 Rivers and                                                        altered wetland or other wetlands that have been converted to agri-
                                Harbors Act; the 1972 Clean Water Act and amendments; the 1985                                                             cultural use. The Wetlands Reserve Program of the 1990 Food,








                                                                                                       National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: MISSISSIPPI                    247



                 Agriculture, Conservation, and Trade Act authorizes the Federal                     coastal wetlands. Typically, few comments are received from these
                 Government to purchase conservation easements from landowners                       agencies; however, some subdivisions have restrictions limiting
                 who agree to protect or restore wetlands. The Consolidated Farm                     development in adjacent coastal waters (Ruple, 1992).
                 Service Agency (formerly the Agricultural Stabilization and Conser-                       Private and cooperative wetland activities. -Many citizen's
                 vation Service) administers the Swampbuster provisions and                          groups and private organizations support efforts to protect Missis-
                 Wetlands Reserve Program. The Natural Resources Conservation                        sippi wetlands. Eco-MS is a coalition of about 35 environmental
                 Service (formerly the Soil Conservation Service) determines com-                    groups that support wetland protection efforts. The Gulf Islands
                 pliance with Swampbuster provisions and assists farmers in the iden-                Conservancy, Inc., the Gulf Coast Conservation Association, and
                 tification of wetlands and in the development of wetland protection,                the Mississippi Coast Audubon Society are dedicated to wetland
                 restoration, or creation plans.                                                     protection in the Mississippi coastal area. The Mississippi Wildlife
                       The 1986 Emergency Wetlands Resources Act and the 1972                        Federation and the Mississippi Chapter of the Sierra Club also ac-
                 Coastal Zone Management Act and amendments encourage wetland                        tively support measures to protect wetlands statewide. The Nature
                 protection through funding incentives. The Emergency Wetlands                       Conservancy acquires and manages wetlands in Mississippi. More
                 Resources Act requires States to address wetland protection in their                than 105,000 acres of wetlands along the Pascagoula River have been
                 Statewide Comprehensive Outdoor Recreation Plans to qualify for                     acquired by the State with the assistance of private organizations
                 Federal funding for State recreational land; the National Park Ser-                 such as The Nature Conservancy and Save the Pascagoula, Inc. The
                 vice (NPS) provides guidance to States in developing the wetland                    Nature Conservancy, in conjunction with the Fws, is acquiring land
                 component of their plans. Coastal and Great Lakes States that adopt                 to expand the Grand Bay National Wildlife Refuge. The Nature
                 coastal-zone management programs and plans approved by the                          Conservancy also participates in the Mississippi Coastal Preserve
                 National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NoAA) are eli-                     Program.
                 gible for Federal funding and technical assistance through the                            In May 1986 an international commitment to conserving North
                 Coastal Zone Management Act.                                                        America's waterfowl resources was pledged by signing of the North
                       Several Federal agencies have wetland-management responsi-                    American Waterfowl Management Plan. Canada, the United States,
                 bilities. The NPs administers the Mississippi Gulf Islands National                 and Mexico are the participants. The plan is a direct response to a
                 Seashore, a series of barrier islands in the Gulf of Mexico off                     continuing decline in waterfowl populations and the habitat upon
                 Mississippi's coast that are fringed by estuarine and marine wet-                   which waterfowl and other wetland wildlife depend (Lower Missis-
                 lands. The U.S. Geological Survey collects information on the quan-                 sippi Valley Joint Venture Management Board, 1990). Imple-
                 tity and quality of the Natiorfs water resources, including wetlands.               menting the plan depends on the development of joint ventures and
                 NOAA's National Marine Fisheries Service and the Gulf of Mexico                     partnerships among Federal and State agencies and private organi-
                 Fisheries Management Council prepare and approve plans and                          zations. The Lower Mississippi Valley Joint Venture is a coopera-
                 implement mechanisms concerning the management of fisheries in                      tive effort by the FWS, The Nature Conservancy, Ducks Unlimited,
                 Mississippi estuarine and offshore waters including modifications                   and others to ensure the long-term success of waterfowl and wet-
                 to wetlands that could adversely affect juvenile fish stocks. NOAAS                 land conservation in a seven-State area, including Mississippi.
                 National Ocean Service, in cooperation with the National Marine
                 Fisheries Service, has compiled an inventory of coastal wetlands.                   References Cited
                 The U.S. Forest Service has an ongoing interest in the reforesta-
                 tion of bottom-land forests in the lower Mississippi River Valley.                  Boto, K.G., and Patrick, W.H., Jr., 1979, Role of wetlands in the removal of
                 The EPA directs the Gulf of Mexico Program, which provides a fo-                          suspended sediments, in Greeson, P.E., Clark, J.R., and Clark, J.E.,
                 rum for resolving complex environmental problems of the gulf from                         eds., Proceedings of the National Symposium on Wetlands, Novem-
                 a regional perspective. The program promotes wetland management                           ber 1978: Minneapolis, Minn., American Water Resources Associa-
                 and restoration and use of wetlands in the treatment of wastewater                        tion, p. 479-489.
                 by States that border the Gulf of Mexico.                                           Cowardin, L.M., Carter, Virginia, Golet, F.C., and LaRoe, E.T., 1979, Clas-
                       State wetland activities. -The Mississippi Department of                            sification of wetlands and deepwater habitats of the United States: U.S.
                                                                                                           Fish and Wildlife Service Report FWS/OBS -79/31, 131 p.
                 Wildlife, Fisheries, and Parks, which is governed by the Mississippi                Creasman, Lisa, Craig, Nancy Jo, and Swan, Mark, 1992, The forested
                 Commission on Wildlife, Fisheries, and Parks, is the primary State                        wetlands of the Mississippi River-An ecosystem in crisis: Baton
                 management agency for tidally influenced wetlands. As mandated                            Rouge, La., The Nature Conservancy of Louisiana, 23 p.
                 by the Mississippi Coastal Wetlands Protection Law of 1973, the                     Dahl, T.E., 1990, Wetlands-Losses in the United States, 1780's to 1980's:
                 Department's Bureau of Marine Resources reviews and comments                              Washington, D.C., U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Report to Congress,
                 on all aspects of wetland protection.                                                     13 p.
                       The Mississippi Department of Environmental Quality is the                    Deason, J.P., 1989, Impacts of irrigation drainwater on wetlands, in Fisk,
                 primary State management agency for freshwater wetlands. The                              D.W., ed., Wetlands- Concerns and successes: Bethesda, Md.,
                 Department monitors and enforces many water-quality standards                             American Water Resources Association, p. 127-138.
                                                                                                     German, E.R., 1989, Removal of nitrogen and phosphorus in an undevel-
                 and regulations that directly affect wetlands. The Department's                           oped wetland area, central Florida, in Fisk, D.W., ed., Wetlands-
                 Office of Pollution Control requires section 401 water-quality cer-                       Concerns and successes: Bethesda, Md., American Water Resources
                 tification of applicants seeking dredge and fill (section 404) per-                       Association, p. 139-147.
                 mits from the Corps. During project review, the Office of Pollution                 Kadlec, R.H., and Kadlec, J.A., 1979, Wetlands and water quality, in
                 Control attempts to prevent wetland losses by requesting that alter-                      Greeson, P.E., Clark, J.R., and Clark, J.E., eds., Proceedings of the
                 natives be considered. For unavoidable losses, the agency requests                        National Symposium on Wetlands, November 1978: Minneapolis,
                 mitigation.                                                                               Minn., American Water Resources Association, p. 436-456.
                       The Natural Heritage Program, authorized by the Mississippi                   Lamonds, A.G., and Boswell, E.H., 1986, Mississippi surface-water re-
                 Natural Heritage Act of 1978, identifies and inventories priority                         sources, in U.S. Geological Survey, National water summary 1985 -
                                                                                                           Hydrologic events and surface-water resources: U.S. Geological Sur-
                 wetlands. The program requires that areas and species of biologi-                         vey Water-Supply Paper 2300, p. 295-300.
                 cal significance or special concern to the State, including rare or                 Lower Mississippi Valley Joint Venture Management Board, 1990, Conserv-
                 threatened plants, be listed on the Mississippi Natural Registry.                         ing waterfowl and wetlands - The Lower Mississippi Valley Joint Ven-
                       County and local wetland activities. -Counties and cities re-                       ture: Vicksburg, Miss., North American Waterfowl Management Plan,
                 view permit applications for projects that affect their inland and                        32 p.








                    248      National Water Surnmary-Wetland Resources: STATE SUMMARIES



                    Mississippi Department of Environmental Quality, 1992, Mississippi 1992
                          water quality assessment, Federal Clean Water Act Section 305(b)
                          report: Mississippi Department of Environmental Quality, Office of
                          Pollution Control, p. 93 -104.
                    Omernik, J.M., 1987, Ecoregions of the conterminous United States -Map
                          supplement: Annals of the Association of American Geographers,
                          v. 77, no. 1, scale 1:7,500,000.
                    Ruple, David, ed., 1992, A citizen's guide for protecting wetlands in Mis-
                          sissippi: Mississippi Department of Wildlife, Fisheries, and Parks,
                          66 p.
                    Shaw, S.P., and Fredirle, C.G., 1971, Wetlands of the United States, their
                          extent and their value to waterfowl and other wildlife: U.S. Fish and
                          Wildlife Service Circular 39, 67 p.
                    U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 1992, Regional wetlands concept plan-
                          Emergency wetlands resources act, Southeast Region: Atlanta, Ga.,
                          U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 249 p.
                    Winter, T.C., and Woo, Ming-Ko, 1990, Hydrology of lakes and wetlands,
                          in Wolman, M.G., and Riggs, H.C., eds., Surface water hydrology:
                          Boulder, Colo., Geological Society ofAmerica, The Geology of North
                          America, v. 0-1, chap. 8, p. 159-187.



                    FOR ADDITIONAL INFORMATION: District Chief, U.S. Geological
                    Survey, 100 W. Capitol Street, Suite 120, Jackson, MS 39269; Regional
                    Weiland Coordinator, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 1875 Century Build-
                    ing, Suite 200, Atlanta, GA 30345


                                                  Prepared by
                                Charles R. Demas and Dennis K. Demcheck,
                                            U.S. Geological Survey







































                                                                     U.S. Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper 2425








                                                                                                                   National Water Summary-Wetland Resources 249
                                                                                                                                       Missouri
                                                                                                                     Wetland Resources
                Missouri wetlands occupy 643,000 acres, about 1.4 percent of                    wetland areas under the jurisdiction of the Missouri Department of
                the State's area (Dahl, 1990). Before the arrival of European set-              Conservation in cooperation with the North American Waterfowl
                tlers, wetlands occupied about 4.84 million acres, about 10.8 per-              Plan, and four State parks that feature and preserve wetlands within
                cent of what is now Missouri, and were a significant component of               their boundaries (Lower Mississippi Valley Joint Venture Manage-
                the landscape (Epperson, 1992).                                                 ment Board, 1990; Epperson, 1992).
                      Before European settlement, wetlands primarily were associ-
                ated with the major rivers and streams, especially in the State's               TYPES AN       .D DISTRIBUTION
                "bootheel" (southeastern area), which borders the Mississippi River.
                This area once contained about 50 percent of the State's wetlands                     Wetlands are lands transitional between terrestrial and
                and was nicknamed "swampeast" Missouri. Although they were con-                 deepwater habitats where the water table usually is at or near the
                sidered impediments to progress, wetlands provided large economic               land surface or the land is covered by shallow water (Cowardin and
                benefits to the railroad companies that purchased and harvested the             others, 1979). The distribution of wetlands and deepwater habitats
                vast bottom-land forests of cypress, tupelo gum, and oak for tim-               in Missouri is shown in figure 2A; only wetlands are discussed
                ber (Epperson, 1992). After the commercial timber had been re-                  herein.
                moved, these cleared wetlands were drained and converted to agri-                     Wetlands can be vegetated or nonvegetated and are classified
                cultural use, and they remain in that land-use category today.                  on the basis of their hydrology, vegetation, and substrate. In this
                      Wetlands maintain water quality, mitigate flood effects, pro-             summary, wetlands are classified according to the system proposed
                vide critical habitat for many rare and endangered plants and ani-              by Cowardin and others (1979), which is used by the U.S. Fish and
                mals, and are a source of recreational activities such as birding, fish-        Wildlife Service (Fws) to map and inventory the Natiorfs wetlands.
                ing, hunting, and ecotourism in unique areas such as Slaughter Sink             At the most general level of the classification system, wetlands are
                and Grasshopper Hollow (fig. 1). Wetlands in Missouri provide                   grouped into five ecological systems: Palustrine, Lacustrine, Riv-
                critical habitat for 15 animal and 4 plant species that are endangered          erine, Estuarine, and Marine. The Palustrine System includes only
                or threatened (Rick Hansen, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, writ-               wetlands, whereas the other systems comprise wetlands and
                ten commun., 1993). Also within Missouri, a large number of wet-                deepwater habitats. Wetlands of the systems that occur in Missouri
                land species are of special concern. Some of the endangered or                  are described below.
                threatened plants and animals associated with wetlands in Missouri
                include the eastern prairie fringed orchid, gray bat, Indiana bat,              System                                 Wetland description
                Ozark big bat, bald eagle, least tern, Neosho madtom, Ozark
                cavefish, and the Higgins eye pearly mussel.                                    Palustrine  .................. Wetlands in which vegetation is predominantly
                      Missouri's location on the Mississippi Flyway makes the State                                      trees (forested wetlands); shrubs (scrub-shrub
                                                                                                                         wetlands); persistent or nonpersistent emergent,
                a favored wintering area for waterfowl and raptors. As many as                                           erect, rooted, herbaceous plants (persistent- and
                200,000 ducks, mainly mallard, but also pintail, green-winged teal,                                      nonpersistent-emergent wetlands); or sub-
                widgeon, gadwall, and shoveler, reside in the 21,600-acre Mingo                                          mersed and (or) floating plants Jaquatic beds).
                National Wildlife Refuge in southeastern Missouri. As many as                                            Also, intermittently to permanently flooded
                200,000 geese and 300,000 ducks winter in the 6,890-acre Squaw                                           open-water bodies of less than 20 acres in which
                Creek National Wildlife Refuge in northwestern Missouri. This                                            water is less than 6.6 feet deep.
                                                                                                Lacustrine  ................. Wetlands within an intermittently to permanently
                refuge supports one of the largest wintering concentrations of bald                                      flooded lake or reservoir. Vegetation, when pres-
                eagles in the United States and harbors as many as 200 bird species                                      ent, is predominantly nonpersistent emergent
                at any given time. About 100 bald eagles winter in the 10,670-acre                                       plants (nonpersistent-emergent wetlands), or
                Swan Lake National Wildlife Refuge in north-central Missouri                                             submersed and (or) floating plants (aquatic
                (Riley, 1979). Missouri has five National Wildlife Refuges, one                                          beds), or both.
                National Scenic Riverway, one National Forest system, seven State               Riverine  ..................... Wetlands within a channel. Vegetation, when pres-
                                                                                                                         ent, is same as in the Lacustrine System.

                                                                                                      Palustrine forested wetlands (swamps and other forested wet-
                                                                                                lands), palustrine emergent wetlands (marshes and fens), and
                                                                                                palustrine scrub -shrub wetlands (shrub swamps) constitute most of
                                                                                                the wetland acreage in Missouri (Epperson, 1992). Most of the
                                                                                                State's wetlands are associated with rivers and streams (fig. 2A). The
                                                                                                bootheel region is especially rich in wetlands.
                                                                                                      Fens are small (0.5 -10 acres), palustrine forested or emergent
                                                                                                wetlands unique to areas where ground water, underground streams,
                                                                                                and karst topography (resulting from limestone and dolomite rock
                                                                                                dissolution) characterize the local hydrology and geology. In con-
                                                                                                trast to most other wetlands in Missouri, fens are created by ground
                                                                                                water, not surface water (Epperson, 1992). These wetlands are lo-
                                                                                                cated primarly along stream terraces and at the base of slopes in
                              Figure 1. Grasshopper Hollow, a fen       in the Ozark            the Ozark Highlands (fig. 2B). Vegetation in fens primarily consists
                              Highlands of Missouri. (Photograph by lane Epperson,              of grasses, sedges, and reeds; however, some are forested. Fens
                              Missouri Department of Natural Resources.)                        provide habitat for several unique plant and animal species, includ-








                       250      National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: STATE SUMMARIES



                       ing a disproportionate number of Missouri's rare and endangered                                                             C
                       plants and invertebrates (Mohlenbrock, 1993). Notable examples
                       of fens include Grasshopper Hollow (fig. 1) and Slaughter Sink.                                           C


                       HYDROLOGIC SETTING
                            The existence of wetlands depends on specific topographic and
                       geologic conditions that favor flooding or saturated soils and on the
                       hydrologic processes that allow the water to persist (Winter and Woo,
                       1990). Wetland hydrology involves complex water-flow patterns that                                                                                    D
                       are affected by regional and local geology, topography, soil charac-
                       teristics, and climate.
                            Wetlands in Missouri are a result of diverse surface- and
                       ground-water conditions. Surface water collects in topographic lows,
                       and ground water typically discharges there. Soil characteristics                                                                        A
                       determine the rate at which water percolates downward to recharge
                       the ground-water system or discharges from it. Fluctuations in lo-

                                                                                                                                                                                        E
                     A
                                                                                                                                               ECOREGIONS
                                                                                                                                                A. Ozark Highlands
                                                                                                                                                B. Central Irregular Plains
                                     SO   reek N R                                                                                              C. Western Corn Belt Plains
                                                                                                                                                D. Interior River Lowland
                              40'                                                                                                               E. Mississippi Alluvial Plain









                                       Kansas Cit         0 d nce

                                                                                                         col


                                                                                                                                                -St.   ouis
                                                                                                    rso



                                                                                     L.A. of the
                                                                                          rka




                                                                                                              0-1

                                                                                         ke              9 t Si


                                                                 kJon
                                                                L.k.
                                                                                                                I   zer          --_,G assh pe 110 W
                                                                                                               M   Rive





                                                                                                                     k
                                                                                                                                                                                      Cairo. 11finoils
                                                 r





                                                                                                                                                                                      A Tree
                                                                                                                                                                                  State Park
                                                             94"                                               92-                                                       .0

                                                 WETLANDS AND DEEPWATER HABITATS
                                                 Distribution of wetlands and deepwater habitats-
                                                   This map shows the approximate distribution of large
                                                   wetlands in the State. Because of limitations of scale
                                                    and source material, some wetlands are not shown                                                            so-

                                                        Predominantly wetland                                                                     0          25         50 MILES
                                                        Predominantly deepwater habitat                                                           0      25    50 KILOMETERS
                       Figure 2. Weiland distribution in Missouri and ecoregions of the State. A, Distribution of wetlands and deepwater habitats. B, Ecoregions.
                       (Sources: A, TE. Dahl, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, unpub. data, 7991. B, Omernik, 1987.)








                                                                                                   National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: MISSOURI                251



                 cal precipitation can combine with local geologic differences to              whether these areas are able to undergo continued flooding and
                 create transient or seasonal changes in the interactions of ground            dewatering cycles. Disruption of this continual flooding/dewater-
                 water and surface water. Average annual precipitation ranges from             ing cycle results in (1) replacement of the existing trees by less water-
                 36 to 48 inches per year across Missouri (Waite and Skelton, 1986).           tolerant trees and shrubs when periodic flooding is prevented (such
                 The extent of wetland areas located in parts of the State with lower          as occurs when levees are built along a river and the flood plain is
                 annual precipitation rates, especially those associated with shallow          drained) or (2) lack of recruitment of new trees in areas that be-
                 ground-water systems and surface-water runoff, such as fens, de-              come permanently flooded (such as occurs when a river is dammed).
                 pends on the timing and amounts of rainfall. Other wetland areas,                   Water in fens is supplied by local shallow ground-water flow
                 such as those along major rivers, are less dependent on local rain-           systems. These wetlands typically are associated with springs or
                 fall patterns for their continued existence.                                  seeps that discharge at the surface. In Missouri, fens occur in the
                      The largest wetlands in Missouri are closely associated with             Ozark Highlands ecoregion. The Ozark Highlands ecoregion is
                 and are directly and indirectly affected by the Mississippi and Mis-          underlain by limestone and dolomite overlain by less easily erod-
                 souri Rivers and their tributaries. The flood plains created by the           ible rock such as sandstone. If sinkholes (formed by the collapse of
                 Mississippi and Missouri Rivers have resulted in an area of rela-             limestone and dolomite eaves) become plugged, fens develop as the
                 tively flat slope that has been flooded frequently. The wetlands of           result of retention of ground-water discharge or stormwater runoff.
                 the Missouri bootheel were formed as a result of the New Madrid               Fens are sustained by water that has passed through highly miner-
                 earthquake (actually a series of earthquakes), which occurred in              alized soils (Mitsch and Gosselink, 1993).
                 1811. Lasting for several months, this catastrophe changed the
                 course of the Mississippi River and greatly changed the topogra-              TRENDS
                 phy of the Mississippi Alluvial Plain (McCaig and Boyce, 1988).
                 All of the land from Cape Girardeau south to Arkansas sank from                     Wetland losses and the land-use changes that have altered
                 10 to 50 feet, converting rich bootheel forests into swamp (Johnson           wetland functions and biota began at the time of settlement by Eu-
                 and DeLano, 1990). The subsequent flooding in the subsided for-               ropeans. As of the 1980's, Missouri had only 643,000 acres of wet-
                 ested areas following the earthquakes resulted in the formation of            lands of an estimated 4,844,000 acres of wetlands existing in the
                 large tracts of backwater swamps characterized by water-tolerant              1780's (Dahl, 1990), an 87-percent loss. Large-scale wetland losses
                 trees such as cypress, tupelo gum, water oak, and swamp red maple.            began after 1850, when the U.S. Congress passed the Swamp Land
                      Backwater flooding in the major tributaries of the Mississippi           Act. The act granted to Missouri 3,432,481 acres of Federal forest-
                 and Missouri Rivers has resulted in the formation of similar wet-             ed wetlands and overflow lands considered unfit for cultivation. The
                 lands along their flood plains. The existence and continued survival          object of the act was to promote flood control in the Mississippi
                 of these forested, scrub-shrub, and emergent wetlands depends on              River Valley (Shaw and Fredine, 197 1). The remaining 1,410,000


                                                                        91,                      90,





                                                                   37'




                                MISSOURI                                                                                              EXPLANATION
                                                                                                                                           Wetlands



                                                                           1650
                                                                                                                   0    10  20   30 MILES
                                                                                      36'                          0 10 20 30 KILOMETERS


                                        91,                      90,                                           91,                       90,





                                   37'                                                                     3P
                                                                                                                                    jy@
                                                                                                                                         <









                                           1920                                                                   1975
                                                      36.                                                                     36'@
                        Figure 3. Palustrine forested -wetl and loss in the Mississippi Alluvial Plain, southeastern Missouri, 1650-1975.
                        (Source: Epperson, 1992.)








                               252         National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: STATE SUMMARIES



                               acres were transferred to the State during the next few years. Shortly                                                     in navigable waters. Regulated activities include diking, deepening,
                               thereafter, the land was transferred to the counties, which in turn                                                        filling, excavating, and placing of structures. The related section 404
                               sold large tracts at public auction (Epperson, 1992).                                                                      of the Clean Water Act is the most often-used Federal legislation
                                       By 1912, about 3,500,000 acres of wetlands had been targeted                                                       protecting wetlands. Under section 404 provisions, the Corps issues
                               for drainage statewide (Epperson, 1992). Stream channelization and                                                         permits regulating the discharge of dredged or fill material into
                               damming also have significantly affected wetlands within Missouri.                                                         wetlands. Permits are subject to review and possible veto by the U.S.
                               The primary cause of recent wetland loss, both nationally and state-                                                       Environmental Protection Agency, and the Fws has review and ad-
                               wide, has been conversion of wetlands to agricultural use. Other                                                           visory roles. Section 401 of the Clean Water Act grants to States
                               causes include urban development, flood control, and timber har-                                                           and eligible Indian Tribes the authority to approve, apply conditions
                               vesting (Frayer and others, 1983).                                                                                         to, or deny section 404 permit applications on the basis of a pro-
                                       The most severe wetland loss has occurred in the southeast-                                                        posed activity's probable effects on the water quality of a wetland.
                               ern part of the State in the Mississippi Alluvial Plain (fig. 3), where                                                            Most farming, ranching, and silviculture activities are not sub-
                               only about 60,000 acres (2.5 percent) of an estimated original                                                             ject to section 404 regulation. However, the "Swampbuster" provi-
                               2,400,000 acres of forested wetlands remain intact (Vaught and                                                             sion of the 1985 Food Security Act and amendments in the t990
                               Bowmaster, 1983). Wetland loss in the southeastern part of the State                                                       Food, Agriculture, Conservation, and Trade Act discourage (through
                               ranged from 257,OOD acres from 1870 to 1890 to 595,000 acres from                                                          financial disincentives) the draining, filling, or other alteration of
                               1900 to 1920. In the 1930's, fearing that this magnificent wetland                                                         wetlands for agricultural use. The law allows exemptions from pen-
                               forest would be lost, businessmen, residents, and local school chil-                                                       alties in some cases, especially if the farmer agrees to restore the
                               dren contributed their nickels and dimes to purchase some of the                                                           altered wetland or other wetlands that have been converted to agri-
                               last remnants of the once vast wetland forest. In 1938, more than                                                          cultural use. The Wetlands Reserve Program of the 1990 Food,
                               1,000 acres were purchased and became the Big Oak Tree State Park                                                          Agriculture, Conservation, and Trade Act authorizes the Federal
                               (Johnson and DeLano, 1990).                                                                                                Government to purchase conservation easements from landowners
                                                                                                                                                          who agree to protect or restore wetlands. The Consolidated Farm
                               CONSERVATION                                                                                                               Service Agency (formerly the Agricultural Stabilization and Conser-
                                                                                                                                                          vation Service) administers the Swampbuster provisions and Wet-
                                       Many government agencies and private organizations partici-                                                        lands Reserve Program. The Natural Resources Conservation Ser-
                               pate in wetland conservation in Missouri. The most active agencies                                                         vice (formerly the Soil Conservation Service) (NRCS) determines
                               and organizations and some of their activities are listed in table 1.                                                      compliance with Swampbuster provisions and assists farmers in the
                                       Federal wetland activities. -Development activities in Mis-                                                        identification of wetlands and in the development of wetland pro-
                               souri wetlands are regulated by several Federal statutory prohibi-                                                         tection, restoration, or creation plans.
                               tions and incentives that are intended to slow wetland losses. Some                                                                The 1986 Emergency Wetlands Resources Act encourages
                               of the more important of these are contained in the 1899 Rivers and                                                        wetland protection through funding incentives. The act requires
                               Harbors Act; the 1972 Clean Water Act and amendments; the 1985                                                             States to address wetland protection in their Statewide Comprehen-
                               Food Security Act; the 1990 Food, Agriculture, Conservation, and                                                           sive Outdoor Recreation Plans to qualify for Federal funding for
                               Trade Act; and the 1986 Emergency Wetlands Resources Act.                                                                  State recreational land; the National Park Service (NPS) provides
                                       Section 10 of the Rivers and Harbors Act gives the U.S. Army                                                       guidance to States in developing the wetland component of their
                               Corps of Engineers (Corps) authority to regulate certain activities                                                        plans.
                                                                                                                                                                  The Rivers and Harbors Act of 1899 requires a permit for con-
                               Table 1. Selected wetland-related activities of government                                                                 struction or excavation in, over, or under "navigable waters" of the
                               agencies and private organizations in Missouri, 1993                                                                       United States. The Corps is the lead agency for administration of
                               [Source: Classification of activities is generalized from information provided                                             this Act. The Lake of the Ozarks and the Osage, Mississippi, and
                                    by agencies and organizations. e, agency or organization participates in                                              Missouri Rivers are the major navigable waters in Missouri. The
                                    wetland-related activity;                 agency or organization does not participate in                              Flood Control Act of 1928 authorizes the Corps to construct and
                                    wetland-related activity. MAN, management; REG, regulation; R&C, res-                                                 maintain levees, floodways, channel modifications, and various
                                    toration and creation; LAN, land acquisition; R&D, research and data col-
                                    lection; D&I, delineation and inventory]                                                                              control structures for the lower Mississippi River Valley downstream
                                                                                                                                                          from Cairo, Ill.
                                                                                                                                                                  The FwS has section 404 responsibilities under the Fish and
                               Agency or organization                                                                                                     Wildlife Coordination Act of 1934, National Environmental Policy
                               FEDERAL                                                                                                                    Act of 1969, and the Endangered Species Act of 1973. The Fws
                               Department of Agriculture                                                                                                  provides advisory comments to the Corps, during section 404 per-
                                 Consolidated Farm Service Agency                  ........................... ...       ... ...      ... ...             mit-application review on the potential effects on fish, wildlife, and
                                 Forest Service        .................................................................0       0            0            related environmental resources. The FWS is mapping the Nation's
                                 Natural Resources Conservation Service                    ................ ...                                           wetlands under its National Wetlands Inventory project. Missouri
                               Department of Defense                                                                                                      has five National Wildlife Refuges that are managed by the FWS
                                 Army Corps of Engineers             .............................................. ...0                                  primarily for migratory birds and federally listed threatened and
                               Department ofthe Interior
                                 Fish and Wildlife Service           ..............................................e     0      0     0      0            endangered species.
                                 Geological Survey         ..................................  ....................... ...                                        The NPS manages the Ozark National Scenic Riverways, which
                                 National Biological Service             ......................................... ... ... ... ...                        includes 134 miles of the Current and Jack Fork Rivers. Natural
                                 National Park Service           ...................................................*    *      0                         wetland communities are common in the riparian corridors (the area
                               Environmental Protection Agency                .................................. ...                                      adjacent to a stream or river that is at least occasionally flooded) of
                               STATE
                               Department of Conservation              ...........................................0                                       these rivers and their tributaries.
                               Department of Natural Resources                ..................................                                                  State wetland activities. -Under section 401 of the Clean
                               PRIVATE                                                                                                                    Water Act, the Missouri Department of Natural Resources must
                               Ducks Unlimited        ..................................................................0                                 certify that a proposed federally permitted or licensed activity will
                               National Audubon Society             ................................................                                      not violate State water-quality standards. If section 401 water-quality
                               The Nature Conservancy             ..................................................0                                     certification is denied, the Corps must deny the section 404 permit








                                                                                                         National Water Surnmary-Wetland Resources: MISSOURI                    253



                 application. The Department's Division of State Parks is responsible                Frayer, W.E., Monahan, T.J., Bowden, D.C., and Graybill, F.A., 1983, Sta-
                 for preserving, restoring, and managing natural wetland ecosystems                        tus and trends of wetlands and deepwater habitats in the conterminous
                 through the State park system. The Department of Natural Re-                              United States, 1950's to 1970's: Fort Collins, Colorado State Univer-
                 sources, Division of Geology and Land Survey's Water Resources                            sity, 31 p.
                 Program, with extensive public participation, has developed short-                  Johnson, Cathy, and DeLano, Patti, 1990, Missouri - Off the beaten path:
                                                                                                           Chester, Conn., The Glope Pequot Press, 166 p.
                 and long-term wetland goals for the State, as well as specific rec-                 Lower Mississippi Valley Joint Venture Management Board, 1990, Conserv-
                 ommendations for achievement of the goals. Recently, the Missouri                         ing waterfowl and wetlands -The Lower Mississippi Valley Joint Ven-
                 Departments of Natural Resources and Conservation, the Fws, and                           ture: Vicksburg, Miss., North American Waterfowl Management Plan,
                 the NRCs have been working toward a common wetland data base                              32 p.
                 for use by these agencies.                                                          McCaig, Barbara, and Boyce, Chris, 1988, Missouri Parks Guide: Wauwa-
                       The Missouri Department of Conservation is the State's pri-                         tosa, Wis., Affordable Adventures, Inc., 43 p.
                 mary fish and wildlife agency. The Department's Natural Heritage                    Mitsch, W.J., and Gosselink, J.G., 1993, Wetlands (2d ed.): New York, Van
                 Database is an inventory of wetlands and other natural features                           Nostrand Reinhold Co., 722 p.
                 owned or managed by the Department, as well as of other wetlands                    Mohlenbrock, R.H., 1993, Slaughter Sink, Missouri: Natural History, v. 6,
                                                                                                           no. 93, p. 25 - 26.
                 considered by the State to be valuable. The Department also has                     Omernik, J.M., 1987, Ecoregions of the United States -Map supplement:
                 developed a wetland-management plan to guide its efforts in the                           Annals of the Association of American Geographers, v. 77, no. 1, scale
                 restoration and management of wetlands until the year 2000. The                           1:7,500,000.
                 key elements of the plan are to (1) protect, restore, and improve                   Riley, Laura, and Riley, William, 1979, Guide to the National Wildlife Ref-
                 wetland habitat, (2) acquire new wetland areas, (3) identify popu-                        uges: Garden City, N.Y., Anchor Press, p. 319-322, 335-341.
                 lation goals and management strategies for waterfowl, wildlife, fur-                Shaw, S.P., and Fredine, C.G., 1971, Wetlands of the United States -Their
                 bearer, and fish species, (4) address human use of wetland resources,                     extent and their value to waterfowl and other wildlife: U.S. Fish and
                 and (5) identify future research needs.                                                   Wildlife Service Circular 39, 67 p.
                       Private wetland activities. -The Nature Conservancy is de-                    Vaught, Richard, and Bowmaster, J.T., 1983, Missouri wetlands and their
                                                                                                           management: Jefferson City, Missouri Department of Conservation,
                 veloping an integrated approach for the conservation and restora-                         23 p.
                 tion of the Mississippi Alluvial Plain. The organization owns six                   Waite, L.A., and Skelton, John, 1986, Missouri surface-water resources, in
                 properties containing wetlands, including ponds, fens, flood-plain                        National water summary 1985 -Hydrologic events and surface-wa-
                 forest, and wet prairies. Ducks Unlimited participates in wetland-                        ter resources: U.S. Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper 2300,
                 protection efforts through its involvement in the North American                          p. 301-308.
                 Waterfowl Management Plan. The National Audubon Society con-                        Winter, T.C., and Woo, Ming-Ko, 1990, Hydrology of lakes and wetlands,
                 ducts a considerable variety of public-education and wetland-pres-                        in Wolman, M.G., and Riggs, H.C., eds., Surface water hydrology:
                 ervation programs and projects.                                                           Boulder, Colo., Geological Society of America, The Geology of North
                                                                                                           America, v. 0-1, chap. 8, p. 159-187.

                 References Cited
                                                                                                     FOR ADDITIONAL INFORMATION: District Chief, U.S. Geological
                 Cowardin, L.M., Carter, Virginia, Golet, F.C., and LaRoe, E.T., 1979, Clas-         Survey, 1400 Independence Road, Rolla, MO 65401; Regional Wetland
                       sification of wetlands and deepwater habitats of the United States: U.S.      Coordinator, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, BHW Federal Building, I
                       Fish and Wildlife Service Report FWSJOBS-79/31, 131 p.                        Federal Drive, Fort Snelling, MN 55111
                 Dahl, T.E., 1990, Wetlands-Losses in the United States, 1780's to 1980's:
                       Washington, D.C., U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Report to Congress,
                       13 p.                                                                                                         Prepared by
                 Epperson, J.E., 1992, Missouri wetlands -A vanishing resource: Missouri                         Charles R. Demas and Dennis K. Demcbeck,
                       Division of Geology and Land Survey Water Resources Report 39,                                         U.S. Geological Survey
                       67 p.









                 254    National Water Summary-Wetiand Resources: STATE SUMMARIES
















































































                                                        U.S. Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper 2425








                                                                                                                   National Water Summary-Wetland Resources 255

                                                                                                                                      Montana
                                                                                                                       Wetland Resources
                 Wtlands cover only a small part of Montana, but their ecologi-                 TYPES AND DISTRIBUTION
                 cal and economic importance far outweighs their relative size.
                 Wetlands provide stopover feeding areas and breeding grounds for                     Wetlands are lands transitional between terrestrial and deep-
                 migratory waterfowl (fig. 1). The Nation's most valuable waterfowl             water habitats where the water table usually is at or near the land
                 production area, the prairie pothole region of the northern Great              surface or the land is covered by shallow water (Cowardin and oth-
                 Plains, includes wetlands of north-central and northeastern Mon-               ers, 1979). The distribution of wetlands and deepwater habitats in
                 tana. Wetlands are highly productive and provide food for both                 Montana is shown in figure 2A; only wetlands are discussed herein.
                 aquatic and terrestrial animals. Several threatened or endangered                    Wetlands can be vegetated or nonvegetated and are classified
                 species depend on Montana wetlands, including the whooping crane,              on the basis of their hydrology, vegetation, and substrate. In this
                 least tern, bald eagle, piping plover, grizzly bear, and peregrine fal-        summary, wetlands are classified according to the system proposed
                 con. Many freshwater fish and upland game birds are wetland de-                by Cowardin and others (1979), which is used by the U.S. Fish and
                 pendent, as are antelope, white-tailed and mule deer, elk, moose,              Wildlife Service (Fws) to map and inventory the Natiorfs wetlands.
                 and bear, as well as other nongame mammals.                                    At the most general level of the classification system, wetlands are
                      Wetlands stabilize or improve environmental quality by trap-              grouped into five ecological systems: Palustrine, Lacustrine, Riv-
                 ping sediments, producing oxygen, recycling nutrients, absorbing               erine, Estuarine, and Marine. The Palustrine System includes only
                 chemicals and other pollutants, moderating water temperature, and              wetlands, whereas the other systems comprise wetlands and
                 storing carbon (Tiner, 1984). Many small cities and towns in Mon-              deepwater habitats. Wetlands of the systems that occur in Montana
                 tana use sewage lagoons, which are constructed wetlands, for mu-               are described below.
                 nicipal wastewater treatment.
                      Socioeconomic benefits of Montana wetlands are well docu-
                 mented. Wetland vegetation stabilizes streambanks, reduces erosion             System                                  Wetland description
                 and flooding, and provides windbreaks for crops and farmsteads.                Palustrine  .................. Wetlands in which vegetation is predominantly
                 In some areas, wetlands augment streamflow, whereas in other ar-                                        trees (forested wetlands); shrubs (scrub-shrub
                 eas they capture overland runoff and slowly release it to underlying                                    wetlands); persistent or nonpersistent emergent,
                 aquifers. Because of their high level of productivity, wetlands are                                     erect, rooted, herbaceous plants (persistent- and
                 excellent providers of renewable resources, including timber, hay,                                      non persistent-em erg ant wetlands); or sub-
                                                                                                                         mersed and (or) floating plants Jaquatic beds).
                 and livestock water. Montana natives and pioneers highly regarded                                       Also, intermittently to permanently flooded
                 wetland plants such as cattails, willows, and black cottonwood for                                      open-water bodies of less than 20 acres in which
                 food, fuel, insulation, basket-making materials, and construction                                       water is less than 6.6 feet deep.
                 materials, and their use continues to some extent today (Hansen and            Lacustrine   ................. Wetlands within an intermittently to permanently
                 others, 199 1; R.M. Hazelwood, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, oral                                     flooded lake or reservoir. Vegetation, when pres-
                 commun., 1993).                                                                                         ent, is predominantly nonpersistent emergent
                                                                                                                         plants (nonpersistent-emergent wetlands), or
                      Finally, wetlands are valued for recreation, education, and es-                                    submersed and (or) floating plants (aquatic
                 thetics. As Montana's tourism industry becomes increasingly im-                                         beds), or both.
                 portant, so do wetlands for the extensive opportunities they provide           Riverine  ..................... Wetlands within a channel. Vegetation, when pres-
                 for fishing, hunting, camping, and observing wildlife.                                                  ent, is same as in the Lacustrine System.


                                                                                                      Dahl (1990), on the basis of unpublished data from the FWS,
                                                                                                estimated that 840,300 acres, or 0.9 percent of the State, contained
                                                                                                wetlands. However, the total wetland area of Montana has not yet
                                                                                                been systematically inventoried. Since 1974, the Fws has been con-
                                                                                                ducting a thorough inventory of the Nation's wetlands. That inven-
                                                                                                tory will enable a more accurate estimate of Montana's wetland acre-
                                        4-` 4-
                                                                                                age.
                                                                                                      Other investigators have made estimates of wetland acreage
                                                                                                for various specific purposes. These estimates did not include all
                                                                                                of the State's wetlands. On the basis of an inventory of 15 counties
                                                                                                in northern Montana, the Fws (1954) concluded that 187,400 acres
                                                                                                of wetlands statewide provide valuable waterfowl breeding habitat.
                                                                                         hill
                                                                                                                                    ildlife Service, unpub. data, 1975)
                                                                                                R.J. King (U.S. Fish and and W
                                                                                                identified 159,608 wetland acres with significant waterfowl produc-
                                                                                                tion capability (exclusive ofconstructed reservoirs and stock ponds)
                                                                                                in 40 of Montana's 56 counties.The Water Quality Bureau of the
                        Figure 1.   Freezout Lake Wildlife Management Area in west-             Montana Department of Health and Environmental Sciences (1992)
                        central Montana. Wetlands associated with this natural lake             estimated that riparian areas comprise about 1,860,000 acres. Ri-
                        receive irrigation return flow, furnish habitat for numerous            parian areas include both wetlands and uplands.
                        waterfowl species, and provide a variety of recreational op-                  Most Montana wetlands are palustrine. These include forested
                        portunities. (Photograph bylohn H. Lambing, U.S. Geolog-                wetlands adjacent to rivers statewide; scrub-shrub wetlands such
                        ical Survey.)                                                           as willow carrs (thickets) in western Montana and greasewood









                        256       National   Water Surnmary-Wetland            Resources: STATE SUMMARIES



                                              Eu
                                                                                       ir
                                                                                                                                          r R'





                                                                                          men
                                                                                                 Beru      VS.

                                                                                                                                                             FoH Pm
                                                      Pn




                                      47
                                                                          ad?


                                                           6 MEtca)f N                    N),


                                                                                                                      ficrea 4@)


                                                                                              C)

                                                 A

                                                           45,
                                                                                                                                                                                         10$1
                                                                                                                               109"

                                                                                k It
                                                                                      t5iig       1                         0             50             100 MILES
                                                                                          Red Rock                          0       50       10'0 KILOMETERS
                                                                   113-                   Lakes NWn


                          WETLANDS AND DEEPWATER HABITATS
                          Distribution of wetlands and deepwater habitarts-
                             This map shows the approximate distribution of large
                             wetlands in the State. Because of limitations of scale
                             and source material, some wetlands are not shown
                                  Predominantly wertland                                                                                          Great
                                  Predominantly deepwater habitat
                                                                                                             N  hern                                Plains
                                  Area typified by a high density of small wetlands                         -- Rocky

                                                                                                             Mountains






                                                                                                     B
                                                                                                                                       Middle Rocky Mountains


                                                                                                                                           PHYSIOGRAPHIC DIVISIONS


                                                      r'Iddhol



                                              alo,
                                                4A



                                                     dLj                                                                            GLACIATION
                                                     A                                                                              M Glacial extent during
                                           C                                                                                                most recent glacial
                                                                                                                                            maximum



                        Figure 2. Wetland distribution in Montana and physical features that control wetland distribution in the State. A, Distribution of wetlands
                        and deepwater habitats. 8, Physiography. C, Extent of most recent glaciation. (Sources: A, TE Dahl, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, unpub.
                        data, 1991. B, Physiographic divisions from Fenneman, 1946; landforms data from EROS Data Center C, Alden, 193Z 1953.)








                                                                                                      National Water Surnmary-Wetland Resources: MONTANA                  257



                 scrubland adjacent to rivers in eastern and southwestern Montana;                regional topographic gradient, no integrated drainage system, and
                 persistent-emergent wetlands such as marshes, fens and wet                       soils that have low permeability. Consequently, the region is highly
                 meadows in western Montana, and fresh and saline marshes in east-                susceptible to flooding. The large storage capacity of prairie pot-
                 ern Montana; and aquatic-bed wetlands such as water-lily ponds in                holes makes them instrumental in controlling seasonal flooding and
                 northwestern Montana (Tiner, 1984; Hansen and others, 1991;                      thus in protecting productive cropland and rural communities from
                 Windell and others, 1986). Palustrine wetlands also are associated               damage. Furthermore, the slow infiltration afforded by compact,
                 with artificial lakes and ponds throughout the State.                            clayey soils allows the potholes to slowly augment ground-water
                       The distribution of the different types of wetlands in Montana             supplies with water that otherwise would leave the area as overland
                 correlates with the State's physiography (fig. 2B). In glaciated areas           flow.
                 of the Great Plains (fig. 2C), wetlands are primarily in topographic                   Glaciation in the Northern Rocky Mountains (fig. 2C) also
                 depressions commonly referred to as prairie potholes. In the North-              covered some intermontane basins with glacial till, allowing the
                 eTn and Middle Rocky Mountains, wetlands are primarily in pot-                   formation of pothole wetlands such as the complexes near Ovando
                 holes of glaciated intermontane basins, in the flood plains of streams           and the Ninepipe National Wildlife Refuge. Dams formed by gla-
                 in unglaciated intermontane basins, and in high mountain valleys.                cial debris created other productive wetland areas, including those
                 In unglaciated areas of the Great Plains, wetlands occur in flood                associated with Flathead Lake and Lake McDonald. Geologic char-
                 plains of streams in the Missouri and Yellowstone River basins and               acteristics play an important role in the water quality of these wet-
                 also are commonly associated with constructed livestock ponds.                   lands. The mountain ground water that interacts with intermontane
                                                                                                  wetlands generally is less mineralized than prairie ground water,
                 HYDROLOGIC SETTING                                                               so the water is fresher in intermontane wetlands than in prairie
                                                                                                  pothole wetlands. However, some intermontane pothole wetlands
                       Wetlands form where the soil or substrate is saturated with or             near Eureka are biologically sterile because slime deposits from
                 covered by water for extended periods. The location and persistence              glacial rock flour inhibit growth (Reichmuth, 1986).
                 of water are a function of interdependent climatic, topographic,                       Intermontane basins are drained by low-gradient, meandering
                 hydrologic, and geologic factors. In Montana, except in the high                 streams and rivers that develop riparian (streamside) wetlands in
                 mountains, annual potential evaporation exceeds precipitation, re-               slackwater deposits behind natural levees, in oxbow lakes formed
                 sulting in a moisture deficit that inhibits wetland formation. There-            by meander cutoffs, on is] ands, below diversions, along shorelines,
                 fore, topographic, hydrologic, and geologic factors are as important             and on deltas and fans (Reichmuth, 1986). Riparian wetlands are
                 as climatic factors in creating and maintaining most Montana wet-                dependent on seasonal flooding for moisture. The frequency and
                 lands.                                                                           duration of flooding depend on climate, flood-plain elevation, drain-
                       Glaciation in the northern Great Plains (fig. 2Q blanketed the             age area, channel slope, and soils. The magnitude of flooding and
                 landscape with dense, clayey glacial till (sediment) (Alden, 1932).              the resultant ground-water levels in the alluvium affect the type and
                 As the overlying glacial ice melted, potholes (kettle takes) remained            productivity of vegetation in riparian areas. Floodwaters also de-
                 where ice blocks had previously been embedded in the till. These                 posit nutrient-rich sediments and promote anaerobic (oxygen-poor)
                 potholes range in area from less than I acre to several square miles.            conditions that make the nutrients available to plants.
                 The nearly impermeable till inhibits direct infiltration of snowmelt                   Intermontane basins, particularly those in southwestern Mon-
                 into the soil. Instead, meltwater flows overland into prairie potholes.          tana, are seismically active. For example, regional northwest tilting
                 Even though potential evaporation exceeds precipitation in this re-              elevated the northern Gallatin River above the streambeds of its
                 gion, the high moisture-retention capacity of the clayey soil allows             western tributaries, and wetlands have developed in resulting areas
                 lush, diverse wetland vegetation to develop wherever water accu-                 of shallow ground water. Another example is a geologically recent
                 mulates, resulting in highly productive wetlands (Winter, 1989). In              uplift that reversed the direction of flow in the upper Red Rock River.
                 terms of waterfowl production, the seven most productive counties                The uplift occurred so rapidly that streams have not had sufficient
                 in Montana are located in the prairie pothole region (R.J. King, U.S.            time to cut and deepen channels in response to the new regional
                 Fish and Wildlife Service, unpub. data, 1975).                                   gradient. The lack of an integrated drainage system has created large
                       The hydrology and water quality of prairie pothole wetlands                waterlogged areas (Reichmuth, 1986). These areas receive additional
                 can vary over time. In some areas, ground-water flow reverses di-                inflow from geologic faults, which allow warm ground water to flow
                 rection because of changing water levels in adjacent potholes. Prairie           toward the land surface, providing excellent wetland habitat for
                 pothole wetlands can recharge ground-water aquifers in spring un-                waterfowl. Fault-controlled ground-water flow also is a primary
                 til evaporation and water uptake by plants cause the water level in              moisture source for wetlands in other intermontane basins.
                 the wetland to drop below the local water table. At that time, ground                  High-mountain wetlands form in response to geologic, climatic,
                 water begins to flow back into the wetland (Winter, 1989). Wetland               and even biological forces. In alpine and subalpine zones, where
                 salinity commonly increases as evaporation concentrates dissolved                precipitation exceeds evaporation, wetlands persist wherever natu-
                 minerals in the water through the summer and freezing concentrates               ral impoundments prevent surface runoff. For example, alpine lakes
                 them through the winter (LaBaugh, 1989). In spring, snowmelt di-                 fill cirques, which are scour holes that glaciers carved below moun-
                 lutes the salinity.                                                              tain peaks. Below the subalpine zone, sinuous, low-velocity streams
                       Water quality can differ between temporary and permanent                   drain broad, U-shaped glaciated mountain valleys. Seasonal flood-
                 prairie pothole wetlands, even within the same area. Some prairie                ing and high water tables sustain wetlands behind glacial moraines
                 pothole wetlands are sustained by ground-water inflow, which pro-                and beaver dams and within low-lying depressions such as oxbow
                 vides a constant, but commonly mineralized or saline, source of                  and kettle lakes. Downstream from glaciated valleys, running wa-
                 water. Other prairie pothole wetlands are sustained only by runoff               ter has eroded steep, V-shaped valleys that have wetlands along
                 and receive no ground-water inflow. In wet years, these wetlands                 streams and springs and within impoundments created by landslides
                 generally have freshwater, but during most years the combination                 and beaver dams (Windell and others, 1986).
                 of evaporation and infiltration causes them to go dry. Still other                     A recent study of peat-fen (wetlands that have organic soils)
                 prairie pothole wetlands have brackish (slightly to moderately salty)            hydrology in the headwaters of the Blackfoot River reveals the com-
                 water resulting from a combination of ground-water and surface-                  plexity of water flow through a mountain wetland. Not only does
                 water inflow (Winter, 1989).                                                     the flow velocity range markedly, from 1.8 to 880 feet per day, but
                       The glaciated areas of the Great Plains typically have a small             ground water flows both into and out of the wetland. The large range








                        258        National Water Surnmary-Wetland Resources: STATE SUMMARIES



                        of flow velocities was explained by the extreme variability of peat                             Sciences, 1982, p. 3). The Montana Department of Fish, Wildlife
                        permeability (Morton and others, 1989).                                                         and Parks (1992, p. 2) concurs, forecasting that "***a continuing
                               Some eastern States have taken advantage of the natural filter-                          general decline in the wetland base in the State appears most prob-
                        ing capacity of wetlands to mitigate acidic mine drainage. In an                                able." The acreage of wetlands that have been lost is not precisely
                        attempt to duplicate their success, three artificial wetlands have been                         known, but one estimate is that only 73 percent of the State's
                        constructed to treat acidic mine drainage from abandoned coal mines                             pTedevelopment wetlands remain (Dahl, 1990).
                        near Belt, Mont. The artificial wetlands have decreased the concen-                                    Most losses have been due to conversion of wetlands to crop-
                        trations of toxic metals somewhat, but the concentrations still ex-                             lands, particularly in the prairie pothole region. As of the mid-I 980's,
                        ceed State and Federal water-quality standards, and the discharge                               about 20,000 acres of prairie in eastern Montana had been artifi-
                        remains acidic. These shortcomings are attributable to mechanical                               cially drained for agricultural production (Dahl, 1990). Significant
                        problems, freezing in the winter, and, most significantly, extremely                            losses of wetlands are also attributable to the construction of high-
                        acidic, highly mineralized mine discharge that exceeds the treatment                            ways, railroads, dams, large reservoirs, and irrigation systems; soil
                        capacity of the wetlands. Therefore, wetlands might not provide a                               erosion and siltation; urbanization; recreational development;
                        viable solution to acidic mine drainage problems in Montana (J.N.                               channelization; mining; logging; oil and gas production; and inten-
                        Koerth, Montana Department of State Lands, oral commun., 1992.)                                 sive grazing (Hansen and others, 1988; Montana Department of
                                                                                                                        Fish, Wildlife and Parks, 1992; Windell and others, 1986). Mon-
                        TRENDS                                                                                          tana wetland losses will become more critical as wetland habitat for
                                                                                                                        breeding and migrating waterfowl diminishes in neighboring States.
                               Although wetland deterioration can be physical, chemical, or                                    Although the decline of wetland acreage continues, the national
                        biological, the major concern in Montana is physical loss of wet-                               rate of wetland loss has slowed since protective legislation and edu-
                        lands (Montana Department of Health and Environmental Sciences,                                 cational programs were implemented in the mid-1980's (Dahl and
                        1982, 1988, 1992). In its biennial report to the U.S. Environmental                             others, 1991). Under that legislation, private organizations and
                        Protection Agency (EPA), the Water Quality Bureau stated that, "Pre-                            government agencies have created, restored, and protected wetlands
                        cious little is known about Montana wetlands except that they are                               throughout Montana. In addition, the construction of reservoirs used
                        disappearing" (Montana Department of Health and Environmental                                   for livestock watering, especially in eastern Montana, has improved
                        Table 1. Selected wetland-related activities of government                                      waterfowl production and has contributed significantly to the wet-
                        agencies and private organizations in Montana, 1993                                             land base (Montana Department of Fish, Wildlife and Parks, 1992).
                                                                                                                               Whereas the major wetland concern in Montana is the dimin-
                        [Source@ Classification of activities is generalized from information provided                  ishing quantity, also important is the deteriorating quality of the
                             by agencies and organizations. 9, agency or organization participates in                   wetlands that remain. Fertilizers, pesticides, sediments, and salts
                             wetland-related activity, ..., agency or organization does not participate in
                             wetland-related activity. MAN, management; REG, regulation; R&C, restora-                  from farms and ranches, brine from oil-field activities, and saline
                             tion and creation; LAN, land acquisition; R&D, research and data collection;               seeps induced by agricultural practices adversely affect the quality
                             D&I, delineation and inventory)                                                            of water in some Montana wetlands (Montana Department of Fish,
                                                                                                                        Wildlife and Parks, 1992; Reiten, 1992; Miller and Bergantino,
                                                                                        C
                                                                                                    \           X
                        Agency or organization                                                                          1983). A recent drought in Montana also has adversely affected both
                                                                                                                        the quantity and quality of the State's wetlands. Many wetlands have
                        FEDERAL                                                                                         dried up, and evaporation has concentrated dissolved minerals in
                        Department of Agriculture                                                                       others.
                           Consolidated Farm Service Agency      ........................... ...
                           Forest Service   .................................................................
                           Natural Resources Conservation Service       ................                                CONSERVATION
                        Department of Defense
                           Army Corps of Engineers     ..............................................                          Many government agencies and private organizations partici-
                           Military reservations  .....................................................                 pate in wetland conservation in Montana. The most active agencies
                        Department of the Interior                                                                      and organizations and some of their activities are listed in table 1.
                           Bureau of Land Management       ......................................                              Federal wetland activities.-Development activities in Mon-
                           Bureau of Reclamation     .................................................
                           Fish and Wildlife Service  ..............................................                    tana wetlands are regulated by several Federal statutory prohibitions
                           Geological Survey   ...........................! ............... ..............0             and incentives that are intended to slow wetland losses. Some of the
                           National Biological Service   .......................... .............. ... ...0             more important of these are contained in the 1899 Rivers and Har-
                           National Park Service   ...................................................*  *              hors Act; the 1972 Clean Water Act and amendments; the 1985 Food
                        Environmental Protection Agency      ................... .............. ...                     Security Act; the 1990 Food, Agriculture, Conservation, and Trade
                        TRIBAL
                        Confederated Salish and Kootenai Tribes      .....................*                             Act; and the 1986 Emergency Wetlands Resources Act.
                        STATE                                                                                                  Section 10 of the Rivers and Harbors Act gives the U.S. Army
                        Department of Fish, Wildlife and Parks     .........................*                           Corps of Engineers (Corps) authority to regulate certain activities
                        Department of Environmental Quality                                                             in navigable waters. Regulated activities include diking, deepening,
                           Reclamation Division   ..................................................... ...             filling, excavating, and placing of structures. The related section 404
                           Water Quality Division  ...................................................
                        Department of Natural Resources and Conservation                                                of the Clean Water Act is the most often-used Federal legislation
                           Forestry Division  .............................................................             protecting wetlands. Under section 404 provisions, the Corps issues
                           Trust Land Management Division     ................................                          permits regulating the discharge of dredged or fill material into
                        Department of Transportation     .........................................                      wetlands. Permits are subject to review and possible veto by the EPA,
                        Montana Bureau of Mines and Geology         .......................                             and the Fws has review and advisory roles. Section 401 of the Clean
                        Montana Riparian Association      ........................................ ... ...              Water Act grants to States and eligible Indian Tribes the authority
                        Natural Resource information System       .......................... ...
                        LOCAL ORGANIZATIONS                                                                             to approve, apply conditions to, or deny section 404 permit appli-
                        Conservation Districts   ......................................... ............. . ... ...      cations on the basis of a proposed activity's probable effects on the
                        PRIVATE ORGANIZATIONS                                                                           water quality of a wetland.
                        Ducks Unlimited    ..................................................................                  Most farming, ranching, and silviculture activities are not sub-
                        The Nature Conservancy      ..................................................                  ject to section 404 regulation. However, the "Swampbuster" provi-








                                                                                                  National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: MONTANA                 259



                sion of the 1985 Food Security Act and amendments in the 1990                 and State and Federal agencies, informs private landowners of the
                Food, Agriculture, Conservation, and Trade Act discourage (through            economic benefits and resource values of riparian areas (J.F.
                financial disincentives) the draining, filling, or other alteration of        Schumaker, Montana Department of Natural Resources and Con-
                wetlands for agricultural use. The law allows exemptions from pen-            servation, written commun., 1992). The Montana Interagency Wet-
                alties in some cases, especially if the farmer agrees to restore the          lands Group cooperates to avoid, minimize, or mitigate damage to
                altered wetland or other wetlands that have been converted to agri-           wetlands that might result from State highway construction. If none
                cultural use. The Wetlands Reserve Program of the 1990 Food,                  of those alternatives is feasible, the group operates a wetland-bank-
                Agriculture, Conservation, and Trade Act authorizes the Federal               ing system, which creates new wetlands to replace those that are
                Government to purchase conservation easements from landowners                 lost (Montana Department of Fish, Wildlife and Parks, 1992). The
                who agree to protect or restore wetlands. The Consolidated Farm               North American Waterfowl Management Plan is an agreement be-
                Service Agency (cm) (formerly the Agricultural Stabilization and              tween Canada and the United States to reverse recent declines in
                Conservation Service) administers the Swampbuster provisions and              waterfowl populations. Under the plan, wetlands can be purchased,
                Wetlands Reserve Program. The Natural Resources Conservation                  leased, or protected by easements. Landowners are offered economic
                Service (formerly the Soil Conservation Service) determines com-              incentives for using farming practices that are beneficial to water-
                pliance with Swampbuster provisions and assists farmers in the iden-          fowl. Another component of the plan is the joint venture-a part-
                tification of wetlands and in the development of wetland protection,          nership of public and private organizations working toward the com-
                restoration, or creation plans.                                               mon goal of wetland preservation. The U.S. Prairie Pothole Joint
                     The 1986 Emergency Wetlands Resources Act encourages                     Venture is a coalition of Federal and State agencies and private or-
                wetland protection through funding incentives. The act requires               ganizations that researches, protects, and enhances prairie wetland
                States to address wetland protection in their Statewide Comprehen-            and upland habitat in northeastern Montana and four other States
                sive Outdoor Recreation Plans to qualify for Federal funding for              that have prairie potholes. Joint ventures are also being planned for
                State recreational land; the National Park Service provides guidance          the northern Great Plains and the intermontane basins of Montana
                to States in developing the wettand component of their plans.                 (Montana Department of Fish, Wildlife and Parks, 1992).
                     Federal agencies are responsible for the proper management                     The Montana Department of Fish, Wildlife and Parks has a
                of wetlands on public land under their jurisdiction. The Bureau of            supporting technical role in all four interagency agreements. As a
                Land Management manages about 267,000 acres of wetlands and                   regulatory agency, the Department administers the Montana Stream
                deepwater habitats in Montana, including 9,000 miles of streams               Protection Act of 1963, which regulates construction by government
                (D.K. Hinckley, Bureau of Land Management, oral commun., 1992).               agencies along streams, and the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Coordina-
                The Corps manages the 408,591-acre Fort Peck Lake project area,               tion Act, which regulates Federal activities that might adversely
                which includes deepwater and upland habitats, palustrine and lacus-           affect wetlands. Also, the Department determines wetland desig-
                trine wetlands, and 1,520 miles of shoreline (L.D. Krueger, U.S.              nations for Swampbuster enforcement and assists the FWS with its
                Army Corps of Engineers, oral commun., 1992). The U.S. Forest                 ongoing wetland inventory. The State Waterfowl Stamp program,
                Service manages 16,806,039 acres in I I National Forests in Mon-              with matching funds from Ducks Unlimited, supports the Depart-
                tana (U.S. Forest Service, 1991). The FWS manages 40,590 acres of             ment efforts to protect, develop, and enhance wetlands and associ-
                waterfowl protection areas and 1,066,559 acres of National Wild-              ated upland areas on public and private land. Forty-five State Wild-
                life Refuges in Montana, including major wetland complexes at                 life Management Areas, including 19 that contain wetlands, also are
                Medicine Lake, Lake Bowdoin, Benton Lake, Lee Metcalf, Red Rock               administered by the Department (Montana Department of Health
                Lakes, Halfbreed, and Ninepipe National Wildlife Refuges. The Fws             and Environmental Sciences, 1982).
                also holds perpetual easements on 32,100 acres of Montana wet-                      The Montana Department of Environmental Quality (a new
                lands. Finally, since 1988, the Fws has involved about 300 Montana            State agency formed July 1, 1995, and composed of parts of the
                landowners in the restoration, enhancement, and creation of about             former Departments of Health and Environmental Sciences, Natu-
                7,500 wetland acres (J.W. Stutzman and P.H. Hartmann, U.S. Fish               ral Resources and Conservation, and State Lands), administers and
                and Wildlife Service, oral commun., 1992, 1993). The CFSA admin-              enforces State water-quality standards. Although none of the exist-
                isters a Water Bank program in which private landowners agree not             ing standards apply directly to wetlands, the Department is develop-
                to destroy wetlands in return for annual payments. In Montana, about          ing enforceable water-quality and biological standards that will be
                3,200 wetland acres are protected under this program (Montana                 specific to Montana wetlands. This effort, funded by EPA, also in-
                Department of Health and Environmental Sciences, 1989).                       cludes the development of a State wetlands data base, water-quality
                     Tribal wetland activities.-Indian tribes are becoming increas-           and biological monitoring, education, river-corridor management,
                ingly involved in wetland programs on reservation lands and ceded             support for the Montana Riparian Association and wetland banking,
                territories in Montana. For example, the Confederated Salish and              and a wetland-protection coordinator. The coordinator is working
                Kootenai Tribes of the Flathead Indian Reservation in western                 with other agencies and organizations to develop a State wetland-
                Montana have enacted several ordinances directed at protecting and            protection plan (Montana Department of Health and Environmen-
                managing wetlands in their 1. 2-million- acre reservation. These in-          tal Sciences, 1992). Until the new standards are approved, section
                clude a Tribal Water Quality Ordinance and Shoreline Protection and           404 of the Clean Water Act continues to provide the most explicit
                Aquatic Lands Conservation Ordinances, which enforce a "no net                protection for Montana wetlands. The Department is the State
                loss" policy. The tribes also have applied for treatment as a State           agency that reviews section 404 permit applications and certifies
                under section 404 of the Clean Water Act and are awaiting action              compliance with State water-quality standards. As the permitting
                by EPA (S.K. Ball, Confederated Salish and Kootenai Tribes, writ-             agency for hardrock and coal mines, the Department of Environ-
                ten commun., 1993).                                                           mental Quality enforces compliance with section 404 and requires
                     State wetland activities.-Four State interagency agreements              mitigation of wetland loss in mining areas (S.J. Olsen and B.K.
                pertain to wetland protection. The Montana Riparian Association               Lovelace, Montana Department of State Lands, oral commun.,
                is a statewide interagency cooperative that develops riparian eco-            1992).
                logical classifications to assist in the identification, description, and           The Montana Department of Natural Resources and Conserva-
                management of riparian communities, including wetlands (Hansen                tion (reorganized July 1, 1995, to include parts of the former De-
                and others, 1991). The Montana Riparian Education Committee,                  partment of Natural Resources and Conservation and the Depart-
                which is composed of agricultural and conservation organizations              ment of State Lands) manages 5.2 million acres statewide in addition








                       260      National Water Surnmary-Wetland Resources: STATE SUMMARIES



                       to all land below the low-water level of navigable lakes and streams.                   Hansen, P.L., Chadde, S.W., and Pfister, R.D., 1988, Riparian dominance
                       An estimate of wetland acreage under Department management is                                 types of Montana: University of Montana Miscellaneous Publication
                       not available. The Department leases about 80,000 acres to the De-                            49, p. 9-23.
                       partment of Fish, Wildlife and Parks, the FwS, and The Nature Con-                      LaBaugh, JW., 1989, Chemical characteristics of water in northern prairie
                       servancy; most of the remaining area is leased to individuals and                             wetlands, in van der Valk, Arnold, ed., Northern prairie wetlands:
                                                                                                                     Ames, Iowa State University Press, p. 56-91.
                       corporations for logging, grazing, and agricultural activities. The                     Miller, MR., and Bergantino, R.N., 1983, Distribution of saline seeps in
                       Strearnside Management Zone Act, which the Department admin-                                  Montana: Montana Bureau of Mines and Geology HydTOgeologic Map
                       isters, prohibits certain forestry practices along streams, takes, other                      7, 7 p.
                       water bodies, and adjacent wetlands.                                                    Montana Department of Fish, Wildlife andParks, 1992,1993 Montanastate-
                              County and local wetland activities. -County conservation                              wide comprehensive outdoor recreation plan, draft section III, Mon-
                       districts administer the Natural Streambed and Land Preservation                              tana wetlands: Helena, Montana Department of Fish, Wildlife and
                       Act of 1975. Districts review applications and issue permits to in-                           Parks, 8 p.
                       dividuals and other private entities planning activities that may                       Montana Department of Health and Environmental Sciences, 1982, Mon-
                       physically alter or modify the bed or immediate banks of a peren-                             tana water quality, 1982: Helena, Water Quality Bureau, Montana
                                                                                                                     305(b) Report, 116 p.
                       nial stream. By educating the public and enforcing permit condi-                        -1988, Montana water quality, 1988: Helena, Water Quality Bureau,
                       tions, the Districts minimize impacts to riparian wetlands (J.F.                              Montana 305(b) Report, 80 p.
                       Schumaker, Montana Department of Natural Resources and Con-                                      1992, Montana water quality, 1992: Helena, Water Quality Bureau,
                       servation, written commun., 1992).                                                            Montana 305(b) Report, 42 p.
                              Private wetland activities.-Ducks Unlimited provides funds                       Morton, R.B., Goering, J.D., and Dollhopf, D.J., 1989, Hydrologic charac-
                       for State agencies to restore, enhance, and create wetlands in Mon-                           teristics of a wetland using a bromide tracer, in Woessner, W.W., and
                       tana and supports university research of waterfowl ecology (P.M.                              Potts, D.F., eds., Proceedings of the Symposium on Headwaters Hy-
                       Bultsma, Ducks Unlimited, oral commun., 1992). The Nature Con-                                drology, Missoula, Mont.: American Water Resources Association
                       servancy manages habitat for the preservation of rare species and                             Technical Publication Series TPS-89-1, p. 553-562.
                                                                                                               Reichmuth. DR., 1986, Fluvial systems in the wetland environment, in
                       ecosystems. Working with private landowners, the Conservancy has                              Sather, J.H., and Low, Jessop, eds., Proceedings of the Great Basin/
                       established more than 152,000 acres of conservation easements and                             Desert and Montane Regional Wetland Functions Workshop, Logan,
                       has acquired more than 15,000 acres of critical habitat statewide.                            Utah, February 27- 28, t 986: University of Massachusetts at Amherst,
                       In addition, the Conservancy cooperates with government agencies                              The Environmental Institute Publication 90 - 4, p. 23 - 59.
                       to assist them in acquiring land. To complement its conservation                        Reiten, J.C., 1992. Water quality of selected lakes in eastern Sheridan
                       efforts, the Conservaricy coordinates the Natural Heritage Program                            County, Montana: Montana Bureau of Mines and Geology Open-File
                       of the Natural Resource Information System, which maintains a                                 Report MBMG 244,44 p.
                       computerized inventory of biological resources (H.S. Zackheim, The                      Titter, R.W., Jr., 1984, Wetlands of the United States-Current status and
                       Nature Conservancy, oral commun., 1992).                                                      recent trends: Newton Corner, Mass., U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service,
                                                                                                                     National Wetlands Inventory, 59 p.
                                                                                                               U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 1954, Wetlands inventory of Montana: Bill-
                       References Cited                                                                              ings, Mont., U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Office of River Basin
                                                                                                                     Studies, p. 20.
                       Alden, W.C., 1932, Physiography and glacial geology of eastern Montana                  U.S. Forest Service, 1991, Land areas of the national forest system as of
                              and adjacent areas: U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 174,                     September 30, 1991: U.S. Forest Service Report FS-383, p. 25.
                              133 p.                                                                           Windell, J.T., Willard, B.E., Cooper, D.J., and others, 1986, An ecological
                       -1953, Physiography and glacial geology of western Montana and                                characterization of Rocky Mountain montane and subalpine wetlands:
                              adjacent areas: U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 231, 200 p.                  U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Biological Report 86(11), 298 p.
                       Cowardin, L.M., Carter, Virginia, Golet, F.C., and LaRoe, E.T., 1979, Clas-             Winter, T.C., 1989, Hydrologic studies of wetlands in the northern prairie,
                              sification of wetlands and deepwater habitats of the United States: U.S.               in van der Valk, Arnold, ed., Northern prairie wetlands: Ames, Iowa
                              Fish and Wildlife Service Report FWS/OBS -79/31, 131 p.                                State University Press, p. 16-55.
                       Dahl, T.E., 1990, Wetlarlds-Losses in the United States, 1780's to 19807s:
                              Washington, D.C.,U.S. Fish andWildlife Service Report to Congress,
                              13 p.                                                                            FOR ADDITIONAL INFORMATION: District Chief, U.S. Geological
                       Dahl, T.E., Johnson, C.E., and Frayer, W.E., 1991, Wetlands-Status and                  Survey, 428 Federal Building, 301 South Park, Drawer 10076, Helena, MT
                              trends in the conterminous United States, mid-] 970's to mid-] 980's:            59626; Regional Wetland Coordinator, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Fish
                              Washington, D.C., U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Report to Congress,             and Wildlife Enhancement, P.O. Box 25486, Denver Federal Center, Den-
                              22 p.                                                                            ver, CO 80225
                       Fermeman, N.M., 1946, Physical divisions of the United States: Washing-
                              ton, D.C., U.S. Geological Survey special map, scale 1:7,000,000.
                       Hansen, P.L., Boggs, K.W., Pfister, R.D., and Joy, John, 1991, Ciassifica-                                                Prepared by
                              tion and management of riparian and wetland sites in Montana, draft                                               Eloise Kendy,
                              version 1: Missoula, Montana Riparian Association, Montana Forest                                           U.S. Geological Survey
                              and Conservation Experiment Station, School of Forestry, University
                              of Montana, 478 p.













                                                                            U.S. Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper 2425







                                                                                                                        National Water Summary-Wetland Resources 261
                                                                                                                                         Nebraska
                                                                                                                          Wetland Resources
                 Although wetlands occupy only 1.9 million acres in Nebraska, or                     by Cowardin and others (1979), which is used by the U.S. Fish and
                 about 4 percent of the State's area (Dahl, 1990), Nebraska's wetland                Wildlife Service (Fws) to map and inventory the Natiorfs wetlands.
                 resources are diverse in form, function, and value. Within the State,               At the most general level of the classification system, wetlands are
                 wetlands range from freshwater to saline and from acidic to alka-                   grouped into five ecological systems: Palustrine, Lacustrine, Riv-
                 line. Many are sustained by ground water, whereas others depend                     erine, Estuarine, and Marine. The Palustrine System includes only
                 on precipitation and the resulting runoff as a water source (Gersib,                wetlands, whereas the other systems comprise wetlands and
                 1991).                                                                              deepwater habitats. Wetlands of the systems that occur in Nebraska
                      Wetlands in Nebraska have many functions that are of value to                  are described below.
                 humans. Wetlands control flooding, trap sediment, control erosion,
                 retain nutrients, and sometimes recharge ground water. Wetlands                     System                                  Wetland description
                 are used recreationally for canoeing, fishing, hunting, and swim-
                 ming. In addition to being of economic and social value to humans,                  Palustrine  .................. Wetlands in which vegetation is predominantly
                 wetlands are critical to the survival of certain wildlife.                                                   trees (forested wetlands); shrubs (scrub-shrub
                      Nebraska has three major wetland complexes of international                                             wetlands); persistent or nonpersistent emergent,
                                                                                                                              erect, rooted, herbaceous plants (persistent- and
                 importance (Gersib, 199 1). The Rainwater Basin wetland complex                                              non persiste nt-e merge nt wetlands); or sub-
                 (fig. 1) in south-central and southeastern Nebraska provides stag-                                           mersed and (or) floating plants (aquatic beds).
                 ing and migrational habitat for waterfowl and shore birds in the                                             Also, intermittently to permanently flooded
                 spring. The basins in this complex are focal points in the Central                                           open-water bodies of less than 20 acres in which
                 Flyway spring-migration corridor. The Big Bend Reach of the Platte                                           water is less than 6.6 feet deep.
                 River is a migrational habitat for sandhill cranes and the endangered               Lacustri ne  ................. Wetlands within an intermittently to permanently
                                                                                                                              flooded lake or reservoir. Vegetation, when pres-
                 whooping crane. This reach also is breeding habitat for the endan-                                           ent, is predominantly nonpersistent emergent
                 gered least tern and the threatened piping plover. The Sandhills                                             plants (nonpersistent-emergent wetiands@, or
                 wetland complex in north-central and northwestern Nebraska pro-                                              submersed and (or) floating plants (aquatic
                 vides migrational habitat for the whooping crane and bald eagle, as                                          beds), or both.
                 well as migrational and breeding habitat for other nongame birds                    Riverine  ..................... Wetlands within a channel. Vegetation, when pres-
                 and waterfowl (Gersib, 1991).                                                                                ent, is same as in the Lacustrine System.
                                                                                                         Although the Fws National Wetlands Inventory has wetland
                 TYPES AND DISTRIBUTION                                                              acreage statistics for most of the State, there is no statewide esti-
                      Wetlands are lands transitional between terrestrial and deep-                  mate of the wetland acreage within each of these systems. Gersib
                 water habitats where the water table usually is at or near the land                 (199 1) gives the approximate wetland acreage for six major wetland
                                                                                                     complexes in Nebraska: the Eastern Saline, the Rainwater Basin,
                 surface or the land is covered by shallow water (Cowardin and oth-                  the Missouri River, the Platte River Big Bend Reach, the North
                 ers, 1979). The distribution of wetlands and deepwater habitats in                  Platte River Lower Reach, and the Sandhills (fig. 2B). This estimate
                 Nebraska is shown in figure 2A; only wetlands are discussed herein.                 indicates that of the approximately 1.4 million acres of wetlands
                      Wetlands can be vegetated or nonvegetated and are classified                   inventoried, 85 percent were palustrine, 13 percent were lacustrine,
                 on the basis of their hydrology, vegetation, and substrate. In this                 and 2 percent were riverine (Gersib, 1991). Documentation is not
                 summary, wetlands are classified according to the system proposed                   adequate for classification of other State wetlands.

                                                                                                     HYDROLOGIC SETTING

                                                                                                         The distribution of wetlands is determined by physiographic,
                                                                                                     climatic, and hydrologic factors. The eastern one-fourth of the State
                                                                                                     is generally characterized by low hills; the remainder is composed
                                                                                                     of dissected plains, high plains, and sandhills. Nebraska's climate
                                                                                                     is semiarid in the western part of the State and subhumid in the
                                                                                                     e
                                                                                                      stern part. Average annual precipitation from 1951 to 1980 ranged
                                                                                                     a
                                                     X,                                              from less than 16 inches in the western panhandle to more than 32
                                                                                                     inches in the southeastern corner of the State (Engel and Steele,
                                                                                                     1986). Nebraska's average annual free-water-surface evaporation for
                                                                                                     1956-70 ranged from about 42 inches in the northeastern part of
                                                                                                     the State to more than 52 inches in the southwest (Farnsworth and
                 pwom'
                                                                                                     others, 1982). Average annual runoff differs considerably across the
                                                                                                     State, ranging from less than I inch in the west and southwest to
                 Figure 1. Waterfowl on a wetland        in the Rainwater Basin wetland              about 6 inches in the southeast (Gebert and others, 1985).
                 complex in south-central Nebraska at sunrise. This wetland com-                         Saline marshes (emergent wetlands) characterize the eastern
                 plex is used by 5 to 7 million ducks and geese annually and has                     saline wetland complex in southeastern Nebraska. These marshes
                 lost 78 percent of its original wetland acres. (Photograph courtesy                 have developed in areas where sandstone bedrock is at or near the
                 of the Nebraska Came and Parks Commission.)                                         land surface, and saline ground water seeps into streams or flood-








                    262     National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: STATE SUMMARIES



                    plain depressions (fig. 3A). Although seeps and springs contribute         sloughs that have resulted from high flows that have changed the
                    to the concentrations of dissolved solids in the saline marshes, sur-      course of the river. Although shallow aquifers are associated with
                    face runoff from precipitation and flooding along streams provide          the Missouri River, the river is fed primarily by overland runoff
                    most of the wetlands'water supply and a substantial part of the dis-       (Kuzelka and others, 1993). Some water loss in the Missouri River
                    solved solids (Farrar and Gersib, 1991). Most water loss is due to         wetlands is the result of evapotranspiration and seepage to the ad-
                    evapotranspiration, and this process has concentrated the dissolved        jacent aquifers; however, much of the wetland loss is due to
                    minerals in the flood-plain soils and wetlands.                            channelization and flood control along the river.
                          In south-central and southeastern Nebraska, overland runoff               Along the Platte and North Platte Rivers, wet meadows (emer-
                    supplies nearly all water for wetlands within the Rainwater Basin          gent wetlands) result from a combination of ground-water seepage,
                    wetland complex (Gilbert, 1989). This part of the State is charac-         runoff from precipitation and snowmelt, and surface-water diver-
                    terized by nearly level to gently rolling loess plains; within these       sions and return flows (Hurr, 1983). During spring and early sum-
                    plains are depressions probably formed by wind erosion. Surface            mer, snowmelt supplies water to the river, raising the river stage and
                    drainage is poorly developed, resulting in numerous closed basins          causing a corresponding rise in ground-water levels in the adjacent
                    in which all drainage is internal (Gersib, 1991). Most accumulated         flood plain (fig. 3Q. Because of the high water table and surface
                    water is lost through evaporation, but some leaches through under-         soils that generally are saturated, precipitation often pools in the
                    lying materials and may produce chemical precipitates that result          wet meadows in sloughs and swales (Currier, 1989). During sum-
                    in a relatively impermeable layer below the land surface (Nebraska         mer and early fall, river stage is lower because of decreased runoff.
                    Game and Parks Commission, 1984) (fig. 3B). The water table gen-           Water loss from the associated wet meadows occurs by evapotrans-
                    erally is from 60 to 100 feet below the bottoms of most of these           piration and as a result of ground-water withdrawals that lower the
                    basins (Keech and Dreezen, 1968). The amount of water in the               water table in the river valley and induce infiltration from the river
                    wetlands within the Rainwater Basin complex varies greatly and             to the aquifer. Concurrently, water levels within the wet meadows
                    depends upon the rates of precipitation and evapotranspiration.            associated with the river decline.
                          In the Missouri River wetland complex, wetlands form in and               The Sandhills region of north-central and northwestern Ne-
                    along the river (on alluvial islands, deep pools, marshes, and shal-       braska contains the largest sand-dune area in the Western Hemi-
                    low-water areas), and isolated wetlands    form within oxbows and          sphere and one of the largest grass - stabilized dune regions in the


                             43"
                                                                                                                                        97'



                                                                                                                                  r






                                          Uff





                                                                       "Y                                                                             rn h j@
                                                                             0!%L..Ih Pftt.
                            41.

                                                                                                                                                 inc

                          0     25     50 MILES

                          0 25 50 KILOMETERS







                    A     WETLANDS AND DEEPWATER HABITATS                                          Sandhills
                          Distribution of wetlands and cleepwater habitats-
                            This map shows the approximate distribution of large                                                         Missouri River
                            wetlands in the State. Because of limitations of scale
                            and source material, some wetlands are not shown
                                Predominantly wetland                                                                    lh-- -Platte River
                                Predominantly deepwater habitat                                                     "al 1%   Big Bend
                          El                                                                                                 Reach
                                                                                                            North Platte River
                                Area typified by a high density of small wetlands                            Lower Reach
                                                                                                                                                      Eastern
                                                                                                                                                      Saline
                                                                                                                                 Rainwater Basin


                                                                                                 8    MAJOR WETLAND COMPLEXES

                    Figure 2. Distribution of wetlands and cleepwater habitats and major wetland complexes in Nebraska. A, Distribution of wetlands and
                    deepwater habitats. 9, Major wetland complexes. (Sources: A, TE. Dahl, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, unpub. data, 1991. B, Gersib,
                    1991.)








                                                                                                                                           National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: NEBRASKA                                            263


                         A. Eastern Saline wetlands                                                                                                                                     EXPLANATION
                                   PALLISTRINE WETLAND                                                         PALLISTRINE WETLAND                     - Overland runoff                                 C@      Scrub-shrub vegetation
                                                                                                                                       I               - Direction of ground-water
                                                                   PALUSTRINE WETLANDS                                                                            flow
                                                                                                                                                                                                                 Forest vegetation
                                                                     RIVERINE WETLAND                                                                           Average water table

                                                                                                                                                                Water table in spring
                       ---------                                                                                                                                                            and                  Emergent vegetation
                                                                                               ----------                            --------                     early summer                                   Farmed crops
                                                                                                                                                                Water table in late summer             Off
                                                       Alkovium %                                    Alluvium                                                     and early fall                        @(6cj    Submersed aquatic
                               Sandstone                                                                                                                        Direction of ground-water                          vegertation
                                                                                                                                    Sandstone                     flow in spring and early                       Loess
                                                                                                                                                                  summer                                         Glacial drift
                                                                                                                                                                Direction of ground-water
                                                                       Limestone                                                                                  flow in late summer and               M        Saturated clay
                      F_                                                                                                                                          early fall

                         B. Rainwater Basin                                                                                                                 Figure3. Generalized geohydrology of wetlands
                                                                                                               PALUSTAINEWETLAND                            within Nebraska. A, Eastern Saline wetlands. B,
                                                           PALUSTRINE WETLAND                                                                               Rainwater Basin. C, Platte River wetlands. D, Sand-
                                                                                                                                                            hills.




                                                                                                                                                            world (Bleed and Flowerday, 1990). Sandhill wetlands
                                                                                                                                                            include wet meadows, where the water table is at or
                                                                                                                                                            near the land surface, marshes that are associated with
                                                                                                               Clay, silt and sand                          area lakes and often contain standing water, and per-
                                                ---------------------------------------------------------                                                   manent lakes. Most of the lakes are 10 acres or less in
                                   Clay, silt@ and sand                                                                                                     area, average about 5 feet in depth (McCarraher,
                                                                                                                                                            1977), and are considered palustrine wetlands accord-
                                                       Bedrock                                                                Bedrock                       ing to the classification system used by the FwS.
                                                                                                                                                                  In the central and eastern parts of the Sandhills,
                                                                                                                                                            lakes and marshes typically are slightly alkaline, are
                         C Platte River wetlands                                                                                                            in hydrologic connection with the ground water, and
                                                         PALUSTRINE WETLAND                                    PALUSTRINE WETLANDS                          commonly have suface outlets (Ginsberg, 1985). Many
                                                                                                                                                            wetlands in the western Sandhills are strongly alka-
                               PALUSTRINE WETLAND                                                                                                           line and have little or no surface outflow. LaBaugh
                                                                                          RIVERINE WETLANDS
                                                                                                                                                            (1986) and Winter (1986) have shown that these lakes,
                                                                                                                                                            in addition to being maintained by overland runoff,
                                                                                                                  a,                                        also are interconnected with the ground-water system
                                                                                                                                                            (fig. 3D). Lakes that have high alkalinity are found in
                         ----                 -- -- --------                                                                                                areas where the ground water becomes mineralized as
                      -----------                                                                                                                           it moves through the rock formations. Where water
                                                                                                                                                            circulation is impeded and the water table intersects
                                                                                                                                                            the land surface, the concentration of total dissolved
                                                                                                          Alluvial sand and gravef                          solids is increased by the high rate of evaporation in
                                                                                                                                                            this region (Hem, 1985). The physical, chemical, and
                                           Permeable bedrock                                                                                                biological interactions of the marshes and wet mead-
                                                                                                                                                            ows are largely unknown (Bleed and Howerday, 1990).


                         D. Saindhills                                                                                                                      TRENDS
                         NORTH                                                                                                         SOUTH                      From 1780 to 1980, Nebraska lost about 1 mil-
                                                                    PALUSTRINE WETLANDS                                                                     lion acres, or about 35 percent of the State's original
                                    Prairie                                                                                        PALLISTRINE              wetlands (Dahl, 1990). Agricultural conversions that
                                                                     LACUSTRINE WETLAND                                              WETLAND                involved draining, clearing, leveling, and ground-water
                                                                                                                                                            pumping were the principal causes of these losses.
                                                                                                               Prairie
                                                                                                                                                            Losses also were caused by construction of impound-
                                                                                                  --------                                                  ments and large reservoirs, urbanization, road con-
                                                                                                          Alluvial sand and gravel


                                           Permeable bedrock















                                                                  X
                                        Dune as d                                                                                                           struction, and other activities.
                                                                                                                                                                  The Rainwater Basin, used by 5 to 7 million
                                                                                                        Dune
                                                                                                               @18nd                                        ducks and geese annually, has lost an estimated 78
                                                                                                                                                            percent of its original acreage (Nebraska Game and
                                                                                                                                                            Parks Commission, 1984). In the Sandhills, agricul-
                                                                                                                                                            tural conversions account for the loss of 28,000 acres,
                                                                                                                                                            or 15 percent, of the original wetlands in that area








                                264          National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: STATE SUMMARIES



                                (Nebraska Game and Parks Commission, 1972).                                                                                 Table 1. Selected wetland-related activities of government
                                         Channelization of the Missouri River has enabled agricultural,                                                     agencies and private organizations in Nebraska, 1993
                                urban, and industrial development of its flood plain, including the                                                         [Source: Classification of activities is generalized from information provided
                                wetland areas. Wetland losses in the unchannelized reaches of the                                                                by agencies and organizations. e, agency or organization participates in
                                Missouri River also have been substantial owing to operation of                                                                  wetland-related activity; ..., agency or organization does not participate in
                                                                                                                                                                 wetland-related activity. MAN, management; REG, regulation; R&C, res-
                                dams on the main stem.                                                                                                           toration and creation; LAN, land acquisition; R&D, research and data col-
                                         Williams (1978) showed that the North Platte and Platte Riv-                                                            lection; D&I, delineation and inventory]
                                ers have had channel-width decreases of 90 to 90 percent from the
                                Wyoming -Nebraska State line to Overton between 1860 and 1965.
                                From Overton to Grand Island, channel-width reductions of 60 to                                                             Agency or organization
                                70 percent have occurred.                                                                                                   FEDERAL
                                                                                                                                                            Department of Agriculture
                                                                                                                                                              Consolidated Farm Service Agency                  ........................... ...
                                CONSERVATION                                                                                                                  Forest Service        .................................................................0
                                         Many government agencies and private organizations partici-                                                          NaturalResources Conservation Service                     ................ ...
                                                                                                                                                n-          Department of Defense
                                pate in wetland conservation in Nebraska. The most active age                                                                 Army Corps of Engineers             ..............................................
                                cies and organizations and some of their activities are listed in table                                                     Department of the Interior
                                I .                                                                                                                           Bureau of Land Management                 ...................................... ... ...
                                         Federal wetland activities. -Development activities in Ne-                                                           Bureau of Reclamation            ...............................................-9
                                braska wetlands are regulated by several Federal statutory prohibi-                                                           Fish and Wildlife Service           ..............................................0
                                                                                                                                                              Geological Survey          .......................................................... ... ...
                                tions and incentives that are intended to slow wetland losses. Some                                                           National Biological Service            ......................................... ... ...
                                of the more important of these are contained in the 1899 Rivers and                                                           National Park Service           ................................................... ... ... ... ...
                                Harbors Act; the 1972 Clean Water Act and amendments; the 1985                                                              Environmental Protection Agency                .................................. ...a
                                Food Security Act; the 1990 Food, Agriculture, Conservation, and                                                            STATE
                                Trade Act; and the 1986 Emergency Wetlands Resources Act.                                                                   Department of Environmental Quality                 ........................... ...0
                                         Section 10 of the Rivers and Harbors Act gives the U.S. Army                                                       Department of Roads           .........................................................
                                                                                                                                                            Department of Water Resources                .................................... ...
                                Corps of Engineers (Corps) authority to regulate certain activities                                                         Forest Service                      ___  .................  ............ ___ ...  -. ... ...
                                in navigable waters. Regulated activities include diking, deepening,                                                        Game and Parks Commission               ................  .........................0     a       0
                                filling, excavating, and placing of structures. The related section 404                                                     Natural Resources Commission                ...................................... ... ... ... ...
                                of the Clean Water Act is the most often-used Federal legislation                                                           Water Resources Center             ................................................ . ... ... ... ...
                                protecting wetlands. Under section 404 provisions, the Corps issues                                                         University bf Nebraska
                                                                                                                                                              Conservation and Survey Division                .............................
                                permits regulating the discharge of dredged or fill material into                                                             Other State- unive rs ity programs            ................................ ...                    0
                                wetlands. Permits are subject to review and possible veto by the U.S.                                                       COUNTY AND LOCAL
                                Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), and the Fws has review and                                                           Some county and local governments                  ............................ ...
                                advisory roles. Section 401 of the Clean Water Act grants to States                                                         Natural Resources Districts           .............................................0             0      e
                                and eligible Indian Tribes the authority to approve, apply conditions                                                       PRIVATE ORGANIZATIONS
                                                                                                                                                            Ducks Unlimited        ..................................................................0
                                to, or deny section 404 permit applications on the basis of a pro-                                                          Nebraska Audubon Society              ...................................  0             0       0      0     0
                                posed activity's probable effects on the water quality of a wetland.                                                        Platte River Whooping Crane
                                         Most farming, ranching, and silviculture activities are not sub-                                                   Habitat Maintenance Trust, Inc           . ......................................
                                ject to section 404 regulation. However, the "Swampbuster" provi-                                                           Preserve Our Water Resources Association                     ............... ... ...     ... ...
                                sion of the 1985 Food Security Act and amendments in the 1990                                                               The Nature Conservancy             ..................................................o
                                Food, Agriculture, Conservation, and Trade Act discourage (through
                                financial disincentives) the draining, filling, or other alteration of                                                      ventories, and other resource-management tools. Technical assis-
                                wetlands for agricultural use. The law allows exemptions from pen-                                                          tance is available for wetland- delineation training, project consul-
                                alties in some cases, especially if the farmer agrees to restore the                                                        tation, and public education. The EPA oversees the development and
                                altered wetland or other wetlands that have been converted to agri-                                                         implementation of water-quality standards that apply to surface
                                cultural use. The Wetlands Reserve Program of the 1990 Food,                                                                waters, including wetlands, and a nonpoint-source pollution-con-
                                Agriculture, Conservation, and Trade Act authorizes the Federal                                                             trol program that can include the restoration and maintenance of
                                Government to purchase conservation easements from landowners                                                               wetlands.
                                who agree to protect or restore wetlands. The Consolidated Farm                                                                     Other Federal agencies have active nonregulatory wetland
                                Service Agency (formerly the Agricultural Stabilization and Con-                                                            policies. The U.S. Forest Service (FS) is involved primarily in re-
                                servation Service) administers the Swampbuster provisions and Wet-                                                          search of riparian wetlands and in managing wetlands in the national
                                lands Reserve Program. The Natural Resources Conservation                                                                   forests in Nebraska. In addition, the FS is developing a program to
                                Service (formerly the Soil Conservation Service) determines com-                                                            integrate livestock grazing and wetland maintenance and is work-
                                pliance with Swampbuster provisions and assists farmers in the iden-                                                        ing with Ducks Unlimited, a private conservation organization, to
                                tification of wetlands and in the development of wetland protection,                                                        develop habitat for waterfowl.
                                restoration, or creation plans.                                                                                                     The Bureau of Land Management (BLM) manages 6,600 acres
                                         The 1986 Emergency Wetlands Resources Act encourages                                                               of public land in Nebraska. Some of these lands have been invento-
                                wetland protection through funding incentives. The act requires                                                             ried, and none have been identified as wetlands. If wetland areas
                                States to address wetland protection in their Statewide Comprehen-                                                          are identified on BLM-administered lands, appropriate management
                                sive Outdoor Recreation Plans to qualify for Federal funding for                                                            actions and protective requirements for wetland habitats will be
                                State recreational land; the National Park Service (NPS) provides                                                           applied (Bureau of Land Management, 1992).
                                guidance to States in developing the wetland component of their                                                                     The Bureau of Reclamation (BOR) mitigates for degraded or
                                plans.                                                                                                                      destroyed wetlands through restoration of degraded wetlands and
                                         In addition to regulatory responsibilities, the EPA provides fi-                                                   creation of new wetlands. The BOR, as stated in their wetland initia-
                                nancial assistance for special studies, development of wetland in-                                                          tive, is responsible for the management of wetland resources that








                                                                                                      National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: NEBRASKA                     265



                 occur on Federal property purchased for project purposes.                               Ducks Unlimited has cooperative programs with government
                      State wetland activities. -Nebraska has no laws specifically                 agencies and private organizations and will provide as much as 50-
                 for the protection of wetlands. The Nebraska Department of Envi-                  percent cost-share funding for wetland acquisition and development.
                 ronmental Quality is responsible for the Clean Water Act section                  Ducks Unlimited also is active in the creation and restoration of
                 401 certification process, which considers the effects of dredge or               wetlands on land owned by the organization.
                 fill activities on water quality to determine compliance with State                     The Preserve Our Water Resources Association promotes the
                 water-quality standards. An antidegradation clause within the stan-               restoration and creation of wetlands and monitors the success of
                 dards protects present water-quality conditions and has been applied              mitigation. Other private organizations participating in wetland
                 to wetlands.                                                                      activities include the Nebraska Sierra Club, The Nebraska Wildlife
                      The Nebraska Department of Roads must identify wetlands that                 Federation, and Pheasants Forever.
                 might be degraded by road construction. If wetland degradation or
                 destruction is unavoidable, the Department must, through the pro-
                 cess of mitigation, restore former wetlands or create new wetlands.               References Cited
                 A mitigation bank for use by the Nebraska Department of Roads is
                 being developed with the Corps, the FWS, the EPA, the Nebraska                    Bleed, Ann, and Flowerday, Charles, eds., 1990, An atlas of the Sand Hills:
                 Game and Parks Commission, and the Nebraska Department of En-                           University of Nebraska, Conservation and Survey Division, Resource
                 vironmental Quality.                                                                    Atlas No. 5a, 265 p.
                                                                                                   Bureau of Land Management, 1992, Nebraska record of decision and ap-
                      The Nebraska Game and Parks Commission's involvement in                            proved resource management plan: Bureau of Land Management Re-
                 wetlands includes the acquisition, restoration, and management of                       port BLM[WY/ES -92/010+4410, 51 p.
                 State-owned wetlands. The Commission also provides technical as-                  Clausen, Mary, Fritz, Mike, and Steinauer, Gerry, 1989, The Nebraska natu-
                 sistance for wetlands management to private owners and sponsors                         ral heritage program -Two-year progress report: Lincoln, Nebraska
                 the Wetland Initiative Program. The Commission acts as an advi-                         Natural Heritage Program, 154 p.
                 sory agency for the section 404 permit process administered by the                Cowardin, L.M., Carter, Virginia, Golet, F.C., and LaRoe, E.T., 1979, Clas-
                 Corps. As a nonregulatory agency, the Commission has inventoried                        sification of wetlands and deepwater habitats ofthe United States: U.S.
                 wetlands within the State but is not involved with the delineation of                   Fish and Wildlife Service Report FWS/OBS-79/31, 131 p.
                 wetlands. The Nebraska Natural Heritage data base, now adminis-                   Currier, P.J., 1989, Plant species composition and groundwater levels in a
                 tered by the Commission, is the only existing comprehensive sys-                        Platte River wet meadow, in Bragg, T.B. and Stubbendieck, James, eds.,
                                                                                                         Proceedings of the I I th North American Prairie Conference, Lincoln,
                 tem for identifying the ecologically significant components of                          Nebr., August 7-11, 1988: Lincoln, University of Nebraska, p. 19-
                 Nebraska's natural diversity (Clausen and others, 1989).                                24.
                      The Nebraska Department of Water Resources regulates con-                    Dahl, T.E., 1990, Wetlands-Losses in the United States, 1780's to 1980's:
                 struction in wetland areas through the flood-plain permit process                       Washington, D.C., U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Report to Congress,
                 within counties that do not assert jurisdiction. The Department also                    13 p.
                 conducts wetland research, data collection, and education. Other                  Engel, G.B., and Steele, E.K., Jr., 1986, Nebraska surface-water resources,
                 State agencies that are involved in these activities are the Nebraska                   in U.S. Geological Survey, National water summary 1985-Hydro-
                 Natural Resources Commission, the Nebraska Forest Service, the                          logic events and surface-water resources: U.S. Geological Survey
                                                                                                         Water-Supply Paper 2300, p. 315-322.
                 Nebraska Water Resources Center, and the Conservation and Sur-                    Farnsworth, R.K., Thompson, E.S., and Peck, E.L., 1982, Evaporation at-
                 vey Division of the University of Nebraska.                                             las for the contiguous 48 United States: National Oceanic and Atmo-
                      County and local wetland activities. -Some county and lo-                          spheric Administration Technical Report NWS 33, 27 p.
                 cal governments regulate construction in wetlands through flood-                  Farrar, Jon, and Gersib, Richard, 199 1., Nebraska salt marshes -Last of the
                 plain permits. The Nebraska Natural Resources Districts also are                        least: Lincoln, Nebraska Game and Parks Commission, 23 p.
                 involved in conservation at the local level. The roles of the Districts           Gebert, W.A., Graczyk, D.J., and Krug, W.R., 1985, Average annual runoff
                 differ with locatiom Many participate in the Wildlife Habitat Im-                       in the United States, 1951-80: U.S. Geological Survey Open-File
                 provement Program, a cooperative program with the Nebraska Game                         Report 85-627, scale 1:2,000,000.
                 and Parks Commission. Other Districts are active in wetland acqui-                Gersib, R.A., 1991, Nebraska wetlands priority plan for inclusion in The
                                                                                                         1991-1995 Nebraska State Comprehensive Outdoor Recreation Plan:
                 sition, restoration, creation, and management.                                          Lincoln, Nebraska Game and Parks Commission, 35 p.
                      Private wetland activities. -Within Nebraska, numerous pri-                  Gilbert, M.C., 1989, Ordination and mapping of wetland communities in
                 6te organizations axe involved in wetlands. The Nebraska chapter                        Nebraska's Rainwater Basin region, CEMRO Environmental Report
                 of The Nature Conservancy has purchased 1,750 acres of land at                          89-1: Omaha, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, 105 p.
                 four different sites in the Platte River Big Bend Reach wetlands                  Ginsberg, Marilyn, 1985, Nebraska's sandhills lakes-A hydrogeologic
                 complex and about 500 acres within the Rainwater Basin wetlands                         overview: Water Resources Bulletin, v. 21, no. 4, p. 573-578.
                 complex. The Nature Conservancy and the Platte River Whooping                     Hem, J.D., 1985, Study and interpretation of the chemical characteristics
                 Crane Habitat Maintenance Trust, Inc., a private organization, co-                      of natural water (3d ed.): U.S. Geological Survey Water-Supply Pa-
                 operatively manage most of that land.                                                   per 2254, 263 p.
                                                                                                   Hurr, R.T., 1983, Ground-water hydrology of the Mormon Island Crane
                      Between 1979 and 1992, the Platte River Whooping Crane                             Meadows Wildlife Area near Grand Island, Hall County, Nebraska:
                 Habitat Maintenance Trust, Inc., acquired 8,600 acres of habitat in                     U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 1277-H, 12 p.
                 and along the Platte River; 1,200 acres are under perpetual conser-               Keech, C.F., and Dreezen, V.H., 1968, Geology and ground-water resources
                 vation easement. The Trust's principal charge is the acquisition and                    of Fillmore county, Nebraska: U.S. Geological Survey Water- Supply
                 management of wildlife habitat, but it also has the authority to con-                   Paper 1839-L, 27 p.
                 duct research and acquire interests in water and has the responsi-                Kuzelka, R.D., Flowerday, C.A., Manley, R.N., Rundquist, B.C., and Herrin,
                 bility to protect the biologic and hydrologic integrity of the habitat.                 S.J., 1993, Flat water-A history of Nebraska and its water: Univer-
                      The National Audubon Society owns and manages wetlands in                          sity of Nebraska, Conservation and Survey Division, Resource Report
                 Nebraska, including the 1,200-acre Lillian Annette Rowe Sanctu-                         No. 12, 292 p.
                                                                                                   LaBaugh, JW., 1986, Limnological characteristics of selected lakes in the
                 ary near Gibbon. Local chapters of the National Audubon Society                         Nebraska sandhills, U.S.A., and their relation to chemical character-
                 have diversified involvement in wetlands. Many chapters have wet-                       istics of adjacent ground water: Journal of Hydrology, v. 86, no. 3/4,
                 land-education and wetland-identification programs but generally                        p. 279-298.
                 do not own or manage wetlands.                                                    McCarraher, D.B., 1977, Nebraska's sandhills lakes: Lincoln, Nebraska








                      266      National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: STATE SUMMARIES



                            Game and Parks Commission, 67 p.
                      Nebraska Game and Parks Commission, 1972, Survey of habitat: Lincoln,
                            Nebraska Game and Parks Commission, Workplan K-71, 78 p.
                      -1984, Survey of habitat: Lincoln, Nebraska Game and Parks Com-
                            mission Workplan K- 83, 13 p.
                      Williams, G.P., 1978, The case of the shrinking channels-The North Platte
                            and Platte Rivers in Nebraska: U.S. Geological Survey Circular 781,
                            48 p.
                      Winter, T.C., 1986, Effect of ground-water recharge on configuration of the
                            water table beneath sand dunes and on seepage in lakes in the sandhills
                            of Nebraska, U.S.A.: Journal of Hydrology, v. 86, no. 3/4, p. 221-237.


                      FOR ADDITIONAL INFORMATION: District Chief, U.S. Geological
                      Survey, Room 406, Federal Building, 100 Centennial Mail North, Lincoln,
                      NE 68508; Regional Wetland Coordinator, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service,
                      Fish and Wildlife Enhancement, P.O. Box 25486, Denver Federal Center,
                      Denver, CO 80225


                                                     Prepared by
                                                 Jill D. Frankforter,
                                              U.S. Geological Survey

















































                                                                       U.S. Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper 2425








                                                                                                                    National Water Summary-Wetland Resources 267
                                                                                                                                            Nevada
                                                                                                                      Wetland Resources
                 Wtlands cover less than 1 percent of Nevada but are some of                     (1990) for wetlands in Lahontan Valley. Palustrine and lacustrine
                 the most economically and ecologically valuable lands in the State.             wetlands constitute most of the State's wetland acreage. Forested,
                 Wetlands provide important habitat for the State's fish and wildlife.           scrub-shrub, and emergent wetlands are the most common types of
                 In Nevada, riparian (streamside) wetlands and large marshes pro-                palustrine wetlands. Riparian wetlands are mostly forested and
                 vide stopover and breeding grounds for migratory waterfowl. Many                scrub-shrub types.
                 of Nevada's threatened and endangered species inhabit wetlands.                       The Bureau ofLand Management (BLM) administers almost 48
                 Other important functions of wetlands include flood attenuation,                million acres of land in Nevada, of which approximately 75,000
                 bank stabilization, and water-quality improvement (fig. 1). Eco-                acres are riparian-wetland habitat (Bureau of Land Management,
                 nomic benefits, such as recreational activities, are abundant in                1991). More than 2,100 miles of riparian -stream habitat are present
                 Nevada's wetland areas and include hunting, fishing, boating, bird              on BLM land in Nevada. Some of the largest areas of riparian wet-
                 watching, photography, and camping. Other economic benefits of                  lands are along the Humboldt River and the upper part of the White
                 wetlands and associated lands include grazing and mining. Wetland               River. Large marshes, such as Stillwater Marsh (33,400 acres) and
                 vegetation generally is more lush than that in surrounding uplands,             Humboldt Marsh (58,000 acres) and those on Carson Lake (25,600
                 so it is desirable for grazing of cattle or sheep. Mining of placer gold        acres) and Ruby and Franklin Lakes (20,000 acres combined), are
                 and silver deposits in riparian wetlands has been a profitable ven-             mostly scrub-shrub and emergent wetlands. Many of the basins in
                 ture in parts of Nevada but not without negative effects on wetland             Nevada contain playa and wet-meadow wetlands; these are espe-
                 resources. Economic-grade uranium deposits are present in alpine                cially common in the northwestern part of the State. Some of the
                 peat bogs and fens in the Sierra Nevada but have not been exploited.            largest playas are in the Black Rock Desert in northwestern Nevada,
                                                                                                 Spring Valley in eastern Nevada, Railroad Valley in south-central
                 TYPES AND DISTRIBUTION                                                          Nevada, Smoke Creek Desert in northwestern Nevada, Carson Sink
                                                                                                 in west-central Nevada, Winnemucca Lake in northwestern Nevada,
                       Wetlands are lands transitional between terrestrial and                   and Clayton Valley in southwestern Nevada. Pyramid Lake, Lake
                 deepwater habitats where the water table usually is at or near the              Tahoe, Walker Lake, Lake Mead (a reservoir), and many smaller
                 land surface or the land is covered by shallow water (Cowardin and              reservoirs contain most of the nonplaya lacustrine wetlands. River-
                 others, 1979). The distribution of wetlands and deepwater habitats              ine wetlands make up only a small percentage of the wetland acre-
                 in Nevada is shown in figure 2A; only wetlands are discussed herein.            age in the State.
                       Wetlands can be vegetated or nonvegetated and are classified
                 on the basis of their hydrology, vegetation, and substrate. In this             HYDROLOGIC SETTING
                 summary, wetlands are classified according to the system proposed
                 by Cowardin and others (1979), which is used by the U.S. Fish and                     Wetlands in Nevada are limited to areas where there is a per-
                 Wildlife Service (FWS) to map and inventory the NatiotYs wetlands.              sistent water supply at or near land surface. The location and per-
                 At the most general level of the classification system, wetlands are            sistence of water supply is a function of several interrelated factors,
                 grouped into five ecological systems: Palustrine, Lacustrine, Riv-              including climate, physiography, and hydrology.
                 erine, Estuarine, and Marine. The Palustrine System includes only                     In Nevada, precipitation (fig. 2B) and runoff (fig. 2C) have
                 wetlands, whereas the other systems comprise wetlands and                       wide ranges in values annually, seasonally, and areally (Moosburner,
                 deepwater habitats. Wetlands of the systems that occur in Nevada                1986). Nevada, the most and State in the Nation, has average an-
                 are described below.                                                            nual precipitation values ranging from more than 16 inches in the
                                                                                                 Sierra Nevada and other high mountain ranges to less than 4 inches

                 System                                  Wetland description

                 Palustrine .................. Wetlands in which vegetation is predominantly
                                          trees (forested wetlands)- shrubs (scrub-shrub
                                          wetlands); persistentor no npersistent emergent,
                                          erect, rooted, herbaceous plants (persistent- and
                                          nonpersistent-emergent wetlands); or sub-
                                          mersed and (or) floating plants (aquatic beds).
                                          Also, intermittently to permanently flooded
                                          open-water bodies of less than 20 acres in which
                                          water is less than 6.6 feet deep.
                 Lacustrine ................. Wetlands within an intermittently to permanently
                                          flooded lake or reservoir. Vegetation, when pres-
                                          ent, is predominantly nonpersistent emergent
                                          plants (non persistent-emergent wetlands), or
                                          submersed and (or) floating plants (aquatic
                                          beds), or both.
                 Riverine ..................... Wetlands within a channel. Vegetation, when pres- Figure 1. Wetland in Carson Valley, about 5 miles south of Carson
                                          ent, is same as in the Lacustrine System.              City. This wetland was constructed to receive treated sewage
                                                                                                 effluent from Incline Village in the Lake Tahoe Basin and to function
                       Nevadahad about236,350 acres ofwetlands in the mid4980's,                 as a nutrient-removal system for the effluent before discharge into
                 according to an inventory by the FWS (Dahl, 1990). However, wet-                the Carson River. View looking southwest, with Sierra Nevada in
                 land acreage available as bird and fish habitat varies considerably             background, 1993. (Photograph by Michael S. Lico, U.S. Geologi-
                 from wet years to dry years, as detailed by Hoffman and others                  cal Survey)









                     268      National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: STATE SUMMARIES



                     near Fallon and in the Las Vegas area. Runoff in the spring and early                   with discharge areas. Ground water commonly discharges from
                     summer is mostly a result of snowmelt and is greatest in the moun-                      springs and seeps along the fault-bounded basins and creates wet-
                     tain areas. Occasional summer thunderstorms can create large                            lands. Water for the Ruby Lake wetlands (fig. 2A) is mostly from
                     amounts of runoff, although these storms generally are localized.                       spring discharge. Playa lakes, where wetlands are maintained by
                           Evaporation, which removes water that could potentially form                      water from the typically shallow water table, are another common
                     wetlands, is greatest in the lower altitudes and southern part of the                   setting for wetlands. Wetlands also are present at the discharge points
                     State (fig. 2D). The lowest yearly evaporation is in the Sierra Ne-                     of regional ground-water flow systems, where springs commonly
                     vada and other high mountain
                     ranges. Large tracts of land in                                     119.                                                                 115.
                     the basin areas have high evapo-
                     ration rates, as much as 80
                     inches per year in the lowlands
                     near the Colorado River
                     (Moosburner, 1986).                                    W@01 M
                                                                                   '';@'               .'. v
                           Potential evaporation ex-                                                                 Y
                     ceeds precipitation in most of                       "-f
                     Nevada, the exceptions being in                                                                   Y'                                                        41
                     the high mountain areas, creat-
                     ing a water deficit that inhibits                             gfhob
                                                                                   C,4ek                Ry. P.th
                     wetland development. The exist-                               Doan
                     ence of fens (emergent wetlands
                     that have organic soil) in high
                                                                                                 Hu Idt
                     mountain valleys and the pau-
                                                                           ja
                     city of them in lower altitude                       vm  rid
                                                                                   ke
                     basins attests to their depen-
                     dence on abundant water from                         Truek@     Ferr'4                  htrsh                    Aj
                     precipitation. However, steep to-                 R n         ks      r
                     pography and shifting stream                 Washo, FAk
                     channels prevent the formation          incline villag                         n Lake
                                                                               amn C         Lothown. R@@ir                                                                   Gr@ Ba3in
                     of fens in many areas where ad-                 Lk@                                                                                                      Natilal Park
                     equate water is present.                       Th.c           Y
                           In most of the basins in                                                                                                              7r rstll
                     Nevada, wetlands are associated



                                                                  7


                                                                                                             ton
                                                                                                                                                                       Pen      An'
                                                                                                                                           j.r



                                                                                                                                                       1\                           37'


                                                                                           0        25       50 MILES

                                                                                           0   25 50 KILOMETERS



                                                                                                                                                                              Mcud

                                                                                           A


                                                                                              E          AN     EEPWATER HABITATS


                                                                                              This map shows the approximate distribution of large
                                                                                           Distribution of wetlands and deepwater habitats-
                       B
                                                                'Zt,_                         wetlands in the State. Because of limitations of scale
                       PRECIPITATION                           WT r4)                          and  source material, some wetlands are not shown
                       -16- Line of average annual                                                  Predominantly wetland
                                precipitation - Interval,                                           Predominantly deepwater habitat
                                in inches, is variable


                     Figure 2. Wetland distribution in Nevada and           physical and climatological features that control wetland distribution in the State. A,
                     Distribution of wetlands and cleepwater habitats. B, Annual precipitation. (Sources: A, TE. Dahl, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, unpub.
                     data, 1991; B, Moosbumer 1986.)








                                                                                                                   National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: NEVADA                        269



                   discharge large volumes of ground water. An example of this hy-                          written commun., 1993); this water-table rise has resulted in the
                   drologic setting is the Ash Meadows wetlands (Winograd and                               formation of small wetlands throughout the valley.
                   Thordarson, 1975).                                                                             Wetlands can be formed by other human activities. Dewater-
                          In the high mountain areas of the State, wetlands commonly                        ing -more than 23,000 acre-feet in 1991-of a large open-pit mine
                   form in glaciated valleys. Glacially scoured valleys commonly have                       in Desert Valley in northern Nevada has created a lush wetland of
                   large cirque basins where remnant glaciers or semipermanent snow                         3,500 acres that is being used by increasing numbers of waterfowl.
                   fields supply water for wetlands. Many of these cirque basins have                       In Carson Valley, about 900 acres of wetlands have been created by
                   lakes (tarns) that provide wetland habitat. Below the cirque basins,                     constructing cells (diked impoundments) and filling them with
                   the glaciated mountain valleys typically are steep sided, U-shaped,                      treated sewage effluent from the Lake Tahoe Basin (fig. 1). The area
                   and have relatively flat floors with low-gradient streams. Wetlands                      has become a popular duck-hunting site.
                   form on the valley floors in cut-off meander channels (oxbows),                                 Stillwater Marsh is an important wetland complex in the Pa-
                   behind glacial moraines, in small kettle holes, and behind beaver                        cific Flyway. Archeological evidence indicates that as much as 5,000
                   dams.                                                                                    years ago humans used the marsh for food resources (Hoffman and
                          Riparian wetlands are present along most of the perennial                         others, 1990). Because of the importance of Stillwater Marsh and
                   streams in Nevada. These wetlands occur along natural streambanks                        other Lahontan Valley wetlands to migratory birds, the area has been
                   and constructed channels. Annual flushing of stream channels and                         classified as a Hemispheric Reserve within the Western Hemispheric
                   wetlands by spring floods has been attenuated largely by diversion                       Shorebird Reserve Network (WHSRN) by the WHSRN Council.
                   for irrigation, stream channelization, and construction of dams.                         Lahontan Valley supports about 75 percent of the ducks, 50 per-
                   However, constructed water bodies such as reservoirs, canals, and                        cent of the Canada geese, and 65 percent of the tundra swans in the
                   agricultural drains are common settings for wetland formation. As                        State. Between 30 and 50 percent of the Pacific Flyway canvasback
                   an example of an artificially maintained wetland system, leakage                         ducks stop in Lahontan Valley in the fall.
                   from a canal near Fernley raised the water table until drainage                                 Stillwater Marsh is located at the terminus of the Carson River,
                   ditches had to be dug to lower the water table for efficient crop                        which flowed freely to the wetlands until the Newlands Project was
                   growth. The water in these ditches flows to a State Wildlife Area                        constructed in the early 1900's. Annual springtime floods flushed
                   where wetlands are present near the channels and impoundments.                           the wetlands and removed accumulated mineral salts, leaving a
                          Most wetlands are maintained by a shallow water table. The                        prime freshwater marsh. Currently, most of the water flowing to
                   water-table altitude depends on several factors, among which are                         Stillwater Marsh is irrigation drainage that has high concentrations
                   geology, topography, soil characteristics, water supply, plampage,                       of arsenic, boron, selenium, and other toxic constituents (Lico,
                   and local hydrology. Irrigation of land for agriculture commonly                         1992). Owing to the highly regulated nature of the irrigation sys-
                   results in a rise of the water table, which can create wetlands. The                     tem, springtime floods are uncommon, and no mechanism exists to
                   Newlands (irrigation) Project near Fallon in western Nevada has                          remove salts from the marsh. Presently, Stillwater Marsh would
                   caused the water table in parts of Lahontan Valley to rise by as much                    require large volumes of freshwater to reduce the salinity and con-
                   as 30 to 60 feet (Rush, 1972; R.L. Seiler, U.S. Geological Survey,                       centrations of several toxic constituents that have been implicated



                                                           0       to                                                                                                              40
                                                                               to   ':'N                                                                        40

                                              to                                             0.1
                                                                                                                                      1   45                                             55

                                                                                                                                                                              40
                                                                                                                                                                                45       50
                                            al
                                                                                             a I
                                                           0&                   104
                                                                                                                                                                                4

                                           10.1
                                                                                                                               40                                                        45
                                                                                                                                45

                                                  o's      10                                                                        40                                                  50
                                                                                                                                          40
                                                                  14"   04                                                                                      5     0                  50
                                                                                                                                                45
                                                                                                                                                                                AD     5


                                                                                                                                                                         60     tl@
                          C          RUNOFF                                                                         D           EVAPORATION                                     so
                                    -0. 7- Line of average annual                                                                45- Line of equal water-free-
                                              runoff - Interval,                                                                           surface evaporation -               75
                                              in inches, is variable                                                                       Interval, 5 inches




                          Figure 2. Continued. Wetland distribution              in Nevada and physical and climatological features that control wetland distribution in
                          the State. C, Annual runoff. D, Annual free-water-surface (lake) evaporation. (Sources: C, Moosburrier 1986; D, Farnsworth and
                          others, 1982.)








                    270     National Water Surnmary-Wetland Resources: STATE SUMMARIES



                    in the deaths and low reproduction rates of waterfowl (Hoffman and               the poor quality of the riparian wetland habitat is overgrazing of
                    others, 1990; Lico, 1992). Volumes of irrigation return flow will                cattle on Federal land (Bureau of Land Management, 1992). The
                    be further reduced when the Newlands Project implements operat-                  BLm has formal plans for improving the condition of wetlands un-
                    ing criteria adopted by the Bureau ofReclamation [(BOR)1987]. Re-                der its jurisdiction (Bureau of Land Management, 1991). Urban
                    cent drought has severely affected Stillwater Marsh, leaving only a              development, particularly near Reno, has adversely affected wet-
                    few hundred acres of water surface for waterfowl use. In 1990, Public            lands; detrimental activities include building directly on filled wet-
                    Law 101-618 was passed by Congress, authorizing the FWS to pur-                  lands, draining of wetlands, channelization of creeks and rivers, and
                    chase water rights from willing sellers within the Newlands Project              contamination of wetlands by inadequately treated sewage and in-
                    area and use the water for maintenance of wildlife habitat. The                  dustrial waste. Las Vegas Wash contains wetlands that are threat-
                    Nevada Department of Wildlife and The Nature Conservancy are                     ened by treated municipal sewage effluent, industrial chemicals, and
                    assisting FWS in this "water-buyout program."                                    erosion.
                         Ash Meadows wetlands, in southern Nevada, are administered                       According to Thompson and Merritt (1988), 82 percent of
                    by the Fws and are the sole habitat for 33 plant and animal species              wetlands have been lost in western Nevada. They document the loss
                    (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 1990). The wetlands are home for                of two National Wildlife Refuges and the decreasing quality of the
                    three species of endangered pupfish and one species of speckled                  remaining wetlands. Historical accounts by Captain J.H. Simpson
                    dace. These unique wetlands are a result of ground water from a                  in 1859 of conditions before irrigation read as follows: "Carson Lake
                    regional carbonate-rock aquifer discharging through lake-bed de-                 beautifully blue; lake margined with rushes; the shores are covered
                    posits to a series of springs along a fault contact. More than 17,000            with muscle-shells [sic]; pelicans and other aquatic fowl a charac-
                    acre-feet of water discharges from these springs annually (Winograd              teristic." According to Simpson, "***the lake is filled with fish***";
                    and Thordarson, 1975). Devils Hole National Monument, adminis-                   he also observed that the local Indians had ""Piles of fish lying
                    tered by the National Park Service (NIPS), is included in this group             about drying" (Simpson, 1876). Carson Lake no longer supports
                    of wetlands but is unique in that it occupies a solution cavern in the           fish populations of any consequence. The loss of wetlands was
                    carbonate-rock aquifer. The Devils Hole pupfish, an endangered                   mostly due to diversion of strearnflow to irrigate crops in western
                    species, is found only within this small pool (U.S. Fish and Wild-               Nevada and for urban uses in the Reno-Sparks area. The drought
                    life Service, 1990).                                                             of the late 1980's to early 1990's further reduced the acreage of wet-
                         Carson Valley, in western Nevada, is the setting for wetlands               lands in western Nevada.
                    of a different nature. Incline Village, in the Lake Tahoe Basin, ex-                  Some human activities have resulted in an increase in wetland
                    ports all of its treated sewage effluent to Carson Valley by way of a            acreage. Constructed wetlands in Carson Valley (fig, 1) utilize sew-
                    pipeline. Before 1984, the effluent was discharged into the Carson               age effluent to provide habitat for waterfowl. In Desert Valley, a
                    River at the northern end of the valley. In 1975, the U.S. Environ-              mine-dewatering operation has supplied water for constructed wet-
                    mental Protection Agency (EPA) issued a more stringent discharge                 lands that have become important habitat for waterfowl and other
                    permit; as a result, several diked impoundments were constructed                 wildlife. Wetlands were constructed by the Nevada Department of
                    to hold the sewage effluent, creating a 900-acre site with 140 acres             Transportation in Washoe Valley near Washoe Lake to offset losses
                    of permanent wetlands. The area now provides nesting habitat for                 from highway construction (John Nelson, Nevada Division of En-
                    waterfowl and recreational opportunities for residents of the area.              vironmental Protection, oral commun., 1993). Leakage from the
                         Ruby Lake wetlands are cast of the Ruby Mountains in north-                 Truckee Canal near Fernley has been used to create an extensive
                    eastern Nevada (fig. 2A). The FWS operates and maintains a 37,600-               wetland operated and maintained by the Department of Wildlife.
                    acre National Wildlife Refuge there, which includes the marsh and                Agriculture-related activities, including construction of ponds, res-
                    surrounding area. During a year of average precipitation, more than              ervoirs (such as Lahontan and Rye Patch), drainage ditches, and
                    13,000 acres of bird and fish habitat are present in the spring, de-             canals, undoubtedly have added to wetland acreage throughout the
                    clining to about 11,000 acres in the fall. Water for the wetlands is             State.
                    provided mostly by the discharge of many springs at the base of the
                    Ruby Mountains. This discharge is proportional to the amount of                  CONSERVATION
                    snowpack in the mountains (Jeff Mackay, U.S. Fish and Wildlife
                    Service, written commun., 1992). More than 200 species of birds                       Many government agencies and private organizations partici-
                    regularly use the wetlands for nesting, feeding, or stopover during              pate in wetland conservation in Nevada. The most active agencies
                    migration periods. In some years, more than 6,000 ducks, mostly                  and organizations and some of their activities are listed in table 1.
                    redheads and canvasbacks, have hatched at the marsh.                                  Federal wetland activities.-Development activities in Nevada
                                                                                                     wetlands are regulated by several Federal statutory prohibitions and
                    TRENDS                                                                           incentives that are intended to slow wetland losses. Some of the more
                                                                                                     important of these are contained in the 1899 Rivers and Harbors
                         The Fws has estimated that, from the 1780's to the 1980's, 52               Act; the 1972 Clean Water Act and amendments; the 1985 Food
                    percent of Nevada's wetlands were lost (Dahl, 1990). In terms of                 Security Act; the 1990 Food, Agriculture, Conservation, and Trade
                    area, that represents a loss of about 25 1,000 acres of wetlands dur-            Act; and the 1986 Emergency Wetlands Resources Act.
                    ing settlement of the State. Conversion of wetlands to cropland and                   Section 10 of the Rivers and Harbors Act gives the U.S. Army
                    diversion of water for agricultural and urban purposes are the pri-              Corps of Engineers (Corps) authority to regulate certain activities
                    mary reasons for this loss of wetlands. A large part of the flow in              in navigable waters. Regulated activities include diking, deepening,
                    major rivers within the State (Carson, Humboldt, Truckee, and                    filling, excavating, and placing of structures. The related section 404
                    Walker) has been diverted for irrigation, leaving insufficient quan-             of the Clean Water Act is the most often-used Federal legislation
                    tities of water for wetland maintenance. Riparian wetlands have been             protecting wetlands. Under section 404 provisions, the Corps issues
                    drastically affected by a variety of human activities. The BLM, which            permits regulating the discharge of dredged or fill material into
                    administers approximately 2, 100 miles of riparian stream habitat                wetlands. Permits are subject to review and possible veto by the EPA,
                    in the State, has reported that more than 80 percent of that habitat             and the Fws has review and advisory roles. Section 401 of the Clean
                    is in poor condition (Nevada Department of Conservation and Natu-                Water Act grants to States and eligible Indian Tribes the authority
                    ral Resources, 1988). In the same report, the U.S. Forest Service                to approve, apply conditions to, or deny section 404 permit appli-
                    (FS) estimated that 53 percent of the riparian wetlands under its                cations on the basis of a proposed activity's probable effects on the
                    jurisdiction are in fair to poor condition. The primary reason for               water quality of a wetland,








                                                                                                                                                               National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: NEVADA                                                   271



                           Tablel. Selected wetland-related activities of government                                                                 1991). The BLM and Fs have riparian-wetland management plans that
                           agencies and private organizations in Nevada, 1993                                                                        include educating the public on the benefits and importance of
                           [Source: Classification of activities is generalized from information provided                                            healthy riparian areas; assessing acreage and condition of riparian
                                by agencies and organizations. a, agency or organization participates in                                             wetlands; and restoring, maintaining, and protecting riparian wet-
                                wetland-related activity; ..., agency or organization does not participate in                                        lands. The BLm has acquired about 5,000 acres of wetlands in Sol-
                                wetland-related activity. MAN, management; REG, regulation; R&C, resto-
                                ration and creation; LAN, land acquisition; R&D, research and data collec-                                           dier Meadow, Black Rock Desert, through land exchange. Military
                                tion; D&I, delineation and inventory]                                                                                installations are responsible for preparing resource-management
                                                                                                                                                     plans for fish and wildlife, recreation, and other natural and cultural
                                                                                                                                                     resources. The plans provide policy and a framework for address-
                           Agency or organization                                                           0     0@     '3@'   4P                   ing wetland and other natural and cultural resource issues. The FWS
                           FEDERAL                                                                                                                   manages seven National Wildlife Refuges, two National Wildlife
                           Department of Agriculture                                                                                                 Ranges, and two fish hatcheries in Nevada. National Wildlife Ref-
                             Consolidated Farm Service Agency                  ........................... ...                                       uges total more than 220,000 acres and National Wildlife Ranges
                             Forest Service        ...............    .................................................0                             total more than 2 million acres. The NPS manages more than 77,000
                             Natural Resources Conservation Service                    ................ ...                                          acres of land (National Park Service, 199 1) at two locations - Great
                           Department of Defense
                             Army Corps of Engineers                  .............................................. ...                             Basin National Park and Devils Hole National Monument. An esti-
                             Military reservations                    :*................ ..............* ..........0                                 mate of wetland acreages within National Parks in Nevada does not
                           Department ofthe Interior                                                                                                 exist. The BOR is involved in the restoration and creation of wetlands
                             Bureau of Land Management                ......................................0                                        in conjunction with some of their projects and has been instrumen-
                             Bureau of Reclamation                    ................................................. ... ...                      tal in the construction of irrigation projects in Nevada. Inherently
                             Fish and Wildlife Service                ..............................................e                                associated with these projects is the alteration of natural riparian
                             Geological Survey          .......................................................... ... ... ... ...a
                             National Biological Service              ......................................... ... ... ... ...   0                  and wet-meadow wetlands. The BOR has attempted either to mini-
                             National Park Service                    ...................................................                            mize or to mitigate adverse effects on these wetlands.
                           Environmental Protection Agency                   .............................                                                   State wetland activities. - Several State agencies are involved
                           STATE                                                                                                                     in wetland activities in Nevada (table 1). Nevada does not currently
                           Department of Conservation and                                                                                            (1993) have a comprehensive wetlands-protection program but fol-
                           Natural Resources:
                             Division of Environmental Protection               ................  ....... ...0                                       lows Federal policy and cooperates in many Federal programs.
                             Division of State Lands                  .................................................. ...0... ... ... ...                 Four agencies within the Nevada Department of Conservation
                             Division of State Parks                  i*...................* ......................000                               and Natural Resources engage in wetland-related activities. The
                             Division of Water Planning               ........................................... ...0                               Division of Environmental Protection is the key regulatory agency
                           Department of Transportation               ......................................... ... ...                              and enforces provisions of the Clean Water Act within the State.
                           Department of Wildlife                     ......................... ....................*0
                           PRIVATE                                                                                                                   Pursuant to section 305(b) of the act, the Division of Environmen-
                           Ducks Unlimited        .................................................................. ... ...                         tal Protection submits to the EPA and the U.S. Congress a biennial
                           Environmental Defense Fund                 ..............  ............................ ... ...                           assessment of the State's surface-water quality (Nevada Department
                           The Nature Conservancy                     ........... ....................                                               of Conservation and Natural Resources, 1992), including that of
                                                                                                                                                     wetlands. The Division issues discharge permits, monitors water
                                                                                                                                                     quality, and sets water-quality standards for Nevada. Reviews for
                                   Most farming, ranching, and silviculture activities are not sub-                                                  subdivision permits also are under the jurisdiction of the Division
                           ject to section 404 regulation. However, the "Swampbuster" pro-                                                           of Environmental Protection. The Division of Water Planning is
                           vision of the 1985 Food Security Act and amendments in the 1990                                                           responsible for review of section 404 permit applications, and Di-
                           Food, Agriculture, Conservation, and Trade Act discourage (through                                                        vision approval is necessary for the Corps to issue a permit. The
                           financial disincentives) the draining, filling, or other alteration of                                                    Division of State Lands has legislative authority for wetlands pro-
                           wetlands for agricultural use. The law allows exemptions from peri-                                                       tection on lands owned or managed by the State of Nevada; the
                           alties in some cases, especially if the farmer agrees to restore the                                                      Division issues permits for all activities associated with State lands.
                           altered wetland or other wetlands that have been converted to agri-                                                       The Division of State Parks is responsible for management of State
                           cultural use. The Wetlands Reserve Program of the 1990 Food,                                                              park land and reviews activities that may affect wetlands in parks.
                           Agriculture, Conservation, and Trade Act authorizes the Federal                                                           The Division of State Parks has been involved in the construction
                           Government to purchase conservation easements from landowners                                                             of wetlands on State park land and is responsible for Nevada's State-
                           who agree to protect or restore wetlands. The Consolidated Farm                                                           wide Comprehensive Outdoor Recreation Plans, which contain a
                           Service Agency (formerly the Agricultural Stabilization and Cori-                                                         summary of wetland-related activities within the State.
                           servation Service) administers the Swampbuster provisions and Wet-                                                                The Nevada Department of Transportation is responsible for
                           lands Reserve Program. The Natural Resources Conservation                                                                 assessing and mitigating impacts on wetlands that are a result of
                           Service (formerly the Soil Conservation Service) determines com-                                                          highway construction and maintenance. In cooperation with Depart-
                           pliance with Swampbuster provisions and assists farmers in the iden-                                                      ment of State Parks, the Department of Transportation has con-
                           tification of wetlands and in the development of wetland protection,                                                      structed wetlands near Washoe Lake to mitigate losses of wetlands
                           restoration, or creation plans.                                                                                           from construction of nearby highways.
                                   The 1986 Emergency Wetlands Resources Act encourages                                                                      The Department of Wildlife is responsible for day-to-day man-
                           wetland protection through funding incentives. The act requires                                                           agement of the State's 10 Wildlife Management Areas (comprising
                           States to address wetland protection in their Statewide Compreherl-                                                       about 256,000 acres). These areas contain important wetlands and
                           sive Outdoor Recreation Plans to qualify for Federal funding for                                                          include areas such as Carson Lake in Lahontan Valley and Franklin
                           State recreational land; the Nps provides guidance to States in de-                                                       Lake on the eastern side of the Ruby Mountains. The Department
                           veloping the wetland component of their plans.                                                                            of Wildlife can require a Habitat Modification Permit before dredg-
                                   Federal agencies are responsible for the proper management                                                        ing in any river, stream, or lake if the Department determines that
                           of wetlands on public land under their jurisdiction. The BLM, FS, and                                                     the activity will be harmful to fish. The Department of Wildlife has
                           the Department of Defense administer most of the Federal land in                                                          been monitoring the condition of wetlands by taking yearly popu-
                           Nevada; BLM land (almost 48 million acres) alone contains about                                                           lation counts of waterfowl (Norman Saake, Nevada Department of
                           75,000 acres of riparian wetlands (Bureau of Land Management,                                                             Wildlife, oral commun., 1992). The Department of Wildlife has the








                     272      National Water Surnmary-Wetland Resources: STATE SUMMARIES



                     authority to implement and manage a program for conserving, pro-                    Farnsworth, R.K., Thompson, E.S., and Peck, E.L., 1982, Evaporation at-
                     tecting, restoring, and propagating selected species of native fishes                     las for the contiguous 48 United States: National Oceanic and Atmo-
                     and other wildlife that are threatened with extinction. Wetlands have                     spheric Administration Rchnical Report NWS 33, 27 p.
                     been constructed under the auspices of the Department of Wildlife;                  Hoffman, R.J., Hallock, R.J., Rowe, T.G., Lico, M.S., Burge, H.L., and
                                                                                                               Thompson, S.P., 1990, Reconnaissance investigation of water qual-
                     these wetlands, which are mostly for waterfowl, include most of the                       ity, bottom sediment, and biota associated with irrigation drainage in
                     State Wildlife Management Areas and those constructed with the                            and near Stillwater Wildlife Management Area, Churchill County,
                     cooperation of private entities.                                                          Nevada, 1986-87: U.S. Geological Survey Water-Resources Investi-
                           County and local wetland activities. -Most regulation of de-                        gations Report 89-4105, 150 p.
                     velopment activities in Nevada's wetlands is accomplished through                   Lico, M.S., 1992, Detailed study of irrigation drainage in and near wildlife
                     Federal and State laws, However, some local activities, such as pond                      management areas, west-central Nevada, 1987 -90. Part A -Water
                     construction at local parks or river-enhancement projects, also can                       quality, sediment composition, and hydrogeochemical processes in
                     be beneficial to wetlands.                                                                Stillwater and Fernley Wildlife Management Areas: U.S. Geological
                           Private wetland activities. -Activities by private entities in-                     Survey Water-Resources Investigations Report 92-.4024A, 65 p.
                     clude purchasing wetlands and water rights, public education on                     Livermore, David, 1988, Wetlands acquired in the Ruby Valley: The Na-
                     wetland issues, and lobbying for wetland- enhancement legislation.                        ture Conservancy, Great Basin Newsletter, Spring 1988, unpaginated.
                                                                                                         Moosburner, Otto, 1986, Nevada surface-water resources, in U.S. Geological
                     The Nature Conservancy is perhaps the most active private organi-                         Survey, National water summary 1985 -Hydrologic events and sur-
                     zation involved in wetland protection in Nevada. The Nature Con-                          face-water resources: U.S. Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper
                     servancy has one wetland holding in Condor Canyon, a part of                              2300, p. 323 - 328.
                     Meadow Valley Wash near Panaca. Purchasing sensitive wetland                        National Park Service, 199 1, Draft general management plan, development
                     areas has been a critical function of The Nature Conservancy in                           concept plans, and environmental impact statement, Great Basin Na-
                     Nevada. The Nature Conservancy has purchased land containing                              tional Park, White Pine County, Nevada: Denver, Colo., National Park
                     wetlands at Franklin Lake and Ash Meadows and sold the proper-                            Service, 274 p.
                     ties to State or Federal agencies for management (Livermore, 1988).                 Nevada Department of Conservation and Natural Resources, 1988, Nevada's
                                                                                                               wetlands-An element of recreation in Nevada, 1987-Statewide
                     In Lahontan Valley, The Nature Conservancy has purchased water                            comprehensive outdoor recreation plan: Carson City, Nevada Depart-
                     rights from farmers within the Newlands Project area, taking land                         ment of Conservation and Natural Resources, Division of State Parks,
                     out of agricultural production, and is reselling the water rights to                      78 p.
                     the Fws for use at Stillwater Marsh. This action is providing fresh-                -1992, Nevada water quality assessment (305b) report: Carson City,
                     water to the marsh, which has received irrigation drainage as its only                    Nevada Department of Conservation and Natural Resources, Division
                     source of water in recent years. This effort by The Nature Conser-                        of Environmental Protection, unpagmated.
                     vancy will result in an improvement of the habitat in this important                Rush, F.E., 1972, Hydrologic reconnaissance of Big and Little Soda Lakes,
                     welland on the Pacific Flyway. The Environmental Defense Fund                             Churchill County, Nevada: Nevada Division of Water Resources, In-
                     has been actively assisting The Nature Conservancy in acquisition                         formation Report 11, 1 sheet.
                                                                                                         Simpson, J.H., 1876, Report of explorations across the Great Basin of the
                     of water rights in Lahontan Valley. Ducks Unlimited also acquires                         territory of Utah for a direct wagon-route from Camp Floyd to Genoa,
                     wetlands for purposes of conservation. Private local and national                         in Carson Valley, in 1859: Reno, University of Nevada Press, 518 p.
                     organizations that participate in educational or lobbying activities                      (Reprinted in 1983.)
                     in the State include gun and hunting clubs, the Sierra Club, the                    Thompson, S.P., and Merritt, K.L., 1988, Western Nevada wetlands-His-
                     Lahontan Valley Wetlands Coalition, the National Audubon Soci-                            tory and current status, in Blesse, R.E., and Goin, Peter, eds., Nevada
                     ety, and the Nevada Waterfowl Association.                                                public affairs review no. 1: Reno, University of Nevada, p. 40-45.
                                                                                                         U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 1990, Recovery plan for the endangered and
                                                                                                               threatened species of Ash Meadows, Nevada: Portland, Oreg., U.S.
                     References Cited                                                                          Fish and Wildlife Service, 123 p.
                     Bureau of Land Management, 1991, Riparian-wetland initiative for the                Winograd, I.J., and Thordarson, William, 1975, Hydrogeologic and
                           1990's: U.S. Bureau of Land Management Report BLM/W0/GI-9l/                         hydrochernical framework, south-central Great Basin, Nevada-Cali-
                           00 1 +4340, 50 p.                                                                   fornia, with special reference to the Nevada Test Site: U.S. Geologi-
                     -1992, BLM-Meeting the challenge in 1991 -Recreation 2000,                                cal Survey Professional Paper 712-C, 126 p.
                           fish and wildlife 2000, riparian-wetland initiative for the 1990's -
                           Progress report on the implementation of three initiatives: U.S. Bu-          FOR ADDIT10NAL INFORMATION: District Chief, U.S.. Geological
                           reau of Land Management Report BLM-WO-GI-92-003-4333,                         Survey, 333 W. Nye Lane, Carson City, NV 89706; Regional Wetland Co-
                           94 p.                                                                         ordinator, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Eastside Federal Complex, 911
                     Bureau of Reclamation, 1987, Final environmental impact statement for the           NE. I I th Avenue, Portland, OR 97232
                           Newlands Project, proposed operating criteria and procedures: Wash-
                           ington, D.C., U.S. Bureau of Reclamation, 332 p.
                     Cowardin, L.M., Carter, Virginia, Golet, F.C., and LaRoe, E.T., 1979, Clas-                                        Prepared by
                           sification of wetlands and deepwater habitats of the United States: U.S.                                   Michael S. Lico
                           Fish and Wildlife Service Report FWS/OBS -79/31, 131 p.                                                U.S. Geological Survey
                     Dahl, T.E., 1990, Wetlands-Losses in the United States, 1780's to 1980's:
                           Washington, D.C., U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Report to Congress,
                           13 p.











                                                                       U.S. Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper 2425








                                                                                                                                           National Water Summary-Wetland Resources 273
                                                                                                                          New Hampshire
                                                                                                                                             Wetland Resources
                    Wtlands are an integral part of New Hampshire's natural re-                                           Rubin and others (1993) used LANDSAT (satellite) imagery
                    sources. They provide essential habitat for wildlife and vegetation,                            to estimate wetland area at 396,246 acres, or about 6.7 percent of
                    including rare and endangered species and natural communities.                                  the State. That estimate probably underestimates the actual wetland
                    Wetlands are a source of timber and provide opportunities for hunt-                             area owing to similarities between evergreen forest in upland and
                    ing and fishing, education and research, and bird, wildlife, and plant                          wetland areas. Also, LANDSAT imagery cannot discern wetlands
                    observation, all of which benefit the tourist industry and economy,                             smaller than about 2 acres (Ken Kettenring, New Hampshire Wet-
                    Other benefits include flood control, bank- and shoreline-erosion                               lands Board, oral commun., 1993). Estimates of wetland area based
                    control, sediment retention, water filtration, and nutrient uptake. In                          on review of permits by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
                    recognition of the importance of wetlands, many government agen-                                (EPA) and field checking during functional assessments by the
                    cies and private organizations have worked to preserve wetlands and                             Audubon Society of New Hampshire place New Hampshire's wet-
                    educate the public about wetland values. For example, Lake                                      land area at about 10 percent of the State's total area (Mark Kern,
                    Umbagog and its associated wetlands (fig. 1), which constitute one                              Environmental Protection Agency, oral commun., 1993).
                    of the most productive wildlife areas in New Hampshire, are pro-                                      The distribution of wetlands in New Hampshire has been in-
                    tected by the State and by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (FWS)                             fluenced by the State's physiography (fig. 2B). In the northern part
                    as a National Wildlife Refuge.                                                                  of the White Mountain Section, glacial erosion and sediment de-
                                                                                                                    posits have created broad valleys in which large wetland complexes
                    TYPES AND DISTRIBUTION                                                                          have formed. For example, many wetlands are present along tribu-
                                                                                                                    taries to the Connecticut Lakes and Lake Francis near Pittsburg.
                           Wetlands are lands transitional between terrestrial and deep-                            Small wetlands in the White Mountains have formed mainly along
                    water habitats where the water table usually is at or near the land                             small streams in river valleys or where streams flow over flat benches
                    surface or the land is covered by shallow water (Cowardin and oth-                              on hillsides. Wetlands in the New England Upland and Seaboard
                    ers, 1979). The distribution of wetlands and deepwater habitats in                              Lowland Sections are in many settings, such as in topographic de-
                    New Hampshire is shown in figure 2A; only wetlands are discussed                                pressions, around the margins of ponds and lakes, and in river val-
                    herein.                                                                                         leys. In many areas of the State, small wetlands are interrelated and
                          Wetlands can be vegetated or nonvegetated and are classified                              form large wetland complexes.
                    on the basis of their hydrology, vegetation, and substrate. In this                                   To date (1993) there is no published information concerning
                    summary, wetlands are classified according to the system proposed                               acreage of the different wetland types in New Hampshire. However,
                    by Cowardin and others (1979), which is used by the FWS to map                                  the similarities of the ecological, hydrologic, and physiographic set-
                    and inventory the Natiods wetlands. At the most general level of the                            tings of New Hampshire to those in the other New England States
                    classification system, wetlands are grouped into five ecological                                makes it likely that the predominant wetland types in the State are
                    systems: Palustrine, Lacustrine, Riverine, Estuarine, and Marine.                               the same as in the remainder of the region - palustrine forested and
                    The Palustrine System includes only wetlands, whereas the other                                 scrub-shrub (Tiner, 1987, 1992; Widoff, 1988). Forested and scrub-
                    systems comprise wetlands and deepwater habitats. Wetlands of the                               shrub wetlands that have organic-rich mineral soils are commonly
                    systems that occur in New Hampshire are described below.                                        referred to as swamps, whereas wetlands that have organic soils over
                                                                                                                    mineral soils are called peatlands. In southern New Hampshire and
                    System                                         Wetland description                              in the Connecticut River Valley, forested swamps in poorly drained
                                                                                                                    basins typically are dominated by red maple or have mixtures of red
                    Palustrine    .................. Nontidal and tidal-freshwater wetlands in which                maple, yellow birch, hemlock, and white pine. Swamps in the flood
                                                  vegetation is predominantly trees (forested wet-                  plains of major rivers typically are dominated by silver maple.
                                                  lands); shrubs (scrub-shrub wetlands); persistent                 Peatlands in southern and coastal New Hampshire commonly con-
                                                  or nonpersistent emergent, erect, rooted herba-
                                                  ceous plants (persistent- and nonpersistent-                      tain pitch pine or Atlantic white cedar (Dan Sperduto, New Hamp-
                                                  emergent wetlands); or submersed and (or)                         shire Natural Heritage Inventory, written commun., 1993). A few
                                                  floating plants (aquatic beds). Also, intermit-
                                                  tently to permanently flooded open-water bod-
                                                  ies of less than 20 acres in which water is less
                                                  than 6.6 feet deep.                                                                     'n"
                    Lacustrine       .............. Nontidal and tidal-freshwater wetlands within an
                                                  intermittently to permanently flooded lake or                                                         6@
                                                  reservoir larger than 20 acres and ior) deeper
                                                  than 6.6 feet. Vegetation, when present, is pre-
                                                  dominantly nonpersistent emergent plants (non-
                                                  persistent-emergent wetlands), or submersed
                                                  and (or) floating plants (aquatic beds), or both.
                    Riverine    ..................... Nontidal and tidal-freshwater wetlands within a
                                                  channel. Vegetation, when present, is same as
                                                  in the Lacustrine System.
                    Estuarine    ................... Tidal wetlands in low-wave-energy environments
                                                  where the salinity of the water is greater than 0.5
                                                  part per thousand (ppt) and is variable owing to
                                                  evaporation and the mixing of seawater and
                                                  freshwater.
                    Marine    ....................... Tidal wetlands that are exposed to waves and cur-             Figure 1.     Wetlands along the mouth of Hampshire
                                                  rents of the open ocean and to water having a                     Brook and     Lake Umbagog. (Photograph courtesy of the
                                                  salinity greater than 30 ppt.                                     Society for Protection of New Hampshire Forests.)








                        274       National Water Surnmary-Wetland Resources: STATE SUMMARIES



                        swamps in southern New Hampshire contain black gum, which is a                                   lands) are acidic, nutrient poor, and have a low diversity of plant
                        species near the northern extent of its range. In northern New Hamp-                             species, whereas fens (palustrine forested, scrub-shrub, and persis-
                        shire and at higher altitudes, forested swamps typically contain red                             tent-emergent wetlands) are less acidic and have higher nutrient
                        spruce and balsam fir, and forested peatlands generally are domi-                                levels and plant diversity. The herbaceous-plant community in bogs
                        nated by black spruce, larch, or northern white cedar.                                           generally is dominated by sphagnum moss, whereas in fens it typi-
                               Peatlands are present throughout New Hampshire but are more                               cally is dominated by mosses and sedges.
                        common in the north. Most are small. The absence of extensive                                          Scrub-shrub vegetation grows in most wetlands, typically as a
                        peatlands in New Hampshire is due largely to the State's mountain-                               transitional community between emergent wetlands and forested
                        ous terrain (Johnson, 1985). The terms bog and fen have been used                                wetlands or upland, or between open water and forested wetlands
                        to differentiate peatlands in some classification systems (Damman                                or upland. In general, shrub swamps are dominated by broad-leaved
                        and French, 1987). Bogs (palustrine forested and scrub-shrub wet-                                deciduous shrubs such as willow and alder; scrub-shrub commu-



                                                                    A


                                                                               Lo                                       B
                                                                              At                                                       PHYSIOGRAPHIC DIVISIONS
                                                                                                                                           A. White Mountain Section
                                                                                                                                           B. New England Upland Section
                                                                                                                                           C. Seaboard Lowland Section
                                                                                        0    Lk@                              A
                                                                                             Vtobg.g

                                                                                             -11onpohi@'
                           0        10     20      30 MILES

                           0   10 20 30 KILOMETERS
                                                                            WWI  t
                                                                            Mtn  F                                      B


                                                       do


                                                                                                                              c










                                                                                                                     SURFICIAL GEO
                                                                                                                                        LOGY

                                                                                                                          Sand
                                                                                      .41                                 Sand and gravel

                                                                                                                          Till, clay, and silt
                                                                              MEV-





                                            .F
                                                                                             N  anai    Rhw


                                                                                chester 2,_
                                                                                                 Pow JV



                                                                                udir



                                                                                                                                                        r
                                 WETLANDS AND DEEPWATER HABITATS
                                 Distributi n of wetlands and cleepwater habitats-                                                                         j,
                                     This mo
                                           ap shows the approximate distribution of large
                                     wetlands in the State. Because of limitations of scale
                                     and source material, some wetlands are not shown

                                         Predominantly wetland
                                 M
                                                                                                                                                           A
                                         Predominantly cleepwater habitat


                        Figure 2. Wetland distribution and physical features that control wetland distribution in New Hampshire. A, Distribution of wetlands
                        and deepwater habitats. B, Physiography. C, Surficial geology. (Sources: A, TE. Dahl, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, unpub. data, 1997.
                        B, Physiographic divisions from Fenneman, 1946,- land(orms data from EROS Data Center; C, Koteff, 7993).








                                                                                       National Water Surnmary-Wetland Resources: NEW HAMPSHIRE               275



               nities in bogs contain broad-leaved evergreen shrubs such as leath-         becomes shorter (Hammond and Cotton, 1986). Wetland vegetation
               erleaf and labrador tea and stunted conifers such as black spruce           is influenced by these climatic differences. Wetlands in southern
               and larch; and fens generally contain broad-leaved evergreen shrubs,        New Hampshire are dominated by plant communities similar to
               broad-leaved deciduous shrubs, and northern white cedar. (Dan               those of southern New England wetlands, whereas wetlands in
               Sperduto, written commun., 1993).                                           northern New Hampshire are dominated by communities similar
                    Palustrine emergent wetlands, commonly referred to as                  to those in Canadian wetlands.
               marshes, are more common in southern New Hampshire. Most are                     The distribution of wetlands in New Hampshire also is partly
               small and associated with lacustrine or riverine wetlands. Marshes          determined by physiography, distribution of glacially derived sedi-
               that have shallow water or saturated soils generally contain sedges,        ments, and the geologic character of the underlying bedrock. Areas
               rushes, or grasses, whereas those in deeper water typically contain         of steep topography do not retain water long enough for wetlands
               cattails.                                                                   to develop. However, given favorable hydrologic conditions, wetlands
                    Most of New Hampshire's takes and rivers fiave areas of shal-          can form on drainage divides and near mountaintops. For example,
               low water where aquatic vegetation has become established. These            several ridge-top subalpine bogs occur on Mount Washington
               lacustrine and riverine wetlands are essential for the biological pro-      (Johnson, 1985). Most of New Hampshire's wetlands, however, are
               ductivity of lakes and rivers. As a result of recent increases in bea-      in lowlands, valleys, and depressions that have more favorable hy-
               ver populations, many riparian (streamside) wetlands along smaller          drologic conditions for wetlands.
               streams and rivers have been flooded behind beaver dams. Over                    Many of the low-lying areas of New Hampshire are covered
               time, this flooding promotes a cyclical change from riparian shrub          by stratified sand, gravel, clay, and silt deposited by glacial melt-
               swamps to small ponds and marshes to wet meadows and then back              water and by modern streams in the time since glaciation (fig. 2C).
               to shrub swamps (George Springston, Vermont Wetlands Office,                Most uplands are underlain by bedrock mantled by glacial till, a
               written commun., 1993). Many State wildlife areas contain emer-             mixture of clay, silt, sand, gravel, and boulders. Both till and fine-
               gent wetlands in impoundments built for the improvement of wa-              grained sediments can restrict drainage and retain surface water.
               terfowl habitat. However, although flooding caused by beaver dams           Wetlands form over till in many small depressions in New Hamp-
               or manmade dams can create wetlands, it also can be detrimental             shire uplands, over silty, clayey sands in some valleys in northern
               to existing riparian wetlands.                                              New Hampshire, over fine-grained glacial-lake deposits in parts of
                    Estuarine and marine wetlands along New Hampshire's 18 -mile           the Merrimack and Connecticut River valleys, and over fine-grained
               coastline are estimated at about 7,500 acres (New Hampshire Of-             marine deposits along the coast. In seep areas near streams or de-
               fice of State Planning, 1989). Most of these wetlands are in or near        pressions that intersect the water table, coarse-grained glacial de-
               Hampton Harbor, Great Bay, and Little Bay. Short (1992) deter-              posits can transmit ground water to overlying wetlands (Motts and
               mined that Great Bay estuary, which includes Great Bay, Little Bay,         O'Brien, 1981). Some glacial landforms, such as ridges, hills, and
               and the lower Piscataqua River, contains about 2,600 acres of aquatic       depressions can create conditions favorable for wetland formation
               beds, 1,200 acres of mud flats, and 1,000 acres of salt marsh. In           by attenuating runoff or retaining water, For example, kettles, which
               general, salt marshes that are only occasionally flooded by tides are       are depressions that formed when glacial ice that had been buried
               vegetated predominantly by saltmeadow cordgrass and black grass,            by outwash melted, have either filled with water to form ponds or
               whereas those that are regularly flooded are dominated by saltmarsh         passed through several successional stages of infilling to become
               cordgrass.                                                                  bogs.
                                                                                                Contrasts in the interactions between hydrology and vegeta-
               HYDROLOGIC SETTING                                                          tion in different settings can be illustrated by peatlands and coastal
                                                                                           pondshore wetlands. In peatlands, vegetation patterns are deter-
                    Wetlands are hydrologic features that form where climate and           mined largely by water chemistry and movement (Damman and
               physiography favor the retention of water. Wetlands are found along         French, 1987). For example, bogs receive little input from runoff
               rivers, lakes, and estuaries where flooding occurs, in isolated de-         or ground water and rely on precipitation (including fog) and wind-
               pressions surrounded by upland where surface water collects, on             blown dust as sources for water, nutrients, and minerals. Vegetation
               slopes and surface drainageways, and where ground water dis-                in bogs commonly grows in a concentric pattern because of the
               charges to the land surface in spring or seepage areas. Soil satura-        scarcity of nutrients and minerals in the center of the bog and the
               tion favors the growth of wetland plants and development of hydric          increased availability of nutrients and minerals along bog margins.
               soils. Water either can flood wetlands, be present at the surface of        Bogs are seldom flooded; even quaking (floating-mat) bogs sur-
               wetlands, or keep underlying soils saturated near the surface with          rounding open water in ponds are rarely flooded because the bog
               no surface water present (Tiner, 199 1).                                    mat fluctuates with changes in water level. Fens also receive inputs
                    The timing and duration of the presence of water affects water         from precipitation but rely principally on ground water and over-
               chemistry, soil development, and plant-community structure in               land flow for inputs of minerals and nutrients; like bogs, fens sel-
               wetlands. Although degree of wetness is important in the determi-           dom are flooded.
               nation of wetland type, many ecologic functions of wetlands also                 In contrast, flooding is the major hydrologic influence in
               depend upon wetland size, position of the wetland in a drainage             pondshore wetlands. Coastal ponds occur largely in sandy glacial
               network, and sources of water (Brinson, 1993). Climate, physio-             outwash, and pond water levels reflect seasonal and annual fluctua-
               graphy, and geology influence the hydrology and water quality of            tions in ground-water levels. Pondshore wetlands can be flooded or
               wetlands. The complex interactions of these variables with biotic           saturated for much of the year. Wetland plant communities are con-
               factors and site history determine the type of wetland that develops        centrically zoned around the pond along a gradient from the long-
               in any particular setting.                                                  est to the shortest duration of flooding (Dan Sperduto, written
                    New Hampshire's climate is conducive to wetland development,           commun., 1993).
               Precipitation exceeds potential evapotranspiration on an annual
               basis, and the excess moisture is available for formation and main-         TRENDS
               tenance of wetlands. Climate varies with altitude and distance from
               the Atlantic Ocean. For example, from the coast to the White Moun-               Wetlands once were much more extensive in New Hampshire.
               tains, average annual precipitation and average annual runoff in-           In the 1800's and early 1900's, timber harvesting and clearing and
               crease, summer temperatures decrease, and the growing season                draining of wetlands for crops and grazing resulted in the loss or








                                 276          National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: STATE SUMMARIES



                                 degradation of many wetlands, particularly in the major river val-                                                         Table 1. Selected wetland-related activities of government
                                 leys and along the coastline. Some of those areas reverted to wet-                                                         agencies and private organizations in New Hampshire, 1993
                                 lands as pasture land was abandoned. In some cases, the character                                                          [Source: Classification of activities is generalized from information provided
                                 of the wetlands has changed. For example, most of New Hampshirels                                                               by agencies and organizations. e, agency or organization participates in
                                 Atlantic white cedar bogs were altered by logging or flooding, and                                                              wetland-related activity;                 agency or organization does not participate in
                                                                                                                                                                 wetland-related activity. MAN, management; REG, regulation; R&C, res-
                                 many have revegetated with red maple. As much as 7,500 acres of                                                                 toration and creation; LAN, land acquisition; R&D, research and data col-
                                 tidal marsh have been lost since settlement by Europeans (New                                                                   lection; D&I, delineation and inventory]
                                 Hampshire Office of State Planning, 1989). Although several Fed-
                                 eral and State regulations focus on minimizing wetland loss, many
                                 wetlands remain vulnerable.                                                                                                Agency or organization
                                         Development in and near wetlands due to urbanization is a                                                          FEDERAL
                                 major cause of wetland loss or degradation. Other factors that can                                                         Department of Agriculture
                                 destroy wetlands or affect wetland functions include far                                        "ming, peat                  Consolidated Farm Service Agency                   ........................... ...
                                 harvesting, timber harvesting, road building, inadequate bridge-                                                             Forest Service        ....................   ............................................
                                 support spacing and culvert diameter, all-terrain vehicle use, reser-                                                        Natural Resources Conservation Service                    ................ ...
                                                                                                                                                            Department of Commerce
                                 voir construction, hydropower releases, navigation impoundments,                                                             National Oceanic and
                                 ground-water pumping, and air or water pollution.                                                                            Atmospheric Administration                   ........................................*
                                                                                                                                                            Department of Defense
                                                                                                                                                              Army Corps of Engineers ..                   ............................................*
                                 CONSERVATION                                                                                                                 Military reservations                        .....................................................*
                                         Many government agencies and private organizations partici-                                                        Department of the Interior
                                                                                                                                                              Fish and Wildlife Service                    ..............................................*
                                 pate in wetland conservation in New Hampshire. The most active                                                               Geological Survey         .......................................................... ... ... ... ...  0
                                 agencies and organizations and some of their activities are listed in                                                        National Biological Service                  ......................................... ... ... ... ....
                                 table 1.                                                                                                                     National Park Service                        ...................................................000   *
                                         Federal wetland activities. -Development activities in New                                                         Environmental Protection Agency                .................................. ...*
                                 Hampshire wetlands are regulated by several Federal statutory pro-                                                         STATE
                                                                                                                                                            Department of Environmental Services                 ........................ ...  *     ... ...        ... ...
                                 hibitions and incentives that are intended to slow wetland losses.                                                           Waste Management                             .......................................................0*
                                 Some of the more important of these are contained in the 1899                                                                Water Resources Division                     ............................................0e0   0      0      0
                                 Rivers and Harbors Act; the 1972 Clean Water Act and amendments;                                                             Water Supply and Pollution Control                 ...........................@  *     ... ...        ... ...
                                 the 1985 Food Security Act; the 1990 Food, Agriculture, Conser-                                                            Department of Resources and
                                 vation, and Trade Act; the 1986 Emergency Wetlands Resources Act;                                                          Economic Development                           ............................................
                                                                                                                                                              Division of Forests and Lands                ......................................
                                 and the 1972 Coastal Zone Management Act.                                                                                    Division of Parks and Recreation                   ...............................
                                         Section 10 of the Rivers and Harbors Act gives the U.S. Army                                                         Natural Heritage Inventory                   ..........................................
                                 Corps of Engineers (Corps) authority to regulate certain activities                                                        Department of Safety                           ............I.......... ... .............................. ...0
                                 in navigable waters. Regulated activities include diking, deepening,                                                       Department of Transportaitan                   ......................................... ...0
                                 filling, excavating, and placing of structures. The related section 404                                                    Fish and Game Department                       ..........I...................................00
                                                                                                                                                            Office of State Planning                       ....................................................**
                                 of the Clean Water Act is the most often-us@d Federal legislation                                                          State educational institutions                 .........................................
                                 protecting wetlands. Under section 404 provisions, the Corps issues                                                        Wetlands Board         .................................................................. ... ... ...   ... ...
                                 permits regulating the discharge of dredged or fill material into                                                          COUNTY AND LOCAL
                                 wetlands. Permits are subject to review and possible veto by the EPA,                                                      Conservation Commissions.,                     ............................................ ... . ...
                                 and the Fws has review and advisory roles. Section 401 of the Clean                                                        Soil and Water Conservation Districts                .......................... ... ...
                                 Water Act grants to States and eligible Indian Tribes the authority                                                        Some county and local governments                    ............................e
                                                                                                                                                            PRIVATE ORGANIZATIONS
                                 to approve, apply conditions to, or deny section 404 permit appli-                                                         Audubon Society of New Hampshire                     .............................*
                                 cations on the basis of a proposed activity's probable effects on the                                                      Ducks Unlimited        ........................................ .........................0
                                 water quality of a wetland.                                                                                                New England Wildflower Society                 ............ ............
                                         Most farming, ranching, and silviculture activities are not sub-                                                   Private colleges and other
                                 ject to section 404 regulation, However, the "Swampbuster" provi-                                                          educational institutions                       :................................................0
                                                                                                                                                            Society for the Protection of
                                 sion of the 1985 Food Security Act and amendments in the 1990                                                              New Hampshire Forests                          ...................................................*
                                 Food, Agriculture, Conservation, and Trade Act discourage (through                                                         The Nature Conservancy                         ...................................................
                                 financial disincentives) the draining, filling, or other alteration of
                                 wetlands for agricultural use. The law allows exemptions from pen-
                                 alties in some cases, especially if the farmer agrees to restore the                                                       protection through funding incentives. The Emergency Wetland
                                 altered wetland or other wetlands that have been converted to agri-                                                        Resources Act requires States to address wetland protection in their
                                 cultural use. The Wetlands Reserve Program of the 1990 Food,                                                               Statewide Comprehensive Outdoor Recreation Plans to qualify for
                                 Agriculture, Conservation, and Trade Act authorizes the Federal                                                            Federal funding for State recreational land; the National Park Ser-
                                 Government to purchase conservation easements from landowners                                                              vice (Nps) provides guidance to States in developing the wetland
                                 who agree to protect or restore wetlands. The Consolidated Farm                                                            component of their plans. Coastal States that adopt coastal-zone
                                 Service Agency (formerly the Agricultural Stabilization and Con-                                                           management programs and plans approved by the National Oceanic
                                 servation Service) administers the Swampbuster provisions and                                                              and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) are eligible for Federal
                                 Wetlands Reserve Program. The Natural Resources Conservation                                                               funding and technical assistance through the Coastal Zone Manage-
                                 Service (formerly the Soil Conservation Service) determines com-                                                           ment Act.
                                 pliance with Swampbuster provisions and assists farmers in the iden-                                                               Some of New Hampshire's wetlands are managed by Federal
                                 tification of wetlands and in the development of wetland protection,                                                       agencies. The FWS manages wetlands in waterfowl-protection areas,
                                 restoration, or creation plans.                                                                                            National Fish Hatcheries, and National Wildlife Refuges. Also, the
                                         The 1986 Emergency Wetlands Resources Act and the 1972                                                             FWS administers wetland-acquisition programs such as the Partners
                                 Coastal Zone Management Act and amendments encourage wetland                                                               for Wildlife Program, which helps restore wetlands on private lands,








                                                                                          National Water Summary-Wetiand Resources: NEW HAMPSHIRE                   277



               and the North American Waterfowl Management Plan, a coopera-                   ter-quality certification before a section 404 permit may be issued.
               tive program that provides funding for purchasing wetlands and                 The Department of Environmental Services' Water Resources Di-
               associated uplands. The Fws also has funded research on peatland               vision also protects some wetlands through regulations of activities
               ecology (Damman and French, 1987). The NPS has designated 11                   in rivers and lakes. The New Hampshire Department of Resources
               sites in New Hampshire as National Natural Landmarks, at least 4               and Economic Development's Division of Forests and Lands estab-
               of which contain significant wetlands. Some of these are owned by              lishes and enforces acceptable management practices for logging and
               the State, and others are protected voluntarily by individual land-            erosion control near surface-water bodies and wetlands.
               owners. The U.S. Forest Service manages a small number of                           Other legislation designed to protect ecologically sensitive
               wetlands in the White Mountain National Forest. The Great Bay Na-              habitats such as wetlands includes the New Hampshire Native Plant
               tional Estuarine Research Reserve is supported by NOAA in coop-                Protection Act of 1987, which requires all State agencies and de-
               eration with the New Hampshire Fish and Game Department. The                   partments to cooperate in preserving and protecting endangered and
               EPA, through a grant program under the Clean Water Act, has pro-               threatened plants. In addition, the New Hampshire Legislature has
               vided funding to the New Hampshire Wetlands Board and the New                  enacted a Current Use Taxation law to reduce development pressures
               Hampshire Department of Resources and Economic Development's                   on recreational, scenic, and ecologically important open spaces. This
               Natural Heritage Inventory Program. The EPA also is providing ad-              law uses a property tax abatement program on tracts of land larger
               ditional funds through the Merrimack River Initiative to identify and          than 10 acres to encourage preservation of open space, farm land,
               protect important resources and habitats of the Merrimack River,               forest land, wild land, and recreation land, including wetlands and
               including wetlands. The Corps is investigating the effectiveness of            flood plains (New Hampshire Office of State Planning, 1989).
               wetlands on storage and regulation of flood flows along the Con-                    Several State agencies own or manage wetlands or are involved
               necticut River and the effect of development within the basin on               in other aspects of wetland protection. The Department of Fish and
               natural valley storage. The U.S. Geological Survey, together with              Game acquires and protects wetlands through wildlife-management
               the New Hampshire Department of Environmental Services, is                     programs. Wetlands are purchased with funds received from the sale
               mapping marsh and peat deposits in the State.                                  of wildlife emblems and migratory-waterfowl stamps, as well as
                    State wetland activities. -New Hampshire regulates wetlands               from accounts set up for management of nongame and endangered
               primarily through State law and the rules of the Wetlands Board.               species (New Hampshire Office of State Planning, 1989). The De-
               The Wetlands Board consists of 12 members who represent gov-                   partment owns about 3 5,000 acres, more than one-half of which is
               ernment and industry. Administrative support to the Wetlands Board             wetland. Most of these wetlands are part of wild] ife -management
               is provided largely by the Wetlands Bureau of the Department of                areas. Merrymeeting Marsh is one example. The Natural Heritage
               Environmental Services'Water Resources Division and by the New                 Inventory Program has documented New Hampshire's natural com-
               Hampshire Office of State Planning's Coastal Zone Management                   munities and rare and endangered species and their habitats. The
               Program. In New Hampshire, wetland regulations require permits                 Program also develops plans for the protection of endangered and
               to dredge, fill, or place structures in tidal or nontidal wetlands and         threatened plant species and reviews State projects and permit ap-
               waterways. The highest value has been placed on coastal wetlands,              plications for activities that could affect wetlands. The Office of State
               which were first protected by State statute in 1967. To enhance                Planning is responsible for producing the wetland component of the
               habitat values in adjacent tidal wetlands and to protect tidal envi-           New Hampshire Statewide Comprehensive Outdoor Recreation
               ronments from potential sources of pollution, the Board also em-               Plan, which describes the State's wetland-protection plans. Wetland
               phasizes the preservation of tidal buffer zones. For freshwater wet-           losses due to roadbuilding are minimized through close coopera-
               lands, emphasis is placed on bogs and marshes, with priority based             tion between the New Hampshire Department of Transportation, the
               on the rarity of the habitat type, the difficulty of restoration, and          Wetlands Board, and Federal agencies.
               the wetland's functions (New Hampshire Wetlands Board, 1993).                       County and local wetland activities. -Local conservation
                     Projects that will alter wetlands are categorized as major-,             commissions have an advisory role in local wetland protection
               minor-, and minimum-impact projects and projects not requiring a               through oversight of the designation of Prime Wetlands and review
               permit. All wetlands are regulated regardless of size. In addition to          of wetland permit applications. Under the Prime Wetlands law, mu-
               the size and type of the disturbance allowed in each category, the             nicipalities may adopt what resembles a zoning overlay district (New
               evaluation criteria include (1) the history of disturbance at the site         Hampshire Office of State Planning, 1989). The adoption of the
               and related projects elsewhere in the wettand or wetland complex               Prime Wetlands designation allows for protection of wetlands that
               (cumulative impact), (2) whether the wetland has been identified               have high local value even if they are not regionally or nationally
               by the Natural Heritage Inventory Program as an exemplary natu-                significant. Conservation commissions must use inventory and
               ral community or whether there are documented occurrences of                   evaluation methods accepted by the Wetlands Board for this proc-
               State or federally listed endangered or threatened species, (3) the            ess, such as those ofAmmann and Stone (1991) and Cook and oth-
               function and value of the area, and (4) whether the wetland is des-            ers (1993). As of 1993, Prime Wetlands designations had been
               ignated a "Prime Weiland" by the local community under State                   adopted and submitted to the Wetlands Board by 20 of New
               guidelines. The Wetlands Board may not grant a permit for projects             Hampshire's 234 towns, and many others are in process (Marjorie
               in or adjacent to an area designated as "prime" without a public               Swope, New Hampshire Association for Conservation Commissions,
               hearing and without evidence in the record that there will be no               oral commun., 1993).
               significant net loss of values as a result of the project or activity               Private wetland activities. -During 1987-83, through a part-
               associated with the project. Because the State's regulations are more          nership between the privately funded Trust for New Hampshire
               inclusive than section 404 of the Clean Water Act, the Corps has               Lands and the publicly funded New Hampshire Land Conservation
               issued a New Hampshire State Programmatic General Permit that                  Investment Program, New Hampshire spent $46.4 million to pro-
               allows as much as 95 percent of the permit applications in New                 tect 385 parcels of land totaling 100,897 acres, including diverse
               Hampshire that normally would require a Corps permit to be ap-                 wetlands. These lands were acquired through purchases and dona-
               proved through the New Hampshire Wetlands Board permitting                     tions or protected through the use of conservation casements. The
               process after Corps review (K.N. Kettenring, written commun.,                  Society for the Protection of New Hampshire Forests is compiling
               1993).                                                                         an inventory of the wetland acreage acquired by the program, which
                     The Department of Environmental Services administers sec-                will be available through the Complex Systems Research Center at
               tion 401 of the Federal Clean Water Act, which requires State wa-              the University of New Hampshire.








                      278      National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: STATE SUMMARIES



                            Private organizations provide complementary functions that                    Johnson, C.W., 1985, Bogs of the northeast: Hanover, N,H., The Univer-
                      cannot readily be accomplished by governmental agencies. For                             sity Press of New England, 269 p.
                      example, private organizations such as The Nature Conservancy can                   Koteff, Carl, 1993, New Hampshire sand and gravel resources: Boston, New
                      more easily purchase property. The Nature Conservancy manages                            England Governors' Conference, Inc., 16 p.
                      14 preserves in New Hampshire, 8 of which include wetlands, and                     Mons, W.S., and O'Brien, A.L., 1981, Geology and hydrology of wetlands
                                                                                                               in Massachusetts: University of Massachusetts Water Resources Re-
                      has protected 12 additional wetland sites by easement, management                        search Center Publication 123, 147 p.
                      agreement, legal assistance, or purchase and transfer. The Audubon                  New Hampshire Office of State Planning, 1989, New Hampshire wetlands
                      Society of New Hampshire monitors threatened and endangered                              priority conservation plan: Concord, New Hampshire Office of State
                      species that use wetlands and offers educational workshops to pro-                       Planning, 95 p.
                      mote the use of the New Hampshire Method (Ammann and Stone,                         New Hampshire Wetlands Board, 1993, New Hampshire Code ofAdminis-
                      1991; Cook and others, 1993) for the evaluation of wetlands. The                         trative Rules, Chapter Wt 100 through Wt 800: Concord, New Hamp-
                      New Hampshire chapter of Ducks Unlimited has worked in coop-                             shire Wetlands Board, 118 p.
                      eration with the State to purchase about 354 acres of wettand and                   Rubin, F.A., Justice, D.G., and Vogelmann, J.E., 1993, Final report-New
                      surrounding upland habitat. The Society for Protection of New                            Hampshire statewide digital wetlands inventory: Durham, University
                                                                                                               of New Hampshire, Complex Systems Research Center, 30 p.
                      Hampshire Forests owns 83 properties and holds conservation ease-                   Short, F.T., ed., 1992, The ecology of the Great Bay estuary, New Hamp-
                      ments on 309 properties, many of which include wetlands. Other                           shire and Maine-An estuarine profile and bibliography: Durham,
                      wetlands are owned or protected by local land trusts, The New                            University of New Hampshire, Jackson Estuarine Laboratory, 222 p.
                      England Wildflower Society, the Appalachian Mountain Club, and                      Tiner, R.W., 1987, Preliminary National Wetlands Inventory report on
                      many others. Individuals, timber companies, towns, and other pri-                        Vermont's wetland acreage: Newton Corner, Mass., U.S. Fish and
                      vate landowners own most of New Hampshire's wetlands, and many                           Wildlife Service, 5 p.
                      actively pursue wetland conservation.                                                      199 1, Maine wetlands and their boundaries-A guide for code en-
                                                                                                               forcement officers: Augusta, Maine Department of Economic and
                                                                                                               Community Development, Office of Comprehensive Planning, 72 p.
                      ReferencesCited                                                                     -1992, Preliminary National Wetland Inventory report on Massachu-
                                                                                                               setts'wetland acreage: Newton Corner, Mass., U.S. Fish and Wildlife
                      Ammann, A.P., and Stone, A.L., 199 1, Method for the comparative evalu-                  Service, 5 p.
                            ation of nontidal wetlands in New Hampshire: Concord, New l4amp-              Widoff, Lissa, 1988, Maine wetlands conservation priority plan: Augusta,
                            shire Department of Environmental Services, variously paged.                       Maine State Planning Office, Bureau of Parks and Recreation, 117 p.
                      Brinson, M.M., 1993, Changes in the functioning of wetlands along envi-
                            ronmental gradients: Wetlands, v. 13, no. 2, p. 65 -74.
                      Cook, R.A., Stone, A.L., and Ammann, A.P., 1993, Method for the evalua-             FOR ADDITIONAL INFORMATION: District Chief, U.S. Geological
                            tion and inventory of vegetated tidal marshes in New Hampshire:               Survey, 525 Clinton Street, Bow, NH 03304; Regional Weiland Coordina-
                            Concord, Audubon Society of New Hampshire, variously paged.                   tor, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 300 Westgate Center Drive, Hadley, MA
                      Cowardin, L.M., Carter, Virginia, Golet, F.C., and LaRoe, E.T., 1979, Clas-         01035
                            sification of wetlands and deepwater habitats ofthe United States: U.S.
                            Fish and Wildlife Service Report FWS/OBS -79/31, 131 p.
                      Damman, AW.H., and French, T.W., 1987, The ecology and peat bogs of                                               Prepared by
                            the glaciated northeastern United States -A community profile: U.S.                                    David S. Armstrong,
                            Fish and Wildlife Service Biological Report 85(7.16), 114 p.                                          U.S. Geological Survey
                      Fenneman, N.M., 1946, Physical divisions of the United States: Washing-
                            ton D.C., U.S. Geological Survey special map, scale 1:7,000,000.
                      Hammond, R.E., and Cotton, John, 1986, New Hampshire surface-water
                            resources, in U.S. Geological Survey, National water summary 1985-
                            Hydrologic events and surface-water resources: U.S. Geological Sur-
                            vey Water-Supply Paper 2300, p. 329-334.


























                                                                        U.S. Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper 2425








                                                                                                                                                            National Water Summary-Wetland Resources 279
                                                                                                                                                                      New Jersey
                                                                                                                                                                Wetland Resources
                       New Jersey's diverse wetlands are the result of the interaction of                                         than 3,000 acres of cranberry bog were under private management
                       geologic events, human activities, and recent hydrologic conditions.                                       in 1992. Wetlands also provide many recreational and educational
                       The State's location on the East Coast has made it home to plants                                          opportunities, including hunting and fishing, nature study, boating,
                       that include many threatened and endangered species (Tiner, 1985;                                          painting and drawing, and photography.
                       Reyer and others, 1990). Of 338 rare plants identified in New Jer-
                       sey by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (Fws), 249 species grow                                          TYPES AND DISTRIBUTION
                       in wetland or aquatic habitats. Major wetlands in the State include
                       the Great Swamp (fig. 1) in the north and the wetlands of the New                                                  Wetlands are lands transitional between terrestrial and
                       Jersey Pinelands and estuaries in the south (fig. 2A).                                                     deepwater habitats where the water table usually is at or near the
                              The wetlands of New Jersey are valuable for their fish and                                          land surface or the land is covered by shallow water (Cowardin and
                       wildlife and their contribution to environmental quality, society, and                                     others, 1979). The distribution of wetlands and deepwater habitats
                       the economy (Tiner, 1985). Wetlands provide spawning and nurs-                                             in New Jersey is shown in figure 2A; only wetlands are discussed
                       ery grounds for shellfish such as crabs, clams, oysters, and shrimp                                        herein.
                       and for finfish species such as alewives, blueback herring, bass,                                                  Wetlands can be vegetated or nonvegetated and are classified
                       white perch, American shad, menhaden, bluefish, sea trout, and                                             on the basis of their hydrology, vegetation, and substrate. In this
                       mullet. Bird species that include peregrine falcons, snow and                                              summary, wetlands are classified according to the system proposed
                       Canada geese, and pintail, canvasback, mallard, and black ducks use                                        by Cowardin and others (1979), which is used by the U.S. Fish and
                       New Jersey's salt marshes for feeding, migration, and wintering                                            Wildlife Service (FWS) to map and inventory the Naticirfs wetlands.
                       grounds. Beaver and muskrat use wetlands for their homes, and other                                        At the most general level of the classification system, wetlands are
                       furbearers such as raccoons, mink, river otter, foxes, mice, and rab-                                      grouped into five ecological systems: Palustrine, Lacustrine, Riv-
                       bits use wetlands for food and shelter (Tiner, 1985). Many reptile                                         erine, Estuarine, and Marine. The Palustrine System includes only
                       and amphibian species, including the endangered pine barrens tree                                          wetlands, whereas the other systems comprise wetlands and
                       frog, the blue-spotted salamander, and the endangered bog turtle,                                          deepwater habitats. Wetlands of the systems that occur in New Jer-
                       also live in the State's wetlands (Susan Lockwood, New Jersey De-                                          sey are described below.
                       partment of Environmental Protection and Energy, written
                       commun., 1993).                                                                                            System                                               Wetland description
                              The environmental quality of aquatic habitats is enhanced by
                       wetlands. Wetland soils and vegetation filter or absorb nutrients and                                      Palustrine     ............... Nontidal and tidal -freshwater wetlands in which
                       can remove heavy metals and other contaminants from waters mov-                                                                              vegetation is predominantly trees (forested wet-
                                                                                                                                                                    lands); shrubs (scrub-shrub wetlands); persistent
                       ing through them (Tiner, 1985). Wetlands reduce turbidity and sedi-                                                                          or noripersistent emergent, erect, rooted herba-
                       ment loading, thereby slowing the rate of siltation of downstream                                                                            ceous plants (persistent- and nonpersistent-
                       harbors and navigable rivers and streams. The aquatic productivity                                                                           emergent wetlands); or submersed and (or)
                       of wetlands is very high. The net vegetative productivity of a salt                                                                          floating plants (aquatic beds). Also, intermit-
                                                                                                                                                                    tently to permanently flooded open-water bod-
                       marsh can exceed that of a tropical rain forest, and salt marshes                                                                            ies of less than 20 acres in which water is less
                       support a diverse community of animals that inhabit estuarine wa-                                                                            than 6.6 feet deep.
                       ters.                                                                                                      Lacustrine      ................. Nontidal and tidal-freshwater wetlands within an
                             Wetlands have socioeconomic as well as habitat and environ-                                                                            intermittently to permanently flooded lake or
                       mental-quality value (Tiner, 1985). They provide flood- and storm-                                                                           reservoir larger than 20 acres and (or) deeper
                       damage protection, erosion control, and public water supply and                                                                              than 6.6 feet. Vegetation, when present, is pre-
                                                                                                                                                                    dominantly noripersistent emergent plants (non-
                       allow for the production of economically important natural species                                                                           persistent-emergent wetlands), or submersed
                       such as blueberries, cranberries, wild rice, salt hay, and timber.                                                                           and (or) floating plants (aquatic beds), or both.
                       Cranberry growing is a significant industry in New Jersey; more                                            Riverine     ..................... Nonticlal and tidal-freshwater wetlands within a
                                                                                                                                                                    channel. Vegetation, when present, is same as
                                                                                                                                                                    in the Lacustrine System.
                                                                                                                                  Estuarine      ................... Tidal wetlands in low-wave-energy environments
                                                                                         471,                                                                       where the sa linity of the water is g reater tha n 0.5
                                                                                                                                                                    part per thousand (ppt) and is variable owing to
                                                                                                                                                                    evaporation and the mixing of seawater and
                                                                                                                                                                    freshwater.
                                                                                                                                                                Tdal wetlands that are exposed to waves and cur-
                                                                                                                                  Marine     .......................
                                                                                                                                                                    rents of the open ocean and to water having a
                                                                                                                                                                    salinity greater than 30 ppt.

                                                                                                                                          An FWS study indicated that, as of the mid4980's, wetlands
                                                                                                                                  covered about 916,000 acres (19 percent) of New Jersey (Tiner,
                                                                                                                                  1985). Although wetlands are present throughout the State, most are
                                                                                                                                  in New Jersey's coastal plain. Six of the 10 counties in the Coastal
                                                                                                                                  Plain are more than 25 percent wetland; 3 of the remaining 4 are
                                        Figurell. The Great Swamp National Wildlife Refuge                                        between 10 and 25 percent wetland.
                                        near Meyersville. (Photograph by Mark Hardy, U.S.                                                 Nearly 99 percent (by area) of New Jersey's wetlands are
                                        Geological Survey).                                                                       palustrine or estuarine (Tiner, 1985). Palustrine wetlands generally








                          280       National Water Surnmary-Wetland Resources: STATE SUMMARIES



                          are swamps and freshwater lowlands, whereas estuarine wetlands                                      three-fourths of New Jersey's estuarine wetlands is salt and brack-
                          are marshes and associated saltwater wetlands. Two-thirds of the                                    ish marsh distributed over four major drainage areas: Hudson River-
                          State's wetland acreage is palustrine, and nearly one-third is estua-                               Raritan Bay, Barnegat Bay, New Jersey inland bays, and Delaware
                          rine. The remaining I percent is divided among the other wetland                                    Bay (Field and others, 1991).
                          systems. New Jersey's most common palustrine wetland types are                                          The location of New Jersey's wetlands is closely related to the
                          swamps (forested wetland), shrub swamps (scrub-shrub wetland),                                      State's ecoregion distribution (fig. 2B), as defined by Omernik
                          and freshwater marsh and wet meadow (emergent wetland). Bogs                                        (1987). The ecoregional structure of the State is, in large part, de-
                          (wetlands that have organic soils) are less common and are found                                    fined by its physiography (fig. 2C), which is, in turn, determined
                          mainly in the northwestern part of the State. Palustrine forested                                   primarily by its geology and glacial history. The northern part of
                          wetlands are more abundant and more widely distributed in New                                       the State is mostly in the Northern Piedmont Ecoregion and is un-
                          Jersey than any other wetland type. They also have the most diverse                                 derlain by sedimentary, igneous, and metamorphic rocks that have
                          vegetation. Of the palustrine category, about three-fifths (by area)                                been modified in places by glacial action. During the last ice age,
                          is deciduous -forested (hardwood swamps), and about one-fifth is                                    glaciation affected the northern one-third of the State, and this was
                          evergreen-forested (cedar swamps and pitch-pine lowlands). Nearly                                   a major factor in the creation of wetlands there. After the glaciers
                                                                                                                              melted, wetlands formed in depressions left by glacial action. Three
                                                              A
                                                                                                                              of the State's physiographic units-the Piedmont, New England, and
                                                                                                                              Valley and Ridge Provinces -largely correspond to the sedimen-
                                                                                                                              tary and igneous geological units of the northern part of the State
                                                          75'                                                                 and generally coincide with the Northern Piedmont Ecoregion.
                                                                          C7                                                      The State's southern one-half lies in the Middle Atlantic Coastal
                                                                                                         4'
                                                                                                                              Plain ecoregion and is in the Coastal Plain physiographic province,
                                                   41                                           t
                                                                                                                              which is underlain by layered sedimentary rocks. Water in the well-
                                                                        1-1: Ve,  ?_'                                         drained sandy soils and aquifers of the southern part of the State
                                                                                                                              discharges to the barrier-island embayments of the Atlantic coast
                                                                                                                              and to the Delaware Bay, forming estuarine wetlands along those
                                                                                            wad          sey   City           coasts. Also, freshwater wetlands have formed where water dis-
                                                                             'I          gi;@@p                               charges to streams or to depressions in the low-relief landscape.
                                                                                      r
                                                                                                                                  Human and animal activities also have created wetlands. Bea-
                                                                                                                              ver have played an important role, creating impoundments behind
                                                                                               -R.'Up"   B.Y                  their dams. Dam building, farm-pond construction, and construc-


                                                                                            P
                                                                                                                                         9                                              C
                                                               Trento*                                                                           D
                                                                                                                                                        A                                        A
                                                                                                         (nt ple-t
                                                                                                                                                                     B

                                                     40'                                                                                                                                             B
                                             Camcle

                                                                                                       8-',gf R-Y                                                                                      C

                                                                                                                                                   F


                                                 It-
                          Supaw"
                          Meadows
                                             \;Z Id
                              NWR

                                                                                            Edwin B. Forsy@he                                                                                          D
                                                                                            NWR

                                                                                        tkintic City
                                                                                                                                                   E






                                                                        Cape May
                                                                        NWR        0      10      20       30 MILES

                                                                                   0  10    20   30 KILOMETERS


                                WETLANDS AND DEEPWATER HABITATS                                                               ECOREGIONS                                     PHYSIOGRAPHIC DIVISIONS
                                Distribution of wetlands and cleepwater habitats-                                             A.  Northeastern Highlands                       A. Valley and Ridge Province
                                    This map shows the approximate distribution of large                                      B.  Northeastern Coastal Zone                    B. New England Province
                                    wetlands in the State. Because of limitations of scale                                    C.  Northern Appalachian                         C. Piedmont Province
                                                                                                         4'







                                                                                                         So"



































                                    and source material, some wetlands are not shown                                               Plateau and Uplands                         D. Coastal Plain Province
                                                                                                                              D.  North Central Appalachians
                                         Predominantly wetland                                                                E. Middle Atlantic Coastal
                                                                                                                                   Plain
                                         Predominantly deepwater habitat                                                      F.  Northern Piedmont

                          Figure 2. Wetland distribution in New Jersey and ecological and physical                            features that control wetland distribution in the State. A,
                          Distribution of wetlands and deepwater habitats. B, Ecoregions. C, Physiography. (Sources: A, TE. Dahl, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service,
                          unpub. data, 1991. B, Omernik, 7987. C, Physiographic divisions from Fenneman, 1946; landforms data from EROS Data Center.)








                                                                                              National Water Surnmary-Wetland Resources: NEW JERSEY               281



                tion of artificially engineered wetlands are three of the ways that           New Jersey lost 39 percent of its wetlands between about 1780 and
                humans can create wetlands. Wetlands also can be formed by river              1980. Filling increased markedly following World War 11. Tiner
                action (Tiner, 1985).                                                         (1987) estimates median losses of tidal marshes on a county-by-
                                                                                              county basis from 1952 to 1973 at about 30 percent but reports
                HYDROLOGIC SETTING                                                            losses of up to 100 percent in two counties. During that period, 2
                                                                                              of New Jersey's 15 counties that contain tidal marsh lost 100 per-
                     New Jersey has two geohydrologic regimes - one south of the              cent of that marsh; 5 other counties lost about 50 percent of their
                Fall Line in the Coastal Plain, and the other north of the Fall Line,         tidal-marsh area. Ferrigno and others (1973) estimated that the loss
                associated with the State's remaining physiographic provinces. The            in tidal-marsh acreage in New Jersey from 1953 to 1973 exceeded
                aquifer system of the Coastal Plain in the southern one-half of the           24 percent. Since the enactment of the Wetlands Act of 1970 and
                State is composed of alternating layers of unconsolidated clay, sand,         the Freshwater Wetlands Protection Act of 1987 by the State, per-
                and gravel. In contrast, north of the Fall Line, ground water flows           mitted wetland losses have fallen sharply to between 50 and 100
                through fractured rocks and glacial valley-fill deposits. Precipita-          acres per year (Ernest Hahn, New Jersey Department of Environ-
                tion, which is the source of water to the State's hydrologic system,          mental Protection and Energy, oral commun., 1992).
                ranges from about 43 inches on the coast to about 47 inches in the                 Wetlands have been drained primarily for crop production and
                northern part. About one-half of the precipitation that reaches the           pasturage. Wetlands have been filled for housing, transportation,
                land surface is returned to the atmosphere by evaporation and plant           industrialization, and landfills. Stream channelization, dredging for
                transpiration.                                                                navigation, and reservoir, harbor, and marina construction also have
                     South of the Fall Line. -About 95 percent of the State's es-             adversely affected New Jersey's wetlands. In addition to quantita-
                tuarine wetlands and 75 percent of its marshes and swamplands are             tive changes caused by these activities, qualitative changes have
                in the Coastal Plain. Coastal Plain wetlands constitute about 87 per-         resulted from point and nonpoint discharges to surface waters. The
                cent of the State's total wetland area (Tiner, 1985). The layered clay,       discharges are associated with agriculture, logging, industry, mu-
                sand, and gravel that make up New Jersey's Coastal Plain form a               nicipal sewage, and urban runoff, all of which add contaminants and
                wedge that dips and thickens to the southeast. From a feather edge            silt to surface waters (Tiner, 1985). Although the trend has been
                along the Fall Line and the Delaware River, the Coastal Plain sedi-           toward a net loss of wetlands, some wetland area has been added
                ments thicken to more than 1,000 feet at the Continental Shelf.               through the construction of ponds and reservoirs and through
                Recharge to the regiorfs shallow ground-water system occurs in                planned wetland construction.
                interstrearn areas. Water entering the system flows toward areas of
                lower altitude, where it returns to the surface as base flow to streams,      CONSERVATION
                ponds, and lakes and as leakage to coastal water bodies. Aquifers
                that are overlain by relatively impermeable clay layers are recharged              Many government agencies and private organizations partici-
                by precipitation entering outcrop areas near the Fall Line and by             pate in wetland conservation in New Jersey. The most active agen-
                slow percolation downward through the confining clay.                         cies and organizations and some of their activities are listed in table
                     Wetlands form where ground water discharges along rivers and             I .
                streams and in low-lying coastal areas. Farther inland, wetlands                   Federal wetland activities. -Development activities in New
                form where clay or other impervious materials restrict vertical water         Jersey wetlands are regulated by several Federal statutory prohibi-
                movement and provide habitats for hydrophytic vegetation. The                 tions and incentives that are intended to slow wetland losses. Some
                forested swamplands in the Coastal Plain are strongly associated              of the more important of these are contained in the 1899 Rivers and
                with rivers and streams-many of them in the New Jersey Pinelands.             Harbors Act; the 1972 Clean Water Act and amendments; the 1985
                Most estuarine wetlands in the Coastal Plain are located in the bar-          Food Security Act; the 1990 Food, Agriculture, Conservation, and
                rier-island complex that lies along the Atlantic coast south of Point         Trade Act; the 1986 Emergency Wetlands Resources Act; and the
                Pleasant and on the coast of the Delaware Bay south of Salem.                 1972 Coastal Zone Management Act.
                     North ofthe Fall Line. -Northern New Jersey is underlain by                   Section 10 of the Rivers and Harbors Act gives the U.S. Army
                consolidated sedimentary and igneous rocks. In such geohydrologic             Corps of Engineers (Corps) authority to regulate certain activities
                systems, ground-water storage and flow occur in fractures in the              in navigable waters. Regulated activities include diking, deepening,
                rocks. In the northeastern part of the State, glacial valley-fill sedi-       filling, excavating, and placing of structures. The related section 404
                ments also store and transport water. Most of the wetlands in the             of the Clean Water Act is the most often-used Federal legislation
                northern part of the State are palustrine and have formed around              protecting wetlands. Under section 404 provisions, the Corps issues
                water in glacial lakes and depressions that formed at the end of the          permits regulating the discharge of dredged or fill material into
                last ice age. These lakes are gradually filling in with organic matter        wetlands. Permits are subject to review and possible veto by the U.S.
                and becoming emergent, scrub-shrub, or forested wetlands that have            Environmental Protection Agency, and the FWS has review and ad-
                organic soils. Water for the wetlands is supplied by precipitation and        visory roles. Section 401 of the Clean Water Act grants to States
                by ground-water discharge from the surrounding glacial sediments              and eligible Indian Tribes the authority to approve, apply conditions
                and fractured crystalline rock. Where silt and clay locally confine           to, or deny section 404 permit applications on the basis of a pro-
                the aquifers, freshwater wetlands such as the Great Swamp have                posed activity's probable effects on the water quality of a wetland.
                formed (Vecchioli and others, 1962).                                               Most farming, ranching, and silvicultural activities are not sub-
                     The location and composition of plant communities inhabit-               ject to section 404 regulation. However, the "Swampbuster" provi-
                ing New Jersey's wetlands -both north and south of the Fall Line -            sion of the 1985 Food Security Act and amendments in the 1990
                are affected by depth of water, water-level fluctuations, soil mois-          Food, Agriculture, Conservation, and Trade Act discourage (through
                ture, and salinity (Penfound, 1952), as well as by other soil proper-         financial disincentives) the draining, filling, or other alteration of
                ties, biological factors, and human activities.                               wetlands for agricultural use. The law allows exemptions from pen-
                                                                                              alties in some cases, especially if the farmer agrees to restore the
                TRENDS                                                                        altered wetland or other wetlands that have been converted to agri-
                                                                                              cultural use. The Wetlands Reserve Program of the 1990 Food,
                     The State's wetlands have been drained and filled since settle-          Agriculture, Conservation, and Trade Act authorizes the Federal
                ment by Europeans began in the 1600's. Dahl (1990) estimated that             Government to purchase conservation easements from landowners








                                282         National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: STATE SUMMARIES



                                Table 1. Selected wetland-related activities of government                                                                tion was held, is an intergovernmental treaty that forms the basis
                                agencies and private organizations in New Jersey, 1993                                                                    for international cooperation in conserving wetland habitats.) Also,
                                [Source: Classification of activities is generalizexd from information provided                                           Supawna Meadows on the Delaware Bay, Cape May, and the Great
                                     by agencies and organizations. e, agency or organization participates in                                             Swamp are National Wildlife Refuges. Many other New Jersey wet-
                                     wetland-related activity;                agency or organization does not participate in                              lands are in State Wildlife Management Areas. The New Jersey
                                     wetland-related activity. MAN, management; REG, regulation; R&C, res-
                                     toration and creation; LAN, land acquisition; R&D, research and date col-                                            Pinelands extends across much of the eastern part of southern New
                                     lection; D&I, delineation and inventory]                                                                             Jersey. Most of the Pinelands, including its wetlands, is part of the
                                                                                                                                                          Atlantic Coastal Plain Biosphere Reserve of the United Nations Man
                                                                                                                                                          and the Biosphere program (Good and Good, 1984). In the
                                Agency or organization                                                 00               0'     \Y     0'                  Pinelands, the Mullica River estuary is part of the Experimental
                                FEDERAL                                                                                                                   Ecological Reserve network. The Mullica River also is being con-
                                Department ofAgriculture                                                                                                  sidered as a site for a National Estuarine Research Reserve.
                                   Consolidated Farm Service Agency                 ........................... ...                                                State Wetland Activities. -State laws governing wetlands are
                                   Forest Service       .................................................................                                 the Hackensack Meadowlands Reclamation and Development Act
                                   Natural Resources Conservation Service                   ................                                              of 1969, the Wetlands Act of 1970, the Waterfront Development Act
                                Department of Commerce                                                                                                    of 1914, the Coastal Area Facility Review Act of 1973, the Flood
                                   National Oceanic and
                                   Atmospheric Administration             ............  ...........................                                       Hazard Area Control Act of 1979, the Pinelands Protection Act of
                                Department of Defense                                                                                                     1979, and the Freshwater Wetlands Protection Act of 1987. State
                                   Army Corps of Engineers           ..............................................                                       agencies that have a role in wetland conservation include the Dela-
                                   Military reservations        .....................................................                                     ware River Basin Commission, the New Jersey Department of En-
                                Department of the Interior                                                                                                vironmental Protection and Energy, and the Pinelands Commission.
                                   Fish and Wildlife Service         ..............................................
                                   Geological Survey         .......................................................... ... ... ... ...0                  The Department of Environmental Protection and Energy admin-
                                   National Biological Service            ......................................... ... ... ... ...    0                  isters the Wetlands Act of 1970, the Coastal Area Facility Review
                                   National Park Service             ...................................................0         0    0                  Act, the Waterfront Development Act of 1914, the Flood Hazard
                                Environmental Protection Agency                ..................................0                              0         Control Act of 1979, and the Freshwater Wetlands Protection Act
                                STATE                                                                                                                     of 1987. The Pinelands Protection Act of 1979 is administered by
                                Department of Environmental Protection and Energy
                                   Bureau of Coastal Regulation             ...................................... ...0  0                      0         the Pinelands Commission. A summary of these laws can be found
                                   Bureau of Inland Regulation             ........................................ ...o o                      *         in a publication by the Department of Environmental Protection and
                                   The Natural Lands Trust           ................................ ...............o            o             - -       Energy (1992).
                                Pinelands Commission            ......................................................oo          0             o                  In addition to its wetland-management activities, New Jersey
                                Rutgers University Center for                                                                                             also is active in data collection and public education regarding
                                Coastal and Environmental Studies                 ............................... ... ... ... ...
                                PRIVATE                                                                                                                   wetlands. The State's Natural Heritage Program maintains a data
                                Ducks Unlimited       ......................................... ... .._...............0                0        0         base of rare plant, animal, and natural communities, and its Natu-
                                The Nature Conservancy               ..................................................o 0        *    0        ...     . ral Areas program administers 42 areas that are set aside for public
                                The New Jersey Conservation Foundation                      .................. ... ...   ...      o    0        o         use and education. New Jersey also runs the Delaware Estuary Re-
                                The Trust for Public Lands           ................................ ............... ... ... ... 0    ...      .         search Program and the Natural Lands Trust, a land-bank program.
                                Private cranberry growers            ...............................................0... ...      ... ...       ...       The Natural Lands Trust has protected between 6,000 and 7,000
                                                                                                                                                          acres of New Jersey wetlands, mostly salt marsh, and was active in
                                                                                                                                                          obtaining designation of the Delaware Bay as a Ramsar site. The
                                                                                                                                                          Rutgers University Center for Coastal and Environmental Studies
                                who agree to protect or restore wetlands. The Consolidated Farm                                                           performs research and data-collection activities.
                                Service Agency (formerly the Agricultural Stabilization and Con-                                                                   Private wetland activities. - Several private organizations are
                                servation Service) administers the Swampbuster provisions and                                                             active in New Jersey wetlands protection. The New Jersey Conser-
                                Wetlands Reserve Program. The Natural Resources Conservation                                                              vation Foundation has a wetland-acquisition program and was in-
                                Service (formerly the Sail Conservation Service) determines com-                                                          strumental in obtaining passage of the New Jersey Freshwater Wet-
                                pliance with Swampbuster provisions and assists farmers in the iden-                                                      lands Protection Act. The Trust for Public Lands also administers a
                                tification of wetlands and in the development of wetland protection,                                                      wetland-acquisition program. The Nature Conservancy and Ducks
                                restoration, or creation plans.                                                                                           Unlimited acquire and manage wetlands, conduct research on the
                                        The 1986 Emergency Wetlands Resources Act and the 1972                                                            preservation of endangered species, and work to create and restore
                                Coastal Zone Management Act and amendments encourage wetland                                                              wetland areas. Cranberry growers also manage several thousand
                                protection through funding incentives. ne Emergency Welland                                                               acres of wetlands.
                                Resources Act requires States to address wetland protection in their
                                Statewide Comprehensive Outdoor Recreation Plans to qualify for
                                Federal funding for State recreational land; the National Park Ser-                                                       References Cited
                                vice provides guidance to States in developing the wetland compo-                                                         Cowardin, L.M., Carter, Virginia, Golet, F.C., and LaRoe, E.T., 1979, Clas-
                                nent of their plans. Coastal and Great Lakes States that adopt coastal-                                                            sification of wetlands and deepwater habitats of the United States: U.S.
                                zone management programs and plans approved by the National                                                                        Fish and Wildlife Service Report, FWS/OBS-79/31, 131 p.
                                Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration are eligible for Federal                                                           Dahl, T.E., 1990, Wetlands -Losses in the United States, 1780's to 1980 Is:
                                funding and technical assistance through the Coastal Zone Manage-                                                                  Washington, D,C., U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Report to Congress,
                                ment Act.                                                                                                                          13 p.
                                        Several wetlands in New Jersey have been specially designated                                                     Fermeman, N.M., 1946, Physical divisions of the United States: U.S. Geo-
                                                                                                                                                                   logical Survey special map, scale 1:7,000,000.
                                for research, protection, education, or other purposes. The 13,080-                                                       Ferrigno, Fred, Widjeskog, Lee, and Toth, Steve, 1973, Marsh destruction:
                                acre Edwin B. Forsythe National Wildlife Refuge has been desig-                                                                    Trenton, New Jersey Department of Environmental Protection, Divi-
                                nated a wetland of international significance by the Fws under the                                                                 sion of Fish, Game, and Wildlife, 20 p.
                                Ramsar Convention. (The Ramsar Convention on Wetlands of In-                                                              Field, D.W., Reyer, A.J., Genovese, P.V, and Shearer, B.D., 1991, Coastal
                                ternational Importance, named for Rarnsar, Iran, where the conven-                                                                 wetlands of the United States -An accounting of a valuable natural








                                                                                                    National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: NEW JERSEY                     283



                       resource: Washington, D.C., National Oceanic and Atmospheric Ad-             Tiner, R.W., Jr., 1985, Wetlands of New Jersey: Newton Corner, Mass., U.S.
                       ministration and U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service cooperative report,               Fish and Wildlife Service, 117 p.
                       59 p.                                                                        -1987, Mid-Atlantic wetlands-A disappearing natural treasure:
                 Good, R.E., and Good, N.F., 1984, The Pinelands National Reserve-An                     Newton Corner, Mass., U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 28 p.
                       ecosystem approach to management: BioScience, v. 34, no. 3, p. 169-          Vecchioli, John, Gill, H.E., and Lang, S.M., 1962, Hydrologic role of the
                       173.                                                                              Great Swamp and other marshland in the upper Passaic River basin:
                 Haftier, C.L., Moore, C.R., and Day, C.G., 1992, An investigation and veri-             Journal ofthe American Water Works Association, v. 54, no. 6, p. 695-
                       fication of draft national wetlands inventory maps for Cape May                   701.
                       County, New Jersey: Pleasantville, N.J., U.S. Fish and Wildlife Ser-
                       vice, 93 p.
                 New Jersey Department of Environmental Protection and Energy, 1992, The            FOR ADDITIONAL INFORMATION: District Chief, U.S. Geological
                       environmental manual for municipal officials: Trenton, New Jersey            Survey, 810 BearTavern Road, Suite 206, WestTrenton, NJ 08628; Regional
                       Department of Environmental Protection and Energy and The Asso-              Weiland Coordinator, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 300 Westgate Center
                       ciation of New Jersey Environmental Commissions, 177 p.                      Drive, Hadley, MAO 1035
                 Omernik, J.M., 1987, Ecoregions of the conterminous United States-Map
                       supplement: Annals of the Association of American Geographers,
                       v. 77, no. 1, scale 1:7,500,000.                                                                            Prepared by
                 Penfound, W.T., 1952, Southern swamps and marshes: Botanical Review,                                        Thomas H. Barringer,
                       v. 18, p. 413-446.                                                                                   U.S. Geological Survey
                 Reyer, A.J., Shearer, B.D., Genovese, PX, Holland, C.L., Cassells, J.E.,
                       Field, D.W., and Alexander, C.E., 1990, The distribution and areal
                       extent of coastal- wetlands in estuaries of the mid-Atlantic region:
                       Washington, D.C., National Oceanic andAtmospheric Administration,
                       23 p.









                284    National Water Surnmary-Wetland Resources: STATE SUMMARIES
















































































                                                        U.S. Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper 2425








                                                                                                                    National Water Summary-Wetland Resources 285
                                                                                                                     New Mexico
                                                                                                                     Wetland Resources
                 Wtlands cover about 482,000 acres (0.6 percent) of New Mexico,                  wetlands, whereas the other systems comprise wetland's and
                 a reduction of about 33 percent from the wetland acreage that ex-               deepwater habitats. Wetlands of the systems that occur in New
                 isted about 200 years ago (Dahl, 1990). New Mexico's wetland acre-              Mexico are described below.
                 age places the State 34th in total wetland acreage among the 48
                 conterminous States.                                                            System                                 Wetland description
                      Wetlands are ecologically important and economically valu-
                 able to the State. Wetlands provide important wildlife habitat. For             Palustrine .................. Wetlands in which vegetation is predominantly
                 example, in the Rio Grande Valley, wetlands provide habitat for 246                                      trees (forested wetlands); shrubs (scrub-shrub
                                                                                                                          wetlands); persistent or nonpersistent emergent,
                 species of birds, 10 species of amphibians, 38 species of reptiles,                                      erect, rooted, herbaceous plants (persistent- and
                 and 60 species of mammals (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 1990).                                        non persistent-e mergent wetlands); or sub-
                 Wetlands also provide stopover, feeding, and breeding grounds for                                        mersed and (or) floating plants (aquatic beds).
                 migratory waterfowl (fig. 1).                                                                            Also, intermittently to permanently flooded
                                                                                                                          open-water bodies of less than 20 acres in which
                      Riparian (streamside) wetlands along perennial streams are                                          water is less than 6.6 feet deep.
                 important as migration corridors for a variety of waterfowl and other           Lacustrine ................. Wetlands within an intermittently to permanently
                 wildlife. The playa lakes in eastern New Mexico are vital links in a                                     flooded lake or reservoir. Vegetation, when pres-
                 chain of wetlands along the Central Flyway, which extends from                                           ent, is predominantly nonpersistent emergent
                 central Canada to the coast of Texas. Areas of springs and marshes                                       plants (non persistent-e me rgent wetlands), or
                 provide essential habitat for many rare and endangered species and                                       submersed and (or) floating plants (aquatic
                 for indigenous fish and wildlife in the western part of the State.                                       beds), or both.
                      Wetlands contribute to flood attenuation, bank stabilization"              Riverine ..................... Wetlands within a channel. Vegetation, when pres-
                 and improved water quality. New Mexico's tourist industry benefits                                       ent, is same as in the Lacustrine System.
                 from the beauty of the State's diverse wetlands. These wetlands pro-                 Although wetlands occur in all areas of New Mexico, they are
                 vide opportunities for recreational activities that include fishing,            most numerous in the eastern and northern areas of the State (fig.
                 hunting, bird watching, nature photography, camping, and hiking.                2A). In the Southern Rocky Mountains (fig. 2B), wetlands are
                                                                                                 mostly in high mountain valleys and intermountain basins. In the
                 TYPES AND DISTRIBUTION                                                          Great Plains, wetlands occur along the flood plains of the Canadian
                                                                                                 and Pecos Rivers and in association with playa lakes. In the Colo-
                      Wetlands are lands transitional between terrestrial and                    rado Plateaus and Basin and Range, wetlands are sparsely distrib-
                 deepwater habitats where the water table usually is at or near the              uted, with the exception of wetlands associated with the San Juan,
                 land surface or the land is covered by shallow water (Cowardin and              San Francisco, and Gila Rivers.
                 others, 1979). The distribution of wetlands and deepwater habitats                   Palustrine wetlands are distributed statewide. In New Mexico,
                 in New Mexico is shown in figure 2A; only wetlands are discussed                palustrine wetlands include forested wetlands in river flood plains
                 herein.                                                                         and near springs and seeps; scrub-shrub wetlands such as bottom-
                      Wetlands can be vegetated or nonvegetated and are classified               land shrubland; emergent wetlands, such as marshes, fens, alpine
                 on the basis of their hydrology, vegetation, and substrate. In this             snow glades, and wet and salt meadows; aquatic bed wetlands in
                 summary, wetlands are classified according to the system proposed               shallow ponds and small lakes; and sparsely or nonvegetated wet-
                 by Cowardin and others (1979), which is used by the U.S. Fish and               lands such as playa lakes. Palustrine wetlands along rivers, streams,
                 Wildlife Service (Fws) to map and inventory the Natioifs wetlands.              springs, lakes, and ponds are called riparian wetlands. Riparian
                 At the most general level of the classification system, wetlands are            wetlands along the State's major rivers provide habitat for fish, wild-
                 grouped into five ecological systems: Palustrine, Lacustrine, Riv-              life, and diverse plant life. They also provide habitat for migrating,
                 erine, Estuarine, and Marine. The Palustrine System includes only               overwintering, and nesting waterfowl. One of the more notable ri-
                                                                                                 parian wetlands in New Mexico is in the Bosque del Apache Na-
                                                                                                 tional Wildlife Refuge. The 57,191-acre refuge lies along 9 miles of
                                                                                                 the Rio Grande in south-central New Mexico. Marshes within the
                                                                                                 refuge are ideal winter habitat for migratory birds, including ducks,
                                                                                                 geese, sandhill cranes, and whooping cranes. Efforts are being made
                                                                                4,
                                                                                                 to maintain and restore native riparian cottonwood habitat in the
                                                                                                 refuge for a variety of birds and other wildlife. Many western spe-
                                                                                                 cies of riparian trees and shrubs, such as willows and cottonwoods,
                                                                                                 have been lost because of normatural strearnflow regimes (Howe and
                                                                                                 Knopf, 1991). The normatural flows followed the completion of
                                                                                                 water projects in the first half of the 20th century, resulting in rapid
                                                                                                 colonization and expansion of the exotic Russian-olive and salt ce-
                                                                                                 dar.
                                                                            A
                                                                                                      The playa lakes of eastern New Mexico provide habitat for
                 Figure 1. 1305que del Apache National Wildlife Refuge. These                    migrating, overwintering, and nesting waterfowl in the Central Fly-
                 riparian wetlands provide habitat for migratory and resident                    way (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 1990). The estimated number
                 waterfowl, fish, and other wildlife. (Photograph by Lisa Carter,                of playa lakes in the State is 1,700, and they range in area from less
                 U.S. Geological Survey.)                                                        than 1 acre to more than 600 acres (Nelson and others, 1983). The








                    286     National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: STATE SUMMARIES



                    playa lakes range in wetness from dry lake bed to shallow lake and              sometimes within the physiographic provinces. New Mexico's di-
                    can be fresh or saline. The freshwater playas are numerous, small               verse physiography, climate, and topography result in diverse hy-
                    to medium in size, and serve as zones of recharge to the underlying             drologic settings for wetland formation.
                    aquifer (Osterkamp and Wood, 1987). The saline playas are larger                    In the Colorado Plateaus and Basin and Range Provinces (fig.
                    and fewer than the freshwater playas and are areas of discharge from            2B), wetlands occur in springs and seeps, around oxbow lakes, along
                    the underlying aquifer. Most playa lakes in New Mexico are                      streams and rivers, around reservoirs, and in other areas where the
                    palustrine. However, playa lakes larger than 20 acres are classified            water table is near the land surface. The and climate of this region
                    as lacustrine wetlands, as are the shallow areas of large reservoirs.           results in a low density and acreage of wetlands. Wetlands, although
                         Riverine wetlands occur in the shallow river channels of pe-               few in number, are vital to wildlife of these physiographic provinces.
                    rennial streams. There are about 3,500 miles of streams in New                      In the Great Plains, wetlands occur in riparian zones along
                    Mexico (Ong and others, 1993).                                                  perennial streams, around oxbow lakes, in isolated natural depres-
                                                                                                    sions with permanent or seasonal water supply, in playa lakes, and
                    HYDROLOGIC SETTING                                                              in association with other lakes, reservoirs, channelized streams,
                                                                                                    rivers, and irrigation ditches. Playa lakes make up the largest area
                         Wetlands form where a persistent water supply is at or near                of wetlands in this province.
                    the land surface. The location and persistence of the supply of water               The area of playa lakes has topography classified as either
                    is a function of precipitation and runoff patterns, evaporation po-             smooth plains, irregular plains, or tablelands (Nelson and others,
                    tential, topography, and the presence of a shallow water table.                 1983). Smooth plains are largely on upland terrain, and irregular
                         Precipitation and runoff rates differ annually and with loca-              plains and tablelands are mostly on lowland terrain. Because of the
                    tion and season. Average annual precipitation in New Mexico (fig.               flatness of the terrain, there is generally little stream drainage, and
                    2C) ranges from about 8 inches in the northwestern corner of the                playa lakes collect most of the surface runoff. The playa lakes are
                    State and in the southern Rio Grande
                    Valley to 24 inches in the mountains of         A                      108.                                                         104'
                    the northern and southern parts of the
                    State. Runoff (fig. 2D) is greatest in the
                    northern mountains and smallest in the
                    desert areas of the southern and east-
                    ern parts of the State. Much of the run-
                    off from the mountains occurs during                  36'
                    concurrent snowmelt and rainfall in the
                    spring and summer.                                                                                       San
                         Average annual pan evaporation
                    varies across the State and ranges from                                                                                                          R
                    about 40 to 112 inches per year (Nelson
                    and others, 1983). Most evaporation                                                          Abuquerqua
                    occurs from March through September
                                                                                                                                                             /*
                    and decreases with increasing altitude.
                    Because annual evaporation exceeds
                    annual rainfall, most of the State has a
                    net annual moisture deficit. The mois-
                    ture deficit is a limiting factor in the
                    formation of wetlands and to the con-
                    tinued existence of some of the more
                    fragile wetlands. Even those areas of                                                     Bosque del Apwhe
                    the State having the highest precipita-                                                   NW5
                    tion and lowest evaporation (high                                                                                               -well
                    mountain regions) can be unfavorable
                    for development of wetlands because of                         R
                    steep topography, shifting stream chan-
                    nels, and unfavorable soil conditions
                    (Cooper, 1986).
                         Shallow water tables and ground-
                                                                                                               Les Crtices
                    water discharge into topographic de-
                    pressions, streams, and springs main-
                    tain wetlands in many areas of New                32
                    Mexico. These wetlands can be along                                                                    WETLANDS AND DEEPWATER HABITATS
                    small streams that have perennial flow                                                                 Distribution of wetlands and deepwater habitats-
                    in only short reaches or along larger,                                                                   This map shows the approximate distribution of large
                    perennial streams. In intermountain                                                                      wetlands in the State. Because of limitations of scale
                    basins, wetlands are maintained by a                  0           50            100 MILES                and source material, some wetlands are not shown
                    shallow water table and springs whose                 i       I    I  I                                W      Predominantly wetland
                    source is recharge from precipitation                 0      50      100 KILOMETERS                           Predominantly deepwater habitat
                    and runoff that occur during spring and                                                                71
                    summer.                                         Figure 2. Wetland distribution in    New Mexico and physical and climatological features that
                         Climatic, topographic, and hydro-          control wetland distribution in the State. A, Distribution of wetlands and deepwater habitats.
                    logic characteristics differ among and          (Sources: A, TE. Dahl, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, unpub. data, 1991.)








                                                                                            National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: NEW MEXICO                287



                usually shallow depressions that have large surface area relative to        ment on the origin of saline playa lakes; however, Wood and Jones
                the total volume of water contained in them. Consequently, most             (1990) propose that the source of the salinity is from the concen-
                playa lakes have small storage capacities.                                  tration by evaporation ofrunoff and shallow, fresh ground water that
                     Studies by Osterkamp and Wood (1987) indicate that freshwa-            discharges from the underlying aquifer.
                ter playa lakes in the Great Plains of New Mexico originate wher-                In the Southern Rocky Mountains, wetlands occur in two
                ever surface depressions collect precipitation runoff. The takes en-        physiographically and climatically distinct settings, mountain val-
                large as a result of dissolution of carbonates by water infiltrating        leys and intermountain basins. Generally, mountain valleys are geo-
                the unsaturated zone above the underlying aquifer and subsequent            logically young and therefore steep. The valleys have been shaped
                subsidence of the lake bed. Over time, the older central lake acquires      over time either by running water throughout their entire length or
                a layer of clay-rich deposits that largely restricts water movement         by glaciers at higher altitudes and running water at lower altitudes.
                from the playa lake to the underlying aquifer. Water probably is            At high altitudes in some mountain valleys, glaciation formed large
                removed from freshwater playa lakes primarily by recharge to the            Cirque basins in which remnant glaciers or late-melting snow main-
                underlying aquifer from the areas around the lake where lake-bed            tains spring, seep, and snow-bed wetlands. Also, at these high alti-
                sediments have not yet accumulated (Osterkamp and Wood, 1487)               tudes, ponds form in depressions behind slumping saturated soils
                and by evaporation that in some years ranges as high as 96 to 112           or in depressions caused by the weight of accumulated snow. Be-
                inches per year (Nelson and others, 1983).         is no general agree-     low the Cirque basins, wetlands occur in the glaciated, U-shaped
                                                                                            valleys, on saturated cliff faces, at the sloping floor near the sides
                                                                                            of the valley, in glacial kettle ponds, in oxbow lakes, in depressions
                      B                                                                     on glacial moraines, in lakes created by terminal or lateral moraines,
                                                                                            in landslide-formed lakes, in seeps and springs, and in beaver ponds.
                                                  flow                                      In steep, V-shaped, nonglaciated areas of mountain valleys, wetlands
                                                  Mount*ns                                  occur as narrow riparian wetlands, near seeps and springs, and in
                                  Colorado                                                  beaver ponds (Windell and others, 1986).
                                  Plateaus                                                       Intermountain basins were filled by sediments derived from
                                                                                            erosion of the surrounding mountains. The large, flat valleys are
                                                                                            drained by low-gradient meandering streams and rivers. Intermoun-
                                                                                            tain-basin wetlands occur along these streams and rivers, in con-
                                                              Great Plalins                 structed and natural impoundments, around oxbow lakes, and in
                                                                                            other areas where the water table is near the land surface. The shal-
                                                                                            low water table is maintained by underlying aquifers, impermeable
                                                                                            substrates, or annual floods (Windell and others, 1986).

                                aw. And @erig.                                              TRENDS

                                                                                                 The Fws has estimated that from the 1780's to the 1980's, wet-
                                                                                            land acreage in New Mexico decreased by 33 percent- from about
                                                                                            720,000 to 482,000 acres (Dahl, 1990). Much of the decrease is
                                          PHYSIOGRAPHIC DIVISIONS                           attributable to the loss of native vegetation along streams because


                                                  20
                                                                                                     D
                                                                                                                              10


                                            24,
                                                                                                              0.6

                                                    0                                                              a2


                                                                                                                                         0'1Z
                                                                                                                                   4)
                                                                                                              a2
                                                     12
                                                                                                                                          0.2
                                                      14


                                                       Is


                                                                                                                                      2


                                                                                                                                       5
                                    'z

                                                                                                                                             oe




                                          PRECIPITATION                                                                      RUNOFF

                                          -16- Line of equal annual precipftation-                                           - 2 - Line of equal annual runoff-
                                                  Interval, in inches, is variable                                                   Interval, in inches, is variable
                Figure 2. Continued.     Wetland distribution in New Mexico and physical and climatological features that control wetland distribution in the
                State. B, Physiography.  C, Average annual precipitation. D, Average annual runoff. (Sources: B, Physiographic divisions from Fenneman,
                1946; landforms data from EROS Data Center. C and D, Cold and Denis, 1986.)









                        288       National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: STATE SUMMARIES



                        of a change in streamflow resulting from reservoir construction or                              Table 1. Selected wetiand-related activities of government
                        agricultural water diversions. The loss of native vegetation along                              agencies and private organizations in New Mexico, 1993
                        streams alters riparian-wetland functions and allows the prolifera-                             [Source: Classification of activities is generalized from information provided
                        tion of nonnative vegetation (Howe and Knopf, 1991).                                                by agencies and organizations. e, agency or organization participates in
                               Wetland losses in rural areas can be attributed to conversion                                wetland-related activity;       agency or organization does not participate in
                                                                                                                            wetland-related activity. MAN, management; REG, regulation; R&C, res-
                        to cropland, dewatering or diverting water for irrigation, and over-                                toration and creation; LAN, land acquisition; R&D, research and data col-
                        grazing by livestock. Development of urban areas has caused wet-                                    lection; D&I, delineation and inventory]
                        land loss or degradation owing to encroachment of residential and
                        commercial construction, dewatering for municipal and industrial
                        water supply, channelization, and contamination from inadequately                               Agency or organization                                  4@          01    13;@ op <@'
                        treated sewage and industrial waste. Other causes of wetland loss                               FEDERAL
                        or degradation are clear cutting, burning, hard-rock mining and                                 Department of Agriculture
                        related activities that produce toxic acidic or alkaline runoff, placer                           Consolidated Farm Service Agency       ........................... ...
                        mining, erosion and sedimentation, sand and gravel mining, road                                   Forest Service   .................................................................00**0
                        and railroad construction, and dam and reservoir construction in                                  Natural Resources Conservation Service       ................ ...
                                                                                                                        Department of Defense
                        wetland areas (Windell and others, 1986).                                                         Army Corps of Engineers     ..............................................0
                               Some human activities have helped to form wetlands or enlarge                              Military reservations   .....................................................*
                        existing ones. The construction of reservoirs between 1916 and                                  Department of the Interior
                        1985, which provided for storage of more than 5.9 million acre-feet                               Bureau of Land Management        ......................................0
                        of surface water (Garrabrant and Garn, 1990), resulted in the for-                                Bureau of Reclamation     .................................................0
                                                                                                                          Fish and Wildlife Service   ..............................................e9  e
                        mation of wetlands along the edge of those water bodies. However,                                 Geological Survey   ...............  .......................................... ...
                        such gains are at the expense of the original, natural riparian wet-                              National Biological Service    ......................................... ... ... ... ...
                        lands. Farm-pond construction also contributes to the formation of                                National Park Service    ...................................................000
                        wetlands around the edge of the pond. More than one-half of the                                 Environmental Protection Agency     .................................. ...
                        State's cropland is irrigated (Garrabrant and Garn, 1990), and leak-                            STATE
                                                                                                                        Department of Game and Fish      .........................................
                        ing ditches and seeps and return flow associated with irrigation have                           Energy, Mineral, and Natural
                        contributed to the formation of wetlands.                                                       Resources Department      ..................................................... ... ...
                                                                                                                        Environment Department      ..................................................* *
                                                                                                                        State Engineer Office   ........................................................0 0
                        CONSERVATION                                                                                    University of New Mexico
                                                                                                                          Natural Heritage Program ..   ..........................................
                               Many government agencies and private organizations partici-                              COUNTY AND LOCAL GOVERNMENTS
                        pate in wetland conservation in New Mexico. The most active agen-                               Albuquerque Open Space Division     .................................
                        cies and organizations and some of their activities are listed in table                         Santa Fe County   .................................................................. ... ... ... ...
                                                                                                                        PRIVATE ORGANIZATIONS
                               Federal wetland activities. -Development activities in New                               National Audubon Society     ............................................... ... ...0
                                                                                                                        Sierra Club  ........................................................................... ... ...*
                        Mexico wetlands are regulated by several Federal statutory prohi-                               The Nature Conservancy     .................................................. ... ... ...
                        bitions and incentives that are intended to slow wetland losses. Some
                        of the more important of these are contained in the 1899 Rivers and
                        Harbors Act; the 1972 Clean Water Act and amendments; the 1985
                        Food Security Act; the 1990 Food, Agriculture, Conservation, and                                Service Agency (formerly the Agricultural Stabilization and Conser-
                        Trade Act; and the 1986 Emergency Wetlands Resources Act.                                       vation Service) administers the Swampbuster provisions and
                               Section 10 of the Rivers and Harbors Act gives the U.S. Army                             Wetlands Reserve Program. The Natural Resources Conservation
                        Corps of Engineers (Corps) authority to regulate certain activities                             Service (formerly the Soil Conservation Service) determines com-
                        in navigable waters. Regulated activities include diking, deepening,                            pliance with Swampbuster provisions and assists farmers in the iden-
                        filling, excavating, and placing of structures. The related section 404                         tification of wetlands and in the development of wetland protection,
                        of the Clean Water Act is the most often-used Federal legislation                               restoration, or creation plans.
                        protecting wetlands. Under section 404 provisions, the Corps issues                                   The 1986 Emergency Wetlands Resources Act encourages
                        permits regulating the discharge of dredged or fill material into                               wetland protection through funding incentives. The act requires
                        wetlands. Permits are subject to review and possible veto by the U.S.                           States to address wetland protection in their Statewide Comprehen-
                        Environmental Protection Agency, and the Fws has review and ad-                                 sive Outdoor Recreation Plans to qualify for Federal funding for
                        visory roles. Section 401 of the Clean Water Act grants to States                               State recreational land; the National Park Service provides guidance
                        and eligible Indian Tribes the authority to approve, apply conditions                           to States in developing the wetland component of their plans.
                        to, or deny section 404 permit applications on the basis of a pro-                                    The U.S. Forest Service (FS) manages five National Forests in
                        posed activity's probable effects on the water quality of a wetland.                            New Mexico that contain diverse wetlands and riparian ecosystems.
                               Most farming, ranching, and silviculture activities are not sub-                         The Fs also coordinates with State agencies and private landown-
                        ject to section 404 regulation. However, the "Swampbuster" provi-                               ers on wetland-conservation activities.
                        sion of the 1985 Food Security Act and amendments in the 1990                                         The FWS manages six National Wildlife Refuges in New Mexico
                        Food, Agriculture, Conservation, and Trade Act discourage (through                              that provide habitat for migrating birds, endangered species, and
                        financial disincentives) the draining, filling, or other alteration of                          other wildlife and wildlife-oriented public recreation. Under the
                        wetlands for agricultural use. The law allows exemptions from pen-                              1986 Emergency Wetlands Resources Act, the Fws evaluated eight
                        alties in some cases, especially if the farmer agrees to restore the                            priority wetland sites in the State for acquisition (U.S. Fish and
                        altered wetland or other wetlands that have been converted to agri-                             Wildlife Service, 1990).
                        cultural use. The Wetlands Reserve Program of the 1990 Food,                                          A goal of the Bureau of Land Management (BLM) is to restore,
                        Agriculture, Conservation, and Trade Act authorizes the Federal                                 maintain, and improve riparian wetland area conditions on public
                        Government to purchase conservation easements from landowners                                   land in New Mexico. The ELM is responsible for the management of
                        who agree to protect or restore wetlands. The Consolidated Farm                                 12.8 million acres of public land in the tristate area of New Mexico,








               290    National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: STATE SUMMARIES














































































                                                      U.S. Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper 2425









                                                                                                      National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: NEW MEXICO                      289



                   Oklahoma, and Kansas, which includes 27,600 acres of riparian                      Cowardin, L.M., Carter, Virginia, Golet, F.C., and LaRoe, E.T., 1979, Clas-
                   wetland (Bureau of Land Management, 1990).                                               sification of wetlands and deepwater habitats ofthe United States: U.S.
                         State wetland activities. -The principal State agencies in New                     Fish and Wildlife Service Report FWS/OBS-79/31, 131 p.
                   Mexico that regulate or manage wetlands are the Department of                      Dahl, T.E., 1990, Wetlands -Losses in the United States, 1780's to 1980's:
                   Game and Fish, Environment Department, and the State Engineer                            Washington, D.C., U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Report to Congress,
                                                                                                            13 p.
                   Office. Also involved is the State Park and Recreation Division of                 Fenneman, N.M., 1946, Physical divisions of the United States: Washing-
                   the Energy, Mineral, and Natural Resources Department, which                             ton, D.C., U.S. Geological Survey special map, scale 1:7,000,000.
                   developed the New Mexico Wetlands Priority Conservation Plan                       Garrabrant, L.A., and Garn, H.S., 1990, New Mexico water supply and use,
                   (New Mexico Energy, Minerals, and Natural Resources Department,                          in National water summary 1987-Hydrologic events and water sup-
                   1988). This plan is a component of the 1986 Statewide Compre-                            ply and use: U.S. Geological Survey Water Supply Paper 2350, p. 375 -
                   hensive Outdoor Recreation Plan. The goals of agencies managing                          382.
                   wetlands in New Mexico are to provide habitat for fish and wildlife                Gold, R.L., and Denis, L.P., Jr., 1986, New Mexico surface-water resources,
                   and for diverse plant species, to maintain wetlands for erosion and                      in U.S. Geological Survey, National water summary 1985-Hydro-
                   flood control, and to enhance wetlands as agricultural, recreational,                    logic events and surface-water resources: U.S. Geological Survey
                                                                                                            Water-Supply Paper 2300, p. 341-346.
                   and scenic resources.                                                              Howe, W.H., andKnopfF.L., 1991, On the imminent decline ofRioGrande
                         State management of wetlands in New Mexico began with an                           cottonwoods in central New Mexico: The Southwestern Naturalist,
                   assessment of State wetlands by the State Park and Recreation Di-                        v. 36, no. 2, p. 218-224.
                   vision (New Mexico Energy, Minerals, and Natural Resources De-                     Nelson, R.W., Logan, WJ., and Weller, E.C., 1983, Playa wetlands and
                   partment, 1988). The steps in the assessment were to locate wet-                         wildlife on the southern great plains -A characterization ofhabitat:
                   lands, determine their types, assess their quality, prioritize them                      U.S. Fish andWildlife Service Report FWS/OBS-93129,163 p.
                   according to their value and benefit, and rate the probable effect on              New Mexico Energy, Minerals, and Natural Resources Department, t988,
                   them of each of the major causes of wetland losses. The Division                         New Mexico wetlands priority conservation plan: Albuquerque, N.
                   considers the seven major causes ofloss or degradation ofwetlands                        Mex., New Mexico Energy, Minerals and Natural Resources Depart-
                   in New Mexico to be (1) municipal water development, (2) natural                         ment, State Park and Recreation Division, 79 p.
                                                                                                      Ong, Kim, Lepp, R.L., and Piatt, Jim, 1993, New Mexico stream water
                   water-table fluctuation, (3) development of land surfaces, (4) pol-                      quality, in U.S. Geological Survey, National water summary 1990-
                   lution, (5) erosion, tree cutting, or siltation, (6) invasion by nonna-                  91-Hydrologic events and stream water quality: U.S. Geological
                   tive plant species, and (7) poor management. The assessment of the                       Survey Water- Supply Paper 2400, p. 403-412.
                   quality of wetlands is based on habitat conditions, the dominance                  Osterkamp, W.R., and Wood, W.W., 1987, Playa lake basins on the South-
                   ofnative or rare species, the presence of terrestrial animals, and the                   ern High Plains of Texas and New Mexico-Part 1, Hydrologic, geo-
                   uniqueness of the wetland in New Mexico. State government acqui-                         morphic, and geologic evidence for their development: Geologic So-
                   sition of wetlands will be based on whether the public values and                        ciety of America Bulletin, v. 99, no. 2, p. 215-223.
                   benefits of wetlands can be maintained or realized under present                   U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 1990, Regional wetlands concept plan -
                                                                                                            New Mexico wetlands: Albuquerque, N. Mex., U.S. Fish and Wildlife
                   ownership (New Mexico Energy, Minerals, and Natural Resources                            Service, 185 p.
                   Department, 1988).                                                                 Windell, J.T., Willard, B.E., Cooper, D.J., and others, 1986, An ecological
                         County and local wetland activities. -The Open Space Divi-                         characterization of Rocky Mountain montane and subaipine wetlands:
                   sion of the city of Albuquerque acquires, manages, and restores                          U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Biological Report 86 (11), 298 p.
                   wetlands. The Division also conducts feasibility studies and inven-                Wood, W.W., and Jones, B.F., 1990, Origin of saline lakes and springs on
                   tories wetlands in areas under its jurisdiction. The county of Santa                     the southern High Plains ofRxas and New Mexico, in Gustavson, T.C.,
                   Fe is involved in research and inventory of wetlands in the county.                      ed., Geological framework and regional hydrology -Upper Cenozoic
                         Private wetland activities. - Private organizations involved in                    Blackwater Draw and Ogaflala Formation, Great Plains: Austin, Tex.,
                   wetland management and conservation in New Mexico include the                            Bureau of Economic Geology, p. 193 -208.
                   National Audubon Society, the Sierra Club, and The Nature Con-
                   servancy. A principal activity of the National Audubon Society and
                   the Sierra Club is the restoration and creation of wetlands. The Si-               FOR ADDITIONAL INFORMATION: District Chief, U.S. Geological
                   erra Club also conducts research in wetlands. The Nature Conser-                   Survey, 4501 Indian School Rd., NE, Suite 200, Albuquerque, NM 87110;
                   vancy acquires wetlands and other ecologically valuable habitats for               Regional Wetland Coordinator, U.S. Fish and Wildlife, Fish and Wildlife
                   conservation. A major goal of these private organizations is to in-                Enhancement, 500 Gold Ave., SW, Albuquerque, NM 87103
                   form the public about the value of wetlands,
                                                                                                                                     Prepared by
                   References Cited                                                                                                  B.D. Jones,
                                                                                                                              U.S. Geological Survey
                   Bureau of Land Management, 1990, New Mexico riparian-wetiand 2000-
                         A management strategy: Santa Fe, N. Mex., Bureau of Land Manage-
                         ment, 25 p. ,
                   Cooper, D.J., 1986, Ecological studies in wetland vegetation, Cross Creek
                         Valley, Holy Cross Wilderness, Sawatch Range, Colorado: Boulder,
                         Colo., Holy Cross Wilderness Defense Fund Technical Report 2,25 p.
                         (Available from Holy Cross Wilderness Defense Fund, 1130 Alpine,
                         Boulder, Colo. 80304.)








                                                                                                                                                                                   National Water Summary-Wetland Resources 291
                                                                                                                                                                                                         New York
                                                                                                                                                                                      Wetland Resources
                          le diverse wetlands of New York have formed from the interac-                                                              wetlands, whereas the other systems comprise wetlands and
                          tion of geologic events, climate, and hydrology. New York s fresh-                                                         deepwater habitats. Wetlands of the systems that occur in New York
                          water and saltwater wetlands are important for fish and wildlife,                                                          are described below.
                          environmental quality, human society, and the economy. Estuarine
                          wetlands provide habitat for clams and oysters, and they provide                                                           System                                                       Wetland description
                          spawning and nursery grounds for commercially important fish
                          species, including alewife, blueback herring, bass, white perch,                                                           Palustrine        .................. Nontidal and tidal-freshwater wetlands in which
                          American shad, menhaden, bluefish, sea trout, and mullet. Many                                                                                                    vegetation is predominantly trees (forested wet-
                                                                                                                                                                                            lands); shrubs (scrub-sh rub wetlands); persistent
                          bird species, including osprey, peregrine falcons, snow and Canada                                                                                                or nonpersistent emergent, erect, rooted herba-
                          geese, and pintail, canvasback, mallard, and black ducks, use New                                                                                                 ceous plants (persistent- and nonpersistent-
                          York's salt marshes for feeding, migration, and wintering grounds.                                                                                                emergent wetlands); or submersed and (or)
                          Nesting bald eagles and the largest colony of great blue herons in                                                                                                floating plants (aquatic beds). Also, intermit-
                          New York live in the Iroquois National Wildlife Refuge. Beavers,                                                                                                  tently to permanently flooded open-water bod-
                                                                                                                                                                                            ies of less than 20 acres in which water is less
                          muskrat, raccoons, river otters, foxes, and rabbits use wetlands as a                                                                                             than 6.6 feet deep.
                          source of food and shelter. Many reptile and amphibian species also                                                        Lacustrine         ................. Nontidal and tidal-freshwater wetlands within an
                          live in the State's wetlands.                                                                                                                                     intermittently to permanently flooded lake or
                                   New York's wetlands are home to many threatened and endan-                                                                                               reservoir larger than 20 acres and (or) deeper
                          gered plants and animals. Of the 160 threatened or endangered plant                                                                                               than 6.6 feet. Vegetation, when present, is pre-
                          species identified by the State's Department of Environmental Con-                                                                                                dominantly noripersistent emergent plants (non-
                                                                                                                                                                                            persistent-emergent wetlands), or submersed
                          servation, 50 percent are wetland species, as are 10 species of ver-                                                                                              and (or) floating plants (aquatic beds), or both.
                          tebrates (Alvin Breisch, New York State Department of Environ-                                                             Riverine       ..................... Nontidal and tidal-freshwater wetlands within a
                          mental Conservation, oral commun., 1993).                                                                                                                         channel. Vegetation, when present, is same as
                                   The environmental quality of aquatic habitats is enhanced by                                                                                             in the Lacustrine System.
                          wetlands. Wetlands filter or absorb nutrients, and they also remove                                                        Estuarine        ................... Tidal wetlands in low-wave-energy environments
                          heavy metals and other contaminants from waters moving through                                                                                                    where the salinity ofthe water is greaterthan 0.5
                          them. Wetlands reduce turbidity and sediment loading, thereby slow-                                                                                               part per thousand (ppt) and is variable owing to
                          ing the siltation of harbors and navigable rivers and streams. The                                                                                                evaporation and the mixing of seawater and
                          aquatic productivity of wetlands is very high-the amount ofplant                                                                                                  freshwater.
                          material produced per acre annually by an estuarine wetland (gross                                                         Marine       ....................... Tidal wetlands that are exposed to waves and cur-
                                                                                                                                                                                            rents of the open ocean and to water having a
                          primary productivity) has been estimated to be about the same as                                                                                                  salinity greater than 30 ppt.
                          that of a tropical rain forest (Odum, 1971). Salt marshes support a
                          diverse community of animals that inhabit estuarine waters.                                                                         Dahl (1990) has estimated that wetlands cover about 1.0 mil-
                                   In addition to the habitat and environmental benefits of wet-                                                     lion acres of New York. Another estimate places the present-day
                          lands, they also provide socioeconomic benefits, including flood and                                                       acreage at 2.2 to 2.4 million acres (Patricia Riexinger, New York
                          storm-damage protection, erosion control, and the production of                                                            Department of Environmental Conservation, oral commun., 1993).
                          plants such as blueberries, cranberries, wild rice, salt hay, and tim-                                                     Such estimates of wetland area are typically based on surveys that
                          ber. Wetlands also provide many recreational and educational op-
                          portunities, including hunting and fishing, nature study, boating,
                          painting and drawing, and photography. The Hudson River National
                          Estuarine Research Reserve (fig. 1) is a wetland-upland complex
                          of national significance that provides outstanding opportunities for
                          research and education.


                          TYPES AND DISTRIBUTION

                                   Wetlands are lands transitional between terrestrial and                                                                                 n
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                   4.,
                          deepwater habitats where the water table usually is at or near the                                                                                                                                                         -
                          land surface or the land is covered by shallow water (Cowardin and
                          others, 1979). The distribution of wetlands and deepwater habitats
                          in New York is shown in figure 2A; only wetlands are discussed
                          herein.
                                   Wetlands can be vegetated or nonvegetated and are classified                                                                                     f
                          on the basis of their hydrology, vegetation, and substrate. In this
                          summary, wetlands are classified according to the system proposed                                                          Figure 1.         Tivoli Bays, Hudson                River National Estuarine
                          by Cowardin and others (1979), which is used by the U.S. Fish and                                                          Research Reserve. The reserve is managed cooperatively
                          Wildlife Service (Fws) to map and inventory the Natiorfs wetlands.                                                         by the State of New York and the National Oceanic and
                          At the most general level of the classification system, wetlands are                                                       Atmospheric Administration's Sanctuaries and Reserves
                          grouped into five ecological systems: Palustrine, Lacustrine, Riv-                                                         Division. (Photograph by E.A. Blair Hudson River National
                          erine, Estuarine, and Marine. The Palustrine System includes only                                                          Estuarine Research Reserve.)








                            292        National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: STATE SUMMARIES


                                                                                                                                                                                                               45-










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                                                                                                                                           0                                                           Hudsor ARiver
                                                                                                                                                                                                       NV      Estuarine
                                                                                                                                           'ngh   rato                                                 R     h Reserve
                                                                                                                                                                                                              42-
                                               79-                                                      77-

                                                  WETLANDS AND DEEPWATER HABITATS
                                                   Distribution of wetlands and deepwater habitats-
                                                       This map shows the approximate distribution of large
                                                       wetl:rids in the State. Because of limitations of scale
                                                                                                                                                                           'd on iver Nei
                                                       and  ource material, some wetlands are not shown                                                          75-            rins
                                                                                                                                                                                      esA a
                                                            Predominantly wetland                                                                                                                                                                      01

                                                            predominantly deepwater habitat


                                                                                                                     "A


                                                                                                                                                                                  New York                  Long

                                                                                                                                                       ESSEX



                                                                                                                                                  WARREN                                          0            25            50 MILES
                                                                                                                                                                                                  0       25      50 KILOMETERS

                                                                                                                    mom
                                                    NIAGARA              M00%
                                                                                                                                           R=N
                                                                                                                                                         V4
                                                                                                                                       MONTGOMERY
                                                                                  ONTARIO
                                                       ERIE
                                                                  OMI
                                                                                                                              OTS GO       ICH    ALBAN
                                    CHAUTAUQUA    C    ARAUG      ALLEGANY     STEUBEN               TIOGA    BROOME          DELAWARE          GREEN

                                                                                                                                               ULSTAR


                                                                    PERCENT WETLANDS IN COUNTY                                     SULLWAN
                                                                               Greater than 6.0                                               ORANGE   "NAM
                                                                    IF77" @    3.5 to 6.0                                                                 %
                                                                               1.8 to 3.5                                              ROCKLAND
                                                                                                                                                BRONX
                                                                               1.0 to 1.8                                                  MANHATTAN                Sir
                                                                               Less than 1.0                                               STATON-P
                                                                                                                                           ISLAND      KINGS QUEENS


                            Figure 2. Wetland distribution in New York and physical and climatological features that affect wetland distribution in the State. A, Dis-
                            tribution of wetlands and deepwater habitats. 0, Percentage area of New York counties that is wetland. (Sources: A, TE Dahl, U.S. Fish
                            and Wildlife Service, unpub. data, 1991. B, O'Connor and Cole, 1989.)








                                                                                            National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: NEW YORK               293


              have different minimum unit sizes, which could account, in part"            HYDROLOGIC SETTING
              for the disparity of these estimates.
                     About 75 percent of New York's wetlands occupy areas of less              New York's wetlands have formed primarily as the result of the
              than 6 acres. O'Connor and Cole (1989) classified New York's fresh-         interaction of geologic, physiographic, climatic, and hydrologic fac-
              water wetlands of at least one-half acre into 14 cover types by use         tors. Geologic history and climatic regime have influenced the States
              of aerial-photographic methods, Their study did not consider salt-          physiography and hydrology, which largely determine the location
              water wetlands, which compose only a small percentage of the State's        and types of those wetlands.
              wetland acreage and are confined to the Long Island coast and the                During the last ice age, which ended about 18,000 years ago,
              lower 30 miles of the Hudson River (Karl Schwartz, U.S. Fish and            glaciers covered most of New York. Erosion caused by movement
              Wildlife Service, oral commun., 1993), but covers all other wetlands        of the glaciers and subsequent erosion and deposition by glacial
              in the State. The five most common freshwater-wetland cover types           meltwater and precipitation runoff shaped the present-day, topo-
              in New York, in order of area, are flooded deciduous trees (palustrine      graphically diverse landscape. The State's physiography (fig. 2C)
              forested wetland); flooded shrubs (palustrine scrub-shrub wetland);         ranges from lowlands to mountains, some having elevations higher
              flooded coniferous trees (palustrine forested wetland); drained             than 5,000 feet in the Adirondack Mountains. Glacial drift (clay,
              muckland, which is not considered wetland under the Cowardin and            sand, gravel, and boulders deposited by glaciers or transported by
              others (1979) classification system; and emergents (palustrine emer-        glacial meltwater) of varying thickness mantles the bedrock of most
              gent wetlands or lacustrine or riverine nonpersistent- emergent             of the State and forms the floor of stream valleys and most other
              wetlands). Together, these types constitute almost 88 percent of New        areas of low relief. Long Island is composed largely of glacial drift
              York's freshwater wetland area.                                             that was deposited at the edge of the glacier's farthest advance.
                     The counties of upstate New York, including those in the                  New York has 13.5 million acres of lakes (Zembrzuski and
              Adirondack Mountains and the counties south and east of Lake                Gannon, 1986), which are most abundant in the St. Lawrence Val-
              Ontario, have the largest percentages of freshwater wetland area (fig.      ley, Adirondack, and Central Lowland physiographic provinces.
              2B). Among New York's counties, St. Lawrence County, which has              These lakes were formed in three stages by glacial activity. First,
              about 21,000 acres of wetlands, has the largest area of freshwater          the glaciers advanced, scouring the State's landscape. Then, as the
              wetland, and Wayne County, which contains 12 percent of the State's         glaciers retreated, large ice blocks were left behind and buried by
              wetland acreage, has the highest percentage of wetland area. The            glacial drift. These blocks subsequently melted, releasing their
              urban counties of New York City and Long Island and the south-              meltwater to form lakes. Other lakes, such as the Finger Lakes of
              ern-tier counties along the State's border with Pennsylvania have the       west-central New York, are river valleys that have been deeply
              smallest percentage of wetland area. Counties in the Catskill Moun-         scoured by glaciers. Glacial lakes are most common in northern New
              tains also have relatively low areal percentages of wetlands.               York, especially in the Adirondack Mountains. Natural lakes of any
                     Wetlands provide habitat for many threatened or endangered           kind are scarce in the Appalachian Plateaus of southwestern New
              species. In New York, a species can be classified as threatened or          York. There, rivers have cut deeply into the regiorfs shale to form
              endangered either by the State or by the Federal Government. Wet-           steep-sided valleys.
              land plant species that are considered to be threatened or endan-                Noncoastal wetlands. -Most of New York's noncoastal wet-
              gered in New York include heartleaf plantain, spreading globeflower,        lands have formed in and around glacial lakes. Some wetlands also
              fringed gentian, and curlygrass fern. In addition to plants, a num-         occur along river and stream corridors and in other lowlands where
              ber of animal species are listed, including the red-shouldered hawk,        deposits of fine-grained sediments provide an underlying imperme-
              osprey, bog turtle, and tiger salamander (Alvin Breisch, New York           able layer that prevents water from percolating below the surface.
              Department of Environmental Conservation, written commun.,                  Ground water and overland precipitation runoff are the principal
              1993).                                                                      sources of water for glacial-lake wetlands, and river flooding is an



                                                    A

                                                            4K,

                     C
                                                                                                  D





                                D
                                                                                                                                 "0


                                    C                                                      40                 J,
                                                                                           44



                 PHYSIOGRAPHIC DIVISIONS                                                      PRECIPITATION
                     A St. Lawrence Valley
                     B'Adir ndack Province                                                    -40- Line of equal annual precip tation-
                                                                                                      Interval, in inches, is var
                     C, Appolachian Plateaus                                                                               able                    8
                     D. Central L land
                              ow                                                                                                                              4
                     E. Valley and Ridge Province
                     F. New England Province
                     G. Piedmont Province
                     H. Coastal Plain


              Figure 2. Continued. Wetland distribution in New York and physical and climatological features that affect wetland distribution in the
              State. C, Physiography. D, Precipitation. (Sources: C, Physiographic divisions from Fenneman, 1946; landforms data from EROS Data
              Center D, Zembrzuski and Gannon, 1986.)








                                 294          National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: STATE SUMMARIES



                                 additional source for wetlands along rivers and streams. Annual                                                                    Wetlands have been drained for crop production and pastur-
                                 precipitation in the State ranges from 28 inches to the west of Lake                                                        age, and they have been filled for transportation, industrialization,
                                 Champlain to more than 50 inches in the Adirondack and Catskill                                                             housing, and landfills (Tiner, 1984). Dredging for navigation and
                                 Mountains (fig. 2D). Annual precipitation substantially exceeds                                                             the construction of reservoirs, harbors, and marinas also have ad-
                                 annual evapotranspiration, resulting in an annual moisture surplus                                                          versely affected New York's wetlands. In addition to the acreage
                                 and ample water to maintain wetlands.                                                                                       losses caused by these activities, wetlands have been degraded by
                                         Ground water flows into wetlands from either glacial drift,                                                         point and nonpoint discharges to surface waters from agriculture,
                                 fractures in crystalline bedrock, or solution cavities in carbonate                                                         logging, industry, municipal sewerage, and urban runoff, which add
                                 bedrock, depending on local geological characteristics. Most re-                                                            contaminants and silt to surface waters.
                                 charge to ground-water systems occurs in upland areas, where pre-                                                                  Some wetlands have been created as a result of the activities
                                 cipitation percolates through the surficial sediments and into the                                                          of beavers and humans. By impounding streams, beavers can cre-
                                 underlying aquifers. In stream valleys containing valley-fill aqui-                                                         ate wetlands in areas that were formerly uplands. In the last cen-
                                 fers that are composed of glacial deposits, precipitation runoff from                                                       tury, beavers were trapped in some parts of the Northeast for their
                                 valley walls also is a common source of recharge. From recharge                                                             pelts. The reduction of the population led to deterioration of their
                                 areas, ground water flows to areas of lower elevation, discharging                                                          dams and to subsequent wetland loss. In more recent times, bea-
                                 to streams, ponds, lakes, and wetlands.                                                                                     vers have reestablished their population and their impoundments and
                                         Vegetated wetlands formed in New York's glacial lakes when                                                          the associated wetlands. Humans also have created wetlands, inten-
                                 the lakes filled with sediment and organic material, providing a                                                            tionally through the construction of artificial wetlands and inadvert-
                                 substrate for rooted plants. Partially decomposed wetland vegeta-                                                           ently through dam and farm-pond construction. These additions,
                                 tion accumulates in the wetlands, forming a continually thickening                                                          however, probably have not compensated for the losses of natural
                                 layer of organic matter called peat. Such wetlands are known as                                                             wetlands (Tiner, 1984).
                                 peatlands (Mitsch and Gosselink, 1986), of which bogs (forested,
                                 scrub-shrub, or emergent wetlands) and fens (similar wetland classes                                                        CONSERVATION
                                 to bogs but different vegetation composition) are common types in
                                 New York. Bogs receive most or 0 of their water from precipita-                                                                    Many government agencies and private organizations partici-
                                 tion and have a characteristic plant community that is composed of                                                          pate in wetland conservation in New York. The most active agen-
                                 peat (sphagnum) moss and other plants tolerant of acidic conditions.                                                        cies and organizations and some of their activities are listed in table
                                 Fens receive at least some water from ground water and are less                                                             I .
                                 acidic than bogs. Peatlands can evolve into uplands through an eco-                                                                Federal wetland activities. -Development activities in New
                                 logical process called succession, wherein the vegetative composi-                                                          York wetlands are regulated by several Federal statutory prohibi-
                                 tion of the wetland changes over time, The plant community gradu-
                                 ally evolves from one in which wetland plants predominate to one                                                            Table 1. Selected wetland-related activities of government
                                 having more upland species. Although succession of some kind
                                 occurs in most ecosystems, it is possible that a wetland will never                                                         agencies and private organizations in New York, 1993
                                 reach a steady-state condition. It can instead cycle through forested,                                                      [Source: Classification of activities is generalized from information provided
                                                                                                                                                                 by agencies and organizations. o, agency or organization participates in
                                 open-water, emergent, and shrub phases several times as the com-                                                                wetland-related activity;                agency or organization does not participate in
                                 munity evolves (Virginia Carter, U.S. Geological Survey, written                                                                wetland-related activity. MAN, management; REG, regulation; R&C, res-
                                 commun., 1994). Lakes undergo a similar process, called eutrophi-                                                               toration and creation; LAN, land acquisition; R&D, research and data col-
                                 cation, in which they fill in with decaying organic matter, which then                                                          lection; D&I, delineation and inventory]
                                 forms the substrate for plants that make up the next stage in the
                                 successional process.                                                                                                                                                                                                                       X
                                         Coastal wetlands. -Nearly all of New York's coastal wetlands                                                        Agency or organization
                                 are in the intertidal zone in the bays of Long Island and comprise                                                          FEDERAL
                                 mostly salt marshes, aquatic beds, and tidal flats. These wetlands                                                          Department of Agriculture
                                 receive their water from the ocean, streams, and ground-water seep-                                                          Consolidated Farm Service Agency                  ........................... ...       ... ...      ... ...
                                 age and are subject to hydrologic and salinity regimes that vary daily                                                       Forest Service        .................................................................
                                                                                                                                                              Natural Resources Conservation Service                    ................
                                 with the tides and seasonally with precipitation and streamflow. The                                                        Department of Commerce
                                 bottom material of coastal wetlands in the Northeastern United                                                               National Oceanic and Atmospheric
                                 States generally consists of peat and fine sediments derived from                                                            Administration       ..................................................  ..............
                                 the glacial drift that covers upland areas. Salt-marsh plant commu-                                                         Department of Defense
                                 nities contain species physiologically adapted to dynamic conditions                                                         Army Corps of Engineers            ..............................................
                                                                                                                                                              Military reservations              .....................................................0... ... ... ...    ...
                                 of moisture and salinity. Plant-species composition changes along                                                           Department of the Interior
                                 a gradient that corresponds to frequency of inundation and to sa-                                                            Fish and Wildlife Service          ..............................................a
                                 linity range. Production of plant material is high in coastal marshes                                                        Geological Survey          .......................................................... ...
                                 owing to a constant supply of nutrients (mostly nitrogen and phos-                                                           National Biological Service            ......................................... ... ... ... ...
                                 phorus). Much of the plant material in estuarine marshes is washed                                                           National Park Service              ...................................................0 *     0
                                                                                                                                                             Environmental Protection Agency              ..........  ....................... ...e
                                 into the estuary during the high tides of winter and becomes part                                                           STATE
                                 of the detrital food web of the estuary (Virginia Carter, U.S. Geo-                                                         Adirondack Park Agency              ....................................  ............. ...0
                                 logical Survey, written commun., 1994).                                                                                     Department of Environmental Conservation
                                                                                                                                                              Division of Fish and Wildlife          .........................................
                                                                                                                                                             Department of State         ................ ......................................... ... ...
                                 TRENDS                                                                                                                      PRIVATE ORGANIZATIONS
                                                                                                                                                             Ducks Unlimited       ..................................................................
                                         New York's wetlands have been drained and filled since settle-                                                      Finger Lakes Land Trust             .................................................... ... ... ... . ...
                                 ment by Europeans began in the 1600's. Filling of wetlands in-                                                              The National Audubon Society                    ................................e
                                 creased markedly following World War 11. Between about the 1780's                                                           The Nature Conservancy              ..................................................0
                                 and the 1980's, New York lost an estimated 60 percent of its wet-                                                           The Open Space institute            ................................................. ... ...
                                 lands (Dahl, 1990).                                                                                                         Scenic Hudson        ....................................................................








                                                                                                       National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: NEW YORK                     295



                tions and incentives that are intended to slow wetland losses. Some                 the State has protected a number of wetlands of unusual local im-
                ofthe more important ofthese are contained in the 1899 Rivers and                   portance (mostly in down- State areas). A major cooperative effort
                Harbors Act; the 1972 Clean Water Act and amendments; the 1985                      is underway among Federal and State agencies and private organi-
                Food Security Act; the 1990 Food, Agriculture, Conservation, and                    zations to acquire more than 20,000 acres of wetlands and associ-
                Trade Act; the 1986 Emergency Wetlands Resources Act; and the                       ated uplands to the north of the Montezuma National Wildlife Ref-
                1972 Coastal Zone Management Act.                                                   uge. This area will be a major protected wetland resource for the
                      Section 10 of the Rivers and Harbors Act gives the U.S. Army                  State. Also, many State wildlife-management areas are wetland-
                Corps of Engineers (Corps) authority to regulate certain activities                 upland complexes that are managed for wetiand values. The Hudson
                in navigable waters. Regulated activities include diking, deepening,                River National Estuarine Research Reserve is a federally designated
                filling, excavating, and placing of structures. The related section 404             wetland system that is managed cooperatively by the New York
                of the Clean Water Act is the most often-used Federal legislation                   Department of Environmental Conservation and NOAA. The reserve
                protecting wetlands. Under section 404 provisions, the Corps issues                 consists of four sites totaling 5,000 acres of mostly wetlands that
                permits regulating the discharge of dredged or fill material into                   are distributed along the salinity gradient of the Hudson River. The
                wetlands. Permits are subject to review and possible veto by the U.S.               reserve's purposes are protection, research, and education.
                Environmental Protection Agency, and the Fws has review and ad-                           County and local wetland activities. -Under the Freshwater
                visory roles. Section 401 of the Clean Water Act grants to States                   Wetlands Act, a county, town, village, or municipality can take over
                and eligible Indian Tribes the authority to approve, apply conditions               responsibility for wetland management with oversight by the De-
                to, or deny section 404 permit applications on the basis of a pro-                  partment ofEnvironmental Conservation. Under this provision, local
                posed activity's probable effects on the water quality of a wetland.                governments review and process permit applications. The Depart-
                      Most farming, ranching, and silviculture activities are not sub-              ment approves the local procedures and also reserves the right to
                ject to section 404 regulation. However, the "Swampbuster" provi-                   oversee Class I wetlands, which are wetlands considered most in
                sion of the 1985 Food Security Act and amendments in the 1990                       need of protection because they provide benefits that make them
                Food, Agriculture, Conservation, and Trade Act discourage (through                  particularly valuable. Any municipality is allowed to pass regula-
                financial disincentives) the draining, filling, or other alteration of              tions that are more restrictive than the Department's guidelines.
                wetlands for agricultural use. The law allows exemptions from pen-                  When such regulations are passed, the Department defers to the local
                alties in some cases, especially if the farmer agrees to restore the                authority. To date, only two towns and one village have taken over
                altered wetland or other wetlands that have been converted to agri-                 wetland-management responsibility, and no county government has
                cultural use. The Wetlands Reserve Program of the 1990 Food,                        opted to preempt the Department's regulations (Russell Cole, New
                Agriculture, Conservation, and Trade Act authorizes the Federal                     York State Department of Environmental Conservation, oral
                Government to purchase conservation easements from landowners                       commun., 1993).
                who agree to protect or restore wetlands. The Consolidated Farm                           Counties may facilitate wetland acquisition through the fund-
                Service Agency (formerly the Agricultural Stabilization and Conser-                 ing of bond acts. Such acts have been used extensively on Long
                vation Service) administers the Swampbuster provisions and                          Island for this purpose (Sarah Davidson, The Nature Conservancy,
                Wetlands Reserve Program. The Natural Resources Conservation                        Long Island Chapter, oral commun., 1993).
                Service (formerly the Soil Conservation Service) determines com-                          Private wetland activities. -Among the private organizations
                pliance with Swampbuster provisions and assists farmers in the iden-                that are active in the conservation of New York's wetlands are Ducks
                tification of wetlands and in the development of wetland protection,                Unlimited, The Nature Conservancy, the National Audubon Soci-
                restoration, or creation plans.                                                     ety, Scenic Hudson, the Open Space Institute, and the Finger Lakes
                      The 1986 Emergency Wetlands Resources Act and the 1972                        Land Trust. Privately organized and funded land trusts exist in many
                Coastal Zone Management Act and amendments encourage wetland                        New York counties, and these can enable wetland acquisition and
                protection through funding incentives. The Emergency Wetland                        protection (Peggy Olson, The Nature Conservancy, Eastern New
                Resources Act requires States to address wetland protection in their                York Chapter, oral commun., 1993).
                Statewide Comprehensive Outdoor Recreation Plans to qualify for
                Federal funding for State recreational land; the National Park Ser-                 References Cited
                vice provides guidance to States in developing the wetland compo-
                nent of their plans. Coastal States that adopt coastal-zone manage-                 Cowardin, L.M., Carter, Virginia, Golet, F.C., and LaRoe, E.T., 1979, Clas-
                ment programs and plans approved by the National Oceanic and                              sification of wetlands and deepwater habitats of the United States: U.S.
                Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) are eligible for Federal fund-                          Fish and Wildlife Service Report FWS/OBS -79/31, 131 p.
                ing and technical assistance through the Coastal Zone Management                    Dahl, T.E., 1990, Wetlands-Losses in the United States, 1780's to 1980's:
                Act.                                                                                      Washington, D.C., U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Report to Congress,
                                                                                                          13 p.
                      State wetland activities. -State laws governing New York's                    Fenneman, N.M., 1946, Physical divisions of the United States: Washing-
                wetlands include the 1973 Tidal Wetlands Act, the 1975 Freshwa-                           ton, D.C., U.S. Geological Survey special map, scale 1:7,000,000.
                ter Wetlands Act, the Protection of Waters Act, and the Waterfront                  Mitsch, W.J., and Gosselink, J.G., 1986, Wetlands: New York, Van Nostrand
                Revitalization and Coastal Resource Act. Of these, the first three                        Reinhold, 539 p.
                are administered by the New York Department of Environmental                        O'Connor, Sharon, and Cole, N.B., 1989, Freshwater wetlands inventory -
                Conservation, and the fourth is administered by the New York De-                          Data afialysis: Albany, New York State Department of Environmental
                partment of State. Wetland activities in the Adirondack Park are                          Conservation, Division of Fish and Wildlife, 107 p.
                regulated by the Adirondack Park Agency under the 1975 Freshwater                   Odum, E.P., 197 1, Fundamentals of ecology: Philadelphia, Saunders, 574 p.
                Wetlands Act.                                                                       Tiner, R.W., Jr., 1984, Wetlands of the United States -Current status and
                                                                                                          recent trends: Washington, D.C., U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 59 p.
                      The State has extended protection to many wetlands within its                 Zembrzuski, T.J., and Gannon, W.B., 1986, New York surface-water re-
                borders. By far the largest protected area containing wetlands is the                     sources, in U.S. Geological Survey National water summary 1985 -
                Adirondack Park in northern New York. The wetland acreage within                          Hydrologic events and surface-water resources: U.S. Geological Sur-
                the park is not precisely known because the Adirondack Park Agency                        vey Water-Supply Paper 2300, p. 347-354.
                wetlands inventory is not complete. In addition to park wetlands,









                     296    National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: STATE SUMMARIES




                     FOR ADDITIONAL INFORMATION: District Chief, U.S. Geological Sur-
                     vey, James T. Foley U.S. Courthouse, P.O. Box 1669, Room 343,445 Broad-
                     way,Albany,NY 12201; Regional Wetland Coordinator, U.S. Fish and Wild-
                     life Service, Regional Wetland Coordinator, 300 Westgate Center Dr.,
                     Hadley, MA 01035


                                                Prepared by
                     Thomas H. Barringer, John S. Williams, and Deborah S. Lumia,
                                          U.S. Geological Survey



























































                                                                 U.S. Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper 2425








                                                                                                                                                                                National Water Summary-Wetland Resources 297
                                                                                                                                                                 North Carolina
                                                                                                                                                                                    Wetland Besources
                        Wands of North Carolina are diverse and widely distributed.                                                                deepwater habitats. Wetlands of the systems that occur in North
                        About 5.7 million acres, or 17 percent, of the State is covered by                                                         Carolina are described below.
                        wetlands (Dahl, 1990). About 95 percent of these wetlands are in
                        the eastern part of the State (fig. 1).                                                                                    System                                                       Wetland description
                                Wetlands affect strearriflow and water quality and provide criti-
                        cal habitat to a variety of plants and animals. Because of the large                                                       Palustrine        .................. Nonticlal and tidal-freshwater wetlands in which
                        size of some eastern North Carolina wetlands and their proximity                                                                                                  vegetation is predominantly trees (forested wet-
                        to coastal waters, these wetlands are important regulators of fresh-                                                                                              lands); shrubs (scrub-shrub wetlands); persistent
                                                                                                                                                                                          or nonpersistent emergent, erect, rooted herba-
                        water, nutrient, and sediment inputs to North Carolina estuaries.                                                                                                 ceous plants (persistent- and nonpersistent-
                        Almost one-halfofNorth Carolina's wetlands are bottom-land hard-                                                                                                  emergent wetlands); or submersed and (or)
                        wood forests, which are valuable habitats for waterfowl breeding                                                                                                  floating plants (aquatic beds). Also, intermit-
                        and overwintering and for anadromous fish spawning (U.S. Fish and                                                                                                 tently to permanently flooded open-water bod-
                                                                                                                                                                                          ies of less than 20 acres in which water is less
                        Wildlife Service, 1992). About 90 percent of the State's commer-                                                                                                  than 6.6 feet deep.
                        cial fish harvest is derived from estuary-dependent species. Tidal                                                         Lacustrine        ......  .......... Wetlands within an intermittently to permanently
                        and nontidal creeks surrounded by wetlands and vast beds of sub-                                                                                                  flooded lake or reservoir largerthan 20 acres and
                        mersed aquatic vegetation function as nursery areas for larval and                                                                                                (or) deeper than 6.6 feet. Vegetation, when
                        juvenile fish and provide critical finfish and shellfish habitats for                                                                                             present, is predominantly nonpersistent emer-
                        adults. Small wetlands throughout the Piedmont and Blue Ridge                                                                                                     gent plants (nonpersistent-emergent wetlands),
                                                                                                                                                                                          or submersed and (or) floating plants (aquatic
                        Provinces of the State harbor at least 80 species of rare or endan-                                                                                               beds), or both.
                        gered plants. Statewide, about 70 percent of the rare and endangered                                                       Riverine       ..................... Nonticlal and ti da Hreshwater wetlands within a
                        plants and animals depend on wetlands.                                                                                                                            channel. Vegetation, when present, is same as
                                                                                                                                                                                          in the Lacustrine System.
                        TYPES AND DISTRIBUTION                                                                                                     Estuarine        ................... Tidal wetlands in low-wave-energy environments
                                                                                                                                                                                          where the salinity of the water is greater than 0.5
                                Wetlands are lands transitional between terrestrial and                                                                                                   pa rt per thousand (ppt) and is variable owing to
                        deepwater habitats where the water table usually is at or near the                                                                                                evaporation and the mixing of seawater and
                        land surface or the land is covered by shallow water (Cowardin and                                                                                                freshwater.
                        others, 1979). The distribution of wetlands and deepwater habitats                                                         Marine       ....................... Tidal wetlands that are exposed to waves and cur-
                                                                                                                                                                                          rents of the open ocean and to water having a
                        in North Carolina is shown in figure 2A; only wetlands are discussed                                                                                              salinity greater than 30 ppt.
                        herein.
                                Wetlands can be vegetated or nonvegetated and are classified                                                               Palustrine system. -Palustrine wetlands account for most of
                        on the basis of their hydrology, vegetation, and substrate. In this                                                        the wetland acreage in North Carolina. Palustrine wetlands in the
                        summary, wetlands are classified according to the system proposed                                                          State include forested wetlands (bottom-land hardwood forests,
                        by Cowardin and others (1979), which is used by the U.S. Fish and                                                          fringe wooded swamps, wet pine flatwoods, pine savannas, and
                        Wildlife Service (FWS) to map and inventory the Nation's wetlands.                                                         hardwood flats), wetlands that are classified as forested or scrub-
                        At the most general level of the classification system, wetlands are                                                       shrub wetlands, depending on the characteristics of the dominant
                        grouped into five ecological systems: Palustrine, Lacustrine, Riv-                                                         vegetation (Carolina bays, pocosins, and bogs), and emergent wet-
                        erine, Estuarine, and Marine. The Palustrine System includes only                                                          lands (nontidal and tidal fresh marshes).
                        wetlands, whereas                   the other systems comprise wetlands and                                                        Bottom-land hardwood forests cover about 2.7 million acres
                                                                                                                                                   (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 1992) and occur primarily in the
                                                                                                                                                   Coastal Plain along the Roanoke, Tar, Neuse, and Cape Fear Riv-
                                                                                                                                                   ers, as well as along other large interior streams (fig. 2A and 2B).
                                                                                                                                                   The Roanoke River flood plain has one of the largest and least dis-
                                                                                                                                                   turbed bottom-land hardwood forests in the mid-Atlantic region.
                                                                                                                                                   Cypress, swamp gum, and black gum grow in the wetter areas of
                                                                                    14
                                                                                                                                                   the flood plain, whereas temporarily or seasonally flooded bottom-
                                                                                                                                                   land hardwood-forest wetlands are dominated by red maple, green
                                                                                                                                                   ash, elm, sycamore, and sweet gum.
                                                                                                                                                           Fringe wooded swamps are the dominant shoreline type around
                                                                                                                                                   Albemarle Sound; along the Alligator, Scuppernong, and lower
                                                                                                                                                   C
                                                                                                                                                      howan Rivers; and in some locations along tributaries to Pamlico
                                                                                                                                                   S
                                                                                                                                                      ound. These swamps cover an area of about 400,000 acres (North
                                                                                                                                                   Carolina Department of Environment, Health, and Natural Re-
                                                                                                                                                   sources, 1994) and are vegetated primarily by cypress (Environmen-
                                                                                                                                                   tal Defense Fund, 1989).
                                                                                                                                                           Wet pine flatwoods possibly occupy more than 2 million acres,
                                             Figurel. Merchants Millpond, a forested wetland                                        in             and pine savannas cover an area of about 28,000 acres (North Caro-
                                             northeastern North Carolina. (Photograph by Virginia                                                  lina Department of Environment, Health, and Natural Resources,
                                             Carter, U.S. Geological Survey.)                                                                      1994). Both ecosystems have a canopy of longleaf pine and occa-








                     298      National Water Surnmary-Wetland Resources: STATE SUMMARIES



                     sional loblolly pine with an understory of wiregrass. Pine savannas            such as titi and yaupon, thorny vines, and occasional taller pond
                     have a greater density of trees than wet pine flatwoods, and pine              pines projecting above the thicket. Forested pocosins are generally
                     savannas support orchids and various small vascular plants, such               dominated by red bay, sweet bay, Atlantic white cedar, loblolly bay,
                     as pitcher plants, Venus flytrap, and sundews. Wet pine flatwoods              and pond pine (Sharitz and Gibbons, 1982; Ash and others, 1983).
                     are common throughout the western and middle regions of the                    Vegetation in large pocosins commonly grows in zones with shorter
                     Coastal Plain, except in the Sand Hills, whereas pine savannas are             vegetation in the center.
                     most common in the southeastern corner of the State (Schafale and                   Other types of palustrine wetlands include bogs and fresh
                     Weakley, 1990).                                                                marshes. Bogs, which occur throughout the Blue Ridge Province,
                           Carolina bays are ovate depressions that occur across the                have been subject to draining, impoundment, and clearing at lower
                     Coastal Plain but are most common in the southeastern corner of                elevation sites (Schafale and Weakley, 1990). Nontidal fresh marshes
                     the State (Sharitz and Gibbons, 1982). Most of the bays contain                cover about 46,000 acres in the Coastal Plain (Field and others,
                     palustrine wetlands, but a few large Carolina bays, such as Lake               1991) and often grade upriver to cypress-gum swamps (forested
                     Waccamaw, are lacustrine wetlands. The bays range in length from               wetlands). About 2,200 acres of tidal fresh marshes exist in North
                     about 150 feet to more than 5 miles. Because of variability in size,           Carolina (Field and others, 1991).
                     depth, location, and substrate, Carolina bays are not characterized                 Lacustrine and Riverine Systems. -Lacustrine wetlands com-
                     by a single vegetation type. These systems are unusual in their geo-           prise the shallows of natural lakes and reservoirs where there is no
                     graphic orientation (northwest to southeast) and consistent shape              persistent emergent vegetation or trees. All of the State's natural lakes
                     (narrower at the southeast end).                                               are located in the Coastal Plain, and many are associated with Caro-
                           About 700,000 acres of pocosins remain in North Carolina                 lina bays or peatlands. More than 100 water-supply and flood-con-
                     (Environmental Defense Fund, 1989)-about 70 percent of the                     trol reservoirs have been constructed throughout the Piedmont and
                     Natiorfs pocosin wetlands (Richardson and others, 198 1). Pocosins             Blue Ridge Provinces (North Carolina Department of Environment,
                     form in poorly drained basins, including interior depressions of               Health, and Natural Resources, 1992) . Riverine wetlands constitute
                     Carolina bays (Ash and others, 1983). The typical pocosin is clas-             the entire channel of small, shallow streams and shallow areas near
                     sified as a scrub-shrub wetland. However, a pocosin can be a for-              the banks in large, deep streams. The total area of lacustrine and
                     ested wetland, depending on the successional stage of the pocosin,             riverine wetlands in the State is not known but is small relative to
                     which is commonly determined by hydrology or by fire and other                 the area of palustrine wetlands.
                     disturbances (Hefner and Moorhead, 199 1). Scrub-shrub pocosins                     Estuarine and Marine Systems. -North Carolina contains
                     are dominated by dense, almost impenetrable, growths of evergreens             more than 3,000 miles of tidal (estuarine and ocean) shoreline (Clay





                                                                                                                      Piedmont



                                                                                                                                           Coastal
                                                                                                                                            Plain


                                                                                                                                        Sand Hills


                                                                                        PHYSIOGRAPHIC DIVISIONS




                                                                                                                                                     Bisnial S_-P
                                                                                                                                                     SM(np
                                                     A                                                     79'
                                                                                                                                                                   C .. 11-k
                                                                                                                                                                   Sound

                                                                                                                                                                       Albern.rle
                                                                                       Wi        e                                                                    Sn.nd
                                                                                                                                                         ng           36-
                                                                                                                                                                        Or go.
                                                                                                                              r                                         Inlet
                                                                                                                     let                                             to, uer
                                <              As  Vill                                @Id                  P
                                   &enel
                                                                                                                                                                 tuj..Aee


                                                                                                                                                                 a




                                                                                                                                                            C-e
                           WETLANDS AND DEEPWATER HABITATS                                                                                                  Sound 0
                           Dist ibution of wetlands and deepwater habitats-
                              Trhlis map shows the approximate distribution of large                                                             0.9- Sound C,
                              wetlands in the State. Because of limitations of scale                               ke                          Bug- Inlet
                              and source material, some wetlands are not shown                                                                        k4
                                  Predominantly wetiand                             0      25     50 MILES                        ilmington
                                                                                                                                34@
                                  Predominantly deepwater habitat                  0    25   50 KILOMETERS


                     Figure 2. Wetland distribution in North Carolina and physiography of the State.         A, Distribution of wetlands and deepwater habitats. B,
                     Physiography. (Sources: A, TE. Dahl, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, unpub. data, 7991. B, Physiographic divisions from Fenoeman, 1946;
                     landforms data from EROS Data Center)








                                                                                                 National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: NORTH CAROLINA                        299



                  and others, 1975). Between 183,000 (Cashin and others, 1992) and                    ground water seldom extends into the root zone. Under these con-
                  236,000 acres (Moorhead, 1992) of salt marsh (emergent wetlands)                    ditions, vegetation generally consists of low shrubs and scattered
                  are present in the State, which constitutes about I I percent of the                trees (fig. 3B). Near the outer edges of the pocosin, where the peat
                  tidal salt marshes of the southeastern Atlantic coast (Wiegert and                  layer is thinner, vegetation grades into a mixture of hardwoods and
                  Freeman, 1990). Salt marshes, also known as "low marshes," are                      evergreens because of the increased availability of nutrients from
                  generally covered by smooth cordgrass. "High
                  marshes" typically contain mixtures of species, in-
                  cluding needlerush and shrubs such as wax myrtle                     A. Bottom-land hardwood forest
                  and marsh elder. About 30,000 acres of high marsh                                                                     PALUSTRINE WETLAND
                  are present in the State (Moorhead, 1992).                                   RIVERINE WETILAND                                                           Upt-d
                       Most seagrass beds (aquatic beds) are subtidal
                  a
                    d, thus, are classified as deepwater habitats. How-                                                      F I R S T T E R R A C E         SECOND
                   n                                                                                                                                        TERRACE
                  ever, some seagrass beds in North Carolina are inter-                                           Natural levee
                                                                                                                             Bat,kswarnp
                  tidal and are classified as wetlands. The most exten-
                  sive beds, which typically contain eelgrass,
                  shoalgrass, and widgeon grass, are in Bogue Sound,
                  Core Sound, and eastern Pamlico Sound; seagrass                                                            *,Z3
                  beds also grow in the Pamlico River, Neuse River, and                           High water        i
                  Currituck Sound. Ferguson and others (1989) esti-                               L war.,                           ----------
                  mated that 200,000 acres of seagrass beds are present
                  between Bogue Inlet and Oregon Inlet.                                                                      Alluvium
                       Tidal flats usually consist of sand, silt, or clay
                  regularly exposed and flooded by tides. The vegeta-
                  tion on tidal flats is minimal because of the unstable
                  sediments. About 44,000 acres of tidal flats are                     B. Pocosin
                  present in North Carolina (Field and others, 1991),                                                        PALUSTRINE WETLAND
                  which is about 4 percent of the national total.


                  HYDROLOGIC SETTING                                                     Gum-cypress swamp forest                                               Forested wetland
                                                                                                                                                                  (Tall pocasin)
                                                                                                                                Scrub-shrub wetland
                       Abundant precipitation and flat terrain in the                                                            (Short pocosin)
                  Coastal Plain are the most important factors that con-
                  tribute to the abundance of wetlands in North Caro-
                  lina. Fifty-nine percent of the State's palustrine wet-
                  lands are headwater wetlands (on streams having an
                  average flow of less than 5 cubic feet per second), and             ------- - - --                                                           ----------------
                  I I percent of palustrine wetlands are hydrologically                                   Mineral or organic soil
                  isolated (North Carolina Department of Environment,
                  Health, and Natural Resources, 1991).
                       Bottom-land hardwood forests. -Water and
                  sediment carried by rivers are responsible for the                   C. Estuarine wetland
                  origin, character, and maintenance of bottom-land
                  hardwood-forest wetlands. Erosional and depositional                                                       ESTUARINE VVETLAND
                  processes typically result in a sinuous river channel
                  located within a broad flood plain (fig. 3A). Sources
                  of water to the wetlands include overbank flow dur-                       Upi-d                   High marsh
                  ing seasonal flooding, precipitation, runoff from up-                                          (irregularly flooded)    L.. marsh
                                                                                                                                       (regularly flooded)
                  land areas, ground water from regional and local aqui-                                                                                Ir,tertidal
                  fers, and tidal flow (Wharton and others, 1982). Sea-                                                                                   flat           Estuarine
                  sonal flooding is the primary hydrologic factor re-                                                                                                   op- water
                  sponsible for the existence of these wetlands. At times,                                                                              Storm tide
                  strearnflow can actually decrease in the downstream                                                                                          Daily high tide
                  direction because water spreads through the flood                                                                                                    Daily low tide
                  plain providing increased opportunity for evapotrans-
                  piration or loss to the shallow ground-water system.
                       Wet pine flatwoods and pine savannas. -Wet
                  pine flatwoods and pine savannas occur on flat or
                  nearly flat, wet organic or sandy soils. The soils are                                                     EXPLANATION
                  saturated seasonally by a high water table, although                                    Average water table                  Scrub-shrub vegetation
                  some sites are wet most of the year. These wetlands,
                                                                                                                  Nat ra ev
                                                                                                                             e
                                                                                                                             B
                                                                                                                             ak
                                                                                                                                swarnp





                                                                                                          r
                                                                                      ,gh W-we



                                                                                                4    1











                  particularly the savannas, also form on gently slop-                                                                         Emergent vegetation
                  ing hillsides where ground-water seepage occurs                                         Forest vegetation
                  (Schafale and Weakley, 1990).                                                                                                 Peat
                       Pocosins. -Because pocosins generally are iso-
                  lated from streams, direct precipitation is the primary             Figure 3. Cross-sectional diagrams of typical North Carolina wetlands. A, Bot-
                  moisture source. Pocosins having a thick layer of peat              tom-land hardwood forest. 8, Pocosin. C, Estuarine wetland. (Sources: A, Whar-
                  near the center of the wetland are nutrient poor, and               ton and others, 1982; Tiner 1984. B, Ash and others, 7 983. C, Tiner 1984.)








                     300      National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: STATE SUMMARIES



                     ground and surface water. In some cases, however, pocosins are                          Atlantic white cedar was once common in Coastal Plain wet-
                     entirely forested without the gradation from scrub-shrub to forested               lands, particularly in pocosins. However, as much as 200,000 acres
                     wetland. Vertical water movement through the peat is slight, result-               of white cedar forest has been harvested from the Great Dismal
                     ing in little loss of water to the ground-water system. Lateral water              Swamp and from the peninsula between Albemarle and Pamlico
                     movement also is typically slow, which accounts for the important                  Sounds. Nonetheless, the area around the Alligator River still con-
                     role of pocosins in preventing rapid surface runoff and, thus, in fil-             tains the most extensive white cedar forest in the world, including
                     tering sediment and nutrients from runoff before it enters the estu-               approximately 10,000 acres of high-quality cedar swamp forest pro-
                     ary.                                                                               tected as a North Carolina Natural Heritage Area (Laderman, 1989).
                           Tidalfreshwater and salt marshes. - With the exception of the                     Estuarine wetlands have been altered less extensively than
                     Cape Fear River, North Carolina's large coastal rivers drain to                    palustrine wetlands (Cashin and others, 1992). Stockton and
                     sounds rather than to the open ocean. Consequently, tides in these                 Richardson (1987) reported that there was a decrease in the area of
                     rivers are small in magnitude, resulting in limited tidal flooding and             coastal wetland (salt marsh) alteration after the State adopted a
                     a small area of tidal fresh marsh in comparison to other Southeast-                strong coastal-wetiand protection program.
                     ern States.                                                                             Some land-use practices have created new wetlands or enlarged
                           Salt marshes in areas that have high tidal amplitudes can have               existing ones. Reservoir construction has increased the acreage of
                     natural berms or levees, which are formed by tidal sedimentation                   lacustrine wetlands, although usually at the expense of palustrine
                     and consist of coarse-grained material. Water flows through the                    wetlands. Farm ponds constructed on previously upland areas in one
                     berms in small breaks or over the berms during extremely high tides                Piedmont Province county account for about I percent of the total
                     (fig. 3C) to flood the area landward of the berm. Vegetation char-                 area of the county (Newcomb, 1993). Similar conditions likely ex-
                     acteristics landward of the berm are determined by the periodicity                 ist throughout the Piedmont region of the State. Interest is increas-
                     of flooding, the salinity level in the soil, the frequency of occur-               ing within the State for the use of created wetlands for treating
                     rence of oxygen-poor conditions, and the contribution of ground                    wastewater.
                     water. In salt marshes with low tidal amplitudes, such as those in
                     estuaries and sounds protected by barrier islands, berm formation                  CONSERVATION
                     is limited because of low sedimentation rates.
                                                                                                             Many government agencies and private organizations partici-
                     TRENDS                                                                             pate in wetland conservation in North Carolina. The most active
                                                                                                        agencies and organizations and some of their activities are listed in
                           Before colonization by Europeans, the area that now is North                 table 1.
                     Carolina contained about I I million acres of wetlands (Dahl, 1990).                    Federal wetland activities. -Development activities in North
                     Dahl estimated that in the mid4980's, about one-half, or 5.7 mil-                  Carolina wetlands are regulated by several Federal statutory prohi-
                     lion acres, remained.                                                              bitions and incentives that are intended to slow wetland losses. Some
                           Because of the absence of reliable historical data, wetland loss             of the more important of these are contained in the 1899 Rivers and
                     can be difficult to assess. Moreover, most surveys consider the al-                Harbors Act; the 1972 Clean Water Act and amendments; the 1995
                     teration of a wetland from its natural condition to be a "loss,"                   Food Security Act; the 1990 Food, Agriculture, Conservation, and
                     whereas many pine plantations and some agricultural lands on con-                  Trade Act; the 1986 Emergency Wetlands Resources Act; and the
                     verted wetlands retain some of their original wetland functions and                1972 Coastal Zone Management Act.
                     support limited wetland uses. North Carolina evaluates wetland re-                      Section 10 of the Rivers and Harbors Act gives the U.S. Army
                     sources in terms of use support rather than areal coverage (North                  Corps of Engineers (Corps) authority to regulate certain activities
                     Carolina Department of Environment, Health, and Natural Re-                        in navigable waters. Regulated activities include diking, deepening,
                     sources, 1991).                                                                    filling, excavating, and placing of structures. The related section 404
                           The first major alteration of wetlands in North Carolina was                 of the Clean Water Act is the most often-used Federal legislation
                     associated with the completion of a canal between Phelps Lake and                  protecting wetlands. Under section 404 provisions, the Corps issues
                     the Scuppernong River in 1787 (17 years before the Dismal Swamp                    permits regulating the discharge of dredged or fill material into
                     Canal) that lowered the lake level and permitted farming around the                wetlands. Permits are subject to review and possible veto by the U.S.
                     lake (Heath, 1975). The State Literary Board encouraged settlement                 Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), and the Fws has review and
                     on swamplands in the 1830's by providing funds for drainage ca-                    advisory roles. Section 401 of the Clean Water Act grants to States
                     nals around Lake Mattamuskeet, Pungo Lake, and New Lake. Sev-                      and eligible Indian Tribes the authority to approve, apply conditions
                     eral other large-scale wetland alteration projects, including the                  to, or deny section 404 permit applications on the basis of a pro-
                     drainage of the 43,000-acre Lake Mattamuskeet, occurred in the late                posed activity's probable effects on the water quality of a wetland.
                     1800's and early 1900's (Heath, 1975). Wilson (1962) estimated that                     Most farming, ranching, and silviculture activities are not sub-
                     More than I million miles of drainage ditches and canals were con-                 ject to section 404 regulation. However, the "Swampbuster" p-rovi-
                     structed throughout the Coastal Plain to drain wetlands.                           sion of the 1985 Food Security Act and amendments in the 1990
                           About one-third of the wetland alteration in the Coastal Plain               Food, Agriculture, Conservation, and Trade Act discourage (through
                     has occurred since the 1950's (Cashin and others, 1992). Cashin and                financial disincentives) the draining, filling, or other alteration of
                     others (1992) found that in the Coastal Plain, conversion to man-                  wetlands for agricultural use. The law allows exemptions from pen-
                     aged forests was responsible for 53 percent of the wetland alteration              alties in some cases, especially if the farmeT agrees to restore the
                     during that period, and conversion to agriculture was responsible                  altered wetland or other wetlands that have been converted to agri-
                     for 42 percent.                                                                    cultural use. The Wetlands Reserve Program of the 1990 Food,
                           About 2.5 million acres of pocosins existed before coloniza-                 Agriculture, Conservation, and Trade Act authorizes the Federal
                     tion (Richardson and others, 1981). Wilson (1962) reported that                    Government to purchase conservation easements from landowners
                     about 2.2 million acres of pocosins existed in the early 1960's and                who agree to protect or restore wetlands. The Consolidated Farm
                     estimated that more than 100,000 acres of pocosins were drained                    Service Agency (formerly the Agricultural Stabilization and Con-
                     between 1950 and 1960. Between 1962 and 1972, 33 percent ofthe                     servation Service) administers the Swampbuster provisions and Wet-
                     State's remaining pocosin habitat was converted to agriculture or                  lands Reserve Program. The Natural Resources Conservation
                     managed forests. About 700,000 acres of pocosins remain unaltered                  Service (NRCS) (formerly the Soil Conservation Service) determines
                     in North Carolina (Environmental Defense Fund, 1989).                              compliance with Swampbuster provisions and assists farmers in the








                                                                                                                                             National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: NORTH CAROLINA                                                            301



                          Table 1. Selected wetland-related activities of government                                                                 About 15,000 acres of cultivated land in North Carolina were en-
                          agencies and private organizations in North Carolina, 1993                                                                 rolled in the program in 1992 (Darby, 1993).
                          [Source: Classification of activities is generalized from information provided                                                     State wetland activities.-The State has adopted a strong
                               by agencies and organizations. e, agency or organization participates in                                              coastal-wetlands program as part of a broader coastal zone man-
                               wetland-related activity;                agency or organization does not participate in                               agement effort. The North Carolina Coastal Area Management Act
                               wetland-related activity. MAN, management; REG, regulation; R&C, res-
                               toration and creation; LAN, land acquisition; R&D, research and data col-                                             of 1974 includes provisions for local land-use planning, regulation
                               lection; D&I, delineation and inventory]                                                                              forAreas ofEnvironmental Concern (including estuarine waters and
                                                                                                                                                     coastal wetlands), and permit coordination within the 20 counties
                                                                                                                                                     affected by the act. Uses that are not water dependent are not per-
                          Agency or organization                                                                             13@ 0'                  mitted in wetlands, but uses that are water dependent may be per-
                          FEDERAL                                                                                                                    mitted. The Division of Coastal Management administers the act
                          Department of Agriculture                                                                                                  and also administers the National Estuarine Research Reserve and
                             Consolidated Farm Service Agency                .....................                                                   North Carolina Coastal Reserve systems in the State. About 32 per-
                             Forest Service             .........................................................0 0         0   0        0          cent of all Coastal Plain wetlands are publicly owned (North Caro-
                             Natural Resources Conservation Service                   ..........                                                     lina Department of Environment, Health, and Natural Resources,
                          Department of Commerce
                             National Oceanic and Atmospheric                                                                                        1991).
                             Administration       .................................................................                                          No State regulations exist specifically to protect freshwater
                          Department of Defense                                                                                                      wetlands. Moreover, Clean Water Act Section 404 regulations a]-
                             Army Corps of Engineers            ..........                                                                           low up to 10 acres of headwater wetlands to be filled without a
                             Military reservations        .....................................................0                                     permit or public review. However, section 401 of the Clean Water
                          Department of the Interior
                             Fish and Wildlife Service          ..............................................e                                      Act requires that any applicant for a Federal permit or license first
                             Geological Survey          .......................................................... ... ... ... ...*                  obtain certification that the proposed activity, including those in
                             National Biological Service             ......................................... ... ... ... ...   0                   wetlands, will comply with water-quality standards in the affected
                             National Park Service              ...................................................                                  State. The Division of Environmental Management has developed
                          Environmental Protection Agency                ..................................                                          a preliminary rating system for freshwater wetlands to assist in
                          STATE
                          Department of Agriculture             ............................................... ... ... ... ...  ...      0          making permitting decisions as part of the section 401 program
                          Department of Environment, Health, and                                                                                     (North Carolina Department of Environment, Health, and Natural
                          Natural Resources                                                                                                          Resources, 1993). Some additional measure of protection of wet-
                             Division of Coastal Management                ................................                               0          lands is provided by other classifications and designations, includ-
                             Division of Environmental Health              ................................ ...    ... ...       ... ...             ing Outstanding Resource Waters, Nutrient Sensitive Waters, High
                             Division of Environmental Management                   ..................._                     ...          *          Quality Waters, Shellfishing Waters, Primary Nursery Areas, and
                             Division of Forestry Resources              ................................... ... ... ...     -   0        0
                             Division of Marine Fisheries            .........................................                                       Secondary Nursery Areas.
                             Division of Parks and Recreation               ...............................*                                                 In 1986, the North Carolina Department of Transportation, in
                             Division of Planning and Assessment                 ........................ ...      ... ...       ... ...             cooperation with the North Carolina Wildlife Resources Commis-
                             Division of Soil and Water Conservation                 .................. ... ...    _         ...          0          sion, the FWS, and The Nature Conservancy, purchased Company
                             Division of Water Resources             .......................................*... ...         ... ...      ...        Swamp, a 1,436-acre tract of bottom-land hardwood-forest wetland
                          Department of Transportation               ......................................... ... ... ... ...
                          Museum of Natural Science                                                                                                  on the Roanoke River. The wetland is being used to mitigate un-
                                                                                                                                                     avoidable wetland losses associated with individually permitted
                          Wildlife Resources Commission                .....................................0 *    0         0
                          SOME COUNTY AND LOCAL GOVERNMENTS                              .............9      e     *         a                       section 404 activities that the Department conducts in bottom-land
                          PRIVATE ORGANIZATIONS                 ...............................................e                                     hardwood forests and that cannot be mitigated on site. This mitiga-
                                                                                                                                                     tion bank avoids the need to establish numerous small mitigation
                                                                                                                                                     efforts and protects a valuable wetland resource.
                                                                                                                                                             County and local wetland activities. -Many local govern-
                          identification of wetlands and in the development of wetland pro-                                                          ments, particularly in the 20 counties affected by the Coastal Area
                          tection, restoration, or creation plans.                                                                                   Management Act, have wetland-protection policies in their land-use
                                  The 1986 Emergency Wetlands Resources Act and the 1972                                                             plans. Local governments also use the purchase of greenways
                          Coastal Zone Management Act and amendments encourage wetland                                                               through bond issues (for example, Mecklenburg County, which
                          protection through funding incentives. The Emergency Wetland                                                               contains Charlotte) or as a required part of the development pro-
                          Resources Act requires States to address wetland protection in their                                                       cess (for example, Raleigh) to protect wetlands. Carteret County
                          Statewide Comprehensive Outdoor Recreation Plans to qualify for                                                            (which contains Morehead City) is participating in the Advanced
                          Federal funding for State recreational land; the National Park Ser-                                                        Identification Program, an EPA program which attempts to identify
                          vice (NPS) provides guidance to States in developing the wetland                                                           wetland parcels inappropriate for disposal of fill material and, in
                          component of their plans. Coastal States that adopt coastal-zone                                                           some cases, wetlands that could serve as disposal sites.
                          management programs and plans approved by the National Oceanic                                                                     Private wetland activities. -private organizations in North
                          and Atmospheric Administration are eligible for Federal funding and                                                        Carolina are active in public education, lobbying for wetland pro-
                          technical assistance through the Coastal Zone Management Act.                                                              tection, land acquisition, and public participation in permit review
                                  Large tracts of land, many containing wetlands, are managed                                                        and policy development. The Nature Conservancy, North Carolina
                          by the FWS, the U.S. Forest Service, the U.S. Department of De-                                                            chapter, has purchased wetlands in North Carolina for preservation,
                          fense, and the NPS. The management plans for these lands are sub-                                                          and ownership of some of these lands has been transferred to Fed-
                          ject to a review process that allows local groups and individuals to                                                       eral and State agencies. The North Carolina Coastal Federation, the
                          have input into the planning process.                                                                                      Pamlico-Tar River Foundation, the Neuse River Foundation, the
                                  North Carolina is one of nine States participating in the U.S.                                                     Sierra Club, the National Wildlife Federation, the Environmental
                          Department ofAgriculture's (USDA) PilotWetlands Reserve Program.                                                           Defense Fund, Ducks Unlimited, and others provide services to
                          The purpose of the program is to restore I million acres of culti-                                                         educate the public on wetland issues and provide input to State and
                          vated land to wetlands by 1995. Landowners receive easement pay-                                                           Federal agencies on wetland issues.
                          ments from usDA, which pays 75 percent of the restoration costs.
                          The NRCs and Fws assist in completion of the restoration plans.








                      302       National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: STATE SUMMARIES


                      References Cited                                                                         -1992, North Carolina lake assessment report: North Carolina De-
                                                                                                                     partment ofErivironment, Health, and Natural Resources, Division of
                      Ash, A.N., McDonald, C.B., Kane, E.S., and Pories, C.A., 1983, Natural                         Environmental Management, Water Quality Section, Report 92-02,
                             and modified pocosins -Literature synthesis and management op-                          353 p.
                             tions: U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Report FWS/OBS-83-04,                       -1993, Indicators of freshwater wetland function and value for pro-
                             156 p.                                                                                  tection and management: North Carolina Department of Environment,
                      Cashin, G.E., Dorney, J.R., and Richardson, C.J., 1992, Weiland alteration                     Health, and Natural Resources, Division of Environmental Manage-
                             trends on the North Carolina Coastal Plain: Wetlands, v. 12, no. 2,                     ment, Water Quality Section, 50 p.
                             p. 63-71.                                                                         -1994, Water quality progress in North Carolina-] 992-1993 305(b)
                      Clay, I.W., Orr, D.M., Jr., and Stuart, A.W., eds., 1975, North Carolina at-                   report: North Carolina Department ofEnvironment, Health, and Natu-
                             las-Portrait of a changing southern state: Chapel Hill, University                      ral Resources, Division of Environmental Management, Water Qua] -
                             of North Carolina Press, 33 1 p.                                                        ity Section, 96 p. and appendix.
                      Cowardin, L.M., Carter, Virginia, Golet, F.C., and LaRoe, E.T., 1979, Clas-              Richardson, C.J., Evans, R., and Carr, D., 1981, Pocosins- An ecosystem
                             sification of wetlands and deepwater habitats of the United States: U.S.                in transition, in Richardson, C.J., ed., Pocosin wetlands: Stroudsburg,
                             Fish and Wildlife Service Report FWSIOBS-79131, 131 p.                                  Pa., Hutchinson Ross Publishing Company, p. 3-19.
                      Dahl, T.E., 1990, Wetlands-Losses in the United States, 1780's to 1980's:                Schafale, M.P., and Weakley, A.S., 1990, Classification ofthe natural com-
                             Washington, D.C., U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Report to Congress,                    munities of North Carolina, third approximation: North Carolina
                             13 p.                                                                                   Department ofEnvironment, Health, and Natural Resources, Division
                      Darby, PX, 1993, Protection and management options for wetlands in the                         of Parks and Recreation, 325 p.
                             Albemarle -Pamlico study area: Raleigh, N.C., U.S. Fish and Wild-                 Sharitz, R.R., and Gibbons, J.W., 1982, The ecology of southeastern shrub
                             life Service, 46 p.                                                                     bogs (pocosins) and Carolina Bays-A community profile: U.S. Fish
                      Environmental Defense Fund, 1989, Carolina wetlands-Our vanishing                              and Wildlife Service Report FWS/OBS-82/04, 93 p.
                             resource: Raleigh, N.C., 89 p. and appendix.                                      Stockton, M.B., and Richardson, C.J,, 1987, Wetland development trends
                      Fenneman, N.M., 1946, Physical divisions of the United States: Washing-                        in coastal North Carolina, USA, from 1970 to 1984: Environmental
                             ton, D.C., U.S. Geological Survey special map, scale 1:7,000,000.                       Management, v. 11, no. 5, p, 649-657.
                      Ferguson, R.L., Rivera, J.A., and Wood, L.L., 1989, Submerged aquatic                    Tiner, R.W., Jr., 1984, Wetlands of the United States-Current status and
                             vegetation in the Albemarle-Pamlico estuarine system: Beaufort, N.C.,                   recent trends: Washington, D.C., U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 59 p.
                             National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, National Marine                  U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 1992, Regional wetlands concept plan,
                             Fisheries Service, Project No. 88-10, 68 p.                                             Emergency Wetlands Resources Act, Southeast Region: Atlanta, Ga.,
                      Field, D.W., Reyer, A.J., Genovese, PX, and Shearer, B.D., 1991, Coastal                       U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 259 p.
                             wetlands of the United States- An accounting of a valuable national               Wharton, C.H., Kitchens, W.M., Pendleton, E.C., and Sipe, T.W., 1982, The
                             resource: Washington, D.C., National Oceanic and Atmospheric Ad-                        ecology of bottomiand hardwood swamps of the southeast-A com-
                             ministration and U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service cooperative publica-                    muniiy profile; U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Report FWS/OBS-81/
                             tion, 59 p.                                                                             37, 126 p.
                      Heath, R.C., 1975, Hydrology of the Albemarle -Pamlico region, North                     Wiegert, P.G., and Freeman, B.J., 1990, Tidal salt marshes of the south-
                             Carolina-A preliminary report on the impact of agricultural devel-                      eastern Atlantic coast-A community profile: U.S. Fish and Wildlife
                             opments: U.S. Geological Survey Water-Resources Investigations                          Service Biological Report 85(7.29), 70 p.
                             Report 9-75, 98 p.                                                                Wilson, K.A., 1962, North Carolina wetlands-Their distribution and man-
                      Hefner, J.M., and Moorhead, K.K., 1991, Mapping pocosins and associated                        agement: Raleigh, North Carolina Wildlife Resources Commission
                             wetlands in North Carolina: Wetlands, v. 11, p. 377-389.                                Project W-6-R, 169 p.
                      Ladermari,A.D., 1989, The ecology ofAtlantic white cedar wetlands-A
                             community profile: U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Biological Report
                             85(7.21), 89 p.                                                                   FOR ADDITIONAL INFORMATION: District Chief, U.S. Geological
                      Moorhead, K.K., 1992, Welland resources of coastal North Carolina: Wet-                  Survey, 3916 Sunset Ridge Road, Raleigh, NC 27607; Regional Wetland
                             lands, v. 12, no. 3, p. 184-191.                                                  Coordinator, U,S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 1875 Century Building, Suite
                      Newcomb, D.J., 1993, Positive effects on total wetland area by human ac-                 200, Atlanta, GA 30345
                             tivities in Alarriance County, North Carolina: Chapel Hill, University
                             of North Carolina, unpublished M.A. thesis, 72 p.
                      North Carolina Department of Environment, Health, and Natural Resources,                                                 Prepared by
                             1991, Original extent, status, and trends of wetlands in North Caro-                            Jerad D. Bales and Douglas J. Newcomb,
                             lina-Areport to the N.C. Legislative Study Commission on wetlands                                          U.S. Geological Survey
                             protection: North Carolina Department of Environment, Health, and
                             Natural Resources, Division of Environmental Management, Water
                             Quality Section, Report 91-01, 33 p.



















                                                                           U.S. Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper 2425








                                                                                                                                                                                 National Water Summary-Wetland Resources 303
                                                                                                                                                                           North Dakota
                                                                                                                                                                                    Wetland Resources
                         WtIands covered nearly 11 percent of North Dakota, about 4.9                                                               erine, Estuarine, and Marine. The Palustrine System includes only
                         million acres, in predevelopment times (Dahl, 1990). By the 1980's,                                                        wetlands, whereas the other systems comprise wetlands and
                         wetlands covered about 6 percent of the State, or about 2.7 million                                                        deepwater habitats. Wetlands of the systems that occur in North
                         acres, which represents a 45 percent reduction from the predevel-                                                          Dakota are described below.
                         opment acreage (North Dakota Parks and Recreation Department,
                         1987).                                                                                                                     System                                                      Wetland description
                                 Wetlands are ecologically and economically valuable to the
                         State. Wetlands trap, remove, and transform waterborne constitu-                                                           Palustrine       .................. Wetlands in which vegetation is predominantly
                         ents by processes such as sedimentation, plant uptake, microbial                                                                                                 trees (forested wetlands); shrubs (scrub-shrub
                                                                                                                                                                                          wetlands); persistentor nonpersistent emergent,
                         transformation, and soil adsorption. Attenuation of runoff from                                                                                                  erect, rooted, herbaceous plants (persistent- and
                         snowmelt and rainfall by wetlands reduces the magnitude of poten-                                                                                                nonpersistent-emergent wetlands); or sub-
                         tial flooding downstream. Riparian vegetation along watercourses                                                                                                 mersed and (or) floating plants (aquatic beds).
                         reduces the potential for bank and channel erosion by stabilizing                                                                                                Also, intermittently to permanently flooded
                         the banks and channels. In some areas, the water held in a wetland                                                                                               open-water bodies of lessthan 20 acres in which
                         recharges the local ground-water system.                                                                                                                         water is less than 6.6 feet deep,
                                 Wetlands provide habitat for furbearers, game species, and                                                         Lacustrine        ................. Wetlands within an intermittently to permanently
                                                                                                                                                                                          flooded lake or reservoir. Vegetation, when pres-
                         many nongame-wildlife species. Probably the best known function                                                                                                  ent, is predominantly nonpersistent emergent
                         of wetlands in North Dakota is waterfowl production. The Prairie                                                                                                 plants (nonpersistent-emergent wetlands), or
                         Pothole Region, which extends across much of the State, contains                                                                                                 submersed and (or) floating plants (aquatic
                         only 10 percent of the waterfowl breeding area in North America,                                                                                                 beds), or both.
                         yet it accounts for 50 percent of the duck crop in an average year                                                         Riverine      ..................... Wetlands within a channel. Vegetation, when pres-
                         (Smith and others, 1964). The hunting industry in States all along                                                                                               ent, is same as in the Lacustrine System
                         the Central Flyway benefit from North Dakota's prairie pothole                                                                     Currently (1993), no estimate of statewide wetland acreage in
                         wetlands. Aside from their value as breeding areas, North Dakota                                                           each of these ecological systems is available. Stewart and Kantrud
                         wetlands also provide resting and feeding habitat for migratory                                                            (1973) estimated wetland acreages by using data collected in 1967;
                         waterfowl and wading birds.                                                                                                however, their classification system differed from that of Cowardin
                                                                                                                                                    and others (1979). Stewart and Kantrud classified wetlands accord-
                         TYPES AND DISTRIBUTION                                                                                                     ing to the following habitat types: natural basin wetlands, streams
                                 Wetlands are lands transitional between terrestrial and                                                            and oxbows, stock ponds and dugouts, and road ditches and drain-
                         deepwater habitats where the water table usually is at or near the                                                         age channels. Under the Cowardin and others (1979) classification
                         land surface or the land is covered by shallow water (Cowardin and                                                         system, natural basin wetlands would include wetlands classified
                         others, 1979). The distribution of wetlands and deepwater habitats                                                         mostly as palustrine and a small amount as lacustrine and are esti-
                         in North Dakota is shown in figure 2A; only wetlands are discussed                                                         mated to constitute about 91 percent, or about 2.5 million acres, of
                         herein.                                                                                                                    the wetlands in the State. Streams and oxbows would be classified
                                 Wetlands can be vegetated or nonvegetated and are classified                                                       as palustrine or riverine and constitute about 160,000 acres. Stock
                         on the basis of their hydrology, vegetation, and substrate. In this                                                        ponds and dugouts would be classified as palustrine or lacustrine
                         summary, wetlands are classified according to the system proposed                                                          and constitute about 50,000 acres. Road ditches and drainage chan-
                         by Cowardin and others (1979), which is used by the U.S. Fish and                                                          nels would be classified as palustrine and constitute about 30,000
                                                                                                                                                    acres. The total acres of wetlands in Stewart and Kantrud's estimate
                         Wildlife Service (Fws) to map and inventory the Natioa wetlands.                                                           for the late 1960's is about 2.7 million acres, slightly more than the
                         At the most general level of the classification system, wetlands are                                                       2.5 million acres estimated by the Fws using 1980's data (Dahl,
                         grouped into five ecological systems: Palustrine, Lacustrine, Riv-                                                         1990).
                                                                                                                                                            Stewart and Kantrud (1973) divided North Dakota into four
                                                                                                                                                    biotic regions (fig. 2B). They estimated that 2.2 million acres of
                                                                                                                                                    wetlands, or 81 percent of the wetlands in the State, are in the Prai-
                                                                                                                                                    rie Pothole Region. Specific estimates were not available for the
                                                                                                                                                    Agassiz Lake Plain, the Coteau Slope, or the Southwestern Slope
                                                                                                                                                    Regions. The wetland types in the Prairie Pothole, Agassiz Lake
                                                                                                                                                    Plain, and Coteau Slope Regions are similar; about 90 percent of
                                                                     _;t @_                                                                         the wetlands are in natural basins. The least amount of wetland
                                                                                                                                                    acreage in the four regions is in the Southwestern Slope Region.
                                                                                                                                                    About 95 percent of the wetlands in this region are riparian wet-
                                                                                                                                                    lands along streams and around stock ponds and dugouts.
                                                                                                                                                            More than 90 percent of the wetlands in the State are classi-
                                                                                                                                                    fied by Stewart and Kantrud (1973) as natural basin wetlands, com-
                                                                                                                                                    monly called prairie potholes. The prairie potholes primarily con-
                                          Figure 1. Prairie pothole wetlands about 28 miles                                                         tain persistent-emergent wetlands, variously called wet meadows,
                                          northwest of Jamestown. (Photograph by TC. Winter                                                         marshes, and fens. The distinction among these different wetlands
                                          U.S. Geological Survey.)                                                                                  is based in part on vegetation. The species of plants found in a








                        304       National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: STATE SUMMARIES



                        wetland is a function of water availability in each year. Climatic                                  Prairie potholes that contain submerged or floating plants are
                        fluctuations can cause emergent wetlands to change or revert to an                            called aquatic-bed wetlands. Aquatic-bed vegetation commonly
                        open-water phase in some years (Stewart and Kantruld, 1972). Wet                              grows in ponds and lakes that persist for weeks or longer. Most of
                        meadows are present in the shallow pond basins and around the                                 the plant species are bottom-rooted plants, but free-floating plants
                        deeper ponds and lakes. Flooding persists in wet meadows for only                             also are common. The types of plant species present are closely
                        a few weeks following spring snowmelt or a few days following                                 correlated with water salinity. The plants that grow in fresh or
                        heavy rainstorms. Plant species that characterize wet meadows are                             slightly brackish ponds or lakes are not present in the saline waters
                        fine-textured grasses, rushes, and low sedges. Marshes form in pond                           of alkali ponds and lakes.
                        basins where water either persists throughout the year or persists                                  Other palustrine classes that exist but are not common in North
                        for long periods and then evaporates or is transpired in late sum-                            Dakota are scrub-shrub wetlands and forested wetlands. Scrub-
                        mer and fall. Marsh vegetation consists of grasses or grasslike plants,                       shrub wetlands contain willows, cottonwoods, and aspens. Forested
                        such as sedges, bulrushes, and cattails, that are coarser and taller                          wetlands have formed along rivers and contain mostly cottonwoods.
                        than the plants in the wet meadow. Fen wetlands are quagmires that                                  The distribution and abundance of wetlands in North Dakota
                        have floating mats of emergent vegetation. Fen wetlands are a re-                             are the result of the State's glacial history. The Coteau Slope, Prai-
                        sult of ground-water seepage on sloping terrain, usually adjacent                             rie Pothole, and Agassiz Lake Plain Regions were glaciated during
                        to a pond or lake. Plant species in fen wetlands can be the same as                           the most recent glacial period, whereas the Southwest Slope Region
                        those in wet meadows and marshes. Fen wetlands are not common                                 was not. Wetlands in the glaciated regions formed in depressions
                        in North Dakota.                                                                              resulting from glacial and postglacial activity. Permanently flooded

                                 104'                                       10V                                          100.










                                   Williston


                            48"










                                                                    -409











                                                                 414.


                          46"                                     -



                              0          25          50 MILES

                                      25    50   KILOMETERS


                                                                                                                            Coteau
                              WETLANDS AND DEEPWATER HABITATS
                              Distribution of wetlands and deepwater habitats-                                                                                          Prairie
                                 This map shows the approximate distribution of large
                                 wetlands in the State. Because of limitations of scale                                                                                   Pothole
                                 and source material, some wetlands are not shown
                                                                                                                                                                           Region               !]o
                                       Predominantly wetland
                              Is                                                                                                   Southwestern              @15                                 0
                                                                                                                                   Slope Region               1'.
                                       Predominantly deepwater habitat                                                                                         S

                                       Area typified by a high density of small wetlands




                                                                                                                         BIOTIC REGIONS
                        Figure 2. Welland distribution in North Dakota and biotic regions of the State. A, Distribution of wetlands and deepwater habitats. B,
                        Biotic regions. (Sources: A, TE. Dahl, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, unpub. data, 199 7. B, Modified from Stewart and Kantrud, 1973.)








                                                                                          National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: NORTH DAKOTA                305



                to sentipermanently flooded wetlands generally are in
                areas of end moraines and stagnation moraines, which                                                        RECHARGE
                are most common in the Coteau Slope Region. Sea-                  RECHARGE                                  WETLAND     FLOW-THROUGH
                                                                                  WETLAND     FLOW-THROUGH
                sonally flooded to intermittently flooded wetlands                              WETLAND       DISCHARGE                    WETLAND       DISCHARGE
                generally form in areas of ground moraine and lake                                             WETLAND                                    WETLAND
                plains, which are most common in the Prairie Pothole
                and Agassiz Lake Plain Regions. Wetlands in the
                unglaciated Southwestern Slope Region are few and
                are present as riparian wetlands along watercourses                             Intermediate flow                      I@Ier@ediate flow
                and as artificially flooded wetlands around reservoirs,
                stock ponds, and dugouts.
                     The Fws National Wetlands Inventory is mapping                                                       R-W@
                the Nation's wetlands. Wetlands are identified on U.S.
                Geological Survey 7.5-minute quadrangle topographic
                maps, many of which are stored in digital format.                                                 EXPLANATION
                Currently (1993), paper maps are available for 79 per-                            Direction of ground-water        Average water table
                cent of North Dakota, and digital-format maps are                                  flow
                available for 31 percent of the State.
                                                                              Figure 4. Generalized ground-water flow in the Prairie Pothole Region.
                HYDROLOGIC SETTING                                            (Source: Modified from Winter 1989.)
                     Wetlands form where surface-water and ground-water flow                a year, and the water generally has low dissolved- solids concentra-
                patterns cause water to be near or above the soil surface for a sig-        tions. Other wetlands are flow-through systems; that is, ground water
                nificant period of time during the growing season. The location and         flows into parts of the wetland while other parts of the wetland re-
                persistence of the wetland is a function of climate, topography,            charge the ground-water system. Flow-through wetlands tend to hold
                ground-water flow patterns, surface-water flow patterns, and run-           water for longer periods and generally have higher dissolved-solids
                off characteristics in a basin.                                             concentrations. A third type of wetland serves only as a discharge
                     The most common wetlands in North Dakota are prairie pot-              area for ground water. These wetlands are permanently flooded and
                holes. These wetlands formed in glacial deposits such as end mo-            typically saline.
                raines, stagnation moraines, ground moraines, outwash plains, and                 Climate has a major effect on wetland formation and perma-
                lake plains. The glacial deposits generally consist of silt and clay        nence. Most of North Dakota is dry; average precipitation ranges
                through which water moves slowly. Outwash plains, however, mostly           from about 13 inches in the western part of the State to about 20
                consist of sorted sand, which transmits water readily. In the morainal      inches along the eastern border. Average annual free-water-surface
                areas, no natural surface-drainage network has developed, so many           evaporation ranges from 32 inches in the northeastern part of the
                depressions are not connected to an integrated drainage system              State to about 40 inches in the southwestern part (Winter and oth-
                (fig. 3).                                                                   ers, 1984). Because average annual free-water- surface evaporation
                                                                                            is greater than average annual precipitation, there is an annual mois-
                                                                                            ture deficit that inhibits wetland formation and permanence.
                                                                                                  North Dakota's harsh winters also affect the hydrology of wet-
                                                                                            lands in the State. About 25 percent of the annual precipitation oc-
                                                                                            curs as snow, which generally falls between October and March
                                                                                            (Winter and others, 1984). Snow is blown off the unsheltered farm-
                                                                                            land and accumulates in sheltered areas and depressions, such as
                                                                                            wetlands. When the snow begins to melt in the spring, the ground
                                 01@@'                                                      is still frozen, so snowmelt and spring rains do not readily infiltrate
                                                                                            into the soil. As a result, snowmelt runoff and spring rains are the
                                      4W                                                    major source of water to the prairie potholes (Shjeflo, 1968).
                                   tob                                                            Annual variations in climate affect the permanence of wetlands.
                                                                                            Stewart and Kantrud (1973) estimated that 67 percent of the wet-
                                                                                            lands (by area) in the Prairie Pothole Region are seasonally flooded
                               Figure 3.  Prairie pothole wetlands near Chase Lake          or temporarily flooded wetlands. Because these wetlands are filled
                               National Wildlife Refuge. Note the absence of a              in the spring by snowmelt runoff, the amount of snowpack accu-
                               surface-drainage system. (Photograph courtesy of             mulated in the winter determines to what extent a wetland is filled.
                               U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service.)                             Temperature and windspeed determine how long the water remains
                                                                                            in the wetland. Standing water is present from about a week in the
                     The interaction between ground water and a wetland affects             temporarily flooded wetlands to about 2 months in the seasonally
                the permanence and water quality of the wetland. Studies of the             flooded wetlands. All of these wetlands go dry before the growing
                Prairie Pothole Region (Hubbard, 1988; Winter, 1989) indicate that          season is complete. Following a winter of little snowfall, many
                ground-water flow among wetlands is complicated. Wetlands in the            wetlands do not receive any water for that year, and some of them
                same area can discharge to different ground-water systems: one to           are tilled. About 29 percent of the wetlands in the Prairie Pothole
                a regional system, another to an intermediate system, and still an-         Region have been tilled.
                other to a local system (fig. 4).                                                 Forested and scrub-shrub wetlands are present along creeks
                     Generally, wetlands in the Prairie Pothole Region have three           and rivers and around most of the dugouts and small reservoirs in
                types of interaction with the ground-water system (Kantrud and              the State. During runoff periods, particularly following snowmelt
                others, 1989). Some wetlands recharge the underlying ground-wa-             runoff, parts of the creek and river flood plains are inundated for
                ter system. These wetlands tend to hold water for only a few months         short periods of time. The runoff also fills the dugouts and small








                                306          National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: STATE SUMMARIES



                                reservoirs. During drier parts of the year, the existence of forested                                                      Table 1. Selected wetland-related activities of government
                                and scrub-shrub wetlands along the creeks and rivers and around                                                            agencies and private organizations in North Dakota, 1993
                                dugouts and small reservoirs depends on ground water.                                                                      (Source: Classification of activities is generalized from information provided
                                        In some wildlife refuges, the Fws has attempted to stabilize the                                                        by agencies and organizations. *, agency or organization participates in
                                effects that climate has on the permanence of wetlands. An example                                                              wetland-related activity; .... agency or organization does not participate
                                                                                                                                                                in wetland-related activity. MAN, management; REG, regulation; R&C, res-
                                is J. Clark Salyer National Wildlife Refuge. Five small dams that                                                               toration and creation; LAN, land acquisition; R&D, research and data col-
                                can maintain about 4 feet of water over parts of the flood plain were                                                           lection; D&I, delineation and inventory]
                                built on the Souris River. Water is regulated to sustain the desired
                                emergent wetlands. If emergent vegetation, such as cattails, becomes
                                too thick, the growth can be controlled by increasing the water level                                                      Agency or organization                                                          45'    0@                     1@11
                                in the wetland or draining the wetland. Because the Souris River                                                           FEDERAL
                                provides a reliable source of water, the variable climatic conditions                                                      Department ofAgriculture
                                will not greatly affect the management of the wetlands.                                                                      Consolidated Farm Service Agency                  ........................... ...
                                                                                                                                                             Forest Service        .................................................................0
                                                                                                                                                             Natural Resources Conservation Service                    ................ ...
                                TRENDS                                                                                                                     Department of Defense
                                                                                                                                                             Army Corps of Engineers            ..............................................0
                                        Predevelopment wetland acreage in North Dakota has been                                                              Military reservations              .....................................................0... ... ... ...    ...
                                estimated to be about 4.9 million acres (North Dakota Parks and                                                            Department of the Interior
                                Recreation Department, 1987; Dahl, 1990). When settlers moved                                                                Bureau of Land Management                 ......................................0
                                into the State, they noted in theirjournals many wet meadows, par-                                                           Bureau of Reclamation              ................................................. ... ...
                                                                                                                                                             Fish and Wildlife Service          ..............................................0
                                ticularly along the Red River of the North. Farmers drained some                                                             Geological Survey         .................  ........................................ ... ... ...
                                of these wetlands to grow crops. The most recent and complete                                                                National Biological Service .            ........................................ ... ... ... ...
                                published wetland inventory was done in 1982 by the Natural Re-                                                              National Park Service              ...................................................
                                sources Conservation Service (formerly the Soil Conservation Ser-                                                          Environmental Protection Agency                ..................................
                                vice) (NRCS), which estimated that 2.7 million acres of wetlands                                                           STATE
                                remained in the State (North Dakota Parks and Recreation Depart-                                                           Department of Health and
                                                                                                                                                           Consolidated Laboratories            ...............................................
                                ment, 1987). The most extensive drainage has occurred in the                                                               Department of Transportation              .........................................
                                Agassiz Lake Plain Region, where about 1.2 million acres of wet                                                            Forest Service       .....................................................................
                                soils have been drained (North Dakota Parks and Recreation De-                                                             Game and Fish Department             .....................I ........................
                                partment, 1987). To a lesser extent, wetlands have been drained for                                                        Parks and Tourism Department               ....................................... . ... ...
                                road construction, urban development, and surface mining. In ad-                                                           Water Commission           ............................................................. ...
                                                                                                                                                           PRIVATE
                                dition to the loss of many wetlands due to drainage, others have been                                                      Ducks Unlimited        .................................................................. ... ...
                                degraded by siltation and chemical contamination.                                                                          The Nature Conservancy               ..................................................
                                        Agricultural drainage still poses the greatest threat to wetlands
                                in the State. The wetlands that were the easiest and cheapest to drain
                                already have been drained; therefore, economic factors limit cur-
                                rent drainage trends. As small farms are consolidated into large                                                           Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), and the Fws has review and
                                commercial farms, drainage might not be as large a financial bur-                                                          advisory roles. Section 401 of the Clean Water Act grants to States
                                den, and additional wetlands might be drained. Economists feel that                                                        and eligible Indian Tribes the authority to approve, apply conditions
                                if free-market prices remain low, Federal farm programs will have                                                          to, or deny section 404 permit applications on the basis of a pro-
                                made wetland drainage unprofitable (North Dakota Parks and Rec-                                                            posed activity's probable effects on the water quality of a wetland.
                                reation Department, 1987). However, if crop prices increase and                                                                     Most farming, ranching, and silviculture activities are not sub-
                                Federal programs are eliminated, drainage will be profitable and                                                           ject to section 404 regulation. However, the "Swampbuster" provi-
                                political pressure could change the State's "no-net-loss" policy.                                                          sion of the 1985 Food Security Act and amendments in the 1990
                                                                                                                                                           Food, Agriculture, Conservation, and Trade Act discourage (through
                                CONSERVATION                                                                                                               financial disincentives) the draining, filling, or other alteration of
                                                                                                                                                           wetlands for agricultural use. The law allows exemptions from pen-
                                        Many government agencies and private organizations partici-                                                        alties in some cases, especially if the farmer agrees to restore the
                                pate in aspects of wetland management and conservation in North                                                            altered wetland or other wetlands that have been converted to agri-
                                Dakota. The most active agencies and organizations and some of                                                             cultural use. The Wetlands Reserve Program of the 1990 Food,
                                their activities are listed in table 1.                                                                                    Agriculture, Conservation, and Trade Act authorizes the Federal
                                        Federal welland activities. -Development activities in North                                                       Government to purchase conservation easements from landowners
                                Dakota wetlands are regulated by several Federal statutory prohi-                                                          who agree to protect or restore wetlands. The Consolidated Farm
                                bitions and incentives that are intended to slow wetland losses. Some                                                      Service Agency (formerly the Agricultural Stabilization and Con-
                                of the more important of these are contained in the 1899 Rivers and                                                        servation Service) administers the Swampbuster provisions and Wet-
                                Harbors Act; the 1972 Clean Water Act and amendments; the 1985                                                             lands Reserve Program. The NRcs determines compliance with
                                Food Security Act; the 1990 Food, Agriculture, Conservation, and                                                           Swarripbuster provisions and assists farmers in the identification of
                                Trade Act; and the 1986 Emergency Wetlands Resources Act.                                                                  wetlands and in the development of wetland protection, restoration,
                                        Section 10 of the Rivers and Harbors Act gives the U.S. Army                                                       or creation plans.
                                Corps of Engineers (Corps) authority to regulate certain activities                                                                 The 1986 Emergency Wetlands Resources Act encourages
                                in navigable waters. Regulated activities include diking, deepening,                                                       wetland protection through funding incentives. The act requires
                                filling, excavating, and placing of structures. The related section 404                                                    States to address wetland protection in their Statewide Comprehen-
                                of the Clean Water Act is the most often-used Federal legislation                                                          sive Outdoor Recreation Plans to qualify for Federal funding for
                                protecting wetlands. Under section 404 provisions, the Corps issues                                                        State recreational land; the National Park Service (NPs) provides
                                permits regulating the discharge of dredged or fill Material into                                                          guidance to States in developing the wetland component of their
                                wetlands. Permits are subject to review and possible veto by the U.S.                                                      plans.








                                                                                                  National Water Surnmary-Wetland Resources: NORTH DAKOTA                      307



                      Federal agencies are responsible for the proper management                    and Tourism Department manages 16,000 acres of land in State
                of wetlands on public land under their jurisdiction. In North Da-                   Parks but currently (1993) has no estimate of wetland acreage. The
                kota, the FWS manages about 290,000 acres in 63 National Wildlife                   North Dakota Forest Service manages 13,000 acres of land in five
                Refuges. The (FWS) manages about 240,000 acres in 1,000 Water-                      State Forests but currently (1993) has no estimate of wetland acre-
                fowl Protection Units. In addition, the Fws has conservation ease-                  age.
                ments to 700,000 acres of private wetlands. The Bureau of Land                            Private wetland activities. -Ducks Unlimited works with Fed-
                Management (BLM) manages about 6,800 acres of wetlands in                           eral, State, and private landowners to restore and enhance lands for
                66,000 acres of BLM land. The U.S. Forest Service manages about                     wildlife production, with emphasis on waterfowl production. The
                1. 1 million acres of land in three National Grasslands that have an                Nature Conservancy manages about 4,000 acres of land on two
                estimated riparian acreage of 16,000 acres. The NPS manages 7 1,000                 preserves, and about one-half of the acreage is wetlands. The Na-
                acres in two National Historic Sites and one National Park but cur-                 ture Conservancy's interest is to preserve habitat unique to endan-
                rently (1993) has no estimate of wetland acreage under its jurisdic-                gered plant and animal species in the State, particularly species
                tion. The Bureau of Reclamation (BOR) has acquired land owing to                    unique to alkali wetlands.
                mitigation of projects in the State. The BOR has transferred man-
                agement responsibilities of about 17,000 acres to the FWS, of which                 References Cited
                5,000 acres are wetlands. The BOR is still developing about 6,000
                acres of mitigated land, of which 1,000 acres are wetlands. The BOR                 Cowardin, L.M., Carter, Virginia, Golet, F.C., and LaRoe, E.T., 1979, Clas-
                also is developing about 10,000 acres of land encompassed by its                          sification of wetlands and deepwater habitats of the United States: U.S.
                projects, of which 6,000 acres are wetlands. Eventually the man-                          Fish and Wildlife Service Report FWS/OBS-79/31, 131 p.
                agement responsibilities of all land being developed by the BOR will                Dahl, T.E., 1990, Wetlands-Losses in the United States, 1780's to 1980's:
                be transferred to another Federal or State agency.                                        Washington, D.C., U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Report to Congress,
                                                                                                          13 p.
                      State wetland activities. -State programs for wetland protec-                 Hubbard, D.E., 1988, Glaciated prairie wetlands functions and values-A
                tion are 80-acre drainage permits (North Dakota Century Code 61-                          synthesis of the literature: U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Biological
                01-22), Senate Bill No. 2035, and the State Water Bank Program.                           Report 88(43), 50 p.
                Since 1957, North Dakota has required landowners to obtain a per-                   Kantrud, H.A., Krapu, G.L., and Swanson, G.A., 1999, Prairie basin wet-
                mit to drain wetlands that have a drainage area larger than 80 acres.                     lands of the Dakotas-A community profile: U.S. Fish and Wildlife
                Permits are reviewed by the local Water Resources District and by                         Service Biological Report 85(7.29), 1 If p.
                the North Dakota State Water Commission State Engineer. Senate                      North Dakota Parks and Recreation Department, 1987, North Dakota State
                Bill No. 2035, commonly known as the "Do-net-loss" bill, was                              comprehensive outdoor recreation plan addendum, wetlands priority
                passed in 1987. The bill maintains existing drainage regulations, but                     plan: North Dakota Parks and Recreation Department, 82 p.
                                                                                                    Shieflo, J.B., 1969, Evapotranspiration and the water budget of prairie pot-
                the bill also requires that the same acreage of wetlands will exist in                    holes in North Dakota: U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper
                the future as existed on January 1, 1987. The Water Commission                            5 85 -B, 49 p.
                State Engineer and the Game and Fish Department Director must                       Smith, A.G., Stoudt, J.H., and Gollop, J.B., 1964, Prairie potholes and
                jointly find that the wetland proposed to be destroyed will be re-                        marshes, in Linduska, J.P., ed., Waterfowl tomorrow: Washington D.C.,
                placed by an equal acreage of suitable wetland. A wetlands bank was                       U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, p. 39-50.
                established to keep track of the wetlands drained and restored. The                 Stewart, R.E., and Kantrud, H.A., 1972, Vegetation of prairie potholes, North
                wetlands bank is the responsibility of the Water Commission. Wet-                         Dakota, in relation to quality of water and other environmental fac-
                lands drained are reported as debits and wetlands created or restored                     tors: U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 585-D, 36 p.
                are reported as credits. The "no-net-loss" bill mandates that the bank              -1973, Ecological distribution of breeding water fowl populations in
                cannot carry a net debit greater than 2,500 acres. The State Water                        North Dakota: Journal of Wildlife Management, v. 37, no. 1, p. 39-
                                                                                                          50.
                Bank Program was created in 1981 to give landowners financial                       Winter, T.C., 1989, Hydrologic studies of wetlands in the northern prairie,
                incentive to set aside cropland to preserve the State's wetlands. The                     in Van Der Valk, A., ed., Northern prairie wetlands: Ames, Iowa State
                program is administered at the State and county levels and uses                           University Press, p. 16-54.
                private donations.                                                                  Winter, T.C., Benson, R.D., Engberg, R.A., and others, 1984, Synopsis of
                      The Department of Health and Consolidated Laboratories re-                          ground-water and surface-water resources of North Dakota: U.S.
                views section 404 permit applications to ensure compliance with                           Geological Survey Open-File Report 84-732, 127 p.
                water-quality regulations. Also, the Department submits a biennial
                assessment of the State's surface-water quality, including wetlands,
                to the EPA and the U.S. Congress, according to Clean Water Act                      FOR ADDITIONAL INFORMATION: District Chief, U.S. Geological
                Section 305(b) requirements.                                                        Survey, 821 East Interstate Avenue, Bismarck, ND 58501; Regional Wet-
                      State agencies also are responsible for the proper management                 land Coordinator, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Fish and Wildlife Enhance-
                of wetlands on public land under their jurisdiction. The North Da-                  ment, P.O. Box 25486, Denver Federal Center, Denver, CO 80225
                kota Game and Fish Department manages 80,000 acres in fee or title
                ownership, and many of these acres are wetlands. The North Da-                                                      Prepared by
                kota Department of Transportation manages 195,000 acres of right-                                               Wayne R. Berkas,
                of-ways along the highways in the State and uses best-management                                             U.S. Geological Survey
                practices to avoid unnecessary disturbances of wetlands while main-
                taining or constructing highways. Unavoidable filling of wetlands
                is mitigated through wetland restoration or creation. The State Parks








                 308    National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: STATE SUMMARIES














































































                                                         U.S. Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper 2425








                                                                                                                  National Water Summary-Wetland Resources 309
                                                                                                                                                     Ohio
                                                                                                                    Wetland Resources
               Obio's wetlands cover about 1. 8 percent of the State (Dahl, 1990).                  Palustrine wetlands such as swamps (forested wetlands), wet
               Though greatly reduced in acreage since colonial times, these wet-              prairies (emergent wetlands), coastal and embayment marshes
               lands are an important economic and environmental resource. Wet-                (emergent wetlands), peatlands (wetlands that have organic soils),
               lands can lessen the effects of floods by storing floodwater and re-            and wetlands along stream margins and backwaters collectively are
               leasing it gradually. Wetlands also help regulate water quality, and            the most important Ohio wetlands. Lacustrine and riverine wetlands
               wetland vegetation can provide bank stabilization and reduce ero-               constitute only a small percentage of the State's wetland acreage.
               sion. Wetlands provide habitat for migratory birds, waterfowl, and              Many wetlands have formed on poorly drained soils that are of gla-
               fish and are prominent attractions in a well-developed State system             cial origin. Remnants of once extensive forested wetlands and wet
               of nature areas, preserves, and parks (fig. 1). Ohio wetlands attract           prairies are widely distributed across glaciated parts of northern,
               large numbers of hunters, fishermen, and naturalists. Historically,             central, and western Ohio. Wetlands in these areas include the
               wetlands have provided timber and peat and have been converted                  swamps, oak forests, and wet prairies that were part of a large wet-
               into some of the most fertile farmland in the State.                            land system known historically as the Great Black Swamp (Ohio
                                                                                               Department of Natural Resources, 1988) and the wet prairies and
               TYPES AND DISTRIBUTION                                                          wet mixed-oak forests of south-central Ohio (Forsyth, 1970).
                                                                                                    Ohio peatlands comprise bogs and fens. Bogs receive mois-
                    Wetlands are lands transitional between terrestrial and                    ture mostly from precipitation and typically contain large numbers
               deepwater habitats where the water table usually is at or near the              of mosses that are tolerant of acidic conditions. Fens generally re-
               land surface or the land is covered by shallow water (Cowardin and              ceive drainage from surrounding mineral soils and commonly sup-
               others, 1979). The distribution of wetlands and deepwater habitats              port communities of grasses, sedges, or reeds (Mitsch and Gosse-
               in Ohio is shown in figure 2A; only wetlands are discussed herein.              link, 1986). Bogs and fens are located in glaciated areas of north-
                    Wetlands can be vegetated or nonvegetated and are classified               em and western Ohio (Andreas and Knoop, 1992). Bogs are con-
               on the basis of their hydrology, vegetation, and substrate. In this             centrated in the Southern New York Section of the Appalachian
               summary, wetlands are classified according to the system proposed               Plateaus of northeastern Ohio, and fens are common in the Till
               by Cowardin and others (1979), which is used by the U.S. Fish and               Plains of the Central Lowland of western Ohio (fig. 2B) (Denny,
               Wildlife Service (Fws) to map and inventory the Nation's wetlands.              1979).
               At the most general level of the classification system, wetlands are                 Large coastal marshes border the southwestern shore and
               grouped into five ecological systems: Palustrine, Lacustrine, Riv-              Sandusky Bay of Lake Eric (fig. 2A). These marshes generally range
               erine, Estuarine, and Marine. The Palustrine System includes only               from I to 2 miles in width and are interrupted by points of higher
               wetlands, whereas the other systems comprise wetlands and                       land and developed areas. Undisturbed shores of western Lake Erie
               deepwater habitats. Wetlands of the systems that occur in Ohio are              have marshes fronted by low barrier beaches and interspaced with
               described below.                                                                river mouths. These wetlands are protected by constructed earthen
                                                                                               and rock dikes. Two sand spits separate Sandusky Bay from Lake
               System                                 Wetland description                      Erie and protect extensive wetlands in the bay. East of Sandusky Bay,
                                                                                               low, marshy backshores grade into low bluffs, and wetlands in this
               Palustrine  .................. Wetlands in which vegetation is predominantly    area are restricted to mouths of tributaries such as the Huron River
                                        trees (forested wetlands); shrubs (scrub-shrub         and Old Woman Creek. A large wetland, Mentor Marsh, occupies
                                        wetlands); persistent or nonpersistent emergent,
                                        erect, rooted, herbaceous plants (persistent- and      the former valley and delta of the Grand River. Twelve bedrock is-
                                        non persi stent-emerg ent wetlands); or sub-           lands in western Lake Erie have rocky shores, but small embayments
                                        mersed and (or) floating plants (aquatic beds).        on large islands contain wetlands (Herdendorf, 1992).
                                        Also, intermittently to permanently flooded
                                        open-water bodies of less than 20 acres in which
                                        water is less than 6.6 feet deep.
               Lacustrine  ................. Wetlands within an intermittently to permanently
                                        flooded lake or reservoir. Vegetation, when pres-
                                        ent, is predominantly nonpersistent emergent
                                        plants (nonpersistent-emergent wetlands), or
                                        submersed and (or) floating plants (aquatic
                                        beds), or both.
               Riverine  ..................... Wetlands within a channel. Vegetation, when pres-
                                        ent, is same as in the Lacustrine System.

                    There is no published comprehensive inventory of Ohio wet-
               lands. Dahl (1990) provided the only recent estimate oftotal area-
               about 483,000 acres. Two inventories are presently (1993) in
               progress. The National Wetlands Inventory has been completed for
               northern and eastern Ohio. State and Federal agencies began the
               Ohio Wetland Inventory in 1991 and have located and classified
               wetlands in 50 of 89 Ohio counties. This inventory locates wetlands             Figure 1. Cedar Run in Cedar Bog Nature Preserve.
               on LANDSAT satellite images and, in some cases, verifies wetland                Cedar Run drains bog meadows and marl meadows of
               identification and classification by ground reconnaissance (Ohio                Cedar Bog, a relict alkaline fen. (Photograph by Ralph
               Department of Natural Resources, 1992; Yi and others, 1994).                    E. Ramey, Columbus, Ohio).








                              310       National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: STATE SUMMARIES



                                     Numerous riverine and palustrine wetlands are located in the                                             As ice of the most recent glaciation receded to the southern
                              drainages of the Muskingum, Scioto, and Great Miami Rivers (fig.                                          shore ofLake Erie, it blocked the northward drainage ofmeltwater
                              2A). These wetlands extend from glaciated headwaters into                                                 and formed a large lake (Lake Maumee) in northwestern Ohio. As
                              unglaciated sections. To date, the hydrology and ecology of these                                         ice sheets continued to recede, Lake Maumee drained, and sand
                              wetlands have been little studied.                                                                        deposits from ancient dunes and flat deposits that formed the
                                                                                                                                        lakebed were left behind. Lake deposits contained large amounts
                              HYDROLOGIC SETTING                                                                                        of silt and clay and formed poorly drained soils that at one time
                                                                                                                                        supported extensive swamps (Forsyth, 1970).
                                     Wetlands form where ground water or surface water saturates                                              Sand deposits left by Lake Maumee were inhabited by oak
                              poorly drained or impermeable soils. Wetlands typically develop in                                        forests and wet prairies. Oak forests developed where precipitation
                              depressions or other low areas that are intermittently to permanently                                     drained through thick sand of ancient dunes and accumulated on
                              flooded by runoff, ground-water discharge, or precipitation. Water                                        underlying clay till. The surfaces of these sand deposits were rela-
                              is removed primarily by runoff, evaporation, and transpiration. In                                        tively dry and supported only dr-y-tolerant, oak forests. Where sand
                              areas that develop into wetlands, moisture is maintained at or near                                       deposits were thin, ground water saturated the sandy soil and cre-
                              the surface by fine-grained, hydric soils. These water-saturated soils                                    ated swamps or shallow lakes. These areas developed into wet prai-
                              support the growth of specialized plants (hydrophytes) that are                                           ries (Forsyth, 1970).
                              adapted to low oxygen concentrations and, in some cases, extreme                                                Lake deposits from early glaciation and glacial outwash from
                              acidity, alkalinity, or low nitrogen concentrations.                                                      more recent glaciations have been deposited in valleys of the
                                     Many Ohio wetlands are located on fine-grained soils that were                                     Kanawha Section of the Appalachian Plateaus of southeastern Ohio
                              deposited by an extensive system of glacial lakes. These lakes were                                       (fig. 2B). Following the retreat of the last glacier, wetlands have
                              created as advancing glaciers blocked the flow of preglacial streams                                      developed along streams that drain these deposits. These wetlands
                              or when receding glaciers blocked the flow of meltwater, As the lakes                                     typically are located on saturated loam soils and include oak-maple
                              drained, their beds became extensive deposits of fine-grained silts                                       associations on clays; elm, sycamore, and birch associations on al-
                              and clays known as till. These deposits cover extensive areas of                                          luvial bottoms; and American elm, ash, and maple associations in
                              northwestern Ohio (Spooner, 1982).                                                                        better drained and aerated soils (Spooner, 1982). Sedges, button-





                                                           14"
                                                                                                                                                        d                                    A
                                                                                                                                        Mentor
                                                                   le                      01
                                                                                              1Z, S-d,.ky                               Marsh                                                                              D
                                                                                                                82"
                                                                                W                                              level    d

                                                                                                        mck
                                                                                                             Cuyahi ga Vall    11
                                                                                                                   I@Cfeqo n

                                  41'

                                                                                                                                        Canton@

                                                             Li
                                                                                                                                                                                              c




                                                             V
                                                                  C8dl 0                                                                                                        B       PHYSIOGRAPHIC DIVISIONS
                                                                .P                                                                                                                      Central Lowland
                                                                                                                                                                                             A. Eastern Lake Section
                                                                                           lumbus                                                                                            B. Till Plains
                                                                                                                                                                                        Intorior Low Plateaus
                                     0                                                                                 'A      Nsli_ I                                                       C. Lexington Plain
                                                                                                           wwoe                Fo                                                       Appalachian Plateaus
                                                                                                                                                                                             D. Southern New York Section
                                                                                                          Natio
                                                                                                                                                                                             E. Kanawha Section

                                                                                                                                              Ohio fliver
                                                                                                                                              Islands NWR

                                                               f

                                                                                                                                        A       WETLANDS AND DEEPWATER HABITATS
                                                      Ohl                                                                                       Distribution of wetlands and deepwater habitats-
                                                                                                                                                    This map shows the approximate distribution of large
                                                                                                                                                    wetlands in the State. Because of limitations of scale
                                                                                                                                                    and source material, some wetlands are not shown
                                                                                               _rcroin)t
                                     0         25            50 MILES                                                                                    Predominantly wetland
                                     i      I       I                                                                                                    Predominantly deepwater habitat
                                     0    25      50 KILOMETERS


                              Figure 2. Wetland distribution in Ohio and physiography of the State. A, Distribution of wetlands and deepwater habitats. 8, Physiography.
                              (Sources: A, T E. Dahl, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, unpub. data, 199 1. 0, Physiographic divisions from Fenneman, 1946; landforms data
                              from EROS Data Center.)








                                                                                                   National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: OHIO            311



               bush, willow, alder, and maple grow in the wettest areas. Swamp                  Changing water levels are important in the formation and
               forests consist of swamp white oak, black willow on wetter sites,          maintenance of Lake Erie wetlands. Water levels in Lake Erie and
               and American elm, sycamore, and maple stands in less wet areas.            in bordering coastal marshes are subject to long-term and short-
               Recent beaver activity has killed trees and created wetter and more        term fluctuations. Long-term fluctuations are caused by changes
               open wetlands (Spooner, 1982).                                             in inflow that result from extended periods of wet or dry weather in
                    In the glaciated part of Ohio, peatlands are located on lakebed       the upper Great Lakes drainage. Wind action produces short-term
               deposits (Dachnowski, 1912) and in areas where glacial deposits            changes in water level called seiches. These changes can cause water
               formed topographic features that favor the retention of water              and chemical exchanges similar to those in salt marshes during tidal
               (Andreas, 1985). These features provided the poorly drained soils          flow (Mitsch, 1992). Fluctuating water levels promote wetland for-
               and hydrologic setting necessary for the formation and maintenance         mation by producing barrier bars, deltas, beaches, spits, lagoons,
               of peatlands (Andreas, 1985; Andreas and Knoop, 1992). A com-              and natural levees. Water-level fluctuations also rejuvenate existing
               mon glacially derived feature, kettle holes, formed as ice was trapped     coastal wetland communities and preclude the conversion of veg-
               in glacial deposits and then melted. As these ice pieces slowly            etated marshes into dry fields (Herdendorf, 1992). Water levels at
               thawed, meltwater eroded the surrounding deposits into funnel-             Cleveland have fluctuated almost 5 feet during the past 130 years.
               shaped depressions (Goldthwait, 1959). Large kettle holes devel-
               oped into lakes that eventually were filled by peat from accumu-           TRENDS
               lated and consolidated plant debris (Denny, 1979). The resultant
               wetlands developed plant communities dominated by mosses and                     From the 1780's to the 1980's, wetland area in Ohio declined
               evergreens.                                                                by 90 percent, from about 5,000,000 acres to about 483,000 acres
                    Hydrologic and biological differences separate peatlands into         (Dahl, 1990). For the conterminous 48 States, the percentage of
               acidic (pH 3.5 - 4.5) bogs and circumneutral (pH 5.5 - 8.0) fens. In       wetland loss in Ohio is second only to that of California. Drainage
               Ohio, fens develop where springs emerge from glacial deposits and          of wetlands for agriculture has been the primary cause of wetland
               produce a continuous flow of cool, mineral-rich water. Primarily           loss, but recreational use, fluctuating water levels, urban develop-
               sedges and grasses, not sphagnum, are adapted to this environment          ment, mining, logging, and fire also have contributed (Andreas and
               and in fens form most of the peat. Bogs develop as water-saturated         Knoop, 1992).
               organic materials decay slowly at low pH and temperature to form                 The swamps of the Great Black Swamp in northwestern Ohio
               thick peat deposits (Denny, 1979).                                         and the marshes bordering Lake Erie were once the State's two larg-
                    The relation of glacial geology to wetland hydrology has been         est wetland systems. Before European settlement of the area, the
               thoroughly studied in Cedar Bog, a typical Ohio fen located in the         Great Black Swamp occupied nearly 900,000 acres. Beginning in
               Mad River Valley (figs. I and 2A). Cedar Bog developed in the Mad          1859, a series of drainage projects converted the swamp into some
               River Valley Train (fig. 3), an outwash made up of highly perme-           of the most productive farmland in Ohio. Today only 5 percent of
               able, calcium carbonate gravel (Quinn, 1974). In the Mad River             the original swamp forest remains (Andreas and Knoop, 1992).
               Valley, ground water generally is 10 feet below the land surface.                Coastal wetlands along the Ohio shore of Lake Erie have been
               However, Cedar Bog has developed on hydric soils that were pro-            destroyed as agriculture, real-estate development, and recreational
               duced where ground water discharges on the eastern side of the             areas have expanded (Heath, 1992). From 1850 to 1993, about
               valley. The water that sustains Cedar Bog is derived mainly from           95 1,000 of 988,000 acres of coastal wetlands were destroyed along
               glacial outwashes to the north and east (Forsyth, 1974). These             the southwestern coast of Lake Erie (Herdendorf, 1992). Only 10
               outwashes consist of coarse calcium carbonate gravel and rise about        percent of the original marsh along Lake Erie exists today (Andreas
               100 feet above the fen. Ground water flows through the outwashes           and Knoop, 1992). Since 1988, public agencies and private organi-
               until it reaches the base of an escarpment along the eastern border        zations involved in the Lower Great Lakes Joint Venture of the North
               of Cedar Bog. Here, cool, alkaline ground water discharges in              American Waterfowl Management Plan have purchased and restored
               springs, saturates soils, and flows across the fen. The continuously       about 5,240 acres of Lake Erie wetlands (Ohio Department of Natu-
               seeping ground water produces a perpetually cool, moist microen-           ral Resources, 1992).
               vironment that maintains a flora composed of many species nor-                   Before 1780, about 183,000 acres (0.5 percent of Ohio's total
               mally found much farther north (Frederick, 1974). As surface wa-           area) were covered by peatlands (Dachnowski, 1912). In 1912,
               ter accumulates, it is drained by Cedar Run and the Mad River              Dachnowski conducted a comprehensive, county-by-county survey
               (Hillman and Kenoyer, 1989).                                               of glaciated parts of Ohio and located 206 peatlands that had a com-


                                                                                                                                    EXPLANATION

                                                                                                                                          Direction of ground-water
                                    MAD RIVER VALLEY TRAI N                                                                                 flow

                                                                                                                                          Average water table
                                                             Cedar bog                                                              vilt/ Marl meadow
                                                                                        Gurl4at till
                                                                                                                                          Herbaceous meadow

                                                                                                                                          Scrub-shrub vegetation
                                                                                                           Glacial till                   Arb rvitae stand

                  Glacial till                                            Glacial otwast,

                                                                                                                 Bedrock                  Deciduous forest

                                                       Bedrock


               Figure 3. Generalized geohydrologic setting and vegetation of Cedar Bog. (Sources: Forsyth, 1974; Frederick, 1974.)








                         312       National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: STATE SUMMARIES



                         bined area of about 150,000 acres. Andreas and Knoop (1992) field-                              Table 1. Selected wetland-related activities of government
                         inventoried the flora of 125 peatlands and estimated that between                               agencies and private organizations in Ohio, 1993
                         1900 and 1991, 76,500 of 79,500 acres of peatland were destroyed,                               [Source: Classification of activities is generalized from information provided
                         and only 2 percent of these wetlands today contain plant commu-                                     by agencies and organizations. e, agency or organization participates in
                         nities associated with peatlands.                                                                   wetland-related activity;        agency or organization does not participate in
                                                                                                                             wetiand-related activity. MAN, management; REG, regulation; R&C, res-
                                                                                                                             toration and creation; LAN, land acquisition; R&D, research and data col-
                         CONSERVATION                                                                                        lection; D&I, delineation and inventoryl
                                Many government agencies and private organizations partici-
                         pate in wetland conservation in Ohio. The most active agencies and                              Agency or organization                                                                <@@
                         organizations and some of their activities are listed in table 1.                               FEDERAL
                                Federal wetland activities. -Development activities in Ohio                              Department of Agriculture
                         wetlands are regulated by several Federal statutory prohibitions and                              Consolidated Farm Service Agency       ........................... ...9. ... ...    ...
                         incentives that are intended to slow wetland losses. Some of the more                             Natural Resources Conservation Service       ................
                         important of these are contained in the 1899 Rivers and Harbors                                 Department of Defense
                                                                                                                           Army Corps of Engineers     .............................................. ...
                         Act; the 1972 Clean Water Act and amendments; the 1985 Food                                     Department of the Interior
                         Security Act; the 1990 Food, Agriculture, Conservation, and Trade                                 Fish and Wildlife Service.,  ............................................
                         Act; the 1986 Emergency Wetlands Resources Act; and the 1972                                      Geological Survey   .............  ............................................ ... ... ... ... .
                         Coastal Zone Management Act.                                                                      National Biological Service    ......................................... ... ... ... ... .
                                Section 10 of the Rivers and Harbors Act gives the U.S. Army                               National Park Service    ...................................................0e. ...
                                                                                                                         Environmental Protection Agency      .................................. ... . ... ...
                         Corps of Engineers (Corps) authority to regulate certain activities                             STATE
                         in navigable waters. Regulated activities include diking, deepening,                            Department of Highways     ........................  ......................... ... .. .. ... ...
                         filling, excavating, and placing of structures. The related section 404                         Department of Natural Resources
                         of the Clean Water Act is the most often-used Federal legislation                                 Division of Natural Areas and Preserves     ..................*
                         protecting wetlands. Under section 404 provisions, the Corps issues                               Division of Parks  .............................................................0
                                                                                                                           Division of Soil and Water   ............................................ ... ... ... ...
                         permits regulating the discharge of dredged or fill material into                                 Division of Wildlife ............................... ...........9   0     0
                         wetlands. Permits are subject to review and possible veto by the U.S.                           Environmental Protection Agency      .................................. ...
                         Environmental Protection Agency, and the FwS has review and ad-                                 PRIVATE ORGANIZATIONS
                         visory roles. Section 401 of the Clean Water Act grants to States                               Ducks Unlimited   .................................................................. ... ...
                         and eligible Indian Tribes the authority to approve, apply conditions                           The Nature Conservancy      ..................................................
                         to, or deny section 404 permit applications on the basis of a pro-
                         posed activity's probable effects on the water quality of a wetland.
                                Most farming, ranching, and silviculture activities are not sub-                         and on Ohio River islands. Wetlands on designated islands and in
                         ject to section 404 regulation. However, the "Swampbuster" provi-                               embayments could become part of the Ohio River Islands National
                         sion of the 1985 Food Security Act and amendments in the 1990                                   Wildlife Refuge. The FwS also manages wetlands along the Lake Erie
                         Food, Agriculture, Conservation, and Trade Act discourage (through                              shore in the Ottawa National Wildlife Refuge, surveys flora and
                         financial disincentives) the draining, filling, or other alteration of                          fauna of Ohio wetlands, and reviews all section 404 permit appli-
                         wetlands for agricultural use. The law allows exemptions from pen-                              cations and section 401 water-quality certifications. The U.S. For-
                         alties in some cases, especially if the farmer agrees to restore the                            est Service (Fs) manages wetlands in the Wayne National Forest in
                         altered wetland or other wetlands that have been converted to agri-                             cooperation with the Ohio Department of Natural Resources. The
                         cultural use. The Wetlands Reserve Program of the 1990 Food,                                    Fs has obtained three wetlands as part of eight recent land acquisi-
                         Agriculture, Conservation, and Trade Act authorizes the Federal                                 tions. In addition, three wetlands recently have been constructed.
                         Government to purchase conservation easements from landowners                                   No specific inventories of wetland plants and animals have been
                         who agree to protect or restore wetlands. The Consolidated Farm                                 initiated by the FS, but recent inventories of amphibians, reptiles,
                         Service Agency (formerly the Agricultural Stabilization and Con-                                and fish have included wetland areas. The NPS manages wetlands in
                         servation Service) administers the Swampbuster provisions and Wet-                              the Cuyahoga Valley National Recreation Area between Cleveland
                         lands Reserve Program. The Natural Resources Conservation Ser-                                  and Akron. The NPs also protects all wetlands on fee-purchased
                         vice (formerly the Soil Conservation Service) (NRcs) determines                                 lands, allows wetlands to develop naturally on all acquired lands,
                         compliance with Swampbuster provisions and assists farmers in the                               and purchases easements that protect wetlands on adjacent proper-
                         identification of wetlands and in the development of wetland pro-                               ties. The NRCS confirms wetland boundaries for the Ohio Wetland
                         tection, restoration, or creation plans.                                                        Inventory and notifies farmers when they are not in compliance with
                                The 1986 Emergency Wetlands Resources Act and the 1972                                   the Food Security Act of 1985.
                         Coastal Zone Management Act and amendments encourage wetland                                           State wetland activities. -Ohio designates all wetlands as
                         protection through funding incentives. The Emergency Wetland                                    State Resource Waters. As such, wetland water quality is protected
                         Resources Act requires States to address wetland protection in their                            from any degradation that may interfere with designated uses. The
                         Statewide Comprehensive Outdoor Recreation Plans to qualify for                                 designation of Ohio wetlands as State Resource Waters protects them
                         Federal funding for State recreational land; the National Park Ser-                             from the addition of toxic substances and addition or removal of any
                         vice (NPS) provides guidance to States in developing the wetland                                earthen material. Any dredging or filling of an Ohio wetland requires
                         component of their plans. Coastal and Great Lakes States that adopt                             a section 404 permit issued by the Corps and a section 401 water-
                         coastal-zone management programs and plans approved by the                                      quality certification issued by the Ohio Environmental Protection
                         National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration are eligible for                                Agency (Ohio Environmental Protection Agency, 1992). Typical
                         Federal funding and technical assistance through the Coastal Zone                               activities that might affect wetlands and, consequently, require a
                         ManagementAct.                                                                                  section 404 permit and section 401 water-quality certification are
                                Several Federal agencies have managerial and regulatory re-                              construction of boat ramps, placement of rip-rap for erosion pro-
                         sponsibilities for specific Ohio wetlands. The Fws is presently                                 tection, placing fill, construction of dams or dikes, and stream
                         (1993) surveying Ohio wetlands located in Ohio River embayments                                 channelization or diversion.








                                                                                                             National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: OHIO                  313



                      The Division of Wildlife has worked with conservation groups                 Dachnowski, Alfred, 1912, Peat deposits of Ohio -Their origin, formation
                and government groups such as the Fws and NRCS to purchase, re-                          and uses: Columbus, Ohio Geological Survey, 4th series, Bulletin 16,
                store, and construct wetlands for waterfowl and other migratory                          424 p.
                birds. An important part of this effort has been the Lower Great                   Dahl, T.E., 1990, Wetlands-Losses in the United States, 1780's to 1980's:
                Lakes Joint Venture ofthe North American Waterfowl Management                            Washington, D.C., U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Report to Congress,
                                                                                                         13 p.
                Plan. This program purchases and manages wetlands in five focus                    Denny, G.L., 1979, Bogs, in Lafferty, M.B., ed., Ohio's natural heritage:
                areas. The Division also has initiated an Ohio income tax check-                         Columbus, The Ohio Academy of Science and the Ohio Department
                off option that provides monies for a nongame-wildlife management                        of Natural Resources, p. 134-157.
                program and the Habitat Restoration Program, which protects wild-                  Fenneman, N.M., 1946, Physical divisions of the United States: U.S. Geo-
                life habitat. The Division regulates and manages wetlands in 46                          logical Survey special map, scale 1:7,000,000.
                public wildlife areas throughout the State.                                        Forsyth, J.L., 1970, A geologist looks at the natural vegetation map of Ohio:
                      The Ohio Natural Areas Act of 1970.: established a statewide                       The Ohio Journal of Science, v. 70, no. 3, p. 180-19 1.
                system of natural areas and nature preserves that are managed ei-                  -1974, Geologic conditions essential for the perpetuation of Cedar
                ther by the Division of Natural Areas and Preserves or by a cooper-                      Bog, Champaign County, Ohio: The Ohio Journal of Science, v. 74,
                                                                                                         no. 2, p. 116-139.
                ating managing agency. Twenty-five natural areas and preserves in                  Frederick, C.M., 1974,A natural history ofthe vascular floraofCedar Bog,
                the State contain 4,505 acres of wetlands. Wetlands constitute ap-                       Champaign County, Ohio: ne Ohio Journal of Science, v. 74, no. 2,
                proximately one-fourth of all natural-area and preserve acreage in                       p. 65 -115.
                Ohio (Ohio Department of Natural Resources, 1988). The Division                    Goldthwait, R.P., 1959, Scenes in Ohio during the last ice age: The Ohio
                of Parks and Recreation manages wetlands in 59 State parks. Man-                         Journal of Science, v. 59, no. 4, p. 193 - 216.
                agement responsibilities are coordinated with the Division of Wild-                Heath, R.T., 1992, Nutrient dynamics in Great Lakes coastal wetlands-
                life, the Corps, and other governmental agencies.                                        Future directions: Journal ofGreat Lakes Research, v. 18 no. 4, p. 590-
                      The Division of Soil and Water Conservation has initiated the                      602.
                Ohio Land Capability Analysis Program. The program provides                        Herdendorf, C.E., 1992, Lake Erie coastal wetlands -An overview: Jour-
                                                                                                         nal of Great Lakes Research, v. 18, no. 4, p. 533 -551 @
                information on wetlands in the form of computer-generated maps                     Hillman, D.L., and Kenoyer, Galen, 1989, An analysis of the Cedar Bog
                and data relating to soil types, mineral resources, vegetation, and                      hydrologic system through the use of a three-dimensional groundwa-
                land use to local governments and private landowners.                                    ter flow model, in Glotzhober, R.C., Kochman, Anne, and Schultz,
                      The Department of Highways recently initiated programs that                        W.T., eds., Cedar Bog Symposium 11: Columbus, Ohio Historical
                identify wetlands likely to be affected by road construction. These                      Society, p. 65-74.
                programs provide for the purchase or development of wetlands to                    Mitsch, W.J., 1992, Combining ecosystem and landscape approaches to
                mitigate wedand loss.                                                                    Great Lakes wetlands: Journal of Great Lakes Research, v. 18, no. 4,
                      Wetland management in the future will be coordinated by a                          p. 552-570.
                statewide task force consisting of about 30 individuals from State,                Mitsch, W.J., and Gosselink, J.G., 1986, Wetlands: New York, Van Nostrand
                                                                                                         Reinhold, 539 p.
                county, and municipal governments; environmental and advocacy                      Ohio Department of Natural Resources, 1988, Ohio wetlands priority con-
                organizations; and business and industry affiliates. The Commis-                         servation plan: Columbus, Ohio Department of Natural Resources,
                sion on Dispute Resolution and Conflict Management will chair the                        Office of Outdoor Recreational Services, 67 p.
                task force. The task force will attempt to reach consensus on the                  -1992, North American Waterfowl Management Plan, Lower Great
                public values of wetlands, wetlands assessment, wetlands regulation,                     Lakes Joint Venture, 1988-1991: Columbus, Ohio Department of
                and wetlands creation and restoration.                                                   Natural Resources, 27 p.
                      Private wetland activities. - The Nature Conservancy has es-                 Ohio Environmental Protection Agency, 1992, Fact sheet-Section 401
                tablished the following preserves that contain wetlands: 7 sites                         water quality certification: Columbus, Ohio Environmental Protection
                (3,240 acres of wetlands) in the Eastern Lakes Section of the Cen-                       Agency, Division of Water Quality Planning and Assessment, 3 p.
                                                                                                   Quinn, M.J., 1974, The late glacial history of the Cedar Bog area, in King,
                tral Lowland Province; 6 sites (1,000 acres of wetlands) in the Till                     C.C., and Frederick, C.M., eds., Cedar Bog Symposium: Columbus,
                Plains Section; I I sites (2,510 acres of wetlands) in the Southern                      The Ohio State University, p. 7-12.
                New York Section of the Appalachian Plateaus; and 2 sites (125 acres               Spooner, D.M., 1982, Wetlands in Teays-stage valleys in extreme southeast-
                of wetlands) in the Kanawha Section. Thirteen of these sites are                         ent Ohio-Formation and flora, in McDonald, B.R., ed., Proceed-
                managed by a cooperating public or private agency. Ducks Unlim-                          ings of the Symposium on Wetlands of the Unglaciated Appalachian
                ited has been influential in developing and preserving wetlands,                         Region, West Virginia University, Morgantown, May 26-28:
                particularly coastal marshes along Lake Erie. The organization's                         Morgantown, West Virginia, p. 89-99.
                activities have included the purchase, restoration, and enhancement                Yi, Gi-Chul, Risley, David, Koneff, Mark, and Davis, Craig, 1994, Devel-
                of wetlands. The Oak Harbor Conservation Club, Wildlife Legisla-                         opment of Ohio's GIS-based wetlands inventory: Journal of Soil and
                tive Fund of America, Ohio Plan Clubs, Lake Erie Wildflowers,                            Water Conservation, v. 49, p. 23-28.
                Maumee Valley Audubon Club, Ohio Historical Society, Izaak
                Walton League, Sierra Club, League of Ohio Sportsmen, and other
                conservation groups contribute significantly to wetland conserva-                  FOR ADDITIONAL INFORMATION: District Chief, U.S. Geological
                tion.                                                                              Survey, 975 West Third Avenue, Columbus, OH 43212; Regional Weiland
                                                                                                   Coordinator, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, BHW Building, 1 Federal
                References Cited                                                                   Drive, Fort Snelling, MN 55111
                Andreas, B.K., 1985, The relationship between Ohio peatland distribution                                          Prepared by
                      and buried river valleys: The Ohio Journal of Science, v. 85, no. 3,                        Michael Little and Marcus C. Waldron,
                      p. 116-125.                                                                                           U.S. Geological Survey
                Andreas, B.K., and Knoop, J.D., 1992, 100 years of changes in Ohio
                      peatlands: The Ohio Journal of Science, v. 92, no. 5, p. 130-138.
                Cowardin, L.M., Carter, Virginia, Golet, F.C., and LaRoe, E.T., 1979, Clas-
                      sification of wetlands and deepwater habitats ofthe United States: U.S.
                      Fish and Wildlife Service Report FWS/OBS -79/31, 131 p.








                  314    National Water Surnmary-Wetland Resources: STATE SUMMARIES








































































                                                         U.S. Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper 2425








                                                                                                                                                                                   National Water Summary-Wetland Resources 315
                                                                                                                                                                                                    Oklahoma
                                                                                                                                                                                     Wetland Resources
                          Wtlands cover about 950,000 acres (2 percent) of Oklahoma-                                                                         Palustrine wetlands constitute most of Oklahoma's wetland
                          a decrease of about 67 percent over the last 200 years (Dahl, 1990).                                                       acreage. Palustrine wetlands in the State include forested wetlands
                          Oklahoma's wetland acreage places the State twenty-third in total                                                          such as bottom-land hardwood forests and swamps; emergent wet-
                          wetland acreage among the 48 conterminous States.                                                                          lands such as marshes and wet meadows; aqqatic-bed wetlands
                                  Wetlands are environmentally and economically valuable to the                                                      characterized by submersed or floating plants in ponds, takes, riv-
                          State. They reduce flood peaks by dispersing water over a large area                                                       ers, and sloughs; and sparsely vegetated wetlands such as small,
                          and releasing it gradually to downstream areas, thus reducing the                                                          intermittently flooded playa lakes.
                          severity of floods. Wetlands in flood plains (fig. 1) improve the                                                                  Palustrine forested wetlands are most common on river flood
                          quality of water in rivers and streams by trapping or absorbing sedi-                                                      plains and along some streams in the moist, eastern part of Okla-
                          ment, nutrients, and toxins. Wetland vegetation helps stabilize                                                            homa in the Ozark Plateaus, Ouachita, Coastal Plain, and eastern
                          streambanks and provides food for wildlife. The vegetation also                                                            Central Lowland physiographic provinces (fig. 2B). A survey con-
                          reduces wind and water erosion.                                                                                            ducted in the early 1980's indicated that forested wetlands covered
                                  Wetlands provide important wildlife habitat. Most of the State                                            Is       about 240,000 acres of the eastern one-third of the State at that time
                          fish and wildlife, during some part of their life cycle, depend on                                                         (Brabander and others, 1985). The degree and duration of river
                          riparian (streamside) habitats that include wetlands. Wetlands also                                                        flooding generally influence which tree species predominate in a
                          provide important stopover, feeding, overwintering, and breeding                                                           forested wetland and what common name is applied to the wetland.
                          grounds for migratory waterfowl, wading birds, and shore birds. The                                                        Commonly, forested wetlands that are deeply flooded for much of
                          tourist industry benefits from the scenic beauty of the State's diverse                                                    the year are termed "swamps," whereas those that are flooded in-
                          wetlands, which afford opportunities for recreational activities such                                                      termittently or only during the wettest parts of the year are termed
                          as hunting, fishing, birdwatching, nature photography, camping,                                                            "bottom-land hardwood forests."
                          hiking, and boating.                                                                                                               Riparian wetlands are palustrine wetlands that form along the
                                                                                                                                                     banks of streams, rivers, and lakes. These wetlands can be domi-
                          TYPES AND DISTRIBUTION                                                                                                     nated by herbaceous emergent plants (emergent wetland), shrubs
                                                                                                                                                     and saplings (scrub-shrub wetland), or trees (forested wetland).
                                  Wetlands are lands transitional between terrestrial and deep-                                                      Riparian wetlands are especially important to fish and wildlife in
                          water habitats where the water table usually is at or near the land                                                        the grasslands of the plains and prairie regions because they pro-
                          surface or the land is covered by shallow water (Cowardin and oth-                                                         vide shelter and moisture in a landscape that is otherwise sparsely
                          ers, 1979). The distribution of wetlands and deepwater habitats in                                                         vegetated by trees or shrubs and lacks year-round sources of water.
                          Oklahoma is shown in figure 2A; only wetlands are discussed herein.                                                                In Oklahoma, riparian wetlands range in area from about 10
                                  Wetlands can be vegetated or nonvegetatcd and are classified                                                       to 2,000 acres (Oklahoma Tourism and Recreation Department,
                          on the basis of their hydrology, vegetation, and substrate. In this                                                        1987). The largest expanses of riparian wetland are along the
                          summary, wetlands are classified according to the system proposed                                                          Cimarron, Canadian, Washita, and Red Rivers and their tributaries.
                          by Cowardin and others (1979), which is used by the U.S. Fish and                                                          Examples of these wetland are the numerous small marshes on river
                          Wildlife Service (Fws) to map and inventory the Nation's wetlands.                                                         terraces along the Cimarron River. A recent study of riparian lands
                          At the most general level of the classification system, wetlands are                                                       in western Oklahoma (Stinnett and others, 1987) indicated that ri-
                          grouped into five ecological systems: Palustrine, Lacustrine, Riv-                                                         parian areas that are frequently flooded cover about 621,000 acres
                          erine, Estuarine, and Marine. The Palustrine System includes only                                                          along 5,200 miles of streams west of about the longitude of Okla-
                          wetlands, whereas the other systems comprise wetlands and                                                                  homa City. Forests cover from 22 to 28 percent of the riparian flood
                          deepwater habitats. Wetlands of the systems that occur in Oklahoma                                                         plains.
                          are described below.



                          System                                                      Wetland description

                          Palustrine      .................. Wetlands in which vegetation is predominantly
                                                                trees (forested wetlands); shrubs (scrub-shrub
                                                                wetlands); persistent or nonpersistent emergent,                                                                                                                                     _j
                                                                erect, rooted, herbaceous plants ipersistent- and
                                                                non persistent-e mergent wetlands); or sub-
                                                                                                                                                                                          a 0
                                                                mersed and (or) floating plants (aquatic beds).
                                                                Also, intermittently to permanently flooded
                                                                open-water bodies of less than 20 acres in which
                                                                water is less than 6.6 feet deep.
                          Lacustrine       ....... ......... Wetlands within an intermittently to permanently
                                                                flooded lake or reservoir. Vegetation, when pres-
                                                                ent, is predominantly nonpersistent emergent
                                                                plants (non persistent-emergent wetlands), or
                                                                submersed and (or) floating plants (aquatic
                                                                beds), or both.                                                                      Figure 1. Stinchcomb Wildlife Refuge above Lake
                          Riverine      ..................... Wetlands within a channel. Vegetation, when pres-                                      Overholser, Oklahoma. (Photograph courtesy of U.S.
                                                                ent, is same as in the Lacustrine System.                                            Fish and Wildlife Service.)








                       316       National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: STATE SUMMARIES



                                                                                   100.                                    98.                                    96'

                                                                  tie)      o th
                                                           IN     k
                                    e                                                                                     Grut M                  A,
                                                                                                                          Lk NWR                       16

                                                                                                                                  Id
                            A
                                                                                                                                                                       ulsa              ho R
                                                                                                                                                                                                  136,
                                           0      25 50 MILES
                                                     511 0 KILOMETERS                                                                                                  Muskogee.
                                           0    25

                                                                                                                                                  city
                                                                                                                    .k@



                                                                                                                                Norma




                                                                                                                                                   C idmw Nat
                                                                                                                      a on                         A   tion 48P



                                                                                                                                                                                                      34-


                              Great Plains                                                      Ozark Plateaus
                                                                                                                                            WETLANDS AND DEEPWATER HABITATS
                                                                                                                                            Distribution of wetlands and deepwater habitats-
                       B                                                                                                                      This map shows the approximate distribution of large
                                                                                                                                              wetlands in the State. Because of limitations of scale
                                                                                                                                              and source material, some wetlands are not shown
                                                                            Central Lowland                                                        Predominantly wetland
                                                                                                                Ouachita                           Predominantly cleepwater habitat
                                                                                                                Province-                   F



                                                                                                      Coastal Plain


                                                 PHYSIOGRAPHIC DIVISION




                                                                                                                                       24                                        35
                                                                                               C                                        20




                            0.1
                                           ci   o@"

                                                                                                                                                                                                44
                       D                                                                                    7





                                                                                                                      14                    PRECIPITATION
                                                         '0.5                                                                               -36- Line of equal annual precipitation-
                                                                                                                                                      Interval 4 inches




                                                 RUNOFF
                     F              -PI-sr.-













                                                 -16- Line of equal annual runoff-
                                                          Interval, in inches, is variable


                       Figure 2. Wetland distribution in Oklahoma and physical and climatological features that control wetland distribution in the State.
                       A, Distribution of wetlands and cleepwater habitats. 8, Physiography. C, Average annual precipitation. D, Average annual runoff.
                       (Sources: A, TE. Dahl, U.S, Fish and Wildlife Service, unpub. data, 199 1. B, Physiographic divisions from Fenneman, 1946; landforms
                       data from EROS Data Center. C and D, Blumer 1986).








                                                                                                National Water Surnmary-Wetland Resources: OKLAHOMA               317



                      Oklahoma's playa lakes are mostly in the panhandle region.              wetlands. Flood-plain forests and swamps delay runoff and provide
                They provide overwintering and resting habitat for waterfowl mi-              surface-water storage. Organic soils in the forested wetlands func-
                grating along the Central Flyway (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service,             tion somewhat like sponges, increasing water-storage capacity and
                1990). The number of playa lakes in the State is about 1,200, total-          retarding evapotranspiration (Wilkinson and others, 1987).
                ing about 9,000 acres, and the lakes range in area from less than I                Riparian wetlands in south-central Oklahoma are in areas clas-
                acre to more than 200 acres (Oklahoma Department of Wildlife                  sified as rolling to gently rolling prairie and savannah. These wet-
                Conservation, unpub. data, 1990). Playa lakes are sand- or mud-               lands have formed on flood plains of pen-nanent streams and are
                bottomed lakes that receive most of their moisture from precipita-            maintained by frequent or seasonal flooding or by a high water table.
                tion runoff and have little external drainage. They range from dry            Riparian-wetland vegetation typically consists of emergent herba-
                lakebeds to shallow lakes that can be freshwater or saline. Fresh-            ceous plants, shrubs, or trees. Soil types range from sandy loam to
                water playas are numerous, small to medium in size, and serve as              clay loam underlain by sandstone and shale. Average annual precipi-
                zones of recharge to the underlying aquifer (Osterkamp and Wood,              tation in the region ranges from 30 to 34 inches. Lake evaporation
                1987). Saline playas are larger in size and fewer in number than the          is about 63 inches annually (Barclay, 1980). Because of the exten-
                freshwater playas and are areas of discharge from the underlying              sive channelization of streams, which has lowered the water table,
                aquifer.                                                                      and the many impoundments, which have reduced flooding, a large
                      Playa lakes smaller than 20 acres typically are intermittently          percentage of the riparian wetlands once present in this part of the
                flooded, whereas larger playa lakes generally are continuously                State have been lost (Barclay, 1980).
                flooded. Small playas are classified as palustrine wetlands; the                   A study by Taylor and others (1984) describes the riparian
                larger, more permanent playa lakes are lacustrine wetlands and                wetlands along the north side of the Cimarron River in north-cen-
                bordered by palustrine emergent wetlands. Flooded playa lakes,                tral Oklahoma as marshes and ponded water in surface depressions
                especially those containing vegetation, provide optimum wildlife              of terrace deposits along the river. The terrace surface is generally
                habitat.                                                                      level to gently sloping, and sand dunes line the river. The wetlands
                      Most lacustrine wetlands in Oklahoma are in the larger playa            began to appear in formerly dry depressions in 1975 because of a
                lakes and in the shallows of the many reservoirs on rivers statewide.         rise in the water table. The depressions have flat bottoms and are
                Because of their depth, reservoirs typically contain more deepwater           assumed to be formed by wind. The areal extent of these wetlands
                habitat than wetland; however, wetlands in the shallow margins of             has increased since 1975, owing to a further rise in ground-water
                reservoirs can be extensive in areas of low relief. Siltation (as in          levels. The terrace and associated deposits consist of dune sands
                Great Salt Plains Lake on the Arkansas River) or declining water              and alluvial and wind-blown sediments overlying bedrock. Soils in
                levels caused by low strearnflow in dry years or reservoir leakage            the nonwetland areas of the terrace are sandy loam or loamy sand,
                (as in Optima Lake) can create additional wetland acreage in reser-           whereas soils in the wetlands are clayey with some characteristics
                voirs. Lacustrine wetlands in reservoirs and large playa lakes and            of hydric soils.
                the adjacent palustrine marshes provide valuable habitat for resi-                 The riparian wetlands in western Oklahoma are on the flood
                dent and migratory waterfowl. Both Great Salt Plains Lake and                 plains of perennial streams in an area of the State that is transitional
                Optima Lake are National Wildlife Refuges.                                    between the and lands of the west and the humid, temperate for-
                      Riverine wetlands include beds of small streams and the shal-           ests of the east (Stinnett and others, 1987). These wetlands are
                lows of rivers. Riverine wetlands are restricted to the channels of           maintained by periodic flooding, ground water, and local precipi-
                streams and undarnmed rivers and do not include wetlands in their             tation. During drought, the wetlands can dry up, causing the ripar-
                flood plains. Because of the many miles of streams and rivers in              ian vegetation to disappear. Soil types in the area range from loamy
                Oklahoma, the State has extensive riverine wetlands. However, res-            fine sand to sandy clay loam. Average annual precipitation in this
                ervoir construction converted many formerly riverine wetlands into            region ranges from 18 to 34 inches. Annual lake evaporation in west-
                lacustrine wetlands or deepwater habitat.                                     em Oklahoma ranges from 56 to 64 inches. Evaporation is greatest
                                                                                              in the panhandle (Stinnett and others, 1987).
                HYDROLOGIC SETTING                                                                 The major perennial streams that have riparian wetlands in
                                                                                              west-central Oklahoma are the Canadian and Washita Rivers, which
                      Wetlands form where a persistent water supply is at or near             flow southeasterly through rolling hills of mixed-grass and tall-grass
                the land surface. The location, abundance, and persistence of the             prairie. The major perennial stream that has riparian wetlands in
                water supply is a function of physiographic, climatic, and hydro-             the southwestern part of the State is the Red River, which flows east-
                logic factors, such as topography, precipitation and runoff patterns,         erly through level to gently rolling topography that supports mixed-
                evapotranspiration rate, and configuration of the water table.                grass vegetative cover (Stinnett and others, 1987).
                      Precipitation and runoff rates differ annually, with the seasons,            Historically, the area of playa takes in the panhandle was short-
                and geographically. The average annual precipitation in Oklahoma              grass and mixed-grass prairie. However, much of the area of playa
                ranges from about 16 inches in the western panhandle to more than             lakes is now under cultivation. The physiography of the playa lake
                52 inches in southeastern Oklahoma (fig. 2C). Spring is the wet-              area is characterized by relatively flat terrain. Because of the flat-
                test season, and May is the wettest month. Runoff ranges widely               ness of the terrain, there is generally little stream drainage; conse-
                across the State. The average annual runoff ranges from about 0.1             quently, playa lakes collect most of the surface runoff. The playa
                inch in the western panhandle to more than 20 inches in the south-            lakes are shallow depressions that have large surface area relative
                eastern corner of the State (fig. 2D). Evaporation is greatest in             to the total volume of water contained in them. Consequently, most
                western Oklahoma and least in the eastern part of the State.                  playa lakes have small storage capacities. Osterkamp and Wood
                      The forested wetlands (bottom-land hardwood forests) of east-           (1987) indicate that freshwater playa lakes in the Great Plains origi-
                ern Oklahoma are primarily on flood plains in alluvial river valleys.         nate wherever surface depressions collect precipitation. The lakes
                Flood-plain wetlands generally depend on river flooding in spring             enlarge as a result of dissolution of carbonates by water infiltrating
                for much of their moisture. Annual flooding of the rivers generally           the unsaturated zone above the underlying aquifer and subsequent
                is confined to the main channel or lowlands that border a river, but          subsidence of the lakebed. Over time, the older, central lakebeds
                floods of 5- to 100-year recurrence intervals typically overflow the          acquire a layer of clay-rich deposits that largely restricts movement
                banks, leaving residual water in backswamps, pools, sloughs, ox-              of water between the playa lake and the underlying aquifer. Water
                bows, and depressions. Rainfall is also a source of moisture to these         probably is removed from freshwater playa lakes primarily by re-









                               318          National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: STATE SUMMARIES



                               charge to the underlying aquifer from the outer areas of the lake,                                                          wetlands, an increase from 12,975 acres to 24,210 acres in shrub
                               where lakebed sediments have not yet accumulated (Osterkamp and                                                             wetland, an increase from 199 acres to 520 acres in open-water and
                               Wood, 1987) and by evaporation (Nelson and others, 1983). There                                                             mudflat wetlands, a decrease from 12,599 acres to 4,670 acres of
                               is no general agreement on the origin of saline playa lakes; how-                                                           emergent wetlands, and a decrease from 68,602 acres to 11,960 acres
                               ever, Wood and Jones (1990) propose that the source of the salinity                                                         of river and sandbar wetlands during a 30-year period. Riverine
                               is the concentration by evaporation of runoff and shallow, fresh                                                            wetlands decreased from 72 percent to 23 percent of the total wet-
                               ground water that discharges from the underlying aquifer.                                                                   land acreage and palustrine wetlands increased from 28 percent to
                                                                                                                                                           77 percent of the total wetland acreage. The clianges probably were
                               TRENDS                                                                                                                      caused by lower strearnflow resulting from the upstream construc-
                                                                                                                                                           tion of Lake Meredith Reservoir in the Texas panhandle.
                                       The Fws has estimated that from the 1780's to the 1980's, the                                                              The quality and number of playa lakes available to wetland
                               wetland area in Oklahoma decreased from about 2,840,000 acres                                                               wildlife in the Oklahoma panhandle has declined significantly. The
                               to about 950,000 acres (Dahl, 1990). This decrease represents a                                                             decline has been attributed to cultivation of playa lake areas, field
                               change in wetland acreage from 6.4 percent of the State's surface                                                           leveling, cattle grazing, and modification for irrigation and livestock
                               area to 2.1 percent.                                                                                                        watering (Oklahoma Department ofWildlife Conservation, unpub.
                                       ne major causes of bottom-land hardwood-forest loss in east-                                                        data, 1990). About 61 percent of the playas are cultivated. The ag-
                               em Oklahoma have been the cutting of virgin timber and the con-                                                             ricultural conversions in the playa lake area have resulted in a sub-
                               version of flood plains to cropland and pasture. These practices have                                                       stantial change in land use from short-grass and mixed-grass prai-
                               resulted in the loss of about 1,653,000 acres of bottom-land hard-                                                          rie to cropland.
                               wood forest (Wilkinson and others, 1987), or about 75 percent of
                               the original forested area, much of which contained wetlands. An                                                            CONSERVATION
                               area in east-central Oklahoma that has had considerable losses of
                               bottom-land hardwood-forest wetlands is the flood plain of the Deep                                                                Many government agencies and private organizations partici-
                               Fork River. In this river basin, the flood plain on the upper one-third                                                     pate in wetland conservation in Oklahoma. The most active agen-
                               of the river lost most of its wetlands because of channelization be-                                                        cies and organizations and some of their activities are listed in table
                               tween 1912 and 1923. The flood plain on the lower two-thirds of                                                             I .
                               the river was altered or degraded in some parts; however, much of
                               the unchannelized area in the lower two-thirds of the river repre-                                                          Table 1. Selected wetiand-related activities of government
                               sents one of the few areas in the State where extensive strands of                                                          agencies and private organizations in Oklahoma, 1993
                               bottom-land hardwood forest remain (Alan Stacey, Oklahoma De-                                                               [Source: Classification of activities is generalized from information provided
                               partment of Wildlife Conservation, written commun., 1994).                                                                      by agencies and organizations. 9, agency or organization participates in
                                                                                                                                                               wetland-related activity;                agency or organization does not participate in
                                       Another major cause of wetland loss in eastern, Oklahoma has                                                            wetland-related activity. MAN, management; REG, regulation; R&C, res-
                               been reservoir construction. Twenty-eight major reservoirs in east-                                                             toration and creation; LAN, land acquisition; R&D, research and data col-
                               ern Oklahoma have inundated about 240,000 acres, or about 10                                                                    lection; D&I, delineation and inventory]
                               percent of the bottom-land hardwood forests. Nine additional ma-
                               jor reservoirs have been proposed, the construction of which would
                               result in inundation of an additional 50,000 acres of bottom-land                                                           Agency or organization
                               hardwood forest (Wilkinson and others, 1987).                                                                               FEDERAL
                                       The Canadian, Washita, and Red Rivers and their tributaries                                                         Department of Agriculture
                               have undergone extensive channelization and impoundment, result-                                                             Consolidated Farm Service Agency                     ....................... ... . ...         ... ...      ...
                               ing in loss of many riparian wetlands. A study by Barclay (1980) of                                                          Forest Service        .................................................................0 0     0      *     0
                                                                                                                                                            Natural Resources Conservation Service                    ................ ...
                               two prairie streams that are tributaries to the Washita River in south-                                                     De pa rtme nt of D efense
                               central Oklahoma showed that channelization of these streams re-                                                             Army Corps of Engineers             ..............................................0
                               sulted in an 86-percent reduction in bottom-land forest and the loss                                                         Military reservations          .....................................................0
                               of all the wetlands, about 1,800 acres, or 6.2 percent of the flood                                                         Department of the Interior
                               plain of the two streams. Other losses of wetlands in this area are                                                          Bureau of Land Management ..                .....................................
                                                                                                                                                            Bureau of Reclamation             ............ .................................... ... ...
                               attributable to reservoir construction and conversion of wetlands to                                                         Fish and Wildlife Service                   ....................................0
                               agricultural use.                                                                                                            Geological Survey          ................................................ ......... ... ... ... ... 0
                                       A rise in water levels beginning in 1975 in the terrace depos-                                                       National Biological Service             ......................................... ... ... ... ...     0
                               its along the Cimarron River (Taylor and others, 1984) resulted in                                                           National Park Service           ...................................................*     0     0      0
                               the restoring of some riparian wetlands in north-central Oklahoma.                                                          Environmental Protection Agency              .................................. ...
                               These wetlands have increased in area since 1975 owing to a con-                                                            STATE
                                                                                                                                                           Oklahoma Conservation Commission                   ............................*
                               tinning rise in water levels and surface pooling. Activities that lower                                                     Oklahoma Water Resources Board                 ................................e. ... ...
                               the water levels, such as channelization or drainage of land for crop-                                                      Oklahoma Department of Wildlife Conservation                               e     0        -     0
                               ping or pasture, could cause the loss of wetlands. Terrace wetlands                                                         SOME COUNTY AND LOCAL GOVERNMENTS                             ............. ...  e        ... ...      ... ...
                               are at risk from petroleum-production activities, timber harvesting,                                                        PRIVATE ORGANIZATIONS
                               and farming and grazing (Taylor and others, 1984). However, Tay-                                                            Ducks Unlimited       ........................................................
                               lor and others (1984) indicate that with proper management prac-                                                            The Nature Conservancy            ..................................................
                               tices, the terrace marshes and other riparian wetlands can be retained
                               as a wildlife habitat and a water resource without significantly af-                                                               Federal wetland activities. -Development activities in Okla-
                               fecting landowners.                                                                                                         homa wetlands are regulated by several Federal statutory prohibi-
                                       From the mid-1950's to the mid-1980's, wetlands associated                                                          tions and incentives that are intended to slow wetland losses. Some
                               with the Canadian River in western Oklahoma decreased in area                                                               of the more important of these are contained in the 1899 Rivers and
                               by about 45 percent (Stinnett and others, 1987). Additionally, wet-                                                         Harbors Act; the 1972 Clean Water Act and amendments; the 1985
                               land types changed substantially. Results of aerial-photograph analy-                                                       Food Security Act; the 1990 Food, Agriculture, Conservation, and
                               sis indicate an increase from 1, 145 acres to 10,873 acres in forested                                                      Trade Act; and the 1986 Emergency Wetlands Resources Act.








                                                                                                       National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: OKLAHOMA                       319



                        Section 10 of the Rivers and Harbors Act gives the U.S. Army                 and restore riparian-wetland areas on lands administered by the BLM
                 Corps of Engineers (Corps) authority to regulate certain activities                 in Oklahoma. The acreage of riparian wetlands on lands adminis-
                 in navigable waters. Regulated activities include diking, deepening,                tered by the BLM in Oklahoma, Kansas, and New Mexico is 27,600
                 filling, excavating, and placing of structures. The related section 404             acres (Bureau of Land Management, 1990). The BOR'S jurisdiction
                 of the Clean Water Act is the most often-used Federal legislation                   extends over their project areas. The Fs manages lands and resources
                 protecting wetlands. Under section 404 provisions, the Corps issues                 in the two National Grasslands in western Oklahoma and the
                 permits regulating the discharge of dredged or fill material into                   Ouachita National Forest in eastern Oklahoma. The NPS manages
                 wetlands. Permits are subject to review and possible veto by the U.S.               the Chickasaw National Recreation Area in south-central Oklahoma
                 Environmental Protection Agency, and the FwS has review and ad-                     to preserve the natural and cultural resources of the area.
                 visory roles. Section 401 of the Clean Water Act grants to States                         State wetland activities. -The State agencies most involved
                 and eligible Indian Tribes the authority to approve, apply conditions               in wetland conservation are the Oklahoma Conservation Commis-
                 to, or deny section 404 permit applications on the basis of a pro-                  sion, the Oklahoma Water Resources Board, and the Oklahoma De-
                 posed activity's probable effects on the water quality of a wetland.                partment of Wildlife Conservation. The Conservation Commission
                        Most farming, ranching, and silviculture activities are not sub-             develops the strategy for wetland management. The strategy includes
                 ject to section 404 regulation. However, the "Swampbuster" provi-                   defining wetlands, enumerating the beneficial uses of wetlands,
                 sion of the 1985 Food Security Act and amendments in the 1990                       inventorying wetlands, and recommending measures to mitigate
                 Food, Agriculture, Conservation, and Trade Act discourages                          losses and protect wetlands. The Water Resources Board prepares
                 (through financial disincentives) the draining, filling, or other al-               the State's water-quality standards, and certifies that permits issued
                 teration of wetlands for agricultural use. The law allows exemptions                by the Corps to dredge and fill will not violate the State water-qual-
                 from penalties in some cases, especially if the farmer agrees to re-                ity standards. The Department of Wildlife Conservation protects,
                 store the altered wetland or other wetlands that have been converted                enhances, and restores wetlands in wildlife-management areas for
                 to agricultural use. The Wetlands Reserve Program of the 1990 Food,                 the benefit of wildlife. The Department also provides technical
                 Agriculture, Conservation, and Trade Act authorizes the Federal                     assistances to owners of wetlands and works cooperatively with
                 Government to purchase conservation easements from landowners                       other organizations on wetland programs.
                 who agree to protect or restore wetlands. The Consolidated Farm                           Private wetland activities. -The Nature Conservancy provides
                 Service Agency (formerly the Agricultural Stabilization and Con-                    leadership in the acquisition of land for the preservation of wild-
                 servation Service) administers the Swampbuster provisions and Wet-                  life. The Conservancy has established 14 preserves in Oklahoma.
                 lands Reserve Program. The Natural Resources Conservation                           The organization also participates in a program that enlists land-
                 Service (formerly the Soil Conservation Service) determines com-                    owners to voluntarily protect rare species on their property. Ducks
                 pliance with Swampbuster provisions and assists farmers in the iden-                Unlimited and many other organizations in Oklahoma advocate the
                 tification ofvvetlands and in the development ofwetland protection,                 preservation and restoration of wildlife habitats.
                 restoration, or creation plans.
                        The 1986 Emergency Wetlands Resources Act encourages                         References Cited
                 wetland protection through funding incentives. The act requires
                 States to address wetland protection in their Statewide Comprehen-                  Barclay, J.S., 1980, Impact of stream alteration on riparian communities in
                 sive Outdoor Recreation Plans to qualify for Federal funding for                          southcentral Oklahoma: U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Report FWS/
                 State recreational land; the National Park Service (NPS) provides                         OBS-80/17,91 p.
                 guidance to States in developing the wetland component of their                     Blumer, S.P., 1986, Oklahoma surface-water resources, in U.S. Geological
                 plans.                                                                                    Survey, National water summary 1985-Hydrologic events and sur-
                                                                                                           face-water resources: U.S. Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper
                        The wetland-related activities of the Fws in Oklahoma include                      2300, p. 375-382.
                 acquiring bottom land along the Deep Fork River and along the                       Brabander, J.J., Masters, R.E., and Short, R.M., 1985, Bottomland hard-
                 Little River for the benefit of wetland-dependent wildlife (Oklahoma                      woods ofeastem Oklahoma-A special study oftheir status, trends,
                 Conservation Commission, 1991). The Fws also has prepared art                             and values: Tulsa, Okla., U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 147 p.
                 Oklahoma Wetlands Priority Plan that identifies 13 priority wetland                 Bureau of Land Management, 1990, New Mexico riparian-wetiand 2000 -
                 areas in the State encompassing nearly 175,000 acres. The Fws, in                         A management strategy: Santa Fe, N. Mex., Bureau of Land Manage-
                 1990, enrolled 10 landowners in their program of providing tech-                          ment, 25 p.
                 nical and financial assistance for the restoration of wetlands on pri-              Cowardin, L.M., Carter, Virginia, Golet, F.C., and LaRoe, E.T., 1979, Clas-
                 vate lands in Oklahoma. Seven National Wildlife Refuges in Okla-                          sification of wetlands and deepwater habitats of the United States: U.S.
                                                                                                           Fish and Wildlife Service Report FWS/OBS -@9/31, 131 p.
                 homa are managed by the FWS.                                                        Dahl, T.E., 1990, Wetlands-Losses in the United States, 1780's to 1980's:
                        The North American Waterfowl Management Plan is a joint                            Washington, D.C., U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Report to Congress,
                 effort by the U.S. and Canadian Governments to slow the rate of                           13 p.
                 waterfowl-habitat loss. Mexico has signed an agreement to aid in                    Fenneman, N.M., 1946, Physical divisions of the United States: Washing-
                 the effort, which seeks to protect more then 6 million acres of wet-                      ton, D.C., U.S. Geological Survey special map, scale 1:7,000,000.
                 lands. The Fws coordinates two joint venture projects of the North                  Forsythe, S.W., and Aldrich, JW., 1989, Eastern Oklahoma wetland plan -
                 American Waterfowl Management Plan that includes two areas of                             A State implementation plan: Tulsa, Okla., U.S. Fish and Wildlife
                 Oklahoma. One is the Playa Lakes Joint Venture, which is intended                         Service and Oklahoma Department ofWildlife Conservation coopera-
                 to ensure the continual accommodation of waterfowl overwintering                          tive publication, 20 p.
                                                                                                     Nelson, W.R., Logan, W.J., and Weller, L.C., 1983, Playa wetlands and
                 in, migrating through, and breeding in the panhandle region. A sec-                       wildlife on the southern Great Plains -A characterization of habi-
                 ond is the Lower Mississippi Valley Joint Venture, which has the                          tat: U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Report FWS/OBS - 83/28, 99 p.
                 goal Of Protecting the bottom-land hardwood forests in eastern                      Oklahoma Conservation Commission, 199 1, Background paper-Wetlands
                 Oklahoma (Forsythe and Aldrich, 1989).                                                    management in Oklahoma: Oklahoma City, Oklahoma Conservation
                        Other Federal Agencies in Oklahoma, such as the Bureau of                          Commission, 30 p.
                 Land Management (BLM), the Bureau of Reclamation (BOR), the U.S.                    Oklahoma Tourism and Recreation Department, 1987, Oklahoma statewide
                 Forest Service (FS), and the NPS, are charged with the responsible                        comprehensive outdoor recreation plan: Oklahoma City, Oklahoma
                 management of public lands, including wetlands, under their juris-                        Tourism and Recreation Department, 216 p.
                 diction. The BLM'S wetland-related goals are to protect, maintain,








                     320     National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: STATE SUMMARIES



                     Osterkamp, W.R., and Wood, W.W., 1987, Playa lake basins on the south-
                          ern High Plains ofTexas and New Mexico-Part 1, Hydrologic, geo-
                          morphic, and geologic evidence for their development: Geologic So-
                          ciety of America Bulletin, v. 99, no. 2, p. 215 -223.
                     Stinnett, D.P., Smith, R.W., and Conrady, S.W., 1987, Riparian areas of
                          western Oklahoma- A special study of their status, trends, and val-
                          ues: Tulsa, Okla., U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 80 p.
                     Taylor, T.J., Erickson, N.E., Tumlison, Reno, Ratzlaff, J.A., and
                          Cunningham, K.D., 1984, Groundwater wetlands of the Cimarron
                          Terrace, north-central Oklahoma: Stillwater, Oklahoma State Univer-
                          sity, 58 p.
                     U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 1990, Region 11 wetlands regional concept
                          plan-Oklahoma wetlands: Albuquerque, N. Mex., U.S. Fish and
                          Wildlife Service, 185 p.
                     Wilkinson, D.L., McDonald, K.S., Olson, R.W., and Auble, G.T., 1987,
                          Synopsis of wetland functions and values-Bottomland hardwoods
                          with emphasis on eastern Texas and Oklahoma: U.S. Fish and Wild-
                          life Service Biological Report 87(12), 132 p.
                     Wood, W.W., and Jones, B.F., 1990, Origin of saline lakes and springs on
                          the southern HighPlains ofTexas andNewMexico, in Gustavson,T.C.,
                          ed., Geological framework and regional hydrology -Upper Cenozoic
                          Blackwater Draw and Ogallala Formation, Great Plains: Austin, Texas,
                          Bureau of Economic Geology, p. 193-208.


                     FOR ADDITIONAL INFORMATION: District Chief, U.S. Geological
                     Survey, Building 7, 202 W 66 St., Oklahoma City, OK 73116; Regional
                     Wetland Coordinator, U.S. Fish and Wildlife, Fish and Wildlife Enhance-
                     ment, 500 Gold Ave., SW, Albuquerque, NM 87102


                                                  Prepared by
                                                  B.D. Jones,
                                            U.S. Geological Survey




































                                                                    U.S. Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper 2425








                                                                                                                                                                                  National Water Summary-Wetland Resources 321
                                                                                                                                                                                                                      Oregon
                                                                                                                                                                                     Wetland Resources
                          Oregon's diverse wetlands are the result of climate and physio-                                                                    Oregon has between 1.2 and 1.5 million acres of wetlands (J.R
                          graphy that range from wet and mountainous to dry and flat. Wet-                                                          Watson, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, written commun., 1993).
                          lands can be found statewide, even in the deserts of the central and                                                      Palustrine, lacustrine, and estuarine wetlands constitute most of the
                          southeastern parts of the State (fig. 1).                                                                                 State's wetland acreage. The area of marine and riverine wetlands
                                  Although wetlands cover little more than 2 percent of Oregon,                                                     is small relative to that in the other systems.
                          their ecological and economic benefits make them valuable to the                                                                   Coastal wetlands. - The steep slopes of Oregon's Coast Range
                          State. Among the beneficial hydrologic functions of wetlands are                                                          mountains extend to the Pacific Ocean along much of the coast,
                          flood attenuation, erosion and storm-damage reduction, water-qual-                                                        leaving little area for wetland formation. Thus, coastal wetlands are
                          ity maintenance, and water supply. Coastal and inland wetlands                                                            confined mainly to areas of accumulated sediment near the mouths
                          provide stopover, feeding, and breeding habitat to migratory water-                                                       of rivers that have cut through the mountains and to the dune re-
                          fowl and shorebirds; habitat for native fish and wildlife; and out-                                                       gions that have formed where the Coast Range front is distant from
                          door recreation. About one-half of commercially harvested Pacific                                                         the ocean.
                          Ocean fish and shellfish species depend on wetlands for food,                                                                      Estuarine wetlands have developed in the shallow, low-gradi-
                          spawning, or nursery habitat during some stage of life (Oregon                                                            ent reaches near the mouths of Oregon's coastal rivers and in their
                          Division of State Lands and Oregon State Parks and Recreation                                                             deltas. Estuarine wetlands cover about 55,600 acres, and there are
                          Division, 1989).                                                                                                          about 10,000 acres of tidal fresh marsh, mostly in the Columbia
                                                                                                                                                    River estuary (Oregon Division of State Lands and Oregon State
                          TYPES AND DISTRIBUTION                                                                                                    Parks and Recreation Division, 1989). Akins and Jefferson (1973)
                                                                                                                                                    identified three major types of estuarine wetlands in Oregon:
                                  Wetlands are lands transitional between terrestrial and deep-                                                     tideflats, eelgrass beds, and salt marshes.
                          water habitats where the water table usually is at or near the land                                                                Tideflats (unconsolidated- shore wetlands) are mostly nonveg-
                          surface or the land is covered by shallow water (Cowardin and oth-                                                        etated and exist where accumulations of sediment (sand, silt, clay,
                          ers, 1979). The distribution of wetlands and deepwater habitats in                                                        or gravel) are flooded and exposed daily by tides. Eelgrass-bed
                          Oregon is shown in figure 2A; only wetlands are discussed herein.                                                         (aquatic-bed) wetlands are tideflats that have been extensively colo-
                                  Wetlands can be vegetated or nonvegetated and are classified                                                      nized by eelgrass, a plant that can tolerate high salinity and periods
                          on the basis of their hydrology, vegetation, and substrate. In this                                                       of exposure. Salt marshes (emergent wetlands) are regularly to ir-
                          summary, wetlands are classified according to the system proposed                                                         regularly flooded emergent wetlands vegetated by salt-tolerant plants
                          by Cowardin and others (1979), which is used by the U.S. Fish and                                                         such as rushes, sedges, glasswort, and arrowgrass. Most of Oregon's
                          Wildlife Service (Fws) to map and inventory the Nation's wetlands.                                                        large estuaries also contain areas of diked marsh, former salt
                          At the most general level of the classification system, wetlands are                                                      marshes that have been diked and drained. Diked wetlands are com-
                          grouped into five ecological systems: Palustrine, Lacustrine, Riv-                                                        monly used for cattle grazing.
                          erine, Estuarine, and Marine. The Palustrine System includes only                                                                  Coastal nontidal fresh marshes, swamps, bogs, and ponds are
                          wetlands, whereas the other systems comprise wetlands and                                                                 palustrine wetlands that have formed around and in lakes and wind-
                          deepwater habitats. Wetlands of the systems that occur in Oregon                                                          scoured depressions among sand dunes (Akins and Jefferson, 1973).
                          are described below.                                                                                                      The areas containing most of the coastal nontidal wetlands are the
                                                                                                                                                    Clatsop Plains, which extend from the Columbia River to Gearhart,
                          System                                                      Wetland description                                           the broad dune sheet that extends from Haceta Head to Coos Bay,
                                                                                                                                                    and the low dunes between Bandon and Cape Blanco. Isolated dune
                          Palustrine       .................. Nontidal and ti da [-freshwater wetlands in which                                     areas containing wetlands are present between Tillamook Bay and
                                                                vegetation is predominantly trees (forested wet-                                    Waldport.
                                                                lands); shrubs (scrub-shrub wetlands); persistent
                                                                or nonpersistent emergent, erect, rooted herba-
                                                                ceous plants (persistent- and nonpersistent-
                                                                emergent wetlands); or submersed and (or)
                                                                floating plants (aquatic beds). Also, intermit-
                                                                tently to, permanently flooded open-water bod-
                                                                ies of less than 20 acres in which water is less
                                                                than 6.6 feet deep.
                                                                                                                                                                                         Vr-
                          Lacustrine        ................. Nontidal and tidal-freshwater wetlands within an
                                                                intermittently to permanently flooded lake or
                                                                reservoir larger than 20 acres and (or) deeper
                                                                than 6.6 feet. Vegetation, when present, is pre-                                                                                                                                                   -7
                                                                dominantly nonpersistent emergent plants (non-
                                                                persistent-emergent wetlands), or submersed
                                                                and (or) floating plants (aquatic beds), or both.
                          Riverine      ..................... Nontidal and tidal-freshwater wetlands within a
                                                                channel. Vegetation, when present, is same as
                                                                in the Lacustrine System.
                          Estuarine       ................... Tidal wetlands in low-wave-energy environments
                                                                where the salinity ofthe water is greaterthan 0.5
                                                                part perthousand (ppt) and is variable owing to
                                                                evaporation and the mixing of seawater and
                                                                freshwater.

                          Marine      ....................... Tidal wetlands that are exposed to waves and cur-
                                                                rents of the open ocean and to water having a                                       Figurell. Wetlands in the Malheur National Wildlife Refuge. (Photo-
                                                                salinity greater than 30 ppt.                                                       graph courtesy of the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service.)








                           322        National Water Surnmary-Wetland Resources: STATE SUMMARIES



                                                                                                                                                                                                                             40
                                                                                                                                               80 ,z
                                                                                                                                                     I-N2                                                                     5-
                                    If                                                                                                                                       120
                                                                                                                                             120
                                                                                 a Basin

                                                                                                                                         160                                                                                             60
                                                                                                                                         120
                                                                                                                                         100

                                                                                       Sue   Mountains                                                       IM
                                                                                                                                                                                            4-5   7,
                                                                                                                                             so              14                                                                      0


                                                                                                                                         60




                                                                                   Snake River Basin/
                              ;t
                                                          Eastern                       Hich Deseq
                                                          Cascades
                                                                                                                                                          AD              30   1,
                                                          Slope$ and                               j
                                        'Slorra,          roothills
                                            Oda
                                                                                                                                                                    45
                                                                                                                                                                                   20

                                                                                            Northern Basin
                                                                Snake Ri er Basin/             and Range
                                        ECOREGIONS                   High Desert                                                             C         PRECIPITATION

                                                                                                                                                      -80- Une of equal annual precipitation-
                                                                                                                                                                  Interval, in inches, is variable
                                                c'-0'1@1                    23-                                                                           119,
                                                                                                                                                                                                  117-


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                                                                                                                                                                          r

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                                                                                                                                                                                   0       25        50 MILES
                                        A           WETLANDS AND DEEPWATER HABITATS                                                                                                j    I I I         j
                                                    Distribution of wetlands and deepwater habitats-                                                                               0   25    50 KILOMETERS
                                                        This map shows the approximate distribution of large wetlands
                                                        in the State . Because of limitations of scale and source material,
                                                        some wetlands are not shown
                                                    0        Predominantly wetland
                                                    El       Predominantly deepwater habitat

                           Figure 2. Wetland distribution, ecoregions, and precipitation in Oregon. A, Distribution of wetlands and cleepwater habitats. B, Ecoregions. C,
                           Precipitation. (Sources: A, TE. Dahl@ U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, unpub. data, 1991. B, Ecoregions from Omernik, 1987; landforms data
                           from EROS Data Center. C, Hubbard, 1986.)








                                                                                                   National Water Surnmary-Wetland Resources: OREGON                323



                     Coastal nontidal fresh marshes form in dune lake basins and              HYDROLOGIC SETTING
               along their tributary streams. Some shallow lakes are completely
               covered by marsh vegetation. Interdunal marshes form between                        Wetlands form where water persists at or near the land surface
               dunes in wind-scoured depressions. Interdunal marshes are flooded              for extended periods. Depending on its hydrologic setting, a wet-
               seasonally or perennially and typically contain slough sedge, silver           land receives moisture from direct precipitation; surface runoff;
               weed, bog St. Johnswort, creeping buttercup, and western lilaeopsis            flooding from streams, rivers, or lakes; inundation by ocean tides;
               (Akins and Jefferson, 1973). Other coastal-zone freshwater wet-                ground-water discharge; or a combination of those sources. The
               lands - swamps, bogs, and ponds - constitute a small percentage                wide variety of hydrologic settings in Oregon has resulted in diverse
               of the coastal-zone wetland acreage, but they are of value to wild-            wetland types statewide, but wetlands in each region have common
               life and also are of scientific interest.                                      hydrologic characteristics owing to common climatic, geologic, and
                     Mountain wetlands. -The Coast Range and Klamath Moun-                    topographic conditions.
               tains have few takes, and the stream valleys (except near the coast)                Coastal wettands.-Much ofOregon's coast is rocky, precipi-
               are steep sided and provide few places for wetlands to form; there-            tous, and exposed to high-energy ocean waves. Wetlands in that
               fore, wetlands in the coastal mountains generally are small and scat-          environment are in the Marine System, as are ocean beaches. Those
               tered. However, glacial takes are common in the Cascade Range and              wetlands constitute only a small percentage of the State's wetland
               Wallowa Mountains. Such lakes can support marsh vegetation                     acreage. The most extensive coastal wetlands are estuarine or
               around their shores, and their shallow zones are themselves classi-            palustrine.
               fied as wetlands. The wider mountain valleys in the Cascade Range                   Estuarine wetlands develop where stream velocity and wave
               also have areas of wetlands -predominantly marshes and wet mead-               energy are low enough to permit sediment carried in streams to settle
               ows (emergent wetlands) vegetated by sedges and other herbaceous               out of the water and accumulate to above the low-tide level, result-
               plants. Intermountain basins such as those on the Silvies, Powder,             ing in a tideflat (Akins and Jefferson, 1973). Tideflats are a transi-
               and Grande Ronde Rivers -all in the Blue Mountains Ecoregion                   tional stage between deepwater habitat and salt marsh and thus are
               (fig. 2B) -have or once bad areas of marsh, wet prairie, and wet               located between those areas. Tideflats typically are composed of silt
               meadow.                                                                        and clay mixed with sand and gravel. Where they are sufficiently
                     Willamette River Valley wetlands. - The Willamette River Val-            stable, tideflats are colonized by submersed vegetation, predomi-
               ley is an intermountain basin located between the Coast Range and              nantly eelgrass and arrowgrass, which traps more sediment. As the
               the Cascade Range (fig. 2B). The flat valley floor once had vast areas         tideflat becomes higher and more stable, marsh vegetation gradu-
               of fresh marsh and wet prairie, and the flood plains of the Willamette         ally becomes established, and the tideflat becomes a salt marsh.
               River and the lower reaches of its tributaries contained extensive                  Salt marshes are subject to a wide range of hydrologic condi-
               shrub swamps and swamp forests. However, drainage for agricul-                 tions. For most of the year, tides alternately expose the marsh and
               tural and urban development and realignment of the river's main stem           then inundate it with brackish to very salty water. Winter flooding
               have eliminated much of the former wetland area. Although greatly              can inundate the marsh with freshwater. As sediment and dead veg-
               reduced in area, valley wetlands provide stopover and overwinter-              etation accumulate, the substrate gradually rises until the marsh is
               ing habitat for thousands of migratory waterfowl (Loy, 1976).                  subject to less frequent inundation by either tides or river flooding.
                     Desert wetlands. -Oregon's desert wetlands are in the Snake              In Oregon, such "high marsh" has commonly been altered by diking
               River Basin/High Desert Ecoregion (fig. 2B). Many desert wetlands              and draining to facilitate cattle grazing.
               are valuable to wildlife because of the moisture they provide in an                 Tidal fresh marsh occurs inland from salt marshes in many
               otherwise and environment. Desert wetlands include saltwood and                estuaries. Some fresh marsh is present in coastal rivers upstream
               greasewood flats (scrub-shrub wetlands), shallow lakes (unconsoli-             from the most upstream extent of saltwater at high tide. Other fresh
               dated-shore wetlands), marshes, and riparian (strearnside, typically           marshes form in low-lying areas of flood plains that are flooded
               scrub-shrub or emergent) wetlands.                                             when rivers are, effectively, dammed by high tides.
                     Most of the area shown as wetland in figure 2A comprises shal-                Oregon's other major coastal wetlands have formed in the sand-
               low, slightly to very saline lakes that range from typically flooded           dune regions that extend along about one-half the length of the coast.
               to typically dry. Among lakes that contain water in many or most               Inland marshes develop in and around dune lake basins and along
               years are Malheur Lake (fig. 1), Harney Lake, Goose Lake, Lake                 the small, slow-flowing streams that feed the lakes. The lakes form
               Abert, Summer Lake, Crump Lake, and Hart Lake (Loy, 1976).                     when shifting sand dams the small coastal streams that are fed by
               These perennial lakes provide stopover and nesting habitat for mi-             ground water in the dunes. Flow in these streams is insufficient to
               gratory waterfowl. Lakes that are dry in most years include Alvord             wash away the sand dams, so most dune lakes are permanent. In
               Lake, Christmas Lake, Turnbull Dry Lake, and the lakes north of                shallow lakes, vegetation can extend from shore to shore.
               Hart Lake in the Warner Valley. Vegetated areas of flooded desert                   Interdunal marshes form between sand dunes where wind has
               lakes typically contain submersed and mars       *h vegetation.                scoured the sand down to the water table. The process of wind scour-
                     Perennial or seasonal rivers that flow into desert lakes com-            ing is known as deflation, and the scoured area is called a deflation
               monly have areas ofriparian wetlands, which are vegetated predomi-             plain. Interdunal marshes are sustained almost entirely by ground
               nantly by shrubs, trees, or herbaceous emergent vegetation. Ripar-             water. Because the water table declines to below the bottom of some
               ian wetlands provide habitat for plants and animals that otherwise             deflation plains in the dry season (midsummer to early fall), some
               could not exist in the harsh desert environment.                               of these marshes are seasonal. Interdunal marshes are prone to fill-
                     Other wetlands. -The upper Klamath River Basin is in the                 ing by windblown sand and typically succeed to shrub swamp or
               Eastern Cascades Slopes and Foothills Ecoregion (fig. 2B). The                 upland habitat.
               basin contains vast areas of marsh-notably in Klamath Marsh,                        Willamette River Valley wetlands. -The physiography and cli-
               along the Sprague River, and in the upper part of Upper Klamath                mate of the Willamette River Valley are ideal for wetland forma-
               Lake-that supply stopover habitat for millions of ducks and geese              tion. The wide valley floor, which is underlain primarily by allu-
               migrating along the Pacific Flyway (Loy, 1976). Other wetlands                 vial deposits, is nearly flat, and the valley is surrounded by moun-
               important to waterfowl include marsh, scrub-shrub, and open-water              tains that receive large amounts of precipitation (fig. 2C). Water
               wetlands on the Columbia and Snake Rivers. Croplands near those                from that precipitation, in the form of rainfall runoff or snowmelt,
               rivers contribute significantly to the birds'food supply.                      flows in streams and rivers into the valley, where it enters the ground-








                     324     National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: STATE SUMMARIES



                     water system or remains in stream channels. The valley's wetlands               Deserts receive little direct precipitation because they are in the
                     are sustained by ground-water discharge, stream flooding, or both.              precipitation shadow of the Cascade Range. Basins collect snow-
                          Because there is little elevation change from the valley mar-              melt from the surrounding mountains, where precipitation amounts
                     gins to the Willamette River, the water table is at or near the land            are higher than on the basin floor (fig. 2C). Water reaches the ba-
                     surface over large areas. Before widespread drainage for agricul-               sin floor in streams or springs. The collected water forms shallow
                     tural development (fig. 3), the saturated or flooded valley soils from          lakes, which can range in size from less than I acre to tens of thou-
                     the base of the surrounding mountains to the river flood plain sus-             sailds of acres and in wetness from flooded to nearly always dry,
                     tained extensive marshes and wet prairies. Until the mid- I 800's, the          depending on climatic cycles and local hydrologic characteristics.
                     prairie landscape was maintained by fires regularly set by Native               Nonetheless, even a wetland that is temporarily dry probably will
                     American inhabitants of the valley for game and food-plant man-                 contain water at some time in the future unless the hydrologic set-
                     agement and for defense (Johannessen and others, 197 1).                        ting is altered by human activities or long-term climate change.
                                                                                                     Some desert lakes, such as Lake Abert and the Warner Valley lakes,
                                                                                                     are the result of faulting; others, such as Malheur and Harney Lakes,
                                                                                                     are topographic depressions in the basin floor. Evaporation of wa-
                                                                                                     ter in the shallow lakes leaves mineral deposits in the lakebed sedi-
                                                                                                     ments. These deposits make the lakebed less penneable, inhibiting
                     .96-                                                                            infiltration into the subsurface.
                                                                                                          Desert wetlands form along streams, around springs, and
                                                                                                     around and in the shallow lakes. The wetness of a desert wetland is
                                                                                                     controlled by several interrelated factors, including local topogra-
                                                                                                     phy, the depth to the water table, and the balance between water input
                                                                                                     and evaporation. In some flats near streams and lakes, the water table
                                                                             3W                      is at or near the land surface, but water generally does not pond on
                                                                                                     the land surface because shallow standing water quickly evaporates
                                                                                                     during most of the year. Soil in these wetlands commonly is saline
                                                                                              A      because evaporation removes water but not the dissolved salts. The
                                                                                                     saturated soils of these flats commonly support salt-tolerant emer-
                                                                                                     gent and scrub vegetation. Most desert takes that are flooded but
                                                                                                     that cannot overflow also are saline-some more so than seawater-
                     Figure 3.   Drained agricultural land in the Willamette River Valley near       because of evaporation. Lakes that can overflow, such as Malheur
                     Salem. Formerly a lakebed, this cropland is now farmed for                      Lake, are not saline in most years and support extensive marsh veg-
                     onions. (Photograph by Dennis A. Wentz, U.S. Geological Survey.)                etation.
                                                                                                          Other major wetlands. -The upper Klamath River Basin, al-
                                                                                                     though it receives little precipitation, contains large areas of wet-
                          Owing to the gentle south-north gradient of the valley, the                lands. Wetlands are widespread because the basin floor has little
                     Willamette River is slow-flowing and meandering and has a wide                  topographic relief and the natural water table is at or near the land
                     flood plain. At one time, winter and spring flooding and the water              surface over wide areas. Basin wetlands receive water from snow-
                     table sustained a nearly continuous expanse of forested and shrub               melt, which reaches the basin floor either in streams or as springs.
                     wetlands in the flood plain. However, drainage and flood control to             Drainage to facilitate agricultural development has lowered the water
                     facilitate agricultural and urban development have greatly reduced              table in many areas, resulting in widespread conversion of wetlands
                     the extent of those wetlands.                                                   to upland (fig. 4).
                          Mountain wetlands. -Oregon's mountain wetlands are near
                     seeps and springs, in and along rivers, and in lakes and small de-
                     pressions. The State's mountains, especially the Coast and Cascade
                     Ranges, receive large amounts of precipitation (fig. 2C). However,
                     steep mountain slopes are not conducive to the long-term retention
                     ofwater, so largerwetlands generally are present in river flood plains
                     and lakes, where runoff, mostly from snowmelt, can accumulate as
                     ground or surface water.
                          Flood-plain wetlands form where river flood plains are wide
                     enough to sustain a water table at or near the land surface, gener-
                     ally in wide valleys and intermountain basins. Mountain-lake wet-
                     lands can be found in lakes of several origins. Some mountain lakes
                     were formed when lava flowed across the stream and water ponded
                     behind the lava dam (Phillips and others, 1965). Landslides also have
                     dammed streams with similar results. Beavers impound streams,
                     forming ponds and small lakes behind the dams. Most of the State s
                     mountain lakes that contain wetlands, however, were formed b             y
                     glaciers. The most common of Oregon's glacial lakes are cirque
                     lakes, small lakes that are also known as tarns, which formed when
                     water filled depressions scoured by a glacier.                                  Figure4. Grazing land, formerly wetland, in the upper Klamath
                          Desert wetlands. -Oregon's desert basins contain large ex-                 River Basin. Much ofthe grazing land in the basin was once wet-
                     panses of flat terrain from which water does not readily drain. Most            land. Drainage systems, consisting of ditches, sluice gates, and
                     desert basins are internally drained; that is, water that enters them           pumps, keep ground-water levels sufficiently below the land sur-
                     can leave only through evaporation, transpiration, or discharge 1o              face to allow the development of pasture. (Photograph byDaniel
                     the ground-water system rather than by way of surface drainage.                 T Snyder, U.S. Geological Survey.)








                                                                                                                                                         National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: OREGON                                                     325



                               The Columbia and Snake River wetlands developed in the few                                                         Table 1. Selected wetland-related activities of government
                       areas where the flood plains are wide enough for sediment to accu-                                                         agencies and private organizations in Oregon, 1993
                       mulate and support emergent vegetation. The wetlands are sustained                                                         [Source: Classification of activities is generalized from information provided
                       by ground-water discharge and river flooding; near the coast,                                                                   by agencies and organizations. o, agency or organization participates in
                       marshes in the Columbia River are regularly flooded by saltwater                                                                wetland-related activity;               agency or organization does not participate in
                                                                                                                                                       wetland-related activity. MAN, management; REG, regulation; R&C, res-
                       as well. Flow in the Columbia River is affected by tides as far up-                                                             toration and creation; LAN, land acquisition; R&D, research and data col-
                       stream as the Bonneville Dam, and wetlands commonly are flooded                                                                 lection; D&I, delineation and inventory]
                       during high tides. In the Snake River Valley, irrigation recharges
                       aquifers and sustains ground-water discharge to streams and wet-
                       lands during the summer-fall dry season (Kjelstrom, 1992).                                                                 Agency or organization
                                                                                                                                                  FEDERAL
                       TRENDS                                                                                                                     Department of Agriculture
                                                                                                                                                    Consolidated Farm Service Agency                 ........................... ...        ... ...     ... ...
                               Wetlands covered as much as 2.3 million acres (about 3.6 per-                                                        Forest Service        .................................................................00     *     0        0
                       cent) of what is now Oregon as of the late 1700's (Dahl, 1990). Since                                                        Natural Resources Conservation Service                    ................ ...
                       that time, wetland acreage has decreased by more than one-third,                                                           Department of Defense
                                                                                                                                                    Army Corps of Engineers            ................. ............................0
                       mostly owing to conversion of wetlands to agricultural uses by dik-                                                          Military reservations              .....................................................*. ... ...           ...
                       ing, draining, or both. Other causes of wetland loss or degradation                                                        Department ofthe Interior
                       have been urbanization, industrial development, flood-control                                                                Bureau of Land Management                 ...................I...................
                       projects, surface-water diversion and ground-water pumping for                                                               Bureau of Reclamation              ................................................. ... ...0                0
                       irrigation, stream snagging, land clearing, grazing, and beaver trap-                                                        Fish and Wildlife Service          ...................................-  e       -      0     0              0
                                                                                                                                                    Geological Survey          .......... .................................... .......... ... ... ... ...
                       ping. The greatest losses were of estuarine marshes, eastern Oregon                                                          National Biological Service             ......................................... ... ... ... ...
                       riparian wetlands, Willamette River Valley wet prairies and ripar-                                                           National Park Service              ........................................ ..........0
                       ian wetlands, and upper Klamath River Basin marshes (Oregon                                                                Environmental Protection Agency                .................................. ...*
                       Division of State Lands and Oregon State Parks and Recreation                                                              STATE
                       Division, 1989).                                                                                                           Department of Agriculture               .................... ...................... ...0
                                                                                                                                                  Department of Environmental Duality                    ...................... ...  0
                               Recent evidence suggests that losses of estuarine wetlands have                                                    Department of Fish and Wildlife              .....................................&e
                       slowed substantially since the mid-1900's (Oregon Division ofState                                                         Department of Forestry               .....................................................00
                       Lands and Oregon State Parks and Recreation Division, 1989). Most                                                          Department of Land Conservation
                       continuing losses are due to conversion of tidal land to urban use.                                                        and Development          ..............................................................
                       More than 90 percent of remaining estuarine wetlands are protected,                                                        Division of State Lands              ..........................................
                                                                                                                                                  Parks and Recreation Department                 ..................... ...........
                       commonly through local planning and zoning. The State and Fed-                                                             Water Resources Department                ......................................... ...
                       eral governments have identified coastal wetlands, Willamette River                                                        SOME COUNTY AND LOCAL GOVERNMENTS
                       Valley wetlands, riparian wetlands in eastern Oregon, desert-lake                                                          PRIVATE ORGANIZATIONS
                       wetlands, and upper Klamath River Basin wetlands as priority ar-                                                           Ducks Unlimited        ................................................................
                       eas for conservation.                                                                                                      Pacific Coast Joint Venture          ....................... ....................
                                                                                                                                                  The Nature Conservancy               ........................... ....................

                       CONSERVATION

                               Many government agencies and private organizations partici-                                                        Food, Agriculture, Conservation, and Trade Act discourage (through
                       pate in wetland conservation in Oregon. The most active agencies                                                           financial disincentives) the draining, filling, or other alteration of
                       and organizations and some of their activities are listed in table 1.                                                      wetlands for agricultural use. The law allows exemptions from pen-
                               Federal wettand activities. -Development activities in Oregon                                                      alties in some cases, especially if the farmer agrees to restore the
                       wetlands are regulated by several Federal statutory prohibitions and                                                       altered wetland or other wetlands that have been converted to agri-
                       incentives that are intended to slow wetland losses. Some of the more                                                      cultural use. The Wetlands Reserve Program of the 1990 Food,
                       important of these are contained in the 1899 Rivers and Harbors                                                            Agriculture, Conservation, and Trade Act authorizes the Federal
                       Act; the 1972 Clean Water Act and amendments; the 1995 Food                                                                Government to purchase conservation easements from landowners
                       Security Act; the 1990 Food, Agriculture, Conservation, and Trade                                                          who agree to protect or restore wetlands. The Consolidated Farm
                       Act; the 1986 Emergency Wetlands Resources Act; and the 1972                                                               Service Agency (formerly the Agricultural Stabilization and Con-
                       Coastal Zone Management Act.                                                                                               servation Service) administers the Swampbuster provisions and
                               Section 10 of the Rivers and Harbors Act gives the U.S. Army                                                       Wetlands Reserve Program. The Natural Resources Conservation
                       Corps of Engineers (Corps) authority to regulate certain activities                                                        Service (formerly the Soil Conservation Service) determines com-
                       in navigable waters. Regulated activities include diking, deepening,                                                       pliance with Swampbuster provisions and assists farmers in the iden-
                       filling, excavating, and placing of structures. The related section 404                                                    tification of wetlands and in the development of wetland protection,
                       of the Clean Water Act is the most often-used Federal legislation                                                          restoration, or creation plans.
                       protecting wetlands. Under section 404 provisions, the Corps issues                                                                The 1986 Emergency Wetlands Resources Act and the 1972
                       permits regulating the discharge of dredged or fill material into                                                          Coastal Zone Management Act and amendments encourage wetland
                       wetlands. Permits are subject to review and possible veto by the U.S.                                                      protection through funding incentives. The Emergency Wetlands
                       Environmental Protection Agency, and the FWs has review and ad-                                                            Resources Act requires States to address wetland protection in their
                       visory roles. Section 401 of the Clean Water Act grants to States                                                          Statewide Comprehensive Outdoor Recreation Plans to qualify for
                       and eligible Indian Tribes the authority to approve, apply conditions                                                      Federal funding for State recreational land; the National Park Ser-
                       to, or deny section 404 permit applications on the basis of a pro-                                                         vice provides guidance to States in developing the wetland compo-
                       posed activity's probable effects on the water quality of a wetland.                                                       nent of their plans. Coastal States that adopt coastal-zone manage-
                               Most farming, ranching, and silviculture activities are not sub-                                                   ment programs and plans approved by the National Oceanic and
                       ject to section 404 regulation. However, the "Swampbuster" provi-                                                          Atmospheric Administration are eligible for Federal funding and
                       sion of the 1985 Food Security Act and amendments in the 1990                                                              technical assistance through the Coastal Zone Management Act.








                        326      National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: STATE SUMMARIES



                              Federal agencies are responsible for the proper management                          Private wetland activities. -The Oregon Coastal Wetlands
                        of wetlands on public land under their jurisdiction. The U.S. Forest                Joint Venture, the State's part of the Pacific Coast Joint Venture of
                        Service (FS) manages 13 National Forests in Oregon and is devel-                    the North American Waterfowl Management Plan, is a cooperative
                        oping a process to evaluate values and functions of wetlands in those               effort of local citizens, conservation organizations, private compa-
                        forests. The Bureau of Land Management (BLM) manages about 16                       nies, and State and Federal agencies. The primary goal of the joint
                        million acres of rangeland, of which about 1.2 percent is riparian                  venture is to reverse the downward trend in waterfowl populations
                        wetland (Bureau of Land Management, 1991). The BLM is assess-                       in coastal areas and to address concerns about coastal wetlands.
                        ing the status of riparian wetlands and has ongoing or planned                      Land acquisition, wetland-habitat improvement, and small wetland-
                        projects to develop or enhance many of those wetlands. The Fws                      restoration projects are among the organization's activities. A con-
                        manages nine National Wildlife Refuges in Oregon that have exten-                   cept plan for another joint venture that would include eastern Or-
                        sive wetlands. The FWS funds wetland-restoration projects under the                 egon has been prepared (Ratti and Kadlec, 1992).
                        Partners for Wildlife Program. Fws National Wetlands Inventory                            The Nature Conservancy and Ducks Unlimited have partici-
                        maps are available for all of Oregon. The Corps manages wetlands                    pated in projects involving land acquisition and restoration of wet-
                        within its project areas, researches ways to identify and enhance                   land habitat in Oregon. The Wetlands Conservancy owns and man-
                        wetlands, and evaluates losses of wetland area and functions caused                 ages several small wetlands totaling about 60 acres, mainly in the
                        by filling and dredging. The Bureau of Reclamation conducts multi-                  Portland metropolitan area. These and many other conservation
                        purpose wetland-restoration projects; all enhance waterfowl habi-                   organizations provide information to the public on the values and
                        tat in accordance with the 1986 North American Waterfowl Man-                       functions of wetlands or promote wetland protection.
                        agement Plan. The Environmental Protection Agency has awarded
                        grants to State and local agencies to plan coordinated wetland-                     References Cited
                        protection efforts, inventory wetlands, and conduct a watershed-pro-
                        tection pilot study. The BLM, Corps, FS, and FWs and several State                  Akins, G.J., and Jefferson, C.A., 1973, Coastal wetlands of Oregon: Flo-
                        agencies have developed a Memorandum of Understanding concern-                            rence, Oregon Coastal Conservation and Development Commission,
                        ing the management and protection of Oregon's wetland resources                           190 P.
                        on public lands (Oregon Division of State Lands, 1993).                             Bureau of Land Management, 1991, Riparian wetland initiative for the
                              State wetland activities. -To improve the effectiveness and                         1990's: Bureau of Land Management Report BLMIWO/GI-911
                                                                                                                  001+4340, 50 p.
                        efficiency of Oregon's efforts to conserve, restore, and protect wet-               Cowardin, L.M., Carter, Virginia, Golet, F.C., and LaRoe, T.E., 1979, Clas-
                        lands, the State has developed a Welland Conservation Strategy                            sification of wetlands and deepwater habitats of the United States: U.S.
                        (Oregon Division of State Lands, 1993). The strategy provides the                         Fish and Wildlife Service Report FWS/OBS -79/31, 131 p.
                        focus and framework for an integrated State wetland program de-                     Dahl, T.E., 1990, Wetlands -Losses in the United States, 1780's to 1980's:
                        signed to conserve, protect, and manage the State's wetland re-                           Washington, D.C., U.S. Fish and Wildlife Report to Congress, 13 p.
                        sources. The strategy is based on the recommendations of advisory                   Hubbard, L.L., Oregon surface-water resources, in National Water Summary
                        committees representing Federal, State, and local agencies and in-                        1985 -Hydrologic events and surface-water resources: U.S. Geologi-
                        terest groups.                                                                            cal Survey Water-Supply Paper 2300, p. 383-390.
                              In Oregon, the regulatory programs that are implemented at                    Johannessen, C.L., Davenport, W.A., Millet, Artimus, and McWilliams,
                                                                                                                  Steven, 1971, The vegetation of the Willamette Valley: Annals of the
                        the State level are the State Removal-Fill Law, the Oregon Weiland                        Association of American Geographers, v, 61, p. 286-302.
                        Inventory and Welland Conservation Plans, and the Clean Water Act                   Kjelstrom, L.C., 1992, Strearnflow gains and losses in the Snake River and
                        Section 401 program. The Oregon Removal-Fill Law, administered                            ground-water budgets for the Snake River plain, Idaho and eastern
                        by the Division of State Lands, is similar to section 404 of the Clean                    Oregon: U.S. Geological Survey Open-File Report 90-172, 71 p.
                        Water Act but in some respects is more comprehensive. Oregon has                    Loy, W.G., 1976, Atlas of Oregon: Eugene, University of Oregon Books,
                        adopted the FWs National Wetlands Inventory as a basis for a State                        215 p.
                        Welland Inventory. The statewide inventory is being supplemented                    Omernik, J.M, 1987, Ecoregions of the conterminous United States-Map
                        by detailed local information that is suitable for planning and regu-                     supplement: Annals of the Association of American Geographers,
                        latory purposes. The Wetland Conservation Plans program estab-                            v. 77, no. 1, scale 1:7,500,000.
                                                                                                            Oregon Division of State Lands, 1993, Oregon's wetland conservation strat-
                        lished a local planning process that provides local governments an                        egy: Salem, Oregon Division of State Lands, 100 p.
                        opportunity to address wetland-resource decisions in a context with                 Oregon Division of State Lands and Oregon State Parks and Recreation
                        other land-use needs. Pursuant to section 401 of the Clean Water                          Division, 1989, Oregon wetlands priority plan: Salem, Oregon Divi-
                        Act, the Department of Environmental Quality reviews Federal                              sion of State Lands and Oregon State Parks and Recreation Division,
                        permits and licenses affecting wetlands for compliance with                               75 p.
                        Oregon's water-quality standards. A section 404 permit is not issued                Phillips, K.N., Newcomb, R.C., Swenson, H.A., and Laird, L.B., 1965, Water
                        by the Corps without certification of compliance by the Department.                       for Oregon: U.S. Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper 1649, 150 p.
                              Weiland mitigation is another important State regulatory func-                Ratti, J.T., and Kadlec, J.A., 1992, Concept plan for the preservation of
                        tion. The Division of State Lands has the authority to establish                          wetland habitat of the intermountain west- North American Water-
                                                                                                                  fowl Management Plan: Portland, Oreg., U.S. Fish and Wildlife Ser-
                        mitigation banks to be used when mitigation of unavoidable impacts                        vice, 146 p.
                        caused by construction is not possible onsite; compensation may
                        be made by the offsite creation, restoration, or enhancement of
                        wetlands.                                                                           FOR ADDITIONAL INFORMATION: District Chief, U.S. Geological
                              County and local wetland activities. -Oregon's Comprehen-                     Survey, 10615 S.E. Cherry Blossom Drive, Portland, OR 97216; Regional
                        sive Land Use Planning Act requires local governments to adopt                      Weiland Coordinator, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 911 N.E. I Ith Avenue,
                        planning and regulatory programs consistent with statewide plan-                    Portland, OR 97232
                        ning goals. ne State Wetland Conservation Plans program allows
                        local governments to balance wetland protection with other land-                                                   Prepared by
                        use needs (Oregon Division of State Lands, 1993). Some county and                                   Luther C. Kjelstroin and John S. Williams,
                        city governments have regulatory or land-acquisition programs that                                          U.S. Geological Survey
                        provide additional wetland protection.


                                                                          U.S. Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper 2425








                                                                                                                   National Water Summary-Wetland Resources 327
                                                                                                                  Pe nsylvania
                                                                                                                      Wetiand Resources
                Wflands cover about 2 percent of Pennsylvania (Tiner, 1990).                    surface or the land is covered by shallow water (Cowardin and oth-
                Although once regarded as wastelands, wetlands now are recognized               ers, 1979). The distribution of wetlands and deepwater habitats in
                as ecologically and economically valuable ecosystems. Fish and                  Pennsylvania is shown in figure 2A; only wetlands are discussed
                wildlife use these highly productive areas for feeding, breeding,               herein.
                nesting, and refuge. More than 80 percent of the animals on                          Wetlands can be vegetated or nonvegetated and are classified
                Pennsylvania's list of endangered and threatened species depend on              on the basis of their hydrology, vegetation, and substrate. In this
                wetlands during their life cycle (Brooks, 1990). Wetlands also are              summary, wetlands are classified according to the system proposed
                home to most of Pennsylvania's rare, threatened, or endangered                  by Cowardin and others (1979), which is used by the U.S. Fish and
                plants (Pennsylvania Department of Environmental Resources,                     Wildlife Service (FWS) to map and inventory the Nation's wetlands.
                1988). The Long Pond area of Tunkhannock Creek (fig. 1) has the                 At the most general level of the classification system, wetlands are
                State's largest known concentration of endangered species (Roger                grouped into five ecological systems: Palustrine, Lacustrine, Riv-
                Latham, University of Pennsylvania, written commun., 1993).                     erine, Estuarine, and Marine. The Palustrine System includes only
                     Wetlands trap suspended sediments and organic and inorganic                wetlands, whereas the other systems comprise wetlands and
                contaminants in soils and plant tissue, thus enhancing water qual-              deepwater habitats. Wetlands of the systems that occur in Pennsyl-
                ity. Wetland vegetation also retards erosion by decreasing water                vania are described below.
                velocity and increasing soil stability. During floods, riparian
                (streamside) wetlands regulate strearnflow by temporarily storing               System                                 Wetland description
                floodwater and then slowly releasing it to the stream or river, greatly
                reducing flooding downstream. Of particular interest in Pennsyl-                Palustrine  .................. Wetlands in which vegetation is predominantly
                vania is the use of constructed wetlands as an effective passive treat-                                  trees (forested wetlands); shrubs (scrub-shrub
                                                                                                                         wetlands); persistent or noripersistent emergent,
                ment of coal-mine drainage, which can be highly acidic and con-                                          erect, rooted, herbaceous plants (persistent- and
                tain elevated concentrations of iron, manganese, sulfate, aluminum,                                      nonpersistent-emergent wetlands); or sub-
                and other trace elements (Hedin, 1989). Constructed wetlands also                                        mersed and (or) floating plants (aquatic beds).
                are used to reduce nutrient loads from agricultural drainage.                                            Also, intermittently to permanently flooded
                                                                                                                         open-water bodies of less than 20 acres in which
                                                                                                                         water is less than 6.6 feet deep.
                                                                                                Lacustrine  ................. Wetlands within an intermittently to permanently
                                                                                                                         flooded lake or reservoir. Vegetation, when pres-
                                                                                                                         ent, is predominantly nonpersistent emergent
                                                                                                                         plants (nonpersistent-emergent wetlands), or
                                                                                                                         submersed and (or) floating plants (aquatic
                                                                                                                         beds), or both.
                                                                                                Riverine  ..................... Wetlands within a channel. Vegetation, when pres-
                                                                                                                         ent, is same as in the Lacustrine System.

                                                                                                     About 1.4 percent (404,000 acres) of Pennsylvania's land sur-
                                                                                                face is covered by wetlands. About 97 percent of these wetlands are
                                                                                                palustrine, about 2 percent are lacustrine, and I percent are river-
                                                                                                ine. Pennsylvania's 392,000 acres of palustrine wetlands consist of
                                                                                                178,000 acres of deciduous and evergreen forested wetlands, 62,000
                                                                                                acres of open water, 52,000 acres of emergent wetlands, 49,000 acres
                                              7-'
                                                                                                of deciduous and evergreen scrub-shrub wetlands, 25,000 acres of
                                  Figure 1. Wetland at Tunkhannock Creek near                   mixed deciduous scrub-shrub and emergent wetlands, and 26,000
                                  Long Pond. This wetland contains the State's                  acres of other types (Tiner, 1990). Pennsylvania wetlands are known
                                  largest known concentration of endangered plants              by a variety of local names, the most common of which are swamp
                                  and animals, (Photograph by Annette C Heist,                  (forested wetland) and marsh (emergent wetland typically dominated
                                  U.S. Geological Survey.)                                      by sedges and grasses). Many of Pennsylvania's palustrine wetlands
                                                                                                line major rivers or surround lakes and reservoirs. Peatlands (wet-
                     Wetlands are productive ecosystems, yielding a large amount                lands that have organic soils, such as bogs and fens) are common
                of plant material for both wildlife and human consumption, Prod-                in mountainous or glaciated areas and commonly contain sphag-
                ucts harvested from wetlands include cranberries, blueberries, and              num moss, tamarack or black spruce trees, a variety of low trees
                wild rice. Pennsylvania's tourist industry benefits from the recre-             and shrubs, or sedges, grasses, and other herbaceous plants.
                ational opportunities that wetlands provide, including hunting, fish-                About 42 percent of Pennsylvania wetlands are in the glaci-
                ing, boating, and camping. Many wetland areas throughout the State              ated parts of the northwestern and northeastern comers of the State
                also provide educational opportunities for schools and the general              (Tiner, 1990). Wetlands in the northwest are primarily deciduous
                public.                                                                         forested and scrub-shrub wetlands. Those in the northeast are pri-
                                                                                                marily deciduous and evergreen forested wetlands. Most of the cen-
                TYPES AND DISTRIBUTION                                                          tral and southern parts of the State were not glaciated. In the
                                                                                                nonglaciated parts of the State, wetlands are most commonly asso-
                     Wetlands are lands transitional between terrestrial and deep-              ciated with the headwaters and flood plains of streams (Brooks and
                water habitats where the water table usually is at or near the land             others, 1987). The largest area of lacustrine wetlands (5,650 acres)








                                   328           National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: STATE SUMMARIES



                                   is along the Lake Erie shoreline. Minor amounts of tidal riverine                                                                  areas where the water table is near the Surface provide ideal condi-
                                   wetlands are along the Delaware River in southeastern Pennsylva-                                                                   tions for wetland formation. Wetlands commonly form at ground-
                                   nia.                                                                                                                               water discharge sites where permeable rocks intersect the land sur-
                                                                                                                                                                      face or at the base of slopes where the water table intersects the land
                                   HYDROLOGIC SETTING                                                                                                                 surface (Novitzki, 1989).
                                                                                                                                                                               Wetlands are most densely distributed in the northwestern and
                                            Wetland characteristics are determined by the balance between                                                             northeastern parts of the State, which were glaciated at least twice
                                   inflow and outflow of water, surface contours of the land, soil type,                                                              and possibly three times (fig. 2B). The latest glaciation occurred
                                   and geology (Mitsch and Gosselink, 1986). Topographic depressions                                                                  between 18,000 and 22,000 years ago. Glacial scouring and depo-
                                   caused by glacial or stream-related processes, areas with imperme-                                                                 sition left surface depressions and impen-neable soils that are ideal
                                   able substrates that prevent infiltration of water into the ground, and                                                            for wetland development (Bushnell, 1989). Outside the glaciated


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                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              Area





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                                                            WETLANDS AND DEEPWATER HABITATS                                                                                         0             25               50 MILES
                                                                                                                                                                                    i              I   I        __j
                                                            Distribution of wetlands and deepwater habitats-                                                                        0       25        50 KILOMETERS
                                                                This map shows the approximate distribution of large
                                                                wetlands in the State, Because of limitations of scale
                                                                and source material, some wetlands are not shown

                                                                       Predominantly welland
                                                                       Predominantly deepwater habitat                                                                            C


                                          B                                                                                                                                                                    B


                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      '@c
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      F


                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          E
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                               G


                                                                                                                                                                                                           PHYSIOGRAPHIC                DIVISIONS
                                                                                                                                                                                                           Province
                                                                                                                                                                                                               A. Central Lowland
                                                                                                                                                                                                               B. Appalachian Plateaus
                                                                         GLACIATION                                                                                                                            C. Valley and Ridge
                                                                                                                                                                                                               D. Blue Ridge
                                                                                 Glacial extent during                                                                                                         E. Piedmont
                                                                                   most recent glacial                                                                                                         F New Engiand
                                                                                   maximum                                                                                                                     G. Coastal Plain


                                   Figure 2. Wetland distribution in Pennsylvania and physical features that control wetland distribution in the State. A, Distribution of
                                   wetlands and deepwater habitats. 8, Extent of most recent glaciation. C, Physiography. (Sources: A, TE, Dahl, U.S. Fish and Wildlife
                                   Service, unpub. data, 1991. B, Pennsylvania Bureau of Topographic and Geologic Survey, 1989. C, Physiographic divisions from Fenneman,
                                   1946; landforms data from EROS Data Center)








                                                                                         National Water Surnmary-Wetland Resources: PENNSYLVANIA               329



              areas, wetlands typically are associated with streams and rivers.            large blocks of ice remained after glacial retreat and melted to form
              Some wetlands gain moisture from stream flooding, whereas oth-               spring-fed lakes that have no surface inlet or outlet.
              ers are fed by ground water and drain into streams. Riparian wet-                 Peatlands in the Pocono Mountains of northeastern Pennsyl-
              lands develop when lateral erosion and deposition widen a river              vania are the southernmost peatlands of recent glacial origin and
              valley or when accumulated sediment fills and flattens a valley. In          are considered rare habitats in Pennsylvania (Brooks and others,
              riparian areas, a depositional substrate of silt, mud, and clay and          1987). Peatlands can develop where drainage is slow and where
              the shallow water table near a river combine to create ideal condi-          precipitation normally exceeds evapotranspiration. Fens and bogs
              tions for the formation of small lakes and swamps. However, many             are two types of peatlands found in Pennsylvania. Fens are fed by
              of the large rivers in Pennsylvania are in deep, narrow valleys and          mineral-rich ground water. Bogs are fed mostly or entirely by rain-
              lack extensive riparian areas (Bushnell, t989).                              water and, as a result, are mineral poor. The process of peat forma-
                   Pennsylvania has abundant precipitation. Average annual pre-            tion follows a general evolution. Clay from glacial tills accumulates
              cipitation ranges from about 36 inches in the north and west to about        on the bottom of ponds, trapping the organic material. Under the
              48 inches in the east. Precipitation in eastern Pennsylvania is dis-         oxygen-poor conditions in the bottom substrate, slow decomposi-
              tributed evenly throughout the year, whereas the western part of the         tion allows the formation of peat. As peat accumulates, the pond
              State receives most of the precipitation in the spring and summer.           shrinks and a marsh commonly forms. As more peat accumulates,
              Statewide, an average of about 25 inches of the annual precipita-            the surface of the peatland rises to such an extent that the substrate
              tion returns to the atmosphere by evaporation or transpiration               is saturated, but there is little standing water. At that stage, trees,
              (Wetzel, 1986).                                                              shrubs, and sphagnurn moss become common. Eventually, as the
                   Pennsylvania lies in parts of seven physiographic provinces             accumulating peat brings the land surface above the water table,
              (fig. 2C): the Central Lowland, Appalachian Plateaus, Valley and             shrubs and trees advance until a scrub-shrub or forested wetland is
              Ridge, New England, Blue Ridge, Piedmont, and Coastal Plain.                 formed. Flooding of the peatland by natural or artificial changes in
              Each province has unique characteristics that control the distribu-          drainage will cause the peatland to return to a marsh. If the water
              tion and types of wetlands.                                                  table is lowered for any sustained period of time, the soils will un-
                   Central Lowland. -The Central Lowland is underlain mainly               dergo aeration, and the organic content of the soil will decrease
              by sedimentary rocks, including sandstone, shale, dolomite, and              (Cameron, 1970).
              limestone (Krothe and Kempton, 1988). The region includes areas                   Valley andRidge Province.-The Valley and Ridge Province
              of both thick and thin glacial till, which is a mixture of clay, sand,       is underlain mainly by sedimentary rocks, including sandstone,
              and boulders deposited by a melting glacier. The low permeability            conglomerate, shale, siltstone, dolomite, and limestone, that are
              of the glacial till allows the formation of wetlands in depressions          tilted and folded (Seaber and others, 1988). The structure and weath-
              and low-lying areas. The region is flat to gently sloping except where       ering pattern of the rocks combine to yield the characteristic alter-
              cut by streams. Most of the streams in the Central Lowland of Penn-          nating valley and ridge topography. Some of the limestone valleys
              sylvania flow northward to Lake Erie. The streams have steep gra-            have an extensive karst or underground drainage system that pre-
              dients and flow over or have cut deeply into bedrock, resulting in           cludes extensive wetland development (Bushnell, 1989). In contrast,
              few associated wetlands (Richards and others, 1987). Lacustrine              limestone outcrops along the western edge of the province are the
              wetlands associated with Lake Erie comprise nearly two-thirds of             source of many springs and seeps that supports wetlands. Most
              total wetland acreage in this part of the State (Tiner and Anderson,         wetlands are associated with the Susquehanna River and its tribu-
              1986).                                                                       taries (Bushnell, 1989), especially in the upper, glaciated regions
                   Appalachian Plateaus. -The Appalachian Plateaus Province                of the river.
              is underlain by interbedded shale, sandstone, and some limestone                  An unexpected wetland lies in a valley between the peaks of
              (Bushnell, 1989). The rocks of this province are gently folded to            Sharp Mountain and Stony Mountain, about 15 miles northeast of
              nearly flat-lying. Fracturing and jointing are common (Seaber and            Harrisburg. The wetland lies along the axis of a syncline that is
              others, 198 8). The northeastern and northwestern parts of the prov-         underlain by resistant beds of rock that have low permeability
              ince have been glaciated.                                                    (Bushnell, 1989). The wetland consists of forested and emergent
                   In the nonglaciated areas, palustrine wetlands have formed in           wetlands that contain sphagnum moss, swamp azalea, red maple,
              riparian areas along the major rivers and streams. Some wetlands             and black gum.
              also are present in and around impoundments. Locally, small wet-                  New England Province. -The New England Province is an
              lands are present on hilltops where clayey soils and shale support           area of high hills and ridges that are composed principally of meta-
              shallow water tables. Wetlands also form along the valley sides and          morphic rocks, and igneous rocks, and limestone (Wood and oth-
              heads of streams where erosion has exposed aquifers or where joints          ers, 1972). Because the province has steep topography and is well
              break the continuity of confined aquifers (Bushnell, 1989).                  drained, few wetlands have formed there. Most wetlands are in ri-
                   In the northwestern part of the province, before glaciation,            parian areas along the Delaware River.
              rivers flowed north to Lake Erie (Leggette, 1936). Advancing ice                  Blue Ridge and Piedmont Provinces. -The Blue Ridge and
              blocked the north-flowing rivers, forining lakes and forcing drain-          Piedmont Provinces are underlain by fractured-rock, water-table
              age southward. Present drainage patterns were created as ice melted          aquifers. Deformed igneous and metamorphic rocks, commonly
              and glacial sediments were carried in south- and southeast-sloping           mantled with weathered rock and soil, characterize the bedrock of
              channels. The largest wetlands in this area, including Conneaut              the region (LeGrand, 1988). The Piedmont Province also has gen-
              Marsh and Pyinatuning Swamp, developed on the glacial sediments              tly dipping beds of sedimentary rock. The region has small ground-
              that filled deep, preglacial valleys. Numerous smaller wetlands also         water units, each confined to a small basin in which a perennial
              formed in the irregular, hummocky topography of the end and                  stream flows. Ground water flows continuously toward streams and
              ground moraines, which are landscape features formed by glacially            discharges as small springs and as channel seepage into the streams
              formed sediments (Bushnell, 1989).                                           (LeGrand, 1988). Most wetlands are in stream valleys where the
                   In the glaciated northeast, wetlands are associated mainly with         water table is near the land surface. Others are in upland areas where
              end and ground moraines and have developed as lakes, swamps, and             there are clayey, impermeable soils or local ground-water discharge
              peatlands in glacially scoured depressions (Bushnell, 1989). Many            (Bushnell, 1989).
              wetlands also were formed by the damming of preglacial valleys by                 Coastal Plain. -The Coastal Plain, limited to the southeast-
              glacial debris. In addition, "kettle-hole" lakes were created where          ern edge of Pennsylvania, is underlain mainly by permeable soils








                              330        National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: STATE SUMMARIES



                              composed of sand, silt, and clay (Meissler and others, 1988). Most                                          Table 1. Selected wetland-related activities of government
                              wetlands in this area are associated with the Delaware River and its                                        agencies and private organizations in Pennsylvania, 1993
                              riparian areas. Approximately 19 percent of the freshwater tidal                                            [Source: Classification of activities is generalized from information provided
                              marshes and flats in the Delaware River Basin are in this province                                               by agencies and organizations. 9, agency or organization participates in
                              within Pennsylvania (Tiner and Wilen, 1988), including the largest                                               wetland-related activity;          agency or organization does not participate in
                                                                                                                                               wetland-related activity. MAN, management; REG, regulation; R&C, res-
                              freshwater tidal marsh in the State, the John Heinz National Wild-                                               toration and creation; LAN, land acquisition; R&D, research and data col-
                              life Refuge at Tinicum.                                                                                          lection; D&I, delineation and inventory)


                              TRENDS
                                                                                                                                          Agency or organization                                                                   9@
                                     The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service has estimated that, from                                          FEDERAL
                              the 1780's to the 1980           's, wetland area in Pennsylvania decreased by                              Department of Agriculture
                              more than one-half (Dahl, 1990). Activities such as conversion to                                           Federal
                              cropland, channelization, forestry, mining, urban development, and                                            Consolidated Farm Service Agency           ...........................       ... ...    ... ...
                              the construction of impoundments have contributed to widespread                                               Forest Service     .................................................................
                                                                                                                                            Natural Resources Conservation Service            ................ ...
                              wetland loss or degradation.                                                                                Department of Commerce
                                     Between 1956 and 1979, Pennsylvania lost about 28,000 acres                                            National Oceanic and Atmospheric
                              (nearly 7 percent) of its vegetated wetlands. More than one-half of                                           Administration     ................................................................. ...
                              the vegetated wetland losses took place in the northeastern (9,700                                          Department of Defense
                              acres) and northwestern (4,600 acres) parts of the State. The lead-                                           Army Corps of Engineers         ..............................................
                              ing cause of losses was conversion to ponds, lakes, and reservoirs                                          Department of the Interior
                                                                                                                                            Bureau of Mines       ............................................................. ... ...
                              (46 percent); farmland (17 percent); urban land (14 percent); and                                             Fish and Wildlife Service       ..............................................0
                              other land uses, mostly by channelization and drainage (23 percent)                                           Geological Survey       .......................................................... ... ... ... ...*
                              (Tiner, 1990). Peat mining in the Pocono Mountains region also has                                            National Biological Service       ......................................... ... ... ... ...0
                              contributed to the loss of wetlands (Timer, 1987). After peat has been                                        National Park Service       ...................................................00  0    0      0
                              removed from the wetland, the area commonly is converted to a pond                                          Environmental Protection Agency         ............     .......... ...
                                                                                                                                          STATE
                              orlake.                                                                                                     Department of Environmental Resources
                                     The loss of vegetated wetland by conversion to pond wetland                                            Bureau of Dams, Waterways, and Wetlands               ...........e
                              cannot be interpreted as a simple "no net loss" exchange. The im-                                             Bureau of Forestry      .........................................................0
                              portance of the gain in pond acreage in terms of fish and wildlife                                            Bureau of Land and Water
                              species, as well as the impact on wetland functions such as flood                                             (Coastal Zone management)         ........................................0
                                                                                                                                            Bureau of State Parks       ...................... ............................*
                              and erosion control, has not been adequately assessed. In contrast,                                         Department of Transportation        ......................................... ... ...
                              the loss of vegetated wetlands is known to cause the loss of valu-                                          Pennsylvania Fish and Boat Commission             .....................  . ... ...
                              able fish and wildlife species as well as of other ecological and eco-                                      Pennsylvania Game Commission            ..................................-... 0
                              nomical benefits (Tiner and Finn, 1986).                                                                    Pennsylvania State University       ......................................... ... ... ... ...
                                     The Delaware River estuary and Lake Erie coastal zones con-                                          Other State universities      .................................................. . ... ... ... ...
                                                                                                                                          COUNTY AND LOCAL
                              tain habitats that are rare in Pennsylvania, and small losses of wet-                                       Some county and local governments            ..........I...............-0*
                              lands there could be significant. In Pennsylvania, the Delaware River                                       Some county conservation districts ..        ............................*0
                              estuary coastal zone consists of approximately 50 square miles along                                        PRIVATE ORGANIZATIONS
                              the Delaware River south of Philadelphia. Although only 129 acres                                           The Nature Conservancy         ..................................................0
                              of emergent wetlands have been lost in the Delaware River estuary                                           Pennsylvania Academy of Natural Sciences            ............... ... ...
                              coastal zone since the mid- 1 970's, this represented a 22-percent loss                                     Western Pennsylvania Conservancy             .............................
                              for the area. Major causes were the construction of a sewage-treat-
                              ment plant and highway construction (Tiner, 1990).
                                     The Lake Erie coastal zone consists of approximately 63 square                                              Section 10 of the Rivers and Harbors Act gives the U.S. Army
                              miles in the Lake Erie area. There were no significant changes in                                           Corps of Engineers (Corps) authority to regulate certain activities
                              wetland acreage in the Lake Erie coastal zone between the mid-                                              in navigable waters. Regulated activities include diking, deepening,
                              1970's and 1986 (Tiner, 1990). However, between 1986 and 1989,                                              filling, excavating, and placing of structures. The related section 404
                              approximately 50 acres of wetlands were lost. Most of those losses                                          of the Clean Water Act is the most often-used Federal legislation
                              (91 percent) were due to housing construction (Smith and Tiner,                                             protecting wetlands. Under section 404 provisions, the Corps issues
                              1992).                                                                                                      permits regulating the discharge of dredged or fill material into
                                                                                                                                          wetlands. Permits are subject to review and possible veto by the U.S.
                              CONSERVATION                                                                                                Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), and the Fws has review and
                                                                                                                                          advisory roles. Section 401 of the Clean Water Act grants to States
                                     Many government agencies and private organizations partici-                                          and eligible Indian Tribes the authority to approve, apply conditions
                              pate in wetland conservation in Pennsylvania. The most active agen-                                         to, or deny section 404 permit applications on the basis of a pro-
                              cies and organizations and some of their activities are listed in table                                     posed activity's probable effects on the water quality of a wetland.
                              I .                                                                                                               Most farming, ranching, and silviculture activities are not sub-
                                     Federal wetland activities. - Development activities in Penn-                                        ject to section 404 regulation. However, the "Swampbuster" provi-
                              sylvania wetlands are regulated by several Federal statutory prohi-                                         sion of the 1985 Food Security Act and amendments in the 1990
                              bitions and incentives that are intended to slow wetland losses. Some                                       Food, Agriculture, Conservation, and Trade Act discourage (through
                              of the more important of these are contained in the 1899 Rivers and                                         financial disincentives) the draining, filling, or other alteration of
                              Harbors Act; the 1972 Clean Water Act and amendments; the 1985                                              wetlands for agricultural use. The law allows exemptions from pen-
                              Food Security Act; the 1990 Food, Agriculture, Conservation, and                                            alties in some cases, especially if the farmer agrees to restore the
                              Trade Act; the 1986 Emergency Wetlands Resources Act; and the                                               altered wetland or other wetlands that have been converted to agri-
                              1972 Coastal Zone Management Act.                                                                           cultural use. The Wetlands Reserve Program of the 1990 Food,








                                                                                                    National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: PENNSYLVANIA                      331



                 Agriculture, Conservation, and Trade Act authorizes the Federal                     protection of wetland resources through zoning, regulating, and land
                 Government to purchase conservation easements from landowners                       acquisition. Some county conservation districts manage public and
                 who agree to protect or restore wetlands. The Consolidated Farm                     private lands that contain wetlands.
                 Service Agency (formerly the Agricultural Stabilization and Con-                          Private wetland activities. -Private organizations in Pennsyl-.
                 servation Service) administers the Swampbuster provisions and Wet-                  vania are involved in wetland activities that include policy planning,
                 lands Reserve Program. The Natural Resources Conservation                           land acquisition and management, research, and public education.
                 Service (formerly the Soil Conservation Service) determines com-                    Some of the organizations active in Pennsylvania are The Nature
                 pliance with Swampbuster provisions and assists farmers in the iden-                Conservancy and the Western Pennsylvania Conservancy (land
                 tification of wetlands and in the development of wetland protection,                acquisition and management), the Sierra Club and Chesapeake Bay
                 restoration, or creation plans.                                                     Foundation (policy planning and education), and the Pennsylvania
                       The 1986 Emergency Wetlands Resources Act and the 1972                        Academy of Natural Sciences (research). About 50 conservancy
                 Coastal Zone Management Act and amendments encourage well and                       organizations throughout the State work to protect and preserve
                 protection through funding incentives. The Emergency Welland                        natural lands, including wetlands, on a local level.
                 Resources Act requires States to address wetland protection in their
                 Statewide Comprehensive Outdoor Recreation Plans,to qualify for                     References Cited
                 Federal funding for State recreational land; the National Park Ser-
                 vice (NPs) provides guidance to States in developing the wetland                    Brooks, R.P., 1990, Wetlands and deepwater habitats in Pennsylvania, in
                 component of their plans. Coastal and Great Lakes States that adopt                       Majuindar, S.K., Miller, E.W., and Parizek, R.R., eds., Water resources
                 coastal-zone management programs and plans approved by the                                in Pennsylvania- Availability, quality and management: Easton, The
                 National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration are eligible for                          Pennsylvania Academy of Science, p. 71-79.
                 Federal funding and technical assistance through the Coastal Zone                   Brooks, R,R, Arnold, D.E., and Bellis, E.D., 1987, Wildlife and plant com-
                                                                                                           munities of selected wetlands -Pocono Region of Pennsylvania: Na-
                 MainagementAct.                                                                           tional Wetlands Research Center Open File Report 87-02, 27 p.
                       Federal agencies are responsible for the management of wet-                   Bushnell, Kent, 1989, Geology of Pennsylvania wetlands, in Majuindar, S.K.,
                 lands on public land under their jurisdiction. The FWS manages two                        and others, eds., Wetlands ecology and conservation -Emphasis in
                 wildlife refuges in Pennsylvania, the John Heinz National Wildlife                        Pennsylvania: Easton, The Pennsylvania Academy of Science, p. 39 -
                 Refuge at Tinicum and the Erie National Wildlife Refuge. The U.S.                         46.
                 Forest Service manages about one-half million acres of land in the                  Cameron, C.C., 1970, Peat deposits of northeastern Pennsylvania: U.S.
                 Allegheny National Forest. The NPS manages I I sites in Pennsyl-                          Geological Survey Bulletin 1317-A, 90 p.
                 vania, including the Delaware Water Gap National Recreation Area.                   Cowardin, L.M., Carter, Virginia, Golet, F.C., and LaRoe, E.T., 1979, Clas-
                 Wetlands are inventoried on these lands as part of resource man-                          sification of wetlands and deepwater habitats of the United States: U.S.
                                                                                                           Fish and Wildlife Service Report FWS/OBS -79/31, 131 p,
                 agement plans developed for each park. The U.S. Bureau of Mines                     Dahl, T.E., 1990, Wetlands -Losses in the United States, 1780's to 1980's:
                 has been involved in research into the creation of wetlands for the                       Washington, D.C., U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Report to Congress,
                 passive treatment of acid-mine drainage. One such experimental                            13 p.
                 wetland was created by the U.S. Bureau of Mines and the NPS on                      Fennerrian, N.M., 1946, Physical divisions of the United States: Washing-
                 the Friendship Hill National Historic Site.                                               ton, D.C., U.S. Geological Survey special map, scale 1:7,000,000.
                       State wetland activities. -The Pennsylvania Department of                     Hedin, R.S., 1989, Treatment of coal mine drainage with constructed wet-
                 Environmental Resources' Bureau of Dams, Waterways, and Wet-                              lands, in Majuindar, SK, and others, eds., Wetlands ecology and con-
                 lands, is the principal State agency responsible for wetland regula-                      servation -Emphasis in Pennsylvania: Easton, The Pennsylvania
                 tion. Wetlands are regulated as "bodies of water" under the Dam                           Academy of Science, p. 349- 362.
                                                                                                     Krothe, N.C., and Kempton, J.P., 1988, Region 14, central glaciated plains,
                 Safety and Encroachments Act of 1978. The wetland regulations are                         in Back, William, Rosenshein, J.S., and Seaber, P.R., eds., The geol-
                 found at 25 Pa. code Chapter 105, Dam Safety and Waterway Man-                            ogy of North America, v. 0-2-Hydrogeology: Boulder, Colo., Geo-
                 agement, amended October 31, 1991. Virtually any structure or                             logical Society of America, p. 129 -132.
                 activity that in any manner changes, expands, or diminishes the                     Leggette, R.M., 1936, Ground water in northwestern Pennsylvania: Penn-
                 course, current, or cross section of any wetland requires a chapter                       sylvania Geological Survey, 4th series, Bulletin W3, 215 p.
                 105 permit in addition to any Federal permits that are required for                 LeGrand, H.E., 1988, Region 21, Piedmont and Blue Ridge, in Back, Wil-
                 the project.                                                                              liam, Rosenshein, J.S., and Seaber, P.R., eds., The geology of North
                       Pursuant to section 305(b) of the Clean WaterAct, the Depart-                       America, v. 0-2-Hydrogeology: Boulder, Colo., Geological Soci-
                 ment of Environmental Resources submits to the EPA and the U.S.                           ety of America, p. 201-208.
                                                                                                     Meissler, Harold, Miller, J.A., Knobel, L.L., and Wait, R.L., 1988, Region
                 Congress a biennial assessment of the State's surface-water quality,                      22, Atlantic and eastern Gulf Coastal Plain, in Back, William,
                 including that of wetlands. The Department's Bureau of Land and                           Rosenshein, J.S., and Seaber, P.R., eds., The geology of North
                 Water Division of Coastal Zone Management conducts a yearly                               America, v.-O-2-Hydrogeology: Boulder, Colo., Geological Soci-
                 wetlands monitoring program in the Delaware River estuary and                             ety of America, p. 209-218.
                 Lake Erie coastal zones.                                                            Mitsch, W.J., and Gosselink, J.G., 1986, Wetlands: NewYork, Van Nostrand
                       The Bureau of State Parks and the Bureau of Forestry inven-                         Reinhold Company, 539 p.
                 tory wetlands as part of their resource-management plans. Monies                    Novitzki, R.P., 1989, Wetland Hydrology, in Majumdar, S.K., and others,
                 from the Land and Water Conservation Fund are used by the De-                             eds., Wetlands ecology and conservation -Emphasis in Pennsylva-
                 partment of Community Affairs, the Department of Environmen-                              nia: Easton, The Pennsylvania Academy of Science, p. 47-64.
                                                                                                     Pennsylvania Bureau of Topographic and Geologic Survey, 1989, Physi-
                 tal Resources, the Fish and Boat Commission, the Game Commis-                             ographic provinces of Pennsylvania: Harrisburg, Pennsylvania Bureau
                 sion, and the Historical and Museum Commission for planning,                              of Topographic and Geologic Survey, scale 1:2,000,000.
                 acquisition, and development of outdoor recreation areas, includ-                   Pennsylvania Department of Environmental Resources, 1988, Pennsylvania's
                 ing wetlands. Land acquisition also is made possible through the                          recreation plan 1986 -1990-Wetlands addendum: Harrisburg, Penn-
                 Recreational Improvement and Rehabilitation Act and the Federal                           sylvania Department of Environmental Resources, 48 p.
                 Land and Water Conservation Fund.                                                   Richards, D.B., McCoy, H.J., and Gallaher, J.T., 1987, Groundwater re-
                       County and local wetland activities. -Most regulation of ac-                        sources of Erie County, Pennsylvania: Pennsylvania Topographical and
                 tivities in wetlands is carried out through State and Federal laws.                       Geological Survey Water Resources Report 62, 59 p.
                 However, some county and local governments are involved in the








                     332     National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: STATE SUMMARIES



                     Scaber, P.R., Brahana, JX, and Hollyday, E.F., 1988, Region 20, Appala-           Wetzel, Kim, 1986, Pennsylvania surface-water resources, in U.S. Geological
                           chian Plateaus and Valley and Ridge, in Back, William, Rosenshein,                Survey, National water summary 1985 -Hydrologic events and sur-
                           J.S., and Seaber, RR., eds., The geology of North America, v. 0-2-                face-water resources: U.S. Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper
                           Hydrogeology: Boulder, Colo., Geological Society of America, p. 189-              2300, P. 391-398.
                           200.                                                                        Wood, C.R., Flippo, H.N., Jr., Lescinsky, J.B., and Barker, J.L., 1972, Wa-
                     Smith, G.S., and Tiner, R.W., JT,, 1992, Current status and recent trends in            ter resources of Lehigh County, Pennsylvania: Pennsylvania Geologi-
                           wetlands of the Lake Erie and Delaware Estuary coastal zones of Penn-             cal Survey, 4th series, Water Resource Report 31, 263 p.
                           sylvania (1986-1989): Newton Comer, Mass., U.S. Fish and Wild-
                           life Service, 7 p.
                     Tiner, R.W., Jr., 1987, Mid-Atlantic wetlands -A disappearing natural trea-       FOR ADDITIONAL INFORMATION: District Chief, U.S. Geological
                           sure: Newton Comer, Mass., U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service and U.S.          Survey, 840 Market Street, Lemoyne, PA 17043; Regional Wetland Coordi-
                           Environmental Protection Agency cooperative publication, 28 p.              nator, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 300 Westgate Center Drive, Hadley,
                     -1990, Pennsylvania's wetlands -Current status and recent trends:                 MA 01035
                           Newton Comer, Mass., U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 104 p.
                     Tiner, R.W., Jr., and Anderson, J.C., 1986, Current status and recent trends
                           in wetlands of the Lake Erie coastal zone of Pennsylvania: U.S. Fish                                       Prepared by
                           and Wildlife Service, Newton Comer, Mass., p. 12.                                           Annette C. Heist and Andrew G. Reif,
                     Tiner, R.W., Jr., and Finn, J.T., 1986, Status and recent trends of wetlands                              U.S. Geological Survey
                           in five Mid-Atlantic States -Delaware, Maryland, Pennsylvania, Vir-
                           ginia, and West Virginia: Newton Corner, Mass., U.S. Fish and Wild-
                           life Service, 40 p.
                     Tiner, R.W., Jr., and Wilen, B.O., 1988, Wetlands of the Delaware River
                           Basin, in Majumdar, S.K., Miller, E.W., and Sage, L.E., eds., Ecol-
                           ogy and restoration of the Delaware River Basin: Easton, Pennsylva-
                           nia Academy of Science, p. 187-201.








                                                                                                                                          National Water Summary-Wetland Resources 333
                                                                                                                                                 Puerto Rico
                                                                                                                                              Wetland Resources
                    The island of Puerto Rico, located in the northern Caribbean Sea,                              served in the area. Also, the beaches associated with these urban
                    and its principal offshore islands of Vieques, Culebra, and Mona                               wetlands provide nesting sites for the endangered hawksbill and
                    have abundant wetland resources. The subtropical climate, abundant                             leatherback turtles (del Llano and others, 1986).
                    rainfall, and complex topographic and geologic features of these
                    islands give rise to wetlands ranging from the rare and unusual cloud                          TYPES AND DISTRIBUTION
                    forests in the highlands to extensive mangrove forests, seagrasses,
                    and coral reefs along the northern and southern coasts. However,                                      Wetlands are lands transitional between terrestrial and deep-
                    wetland resources of Puerto Rico have declined during the last sev-                            water habitats where the water table usually is at or near the land
                    eral hundred years as a result of an increase in agricultural devel-                           surface or the land is covered by shallow water (Cowardin and oth-
                    opment, population, and tourism. Some types of wetlands, such as                               ers, 1979). The distribution of wetlands and deepwater habitats in
                    the bloodwood (Pterocarpus officinalis) forests (fig. 1), have been                            Puerto Rico is shown in figure 2A; only wetlands are discussed
                    reduced to only a few remnants.                                                                herein.
                          Wetlands are among the most biologically productive areas in                                    Wetlands can be vegetated or notivegetated and are classified
                    the islands. The wetlands associated with the rain forest in the inte-                         on the basis of their hydrology, vegetation, and substrate. In this
                    rior highlands of Puerto Rico contain many rare plant and animal                               summary, wetlands are classified according to the system proposed
                    species not found in other parts of the island. Runoff from wetlands                           by Cowardin and others (1979), which is used by the U.S. Fish and
                    in the higher elevations of the island provides a source of water used                         Wildlife Service (Fws) to map and inventory the Nation's wetlands.
                    for public supply by several cities. Coastal wetlands, such as man-                            At the most general level of the classification system, wetlands are
                    grove forests, seagrass beds, and coral reefs, provide breeding                                grouped into five ecological systems: Palustrine, Lacustrine, Riv-
                    grounds and nursery areas for a variety of juvenile fish, crustaceans,                         erine, Estuarine, and Marine. The Palustrine System includes only
                    and other species in the food web (L6pez and others, 1988). In this                            wetlands, whereas the other systems comprise wetlands and
                    manner, coastal wetlands contribute to the biological productivity                             deepwater habitats. Wetlands of the systems that occur in Puerto
                    of shallow marine waters around the islands. Wetlands also stabi-                              Rico are described below.
                    lize shorelines by trapping and holding unconsolidated sediments
                    and dampen potentially damaging storm surges and wave action.                                  System                                         Wetland description
                          The value of Puerto Rican wetlands to wildlife is well docu-
                    mented. For example, the salt flats of Cabo Rojo, on the southwest-                            Palustrine    .................. Nonticlal and tidal-freshwater wetlands in which
                    em coast, provide resting and feeding areas for thousands of mi-                                                             vegetation is predominantly trees (forested wet-
                    gratory shorebirds en route between North and South America.                                                                 lands); shrubs (scrub-shrub wetlands); persistent
                                                                                                                                                 or noripersistent emergent, erect, rooted herba-
                    Before the drainage of coastal wetlands for agricultural purposes,                                                           ceous plants (persistent- and nonpersistent-
                    freshwater marshes like those of the Laguna Cartagena, Laguna                                                                emergent wetlands); or submersed and (or)
                    Gudnica, and Ci6naga El Anegado provided habitat for more than                                                               floating plants (aquatic beds). Also, intermit-
                    100 species of resident and migratory birds. The wetlands of the                                                             tently to permanently flooded operi-water bod-
                                                                                                                                                 ies of less than 20 acres in which water is less
                    central highlands are the last stronghold of the endangered Puerto                                                           than 6.6 feet deep.
                    Rican parrot. Even wetlands like those within metropolitan San Juan                            Lacustrine     ................. Nontidal and tidal-freshwater wetlands within an
                    (Laguna LaTorrecilla, Torrecilla Baja, Laguna de Pifiones to Punta                                                           intermittently to permanently flooded lake or
                    Vacia Talega) provide excellent wildlife habitat, support economi-                                                           reservoir larger than 20 acres and (or) deeper
                    cally valuable fisheries, and provide recreation and educational                                                             than 6.6 feet. Vegetation, when present, is pre-
                    opportunities for an urban populace. Thirty-eight species of finfish                                                         dominantly nonpersistent emergent plants (non-
                                                                                                                                                 persistent-emergent wetlands), or submersed
                    and shellfish and 46 bird species, some rare or endangered like the                                                          and (or) floating plants (aquatic beds), or both.
                    yellow-shouldered blackbird, brown pelican, masked duck, West                                  Riverine    ..................... Nonticlal and tidal-freshwater wetlands within a
                    Indian whistling duck, and white-crowned pigeon, have been ob-                                                               channel. Vegetation, when present, is same as
                                                                                                                                                 in the Lacustrine System.
                                                                                                                   Estuarine     ................... Tidal wetlands in low-wave-energy environments
                                                                                                                                                 where the salinity of the water is greater than 0.5
                                                                           -0-                                                                   part perthousand (ppt) and isvariable owing to
                                                                                                                                                 evaporation and the mixing of seawater and
                                                                                                                                                 freshwater.
                                                                                                                   Marine     ....................... Tidal wetlands that are exposed to waves and cur-
                                                                                                                                                 rents of the open ocean and to water having a
                                                                                                                                                 salinity greater than 30 ppt.

                                                                                                                          In Puerto Rico, the Lacustrine and Riverine Systems consist
                                                                                                                   largely of deepwater habitats. Lacustrine wetlands are limited to
                                         +                                                                         shallow areas of lakes and reservoirs. Riverine wetlands are lim-
                                                                                                                   ited to the shallows of river channels and canals. Where the stream
                                                                                                                   current is swift, these wetland areas typically are nonvegetated.
                                        Figure 1.      Bloodwood trees at Pterocarpus Forest                       When vegetated, lacustrine and riverine wetlands generally are char-
                                        near Humacao, Puerto Rico. (Photograph courtesy                            acterized by plants that grow in aquatic beds on or below the surface
                                        of Conservation Trust of Puerto Rico.)                                     of the water. Some of the more common plants in these wetlands








                        334       National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: STATE SUMMARIES



                        are rooted aquatic plants, such as water lily, fanwort, pondweed,                               roots that form kneelike structures (Bacon, 1990). The largest of
                        hornwort, and southern naiad, and floating aquatic plants such as                               the remaining bloodwood forests in Puerto Rico is the Pterocarpus
                        duckweed, bladderwort, and water hyacinth.                                                      Forest (fig. 1), which has an area of 370 acres and is located near
                               Most of the wetlands in Puerto Rico and its principal offshore                           Humacao on the eastern coast. Much smaller stands of bloodwood
                        islands are palustrine or estuarine. One type of palustrine wetland                             trees exist in the Sierra de Luquillo Mountains (fig. 2B) and at sites
                        that is of particular interest in Puerto Rico is the bloodwood forest.                          near Dorado, Mayagiiez, and Patillas (fig. 2A).
                        Bloodwood forests, which are common in parts of Central and South                                      Three other important palustrine wetland types, the cloud for-
                        America, are now rare in Puerto Rico. Bloodwood trees tolerate low                              est, colorado forest, and palm forest (forested or scrub-shrub wet-
                        salinity and can grow in nearly pure stands at the brackish limits of                           lands), exist throughout Puerto Rico on the high mountain slopes.
                        the Estuarine System or form swamps (forested wetlands) in the                                  On the highest mountaintops are the cloud forests, in which gnarled
                        interior. Bloodwood forests share numerous characteristics with                                 evergreen trees 15 to 20 feet tall predominate. The more common
                        cypress swamps of the Southeastern United States. Like cypress,                                 trees in these areas include roble de Sierra, nemocd, jusillo, oreganil-
                        bloodwood trees exist in nearly pure stands or mixed with a variety                             lo, and guayabota (Ewel and Whitmore, 1973). Trees in the cloud
                        of other species of trees and shrubs. Epiphytes (plants that grow on                            forest stay moist from nearly continuous cloud cover and support
                        other plants) are common on the trees, and typically ferns are the                              an abundance of epiphytic growth. Palo colorado, called titi in the
                        prevalent understory species (Alvarez-L6pez, 1990). Growth forms                                Southeastern United States, is the dominant tree species in colorado
                        of these two trees are similar; both cypress and bloodwood can                                  forests, which are most common at elevations greater than about
                        develop buttressed trunks and commonly have modified surface                                    2,500 feet and below cloud forests. This species is shrublike in the


                                                                  A N    T I                E A A,               Ci6naga       Laguna de
                                                                                                      Ci6naga    de Ins
                                                                                     Laguna     de San Pearo     Cucharilla., Puiones
                                18,30,                                           7brluguero           Dorado  I         San      Torrecilla PuniaVacfa
                                                                                                                          a n     ,   --       lega        La Cabezas
                                                                                                                                   'j,
                                                                     ib                     'Manati                                            Ci6naga desSo" Juan
                                                                           Cafio            Rio   rpnde              Laguna                    Baia
                                                                                            de   ain          rd orrecilla                                                  Culebra
                                                                                            1 ,                                  Ri  Gra   cle   Fajard
                                                             b..@ia'        77burones       1
                                                                  n                                                                                        LasC-abezas
                                                                                                   rov4
                                                                                                M*ow                                                       de San Juan
                                          Rio Gr    d,                                        I
                                                                                               @77                                    a                    Nature Preserve
                                                                                                                                      io  I   rest            oosevelt Roads
                            May guez                                                                                                                        Naval Res
                                                                                                                                                             F
                                                                                                    e                                            terocarpus       st
                                                                                                                                                acao
                                        Lajas                                                                                r                                65'30'        Vieques

                            1
                               "DO,                                      on                                             till.
                              8"Do'
                                                                                     66'30'
                        Cabo Rqj0 Laguna 67'00'
                                  Cariagena                  Laguna
                                                 06naga      Gu6nica
                                             El Anegodo                              CA I? I B B E A N S                     A                                                          Mona
                        A         WETLANDS AND DEEPWATER HABITATS
                                  Distribution of wetlands and deepwater habitats-
                                     This map shows the approximate distribution of large                               0       110        20 MILES                    18,00, - -
                                     wetlands in the State. Because of limitations of scale                             i           ,   -T@
                                     and source material, some wetlands are not shown                                   0    10    20 KILOMETERS                               68'00'          67'45'

                                          Predominantly wetland

                                          Predominantly deepwater habitat




                                          Gulf and land
                                          moisture


                                                                                                                                                      60


                                                it @a@j -on                                                                                                                              200
                                                                                                                                                                                                   60
                                                                                                                                                                                    00
                                                                                                                                                so

                                                                                     Trade wind
                                       MOISTURE DELIVERY                                    moisture                                    C         PRECIPITATION
                                                                       si,offs de




                                                                                                                                                    40 - Line of average annual
                                                                                                                                                            precipitation - Interval,
                                                                                                                                                            in inches, is variable

                        Figure 2. Wetland distribution in Puerto Rico and physical and climatic factors that affect wetland distribution in the Commonwealth.
                        A, Distribution of wetlands and deepwater habitats. B, Principal sources and patterns of delivery of moisture into Puerto Rico. C, Average
                        annual precipitation in Puerto Rico. (Sources: A, TE. Dahl, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, unpub. data, 1991. B, Col6n-Dieppa and others,
                        1991. C, Col6n-Dieppa, 7986.)








                                                                                             National Water Surnmary-Wetland Resources: PUERTO RICO              335



               United States, but in Puerto Rico it can grow to a height of more             bed wetlands, and in areas where coral reefs are exposed at extreme
               than 30 feet and have a trunk diameter of more than 6 feet (Lugo              low tides, they too are considered wetlands.
               and Brown, 1988). At elevations between 1,500 and 3,000 feet,
               mountain slopes generally are covered by palm forests, where nearly           HYDROLOGIC SETTING
               pure stands of sieffa palms predominate. The sierra palm is also an
               important component of flood-plain wetlands. Some investigators                    The hydrologic setting of Puerto Rico is the major factor that
               believe that these montane palm forests are an early successional             controls the diversity and uniqueness of wetlands on the island.
               stage in areas subject to landslides or other forms of severe erosion         Local geohydrologic characteristics differ throughout the island
               (Beard, 1955). Although the total acreage of Puerto Rico's montane            largely because of variations in the geology, topography, and cli-
               wetlands is unknown, the Caribbean National Forest in the Cordil-             mate. In the mountainous Cordillera Central and Sierra de Luquillo
               lera Central supports an estimated 933 acres of cloud forest, 8,490           (fig. 2B), which have peak elevations that exceed 4,300 feet above
               acres of colorado forest, and 5,08 8 acres of palm forest.                    sea level, rainfall and runoff rates are high. The axis of the central
                    Freshwater marshes (palustrine emergent wetlands) are com-               mountain range, the Cordillera Central, trends east-west, and the
               mon throughout the island, especially along the northern coast. In            core of the mountains is composed primarily of folded, faulted,
               some areas, these freshwater marshes have been drained for sugar              intrusive volcanic rocks and sedimentary rocks. Along the north-
               cane cultivation and pasture. Among the largest freshwater marshes            ern flank of the mountains, a series of northward-dipping limestone
               are Caho Tiburones near Arecibo, Laguna Cartagena at Lajas,                   formations dissected by streams and collapsed subterranean drain-
               Ci6naga de San Pedro and Ci6naga de las Cucharillas along the                 age features forms a band of mature karst topography that extends
               northern coast, and Ci6naga Baja near Rfo Grande. In the deeper               nearly to the coastline. These limestone formations constitute some
               marshes, cattail is the most common emergent plant, although                  of the most productive aquifers on the island. A flat coastal plain
               sawgrass and giant sedge also are common. The shallower marshes               lies near the coast in many parts of the island. The coastal plain is
               have a more complex species composition and soils that are satu-              particularly prominent along the southern coast where fan deltas
               rated for shorter periods during the year. Common plants in shal-             from the southern drainages coalesce. In addition to alluvial fans,
               low marshes are swamp fern, sedges, river grass, spike rush, panic            there are landslide, marine-terrace, coastal-dune, beach, swamp, and
               grass, joint grass, and beakrush (U.S. Army Engineer Environmental            other recent deposits that overlie the older rocks on both the northern
               Laboratory, 1978). The large marsh complex at Laguna Tortuguero               and southern coasts (P.G. Olcott, U.S. Geological Survey, written
               near Manati is the only documented spring- and seep-fed marsh in              commun., 1993). On the eastern end of the island, the topography
               Puerto Rico (Quifiones-MArquez; and Fust6, 1978). Water that en-              is characterized by steep-sided valleys and on the western end by
               ters the limestone aquifers in the karstic region of the island's inte-       broad, alluvial valleys that overlie volcanic rocks and limestone
               rior discharges upward in the form of springs and seeps and keeps             lenses.
               the soil saturated. Nearly 700 plant species, many of which are rare,              The climate is classified as subtropical according to the life
               endangered, or endemic to Puerto Rico, have been identified in this           zone maps of the Holdridge classification system commonly used
               marsh (Lugo and Brown, 1988).                                                 in Puerto Rico (Ewell and Whitmore, 1973). Winter is the coolest
                    The most extensive estuarine wetlands are the mangrove for-              and driest season. During winter, there generally are at least 2
               ests (forested or scrub-shrub wetlands) in which red, black, and              months of low precipitation when the region is under the influence
               white mangrove and buttonwood predominate. Mangroves stabilize                of a subtropical high-pressure system. Precipitation in winter and
               nearshore overwash islands, fringe the coastal shoreline, form ex-            spring generally is associated with moisture-laden frontal systems
               tensive forests along estuarine rivers, and grow in basins that trap          that approach the islands from the northwest (fig. 2B). Summers
               saltwater (Lugo and Brown, 1988). The largest mangrove stand in               are hot and humid. During summer, the islands are no longer under
               Puerto Rico is located just east of metropolitan San Juan in an area          the influence of high atmospheric pressure, and there is a steady
               that includes about 2,500 acres of wetlands, beaches, and associ-             westward flow of moist air from the Atlantic Ocean (the trade winds)
               ated open-water habitats. In areas along the southern coast of the            that is the primary source of summer and fall precipitation.
               island, which are subject to drier climatic conditions, salt flats or              Precipitation on Puerto Rico's main island varies geographi-
               salinas wetlands (primarily unconsolidated-shore wetlands) com-               cally as well as seasonally. Average annual precipitation ranges from
               monly exist, generally in association with mangrove-dominated                 less than 35 inches in some southwestem coastal valleys to more
               habitats. These extremely saline environments develop where tidal             than 200 inches in parts of the montane rain forests (fig. 2C) and
               saltwater is trapped and evaporated. The high salt content of soils           averages about 70 to 72 inches per year islandwide. The geographic
               in the flats can be tolerated by only a few plants, and the most sa-          variation in precipitation is primarily the result of topography and
               line of the flats are nonvegetated. An excellent example of this wet-         the predominant weather patterns. The northern and southern parts
               land type is the wetland at Cabo Rojo, in the extreme southwestem             of Puerto Rico's main island are separated by an east-west-trending
               part of Puerto Rico.                                                          mountain range, the Cordillera Central, which joins the southwest-
                    Estuarine marshes (emergent wetlands) are uncommon in                    northeast-trending Sierra de Luquillo in the eastern part of the is-
               Puerto Rico. They usually form a narrow transition zone between               land. Precipitation rates are high in the mountains because when
               mangrove-dominated wetlands and adjacent freshwater wetlands.                 atmospheric moisture in the weather systems is forced up the slopes
               Plant species in estuarine marshes typically include sawgrass, cat-           into the cooler air of the higher elevations, the moisture condenses
               tails, and leather ferns.                                                     and falls as rain. Along much of the southern coast, annual rainfall
                    Open-water areas of the Estuarine and Marine Systems con-                totals are low relative to the rest of the island because this area lies
               tain deepwater habitats and wetlands. The substrate and associated            in the rain shadow of the surrounding mountains, which intercept
               plants, rocks, or coral of a permanently flooded area constitute              the prevailing westward- or southeastward-moving weather systems.
               deepwater habitat, whereas areas that are exposed during even the                  The ratio of precipitation to evapotranspiration also is a factor
               lowest spring tide are classified wetland. In Puerto Rico, open-water         that affects the type and diversity of wetlands in Puerto Rico. As
               estuarine wetlands can be nonvegetated or vegetated. The non-veg-             the ratio of precipitation to evaporation increases, the diversity of
               etated estuarine wetlands are primarily beaches, sand bars, and tidal         wetlands also increases. For example, on the leeward (southern) side
               flats (unconsolidated-shore wetlands), and the vegetated wetlands             of the island, where precipitation is low and evapotranspiration is
               are mostly seagrass beds (aquatic-bed wetlands). Similarly, Puerto            high, estuarine wetlands predominate. On the windward (northern)
               Rico's marine wetlands include unconsolidated shore and aquatic-              side of the island, where precipitation is high, palustrine wetlands








                    336     National Water Surnmary-Wetland Resources: STATE SUMMARIES



                    are more common. These freshwater wetlands extend along peren-                    The principal types of wetlands in Puerto Rico and their dis-
                    nial streams from coastal basins inland to some of the mountain               tribution with respect to elevation are shown in figure 3. The almost
                    slopes and exist in the rain forests at higher elevations (Zack and           continuous precipitation and thin soil layers over insoluble rocks
                    Romdn-Mds, 1988).                                                             in the higher mountain elevations assure water saturation of the root
                          In the northern part of Puerto Rico, freshwater wetlands re-            zone, as well as nearly continuous water-vapor saturation of the
                    ceive nearly continuous precipitation in the montane rain forests,            atmosphere surrounding the canopy of the montane wetlands. This
                    and wetlands on the coastal plain receive overland runoff and                 abundance of water also provides high runoff volumes for the suc-
                    ground-water discharge from the limestone aquifer system (fig. 3).            cessional wetlands at lower elevations. The water moves downslope
                    Near the coast, estuarine wetlands receive water from both the ocean          into rivers, where it recharges the limestone aquifers. Farther
                    and inland sources. In the coastal wetlands on the northern side of           downgradient, the aquifers discharge to rivers and springs, provid-
                    the island, direct precipitation is insignificant relative to the other       ing water for the lowland and coastal wetlands.
                    moisture sources. However, the farther inland a wetland is and the
                    greater its elevation, the more important direct precipitation be-            TRENDS
                    comes (Lugo and others, 1980).
                          Because the southern part of Puerto Rico receives less precipi-             Reliable estimates of Puerto Rico's original wetland acreage are
                    tation and has higher evapotranspiration rates than the northern part         not available, but the wetlands of the island have been greatly re-
                    of the island, it is considered and in relation to other parts of the         duced in number and size as a result of agricultural development
                    island. Even though precipitation is not abundant in this part of the         and the growth in population. Virtually every wetland, with the
                    island, it is important to coastal-plain wetlands. Precipitation pro-         exception of those in the highlands, has been damaged to some ex-
                    duces surface runoff, fills the rivers, and recharges the ground-water        tent by attempts to drain the land for other uses. The small size of
                    system. Overland flow, streamflow, and ground water are major                 many of the wetlands increases their susceptibility to destruction
                    sources of moisture for the southern coast's freshwater wetlands and          (Lugo and Brown, 1988).
                    are important sources for its estuarine wetlands. The ground-water                More than one-half of the original 30,000 acres of mangrove
                    system of southern Puerto Rico is entirely contained in the sedi-             forests in Puerto Rico has been destroyed. Although mangrove for-
                    mentary aquifers of the coastal plain. Recharge to the aquifers occurs        ests are protected by law (Lugo, 1988), mangrove wetlands continue
                    where the coastal plain meets the southern flank of the mountains             to be filled for housing developments, transportation facilities, high-
                    at river valleys. The southerly flowing rivers are generally ephem-           ways, and landfills. Some mangrove wetlands are also destroyed by
                    eral, reaching the Caribbean Sea and the estuarine wetlands only              excavation for marinas and canals. A proposed expansion of Luis
                    during periods of high flow in summer and fall. At other times of             Muhoz Marfn International Airport at Isla Verde would destroy an
                    the year, ground water discharges to the sea and is the only major            additional 160 acres of mangrove forest (Fernando J. Rodriguez and
                    source of moisture for nontidal wetlands.                                     Associates, 1991).
                          Ground water in the valleys on the eastern and western ends                 Only a few bloodwood forests remain in Puerto Rico. Cintr6n
                    of Puerto Rico generally is limited to local alluvial aquifers and is         (1983) estimated that by 1977, only 14 stands of bloodwood trees
                    eventually discharged to the ocean. This ground-water discharge               having a combined area of about 600 acres existed on the island.
                    supports narrow, discontinuous wetlands along the coast in these              Although the species probably was, atone time, distributed through-
                    areas.                                                                        out the highlands of the interior, it is now limited to the Sierra de




                                            Cloud  glope
                                Col 4
                                  fo









                                                                                        Marsh           Bloodwood
                                                                                                          swamp
                                                                                                                          Mangrove
                                                                                                                           swamp

                                                                                                                                           Sea      Coral
                                                                                                                                         grasses    ree s
                                                               PALUSTRINE WETLANDS
                                                                                                                                   7-
                                                                                                                  P



                                                                                                                                               WETLANDS



                                Figure 3. Generalized geohydrologic setting of wetlands in Puerto Rico. (Source: Wetland types from Lugo and Brown,
                                1988.)








                                                                                                                                                    National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: PUERTO RICO                                                        337



                         Luquillo (Alvarez-L6pez, 1990). A number of coastal stands that                                                                     Section 10 ofthe Rivers and Harbors Act gives the U.S. Army
                         were documented earlier this century no longer exist. Although the                                                         Corps of Engineers (Corps) authority to regulate certain activities
                         large bloodwood forest at Humacao was recently brought under                                                               in navigable waters. Regulated activities include diking, deepening,
                         public ownership, most wetlands of this type are privately owned.                                                          filling, excavating, and placing of structures. The related section 404
                                  Over a period of several hundred years, large acreages of                                                         of the Clean Water Act is the most often-used Federal legislation
                         palustrine wetland were converted to agricultural use in the coastal-                                                      protecting wetlands. Under section 404 provisions, the Corps issues
                         plain regions of Puerto Rico. For example, the Caiio Tiburones                                                             permits regulating the discharge of dredged or fill material into
                         wetland originally covered more than 6,000 acres but has, since                                                            wetlands. Permits are subject to review and possible veto by the U.S.
                         1917, been drained by pumping for land reclamation (Zack and                                                               Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), and the Fws has review and
                         Class-Cacho, 1984). The remaining mangrove swamp encompasses                                                               advisory roles. Section 401 of the Clean Water Act grants to States
                         about 250 acres (A.L. Zack, U.S. Geological Survey, written com-                                                           and eligible Indian Tribes the authority to approve, apply conditions
                         mun., 1994). This trend has been reversed in recent years because                                                          to, or deny section 404 permit applications on the basis of a pro-
                         of the declining profitability of sugar cane production. Agricultural                                                      posed activity's probable effects on the water quality of a wetland.
                         areas that required intensive water management by draining and                                                                      Most farming, ranching, and silviculture activities are not sub-
                         pumping are now being allowed to go fallow. Water levels in these                                                          ject to section 404 regulation. However, the "Swampbuster" provi-
                         areas have risen, and the abandoned farms are reverting to marsh.                                                          sion of the 1985 Food Security Act and amendments in the 1990
                         However, many of these areas are now subject to conversion for                                                             Food, Agriculture, Conservation, and Trade Act discourage (through
                         commercial development.                                                                                                    financial disincentives) the draining, filling, or other alteration of
                                                                                                                                                    wetlands for agricultural use. The law allows exemptions from pen-
                         CONSERVATION                                                                                                               alties in some cases, especially if the farmer agrees to restore the
                                                                                                                                                    altered wetland or other wetlands that have been converted to agri-
                                  Many govemment agencies and private organizations partici-                                                        cultural use. The Wetlands Reserve Program of the 1990 Food,
                         pate in wetland conservation in Puerto Rico. The most active agen-                                                         Agriculture, Conservation, and Trade Act authorizes the Federal
                         cies and organizations and some of their activities are listed in table                                                    Government to purchase conservation easements from landowners
                         I .                                                                                                                        who agree to protect or restore wetlands. The Consolidated Farm
                                 Federal wetland activities. - Development activities in Puerto                                                     Service Agency (formerly the Agricultural Staibilization and Con-
                         Rico wetlands are regulated by several Federal statutory prohibi-                                                          servation Service) administers the Swampbuster provisions and Wet-
                         tions and incentives that are intended to slow wetland losses. Some                                                        lands Reserve Program. The Natural Resources Conservation Ser-
                         of the more important of these are contained in the 1899 Rivers and                                                        vice (formerly the Soil Conservation Service) compliance with
                         Harbors Act; the 1972 Clean Water Act and amendments; the 1985                                                             Swampbuster provisions and assists farmers in the identification of
                         Food Security Act; the 1990 Food, Agriculture, Conservation, and                                                           wetlands and in the development of wetland protection, restoration,
                         Trade Act; the 1986 Emergency Weiland Resources Act; and the                                                               or creation plans.
                         1972 Coastal Zone Management Act. In the following description                                                                      The 1986 Emergency Weiland Resources Act and the 1972
                         of wetland-related Federal legislation, regulations that apply to                                                          Coastal Zone Management Act and amendments encourage wetland
                         States also apply to Puerto Rico.                                                                                          protection through funding incentives. The Emergency Weiland
                                                                                                                                                    Resources Act requires States to address wetland protection in their
                                                                                                                                                    Statewide Comprehensive Outdoor Recreation Plans to qualify for
                         Table 1. Selected wetland-related activities of government                                                                 Federal funding for State recreational land; the National Park Ser-
                         agencies and private organizations in Puerto Rico, 1993                                                                    vice provides guidance to States in developing the wettand compo-
                         [Source: Classification of activities is generalized from information                                  provided            nent of their plans. Coastal and Great Lakes States that adopt coastal-
                               by agencies and organizations. *, agency or organization participates in                                             zone management programs and plans approved by the National
                               wetland-related activity,                agency or organization does not participate in
                               wetiand-related activity. MAN, management; REG, regulation; R&C, res-                                                Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration are eligible for Federal
                               toration and creation; LAN, land acquisition; R&D, research and data col-                                            funding and technical assistance through the Coastal Zone Manage-
                               lection; D&I, delineation and inventory]                                                                             ment Act.
                                                                                                                                                             Federal agencies acquire and manage wetlands at numerous
                                                                                                                                                    locations in Puerto Rico. The Caribbean National Forest, adminis-
                         Agency or organization                                                          4       o,         0  <@?                  trated by the U.S. Forest Service, encompasses the rain forest wet-
                         FEDERAL                                                                                                                    lands of El Yunque and the surrounding highlands. The Fws also
                         Department of Agriculture                                                                                                  actively manages wetlands as part of the National Wildlife Refuge
                            Consolidated Farm Service Agency                 ...........                                                            system and has recently acquired the freshwater wetlands of Laguna
                            Forest Service       .................................................                                                  Cartagena. Management and restoration plans for the lagoon are
                            Natural Resources Conservation Service                    ................
                         Department of Commerce                                                                                                     being developed cooperatively with the municipality of Lajas. The
                            National Oceanic and Atmospheric                                                                                        U.S. Navy manages wetlands on their reservations at Roosevelt
                            Administration ...      .................................. ....................                                         Roads and on the island of Vieques.
                         Department of Defense                                                                                                               Commonwealth wetland activities. -Many of Puerto Rico's
                            Army Corps of Engineers             ..............................................*                  0       0          wetlands are in public ownership. Theoretically, under the Spanish
                            Military reservations         :,- ............................*..........0     ... ...          ... ...      ...        law still in effect, all mangrove forests axe owned by the Common-
                         Department of the Interior
                            Fish and Wildlife Service           ..............................................*   o         e    *                  wealth of Puerto Rico because they are within the maritime (inter-
                            Geological Survey          ................................................... ...... ... ... ... ...0                  tidal) zone (Lugo, 1988). Large areas of mangrove forests, having
                            National Biological Service             .................................. ...... ... ... ...   -    0                  been set aside years ago as a future source of fuel, are managed by
                            National Park Service           ...................................................o  e         0    0       a          the Puerto Rico Department of Environmental and Natural Re-
                         Environmental Protection Agency                .................................. ...
                         COMMONWEALTH                                                                                                               sources as part of the Commonwealth forest system. Weiland man-
                         Department of Environmental and                                                                                            agement by the Department is not limited to estuarine habitats.
                         Natural Resources           .............................................................                                  Freshwater wetlands in the Pterocarpus Forest and Laguna
                         PRIVATE                                                                                                                    Tortuguero are also under the Department's control.
                         Conservation Trust of Puerto Rico              ...................                                                                  Under the authority of the Coastal Zone Management Act, the








                     338      National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: STATE SUMMARIES



                     Commonwealth has developed a comprehensive management plan                         Dahl, T.E., 1991, Weiland Resources of the United States: St. Petersburg
                     of which wetland protection, particularly of mangrove wetlands, is                      Fla., U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service special map, scale 1:3,168,000.
                     an integral parL Certification of consistency with the plan is required            del Llano, Manuel, Col6n, J.A., and Chabert, J.L., 1986, A directory of
                     before any Federal permits or licenses are granted for activities in                    neotropical wetlands, in Scott, D.A., and Carbonell, Montserrat (com-
                     the coastal zone. The Planning Board of the Commonwealth is the                         pilers): Cambridge, U.K., International Union for Conservation of
                                                                                                             Nature and Natural Resources and Slimbridge, U.K., International
                     primary agency responsible for administration of the plan.                              Waterfowl Research Bureau, p. 559-571.
                           A number of other planning documents have been developed                     Ewel, J.J., and Whitmore, J.L., 1973, The ecological life zones of Puerto
                     to guide wetland-management activities. The Department of Envi-                         Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands: U.S. Forest Service Research Paper
                     ronmental and Natural Resources, FWS, and EPA have independently                        ITF- 18, 72 p.
                     prepared prioritized listings of important wetland-resource areas.                 Fernando J. Rodriguez and Associates, 1991, Environmental assessment,
                     The Natural Heritage Program within the Department of Environ-                          proposed master plan report improvements-Luis Mufioz Marfn In-
                     mental and Natural Resources has also developed restoration and                         ternational Airport (prepared for Puerto Rico Ports Authority): San
                     management plans for wetlands of exceptional importance such as                         Juan, Puerto Rico, Fernando J. Rodriguez and Associates, Report No.
                     those at Caho Tiburones and Laguna Gudnica.                                             81.06 [Revised 1992], [400 p.].
                                                                                                        L6pez, J.M., Stoner, A.W., Garcia, J.R., and Garcia-Mufiiz, lvdn, 1989,
                           Private wetland activities. - ne Conservation Trust of Puerto                     Marine food webs associated with Caribbean islands mangrove wet-
                     Rico is the principal private organization actively involved in the                     lands: Acta Cientifica, v. 2, no. 2-3 p. 94-123.
                     preservation and management of wetlands in Puerto Rico. The                        Lugo, A.E., 1988, The mangroves of Puerto Rico are in trouble: Acta
                     Conservation Trust is a privately funded institution that acquires and                  Cientifica, v. 2, no. 2-3, p. 124.
                     manages wetlands and other historical properties of notable and                    Lugo, A.E., and Brown, Sandra, 1988, The wetlands of the Caribbean Is-
                     cultural significance in Puerto Rico. For example, the Conserva-                        lands: Acta Cientifica, v. 2, no. 2 - 3, p. 48 - 6 1.
                     tion Trust, in cooperation with the Puerto Rico Department of En-                  Lugo, A.E., Twilley, R.R., Patterson-Zucca, Carol, 1980, The role of black
                     vironmental and Natural Resources, manages the Department's lands                       mangrove forests in the productivity of coastal ecosystems in South
                     at Las Cabezas de San Juan Nature Reserve near Fajardo at the east-                     Florida-Report to the Southern Forest Experiment Station, U.S.
                                                                                                             Environmental Protection Agency: Gainesville, University of Florida,
                     em end of the island.                                                                   Center for Wetlands, 281 p.
                                                                                                        Quifiones-Mdrquez, Ferdinand, and Fust6, L.A., 1978, Limnology of La-
                     References Cited                                                                        guna Tortuguero, Puerto Rico: U.S. Geological Survey Water-Re-
                                                                                                             sources Investigations Report 77 - 122, 84 p.
                     Alvarez-1,6pez, Migdalia, 1990, Ecology ofPterocarpus officinalis forested         U.S. Army Engineer Environmental Laboratory, 1978, Preliminary guide
                           wetlands of Puerto Rico, in Lugo, A.E., Brinson, Marlo, and Brown,                to wetlands of Puerto Rico: U.S. Army Engineer Waterways Experi-
                           Sandra, eds., Forested wetlands, Ecosystems of the World, v. 15: New              ment Station Technical ReportY-79-3,77 p.
                           York, Elsevier, p. 251-265,                                                  Zack, A.L., and Class-Cacho, Angel, 1984, Restoration of freshwater in the
                     Bacon, P.R., 1990, Ecology and management of swamp forests in the                       Cafio Tiburones area, Puerto Rico: U.S. Geological Survey Water-
                           Guianas and Caribbean region, in Lugo, A.E., Brinson, Marlo, and                  Resources Investigations Report 83 - 4071, 33 p., I plate.
                           Brown, Sandra, eds., Forested wetlands -Ecosystems of the World,             Zack, Allen, and Romdn-Mds, Angel, 1988, Hydrology of the Caribbean
                           v. 15: New York, Elsevier, p. 213 - 225.                                          Islands Wetlands: Acta Cientifica, v. 2, no. 2-3 p. 65-73.
                     Beard, J.S., 1955, The classification of tropical American vegetation types:
                           Ecology, v. 3 6, no. 1, p. 89 -100.
                     Cintr6n, B.B., 1983, Coastal freshwater swamp forests -Pueno Rico's most           FOR ADDITIONAL INFORMATION: District Chief, U.S. Geological
                           endangered ecosystem?, in Lugo, A.E., ed., Los Bosques de Puerto             Survey, P.O. Box 364424, San Juan, PR 00936; Regional Wetland Coordi-
                           Rico: Rio Piedras, Puerto Rico, U.S. Department ofAgriculture For-           nator, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 1875 Century Building, Atlanta, GA
                           est Service, Institute of Tropical Forestry, p. 249-282.                     30345
                     Col6n-Dieppa, Eloy, 1986, Puerto Rico Surface-Water Resources, in U.S.
                           Geological Survey, National water summary 1985-Hydrologic events
                           and surface water resources: U.S, Geological Survey Water-Supply                                           Prepared by
                           Paper 2300, p. 399-406.                                                      D. Briane Adams, U.S. Geological Survey, and John M. Hefner,
                     Col6n-Dieppa, Eloy, Torres-Sierra, Heriberto, and Col6n J.A., 1991, Puerto                            U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service
                           Rico floods and droughts, in U.S. Geological Survey, National water
                           summary, 1988 -89 -Hydrologic events and floods and droughts:
                           U.S. Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper 2375, p. 475-481.
                     Cowardin, L.M., Carter, Virginia, Golet, F.C., and LaRoe, E.T., 1979, Clas-
                           sification ofwetlands and deepwater habitats ofthe United States: U.S.
                           Fish and Wildlife Service Report FWS/OBS -79/31, 131 p.



















                                                                      U.S. Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper 2425








                                                                                                                                                                                National Water Summary-Wetland Resources 339
                                                                                                                                                                                Rhode Island
                                                                                                                                                                                   Wetland Resources
                        Wands cover about 10 percent of Rhode Island's land surface                                                                        The most recent inventory of Rhode Island wetlands mapped
                        (Tiner, 1989) and are an important component of the State's natural                                                        about 65,000 acres of wetlands statewide (Tiner, 1989). Wetlands
                        resources. Rhode Island's wetlands are valued for the environmen-                                                          were mapped from aerial photographs taken from 1974 through
                        tal and economic benefits they provide, such as wildlife habitat,                                                          1977 for the FWs National Wetlands Inventory Project. Most of the
                        water-quality improvement, flood and erosion control, recreational                                                         State's wetlands were classified as palustrine (fig. 2B). Palustrine
                        activities, and esthetic beauty (fig. 1). Wetlands provide important                                                       forested wetlands can be found throughout the State and are the most
                        food, shelter, breeding, and nursery habitats for shellfish, fish, birds                                                   abundant wetland type, accounting for 73 percentofRhode Island's
                        and other wildlife. Undeveloped flood-plain wetlands along the riv-                                                        wetlands (Tiner, 1989, table 5). Most of these forested wetlands are
                        ers in the State provide natural storage that helps regulate flood-                                                        deciduous, red maple swamps. Red maple grows in most inland
                        waters. Weiland vegetation can inhibit flood erosion when streams                                                          wetlands because it tolerates a wide range of flooding and soil satu-
                        swell but of their banks. Acquiring flood-plain wetlands to protect                                                        ration conditions (Metzler and Tiner, 1992). The vegetation found
                        them from development was found to be the most cost-effective                                                              with red maple, in the understory and intermixed or codominating
                        approach to limit future flood damage along the Pawtuxet River near                                                        in the canopy, differs according to nutrient availability and water
                        Warwick (U. S. Army Corps of Engineers, 199 1).                                                                            regime.
                                                                                                                                                           Atlantic white cedar wetlands, which are palustrine evergreen-
                        TYPES AND DISTRIBUTION                                                                                                     forested wetlands, are most abundant in southwestem Rhode Island
                                                                                                                                                   (Laderman and others, 1987). These freshwater wetlands contain a
                                Wetlands are lands transitional between terrestrial and deep-                                                      distinctive plant community that grows under conditions too extreme
                        water habitats where the water table usually is at or near the land                                                        for most other northeastern trees: standing water for one-half of the
                        surface or the land is covered by shallow water (Cowardin and oth-                                                         growing season or longer, highly acidic waters, and low nutrient
                        ers, 1979). The distribution of wetlands and deepwater habitats in                                                         availability. Atlantic white cedar swamps were once more common
                        Rhode Island is shown in figure 2A; only wetlands are discussed                                                            in Rhode Island; many cedar swamps have changed over time to red
                        herein.                                                                                                                    maple and other types of swamps (Tiner, 1989).
                                Wetlands can be vegetated or nonvegetated and are classified
                        on the basis of their hydrology, vegetation, and substrate. In this
                        summary, wetlands are classified according to the system proposed
                        by Cowardin and others (1979), which is used by the U.S. Fish and
                        Wildlife Service (Fws) to map and inventory the Nation's wetlands.
                        At the most general level of the classification system, wetlands are
                        grouped into five ecological systems: Palustrine, Lacustrine, Riv-
                        erine, Estuarine, and Marine. The Palustrine System includes only
                        wetlands, whereas the other systems comprise wetlands and
                        deepwater habitats. Wetlands of the systems that occur in Rhode
                        Island are described below.



                        System                                                      Wetland description

                        Palustrine       .................. Nonticlal and tidal-freshwater wetlands in which
                                                              vegetation is predominantly trees (forested wet-
                                                              lands); shrubs (scrub-shrub wetlands); persistent
                                                              or noripersistent emergent, erect, rooted herba-                                     Figure 1. Rhode Island's estuarine wetlands benefit
                                                              ceous plants (persistent- and nonpersistent-                                         both humans and wildlife. (Photograph courtesy of
                                                              emergent wetlands); or submersed and (or)                                            the Audubon Society of Rhode Island.)
                                                              floating plants (aquatic beds). Also, intermit-
                                                              tently to permanently flooded open-water bod-
                                                              ies of less than 20 acres in which water is less                                             Palustrine scrub-shrub wetlands account for 8 percent of the
                                                              than 6.6 feet deep.                                                                  State's wetlands. Highbush blueberry, swamp azalea, sweet pepper-
                        Lacustrine        ................. Nonticlal and tidal-freshwater wetlands within an                                      bush, northern arrowwood, alder, willow, and young red maples are
                                                              intermittently to permanently flooded lake or                                        common. Bogs are palustrine scrub-shrub wetlands that are char-
                                                              reservoir larger than 20 acres and (or) deeper                                       acterized by nutrient-poor, acidic water, constant saturation, and
                                                              than 6.6 feet. Vegetation, when present, is pre-
                                                              dominantly nonpersistent emergent plants (non-                                       peaty soils. Organic matter decays slowly in bogs and forms deep
                                                              persistent-emergent wetlands), or submersed                                          peat accumulations that can seal off vegetation from direct contact
                                                              and (or) floating plants (aquatic beds), or both.                                    with mineral soil or mineral-rich ground water (Damman and
                        Riverine      ..................... Nontidal and tidal-freshwater wetlands within a                                        French, 1987). Bogs generally have a well-developed sphagnum mat
                                                              channel. Vegetation, when present, is same as                                        that contains shrubs such as leatherleaf, sheep laurel, black huck-
                                                              in the Lacustrine System.                                                            leberry, and blueberry. Pitcher plants and sundews commonly are
                        Estuarine       ................... Tidal wetlands in low-wave-energy environments                                         present- trapped insects provide an important source of nutrients
                                                              where the salinity ofthe water is greaterthan 0.5                                    to these plants. Trees are commonly the dominant plants at the outer
                                                              part per thousand (ppt) a nd is variable owing to
                                                              evaporation and the mixing of seawater and                                           borders of bogs, where nutrient-enriched seepage water is dis-
                                                              freshwater.                                                                          charged from the adjacent upland, or they grow as stunted individu-
                        Marine      ....................... Tidal wetlands that are exposed to waves and cur-                                      als scattered across the bog mat. Tree species may grade from those
                                                              rents of the open ocean and to water having a                                        requiring high nutrient levels (hemlock, larch, and red maple) near
                                                              salinity greater than 30 ppt.                                                        the bog's outer border to those with lower nutrient requirements








                                  340         National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: STATE SUMMARIES



                                  (Atlantic white cedar) near the inner border (Damman and French,                                                           beaches and rocky shores, are present along the shoreline of the
                                  1987).                                                                                                                     State.
                                          Vernal pools are small, generally temporary palustrine wet-
                                  lands that occur throughout Rhode Island. Because these wetlands                                                           HYDROLOGIC SETTING
                                  dry up by late summer or earlier, they are devoid of fish and thus
                                  provide a safe breeding habitat for many amphibian and invertebrate                                                               Wetlands occur in geologic, topographic, and hydrologic set-
                                  species. ,                                                                                                                 tings that enhance the accumulation and retention of ground water
                                          Lacustrine and riverine wetlands compose only a small per-                                                         and surface water. Hydrologic processes are the primary factor de-
                                  centage of Rhode Island's wetland acreage. Lacustrine wetlands in                                                          termining the existence of wetlands; even if the geologic and topo-
                                  the State include aquatic-bed and nonpersistent-emergent wetlands.                                                         graphic settings are favorable for wetland formation, unfavorable
                                  Riverine wetlands are present in all of the State's freshwater rivers                                                      hydrologic conditions can inhibit wetland formation (Winter, 1988).
                                  and their tributaries. Most riverine wetlands in Rhode Island are                                                          On an annual basis, precipitation exceeds evapotranspiration losses
                                  nonvegetated, but nonpersistent emergent vegetation is visible in                                                          in Rhode Island (Johnston, 1986). Hydrologic conditions, therefore,
                                  slow-flowing, shallow water in the lower reaches of many of the                                                            favor the formation and maintenance of wetlands throughout the
                                  State's rivers and streams, and aquatic beds are established in the
                                  deeper water of some clear rivers and streams.
                                          Estuarine wetlands account for 7,000 acres, or about I I per-
                                  cent, of the State's wetland acreage. Estuarine wetlands have devel-                                                                                             Estuarine wetlands
                                  oped behind the barrier beaches of the State's southern coast, from                                                                                     10.8 percent (7,020 acres)                      Marine wetlands
                                  the Connecticut border to Narragansett Bay, and in protected coves                                                                                                                                      1.4 percent (931 acresi
                                  and embayments of Narragansett Bay and Block Island. Rhode                                                                                                                                                    Lacustrine wetlands
                                  Island's vegetated estuarine wetlands are primarily salt and brack-                                                                                                                                           0.2 percent 199 acres)
                                  ish marshes (emergent wetlands) that are commonly vegetated by
                                  grasses, bulrushes, or cattails. Nonvegetated estuarine intertidal flats
                                  and beaches, alternately flooded by tide or exposed to air, also are
                                  an important wetland type in Rhode Island.                                                                                                                               Palustrine wetlands
                                          Marine wetlands account for only I percent of the State's total                                                                                                       87.6 percent
                                  wetland acreage. Marine wetlands, composed primarily of intertidal                                                                                                           157,100 acres)

                                              A 42@                                   71-    30'                                                                                    B           RELATIVE AND ACTUAL ACREAGE
                                                                                                  41N                                                                                      OF WETLAND TYPES IN RHODE ISLAND

                                                                                                                                                                                    C


                                                                                                     P        ence                                                                                        A
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                                                                                                                      R   9

                                                                                                                                                                                                           14
                                                 Ell Pon@@%.
                                                   41
                                                                                                                                                                                                          0
                                                 Indian 'dlvjS '@ FD   '.                                              Sach    roina NWR                                                                           0
                                            P-t.&        @ &                                                                                                                                                                                     0
                                     Chaprnan Sw                              WR             Wt                     0        5         10          15 MILES
                                                                                                  J.di,h P-d
                                                                                                  P-d
                                                Ni                                 Tr        P-d                    0     5    10 15 KILOMETERS
                                                                 a         Gle- Hill P-d
                                                                     Ninignat NWR
                                  Evi-p-g ond                          h..t..g P-d

                                                                                             WETLANDS AND DEEPWATER HABITATS
                                                                   Block Island              Distribution of wetlands and deepwater habitats-
                                                                         Nwnl@
                                                                                                  This map shows the approximate distribution of large
                                                                                                  wetlands in the State. Because of limitations of scale                                                                              SURFACE MATERIALS
                                                                                                  and source material, some wetlands are not shown
                                                                                                        Predominantly wetland                                                                                                                 Tilllbed,ocl
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              Stratified drift
                                                                                                        Predominantly deepwater habitat                                                                                                       Moraine

                                  Figure 2. Wetland distribution and acreage in Rhode Island and distribution of surface materials across the State. A,                                                                               Distribution of wet-
                                  lands and cleepwater habitats. B, Relative and actual acreage of the most common wetland types, mid-1 970's. (No data are available for
                                  riverine wetlands.) C, Distribution of surface materials. (Sources: A, TE Dahl, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, unpub. data, 1991. B, Tiner,
                                  1989. C, Rhode Island Department of Environmentdl Management, Groundwater Division.)








                                                                                          National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: RHODE ISLAND                 341



              State, and wetland location is determined primarily by geologic and           smith, 1982). The high topography of the Charlestown moraine, near
              topographic controls.                                                         Charlestown, roughly paralleling the coast, and the Old Saybrook
                    Rhode Island was completely covered by ice during the last              moraine, just north of the Pawcatuck River, mark pauses in the re-
              glaciation. Large quantities of glacial drift (sediment derived from          treat of the ice sheet (Goldsmith, 1982). Drainage of surface water
              glacial action) were produced and deposited over bedrock through-             in many valleys or lowland areas is blocked or slowed by the higher
              out the State (fig. 2C). Drift deposited directly by the ice is called        topography of glacial moraines or mounds of ice-contact stratified
              unstratified drift or till. Till is exposed at the land surface in about      drift, Some of the largest stands of Atlantic white cedar in Rhode
              two-thirds of the State (Johnston and Barlow, 1988), primarily on             Island and also the State's largest wetlands-the 2,150-acre
              upland hilltops and slopes. Because till was deposited directly from          Chapman Swamp, the 960-acre Indian Cedar Swamp, and the 2,970-
              glacial ice, it is a poorly sorted mixture of boulders, gravel, sand,         acre Great Swamp (Laderman, 1989) -occur in basins blocked by
              and silt. Sediment that was eroded and reworked by glacial melt-              moraines. Many other large, shallow wetlands are present in val-
              water is called stratified drift. Because stratified drift was depos-         leys throughout the State owing to drainage blocked by ice-contact
              ited by flowing water in either riverine or lake environments, it             stratified drift.
              consists of well-sorted gravel, sand, and silt. Stratified drift is ex-             Some of Rhode Island's palustrine wetlands are lowland areas
              posed at the land surface in the remaining one-third of the State and         modified by the recent erosion and deposition by rivers -in aban-
              is commonly 75 to 125 feet thick. These deposits are present in               doned river channels, in flood-plain areas, behind levees and
              topographically low areas, such as narrow stream and river valleys,           overbank sediments adjacent to rivers, and in backswamp areas.
              or occur as broad, flat plains beyond former ice margin positions.            These wetlands receive moisture from river flooding and ground-
              Ice-contact stratified drift was deposited directly against ice by gla-       water discharge.
              cial-meltwater streams; often these deposits have higher relief due                 Tidal wetlands form a narrow fringe along coastal areas of the
              to the control of sedimentation by the ice or valley walls or both.           State. Tidal wetlands receive freshwater from upland areas through
                    Wetlands occur throughout Rhode Island in topographic de-               ground-water discharge and surface-water runoff. Floodwater re-
              pressions within glacial drift or bedrock. Closed topographic de-             suiting from high tides or storm flows is temporarily stored on the
              pressions called kettle holes pit the surface of glacial drift. Kettle        wetland surface but drains into the tidal river or estuary as the river
              holes resulted from melting ice blocks that were embedded in gla-             stage recedes. The drainage of floodwater and surface-water run-
              cial sediments. Surface runoff and ground-water discharge collect             off from the wetland surface is slowed by the low slope of coastal
              in small hollows, kettle holes, and other topographic depressions,            areas.
              leading to the formation and maintenance of wetlands. Retention                     As the last ice sheet melted and water stored as glacial ice re-
              of moisture occurs in depressions which have no outflow or have               turned to the sea, sea level rose and encroached upon land, flood-
              drainage controlled by bedrock sills, glacial drift, beaver dams, or          ing many stream and river valleys to form estuaries. Narragansett
              manmade structures. Seepage wetlands commonly form where the                  Bay is an estuary formed in such a "drowned" river valley. Tidal
              ground-water table intersects the land surface -on concave slopes             wetlands have either migrated inland along estuaries, river valleys,
              and at breaks in slope; however, the wetlands are perennial only if           and coastal slopes, or the wetlands have been completely submerged
              ground-water discharge is also perennial (Winter, 1988).                      by the rising sea. Some kettle holes were flooded by saltwater, re-
                    After the glaciers retreated, vegetation colonized the landscape        sulting in a change from freshwater to tidal wetlands (Boothroyd
              in response to the warming climate; open-water depressions filled             and others, 1985). The interconnected Point Judith and Potter Ponds,
              in with sediment and organic matter to become freshwater wetlands             located perpendicular to the State's southern coast, formed when the
              or remained lakes with wetlands fringing open water. The availabil-           sea flooded a series of individual kettle holes. The shallow, elon-
              ity of nutrients determines the types of plants that grow in wetlands.        gate salt ponds paralleling the barrier beaches of the State's south-
              As water moves through soil and surficial materials, it is enriched           em coast-Green Hill, Ninigret, Quonochontaug, Trustom, and
              in nutrients that enhance plant growth. The longer the flow path              Winnapaug Ponds-have formed through the gradual rise in sea
              beneath the surface, the more the water is enriched. Wetlands in              level over low-slope outwash plains. Presently, tidal wetlands exist
              upland till and bedrock depressions are primarily areas of discharge          between rising sea level and expanding coastal development and have
              from nutrient-poor, local ground-water flow systems, whereas wet-             little area for future inland migration.
              lands in lowland valleys underlain by stratified drift receive dis-
              charge from rlutrient-enriched, longer ground-water flow systems.             TRENDS
                    Results from a 7-year study of water-table activity in Atlantic
              white cedar wetlands (Golet and Lowry, 1987) illustrate the effect                  There are no statewide estimates of recent wetland losses or
              of geologic setting on wetland hydrology. Water levels fluctuated             alteration; however, wetland losses and alterations continue in Rhode
              primarily in response to variations in annual precipitation in all            Island despite Federal and State regulation. In the first 5 months of
              wetlands studied (Golet and Lowry, 1987). However, seasonal wa-               1993, more than 230 preliminary-determination applications were
              ter-level activity differed between wetlands because of different             submitted to the Department of Environmental Management for
              sources and amounts of moisture input. Ell Pond and its associated            work proposed in or near freshwater wetlands in the State (Chuck
              wetlands overlie a deep bedrock fracture (Laderman and others,                Horbert, Department of Environmental Management, oral com-
              1987). Water levels in this wetland fluctuated significantly in re-           mun., 1993). Of these applications for wetland alteration, 149 were
              sponse to precipitation input and transpiration losses (Golet and             approved because the projects would result in insignificant wetland
              Lowry, 1987). Diamond Bog is a deep kettle-hole wetland within                alterations, 17 required formal applications because the projects
              permeable stratified drift, and it receives significant ground-water          would cause significant wetland alterations, and the remaining
              input. In contrast to Ell Pond, water levels within Diamond Bog               projects were not near wetlands. Generally, the functions for which
              remained relatively high even during periods of high evapotranspi-            wetlands are valued operate at a drainage basin or landscape scale,
              ration losses.                                                                not at the pen-nit site or single-wetlaild scale. The contribution of a
                    As the last glacier retreated northward, a succession of till           single wetland to landscape functions can depend not only on the
              ridges or moraines was deposited at the edge of each ice front.               actual size of the wetland but also on its setting within a landscape
              Moraines on Long Island in New York, Block Island in Rhode Is-                system (Bedford and Preston, 1988). The cumulative impact of in-
              land, and Martha's Vineyard and Nantucket Island in Massachusetts             dividually insignificant, but collectively significant, wetland losses
              mark the maximum extent of the last ice front (Sirkin, 1982; Gold-            could lead to serious impairment of beneficial wetland functions.









                                  342          National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: STATE SUMMARIES



                                          Studies of the sediments deposited in wetlands show that wet-                                                      Table 1. Selected wetland-related activities of government.
                                  lands have been strongly affected by activities within their drain-                                                        agencies and private organizations in Rhode Island, 1993
                                  age basins. Postsettlement agricultural and industrial practices in                                                        [Source: Classification of activities is generalized from information provided
                                  the uplands of northeastern Connecticut were found to be the most                                                                by agencies and organizations, 9, agency or organization participates in
                                  important ecological influence on wetlands since glaciation                                                                      wetland-related activity;                agency or organization does not participate in
                                                                                                                                                                   wetand-related activity. MAN, management; REG, regulation; R&C, res-
                                  (Thorson, 1990, 1992; Thorson and Harris, 1991). Both the fre-                                                                   toration and creation; LAN, land acquisition; R&D, research and data col-
                                  quency of transitions between wetland types and the rate of sedi-                                                                lection; D&I, delineation and inventory]
                                  ment accumulation increased by at least one order of magnitude after
                                  colonial settlement as compared to the thousands of years before                                                                                                                                                                      s@
                                  settlement. Cores of bottom sediments from Narragansett Bay show                                                           Agency or organization                                                                                 0
                                  a distinct increase in the percentage of organic accumulation 2 to 3                                                       FEDERAL
                                  feet below the surface; the increase marks a change in wetland type                                                        Department of Agriculture
                                  from intertidal sand flats to salt marshes. This change in wetland                                                            Consolidated Farm Service Agency                  ........................... ...       ... ...      ... ...
                                  type was caused when dams, built across upstream tributaries for                                                              Forest Service        ................................................................. ... ... ... ...  ...
                                  power generation, decreased the downstream transport of sediment                                                              Natural Resources Conservation Service                   ................ ... ...
                                                                                                                                                             Department of Commerce
                                  (Bricker-Urso and others, 1989). Other wetlands have formed as a                                                              National Oceanic and
                                  result of the numerous dams and impoundments built along rivers                                                               Atmospheric Administration              ........................................
                                  throughout the State and the subsequent rise in local water tables;                                                        Department of Defense
                                  flood-plain wetlands along the Pawcatuck River are examples                                                                   Army Corps of Engineers            .............................................. ...
                                  (Schafer, 1968). These studies indicate that even human activities                                                            Military reservations         .....................................................0... ...  ... ...         ...
                                                                                                                                                             Department of the Interior
                                  not located directly within a wetland can affect wetlands owing to                                                            Fish and Wildlife Service          ..............................................*
                                  the response of wetlands to changing geologic and hydrologic con-                                                             Geological Survey          ......................................... ___  .......... ... ..
                                  ditions within the landscape system.                                                                                          National Biological Service             ......................................... ... ...
                                                                                                                                                             Environmental Protection Agency                 .................................. ...0    11 . ... ...
                                                                                                                                                             STATE
                                  CONSERVATION                                                                                                               Coastal Resources Management Council                      ....................                                  0
                                                                                                                                                             Department of Environmental Management
                                          Many government agencies and private organizations partici-                                                           Fish, Wildlife, and Estuarine Resources Division
                                  pate in wetland conservation in Rhode Island. The most active agen-                                                           Freshwater Wetlands Division               ..................................... ...
                                  cies and organizations and some of their activities are listed in table                                                       Parks and Recreation Division              ....................................0 ...    -. ... ...           ...
                                  I                                                                                                                             Water Resources Division             ............................................ ...   ... ...      ... ...
                                          Federal wetland activities. -Development activities in Rhode                                                       University of Rhode Island            ...............................................*
                                                                                                                                                             PRIVATE ORGANIZATIONS
                                  Island wetlands are regulated by several Federal statutory prohibi-                                                        Audubon Society of Rhode Island                 ..................................*
                                  tions and incentives that are intended to slow wetland losses. Some                                                        Ducks Unlimited         .................................................................. ...
                                  of the more important of these are contained in the 1899 Rivers and                                                        The Champlin Foundation               .................................................
                                  Harbors Act; the 1972 Clean Water Act and amendments; the 1985                                                             The Nature Conservancy                ..................................................
                                  Food Security Act; the 1990 Food, Agriculture, Conservation, and
                                  Trade Act; the 1986 Emergency Wetlands Resources Act; and the
                                  1972 Coastal Zone Management Act.                                                                                          lands Reserve Program. The Natural Resources Conservation
                                          Section 10 of the Rivers and Harbors Act gives the U.S. Army                                                       Service (formerly the Soil Conservation Service) determines com-
                                  Corps of Engineers (Corps) authority to regulate certain activities                                                        pliance with Swampbuster provisions and assists farmers in the iden-
                                  in navigable waters. Regulated activities include diking, deepening,                                                       tification of wetlands and in the development of wetland protection,
                                  filling, excavating, and placing of structures. The related section 404                                                    restoration, or creation plans.
                                  of the Clean Water Act is the most often-used Federal legislation                                                                  The 1986 Emergency Wetlands Resources Act and the 1972
                                  protecting wetlands. Under section 404 provisions, the Corps issues                                                        Coastal Zone Management Act and amendments encourage wetland
                                  permits regulating the discharge of dredged or fill material into                                                          protection through funding incentives. The Emergency Wetland
                                  wetlands. Permits are subject to review and possible veto by the U. S.                                                     Resources Act requires States to address wetland protection in their
                                  Environmental Protection Agency, and the FWS has review and ad-                                                            Statewide Comprehensive Outdoor Recreation Plans to qualify for
                                  visory roles. Section 401 of the Clean Water Act grants to States                                                          Federal funding for State recreational land; the National Park Ser-
                                  and eligible Indian Tribes the authority to approve, apply conditions                                                      vice provides guidance to States in developing the wetland compo-
                                  to, or deny section 404 permit applications on the basis of a pro-                                                         nent oftheirplans. Coastal and GreatLakes States that adopt coastal-
                                  posed activity's probable effects on the water quality of a wetland.                                                       zone management programs and plans approved by the National
                                          Most farming, ranching, and silviculture activities are not sub-                                                   Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) are eligible for
                                  ject to section 404 regulation. However, the "Swampbuster" provi-                                                          Federal funding and technical assistance through the Coastal Zone
                                  sion of the 1985 Food Security Act and amendments in the 1990                                                              Management Act.
                                  Food, Agriculture, Conservation, and Trade Act discourage (through                                                                 Federal agencies are responsible for the proper management
                                  financial disincentives) the draining, filling, or other alteration of                                                     of wetlands on public lands under their jurisdiction. The FWS pro-
                                  wetlands for agricultural use. The law allows exemptions from pen-                                                         tects and manages salt marsh and freshwater wetlands in the Ninigret
                                  alties in some cases, especially if the farmer agrees to restore the                                                       National Wildlife Refuge. Wetlands are also protected in the Block
                                  altered wetland or other wetlands that have been converted to agri-                                                        Island National Wildlife Refuge, the Trustom Pond National Wild-
                                  cultural use. The Wetlands Reserve Program of the 1990 Food,                                                               life Refuge, and Sachuest Point National Wildlife Refuge.
                                  Agriculture, Conservation, and Trade Act authorizes the Federal                                                                    State wetland activities. -Wetlands are regulated primarily at
                                  Government to purchase conservation easements from landowners                                                              the State level in Rhode Island; separate agencies regulate coastal
                                  who agree to protect or restore wetlands. The Consolidated Farm                                                            and freshwater wetlands. The Coastal Resources Management Pro-
                                  Service Agency (fon-nerly the Agricultural Stabilization and Conser-                                                       gram requires that pen-nits be obtained from the Coastal Resources
                                  vation Service administers the Swampbuster provisions and Wet-                                                             Management Council for any dredging, filling, or other physical








                                                                                                   National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: RHODE ISLAND                      343



                 alteration of coastal wetlands and directly contiguous areas, includ-               for the protection of existing uses in wetlands and the level of water
                 ing contiguous freshwater wetlands. Coastal wetlands are defined                    quality necessary to maintain those uses. No degradation is allowed
                 as any salt marsh that borders on tidal waters and contains certain                 in areas designated as "Outstanding National Resource Waters" such
                 plant species. Activities in coastal ponds and contiguous upland                    as National Wildlife Refuges, National Parks, State Parks, wildlife
                 areas, extending no more than 200 feet inland, also are regulated in                areas, and other areas of ecological significance.
                 order to preserve the integrity of tidal wetlands. The Coastal Re-                        Private wetland activities. -Regulation of wetlands in Rhode
                 sources Management Council has regulatory, planning, and man-                       Island includes consideration of local concerns and issues. Local
                 agement powers within these specified coastal areas.                                land-use controls are an additional wetland-protection measure.
                       Under the Freshwater Wetlands Act, permits must be obtained                   Fifteen of Rhode Island's 39 communities have established local land
                 from the Department of Environmental Management's Division of                       trusts (Rhode Island Department of Administration, 1992).
                 Freshwater Wetlands for any dredging, filling or other type of al-                        Many of Rhode Island's natural resources have been acquired
                 teration to inland wetlands, including adjacent upland areas. Areas                 and protected through cooperative efforts involving private orga-
                 subject to regulation as freshwater wetlands include, but are not lim-              nizations, local land trusts, and State and local governments. The
                 ited to, any swamp, marsh, bog, pond, vernal pool, river, stream,                   Nature Conservancy, the Champlin Foundation, and State and lo-
                 riverbank, flood plain (as defined by a 100-year-frequency storm),                  cal governments together have protected endangered-species habi-
                 areas subject to flooding and storm flows, emergent and submerged                   tats and unique areas on Block Island. Block Island contains some
                 plant communities in any body of water, and the area of land within                 of the State's rarest ecosystems and most valuable natural habitats;
                 50 feet of any bog, swamp, marsh, or pond.                                          the island has recently been designated as one of 12 bioreserves in
                       The Department of Environmental Management is the primary                     the Western Hemisphere by The Nature Conservancy. The Champlin
                 land-management agency in Rhode Island. The Department has                          Foundation provides funds for land acquisition to the State, The
                 responsibility for developing and operating some 87,000 acres of                    Nature Conservancy, and The Audubon Society of Rhode Island.
                 State-owned open space, including parks, beaches, water-supply                      The GreenSpace 2000 Project is a statewide plan to protect critical
                 areas, wildlife-habitat reserves, and conservation areas (Rhode Is-                 open-space values and functions through a network of tracts and
                 land Department of Administration, 1992). About 2,000 acres of land                 greenways; the plan establishes protection priorities and strategies
                 have recently been acquired on six of the islands in Narragansett                   to reach its goals (Rhode Island Department of Administration,
                 Bay. This land is part of the State's Bay Island Park System and                    1992). Save The Bay, the State's largest private, nonprofit environ-
                 provides recreation, conservation, environmental education, and                     mental group, the Conservation Fund, a national nonprofit group
                 research opportunities. More than 2,000 acres of fish and wildlife                  that promotes greenways, and State and local officials are cooper-
                 habitat and wetlands along the Wood, Pawcatuck, and Moosup Riv-                     ating to implement the plan's goals. Wetlands are identified as criti-
                 ers have been acquired by using State and Federal funds. The                        cal geographic -resource areas by the plan, and many are priority
                 Department's Fish, Wildlife and Estuarine Resources Division is                     protection areas in the GreenSpace 2000 Project.
                 focusing on anadromous-fish restoration programs on these rivers,                         The Audubon Society of Rhode Island owns and manages more
                       The Narragansett Bay National Estuarine Research Reserve is                   than 6,000 acres of land, containing many freshwater and saltwater
                 cooperatively managed by the Department of Environmental Man-                       wetlands, for recreational and educational purposes. Ducks Unlim-
                 agement and NOAA'S Office of Ocean and Coastal Resource Man-                        ited provides technical and financial assistance to Federal and State
                 agement. The 4,950-acre reserve was created under section 315 of                    agencies to protect waterfowl habitat in Rhode Island.
                 the Federal Coastal Zone Management Act and contains undisturbed
                 salt marshes, tidal flats, and open-water habitats. The reserve serves              References Cited
                 as a natural laboratory and is the site of several interagency research
                 projects.                                                                           Bedford, B.L., and Preston, E.M., 1988, Developing the scientific basis for
                       The Rhode Island Natural Heritage Program compiles and up-                          assessing cumulative effects of wetland loss and degradation on land-
                 dates rare and endangered animal and plant lists within the State.                        scape functions- Status, perspectives, and prospects: Environmen-
                 The program comments on State freshwater-wetlands permit appli-                           tal Management, v. 12, p. 751-77 1.
                 cations, Clean Water Act Section 404 permit applications, and lo-                   Boothroyd, J.C., Friedrich, N.E., and McGinn, S.R., 1985, Geology of
                 cal comprehensive plans. Certain wetland types and rare biological                        microtidal coastal lagoons -Rhode Island: Marine Geology, v. 63,
                                                                                                           p. 35-76.
                 communities are identified by the program for priority protection,                  Bricker-Urso, Suzanne, Nixon, S.W., Cochran, J.K., Hirschberg, D.J., and
                 The Natural Heritage program, along with nongame research and                             Hunt, C.D., 1989, Accretion rates and sediment accumulation in Rhode
                 management projects, is funded by the nongame-wildlife fund, a                            Island salt marshes: Estuaries, v. 12, p. 300-317.
                 voluntary contribution on State income tax forms.                                   Cowardin, L.M., Carter, Virginia, Golet, F.C., and LaRoe, E.T., 1979, Clas-
                       The Department of Environmental Management's Freshwater                             sification of wetlands and deepwater habitats of the United States: U.S.
                 Wetlands Division requires water-quality certification from the                           Fish and Wildlife Service Report FWS/OBS -79/31, 131 p.
                 Department of Environmental Management's Water Resources Di-                        Darnman, AW.H., and French, T.W., 1987, The ecology of peat bogs of the
                 vision before approval of any significant wetland alterations. Un-                        glaciated northeastern United States -A community profile: U.S. Fish
                                                                                                           and Wildlife Service Biological Report 85(7.16), 100 p.
                 der section 40t of the Federal Clean Water Act, any activity that                   Goldsmith, Richard, 1982, Recessional moraines and ice retreat in south-
                 results in a discharge, including that of fill into wetlands or State                     eastern Connecticut, in Larson, G.J., and Stone, B.D., eds., Late
                 waters, must obtain a section 401 water-quality certification stat-                       Wisconsinan glaciation of New England: Dubuque, Iowa, Kendall/
                 ing that the activity will not result in violation of State surface-water-                Hunt Publishing Company, p. 61-76.
                 quality standards. Normal maintenance and improvement of agri-                      Golet, F.C., and Lowry, D.J., 1987, Water regimes and tree growth in Rhode
                 cultural lands are exempt from State and Federal authority under                          Island Atlantic white cedar swamps, in Laderman, A.D., ed., Atlantic
                 this program. However, any discharge from exempted activities that                        white cedar wetlands: Boulder, Colo., Westview Press, p. 91 - 110.
                 might convert open-water areas or wetlands to dry land, impede                      Johnston, H.E., 1986, Rhode Island surface-water resources, in U.S. Geo-
                 circulation, or reduce the size of a wetland or water body is subject                     logical Survey, National water summary 1985-Hydrologic events and
                                                                                                           surface-water resources: U.S. Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper
                 to section 404 regulation. Enforcement of the antidegradation provi-                      2300, p. 407-412.
                 sions of State surface-water-quality standards for wetlands provides                Johnston, H.E., and Barlow, P.M., 1988, Rhode Island ground-water qual-
                 enhanced wetland protection. Antidegradation provisions provide                           ity, in U.S. Geological Survey, National water summary 1986-Hy-








                      344      National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: STATE SUMMARIES



                            drologic events and ground-water quality: U.S. Geological Survey              -1992, Remaking the wetlands in Lebanon, Connecticut -Cultural
                            Water-Supply Paper 2325, p. 443-448.                                               and natural changes in the postglacial epoch: University of Connecti-
                      Laderman,A.D., 1989, The ecology of Atlantic white cedar wetlands -A                     cut, School of Engineering, Final Report JHR 92 - 215, 157 p.
                            community profile: U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Biological Report           Thorson, R.M., and Harris, S.L., 1991, How "natural" are inland wetlands?
                            85(7.21), 114 p.                                                                   An example from the Trail Wood Audubon Sanctuary in Connecticut,
                      Laderman, A.D., Golet, F.C., Sorrie, B.A., and Woolsey, H.L., 1987, Atlan-               USA: Environmental Management, v. 15, p. 675 - 687.
                            tic white cedar in the glaciated northeast, in Laderman, A.D., ed.,           Tiner, R.W., 1989, Wetlands of Rhode Island: Newton Comer, Mass., U.S.
                            Atlantic white cedar wetlands: Boulder, Colo., Westview Press, p. 19-              Fish and Wildlife Service, National Wetlands Inventory, 71 p., I app.
                            33.                                                                           U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, 199 1, Water resources development- The
                      Metzler, K.J., and Tiner, R.W., 1992, Wetlands of Connecticut: Connecti-                 work of the U.S Army Corps of Engineers in Rhode Island 1991:
                            cut Geological and Natural History Survey Report of Investigations                 Waltham, Mass., U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, 60 p.
                            13, 115 p.                                                                    Winter, T.C., 1988, A conceptual framework for assessing cumulative im-
                      Rhode Island Department ofAdministration, 1992, Ocean State outdoors-                    pacts on the hydrology of nontidal wetlands: Environmental Manage-
                            Rhode Island's comprehensive outdoor recreation plan: Rhode Island                 ment, v. 12, p. 605 -620.
                            Department of Administration, Division of Planning Report 76.
                      Schafer, J.P., 1968, Surficial geologic map of the Ashaway quadrangle,
                            Connecticut-Rhode Island: U.S. Geological Survey Geologic Quad-               FOR ADDITIONAL INFORMATION: Chief, Rhode Island Office, U.S.
                            rangle Map GQ-712, scale 1:24,000.                                            Geological Survey, 237 Pastore Federal Building, Providence, RI 02903;
                      Sirkin, Les, 1982, Wisconsinan glaciation of Long Island, New York, to              Regional Wetlands Coordinator, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 300
                            Block Island, Rhode Island, in Larson, GJ, and Stone, B.D., eds., Late        Westgate Center, Hadley, MA 01035
                            Wisconsinan glaciation of New England: Dubuque, Iowa, Kendall/
                            Hunt Publishing Company, p. 35 - 57.
                      Thorson, R.M., 1990, Development of small upland wetlands -A strati-                                              Prepared by
                            graphic study in northeastern Connecticut: University of Connecti-                                       Sandra L. Harris,
                            cut, School of Engineering, Final Report JHR 90-191, 285 p.                                           U.S. Geological Survey














































                                                                       U.S. Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper 2425








                                                                                                                                                                               National Water Summary-Wetland Resources 345
                                                                                                                                                                  South Carolina
                                                                                                                                                                                    Wetland Resources
                       South Carolina has about 4.6 million acres of wetlands, account-                                                           System                                                      Wetland description
                       ing for about 23.4 percent of the surface area of the State (Dahl,                                                         Palustrine       .................. Nontidal and tidal-freshwater wetlands in which
                       1990). Only two other States, Florida and Louisiana, have a higher                                                                                               vegetation is predominantly trees (forested wet-
                       percentage of land area as wetlands. Freshwater forested wetlands                                                                                                lands); shrubs (scrub-shrub wetlands); persistent
                       (fig. 1) are the most common type of wetland in South Carolina.                                                                                                  or nonpersistent emergent, erect, rooted herba-
                               The benefits of South Carolina's wetlands include enhanced                                                                                               ceous plants (persistent- and nonpersistent-
                                                                                                                                                                                        emergent wetlands); or submersed and (or)
                       water quality, fish and wildlife productivity, and socioeconomic                                                                                                 floating plants (aquatic beds). Also, intermit-
                       values. Wetlands enhance water quality by intercepting upland run-                                                                                               tently to permanently flooded open-water bod-
                       off and filtering out nutrients, wastes, and sediment. Fish and wild-                                                                                            ies of less than 20 acres inwhich water is less
                       life benefit from the abundance of habitat and food that wetlands                                                                                                than 6.6 feet deep.
                       provide. For example, South Carolina wetlands serve as wintering                                                           Lacustrine        ................ . Nontidal and tidal-freshwater wetlands within an
                       areas for migrating waterfowl, supporting greater than 30 percent                                                                                                intermittently to permanently flooded lake or
                                                                                                                                                                                        reservoir larger than 20 acres and (or) deeper
                       each of American green-winged teal, northern shovelers, mallards,                                                                                                than 6.6 feet. Vegetation, when present, is pre-
                       northern pintails, American wigeon, and gadwall that traverse the                                                                                                dominantly nonpersistent emergent plants (non-
                       Atlantic Flyway (Gordon and others, 1989). Socioeconomic values                                                                                                  persistent-emergent wetlands), or submersed
                       of wetlands include flood protection, erosion control, and ground-                                                                                               and (or) floating plants (aquatic beds), or both.
                       water recharge as well as opportunities for hunting, fishing, tour-                                                        Riverine      ..................... Nonticlal and tidal-freshwater wetlands within a
                       ism, and other recreational activities that are economically impor-                                                                                              channel. Vegetation, when present, is same as
                       tant to the State.                                                                                                                                               in the Lacustrine System.
                                                                                                                                                  Estuarine       ................... Tidal wetlands in low-wave-energy environments
                                                                                                                                                                                        where the salinity ofthe water is greater than 0.5
                       TYPES AND DISTRIBUTION                                                                                                                                           partperthousand (ppt) and is variable owing to
                                                                                                                                                                                        evaporation and the mixing of seawater and
                               Wetlands are lands transitional between terrestrial and deep-                                                                                            freshwater.
                       water habitats where the water table usually is at or near the land                                                        Marine      ....................... Tidal wetlands that are exposed to waves and cur-
                       surface or the land is covered by shallow water (Cowardin and oth-                                                                                               rents of the open ocean and to water having a
                       ers, 1979). The distribution of wetlands and deepwater habitats in                                                                                               salinity greater than 30 ppt.
                       South Carolina is shown in figure 2A; only wetlands are discussed                                                                  Ninety percent of South Carolina's wetlands are freshwater
                       herein.                                                                                                                    (palustrine, lacustrine, and riverine) wetlands and occur primarily
                               Wetlands can be vegetated or nonvegetated and are classified                                                       in the Coastal Plain and the flood plains of rivers and streams in
                       on the basis of their hydrology, vegetation, and substrate. In this                                                        the Blue Ridge and Piedmont Provinces (fig. 2A and 2B). Palustrine
                       summary, wetlands are classified according to the system proposed                                                          forested wetlands encompass 3.7 million acres in South Carolina
                       by Cowardin and others (1979), which is used by the U.S. Fish and                                                          and constitute 80 percent of the wetlands in the State. Palustrine
                       Wildlife Service (Fws) to map and inventory the Nation's wetlands.                                                         wetlands include areas commonly referred to as wet pine flatwoods,
                       At the most general level of the classification system, wetlands are                                                       pocosins, Carolina bays, beaver ponds, bottom-land hardwood for-
                       grouped into five ecological systems: Palustrine, Lacustrine, Riv-                                                         ests, swamps, and tidal-freshwater marshes.
                       erine, Estuarine, and Marine. The Palustrine System includes only                                                                  Wet pine flatwoods (forested wetlands) are extensive flat areas
                       wetlands, whereas the other systems comprise wetlands and
                       deepwater habitats. Wetlands of the systems that occur in South                                                            that have a shallow water table and are dominated by pine (longleaf,
                       Carolina are described below.                                                                                              loblolly, slash, and pond). These wetlands occur primarily in the
                                                                                                                                                  Coastal Plain. Although acreage estimates are not available, exten-
                                                                                                                                                  sive tracts of wet pine flatwoods occur in the Francis Marion Na-
                                                                                                                                                  tional Forest.
                                                                                                                                                          Pocosins (scrub-shrub wetlands) are wetlands vegetated by
                                                                                                                                                  evergreen shrubs or low-growing trees, such as sweet bay or pond
                                                                                                                                                  pine. However, vegetation in severely burned pocosins may be domi
                                                                                                                                                  nated by herbaceous plants. The word pocosin is derived from an
                                                                                                                                                  Indian word meaning low marshy ground or swamp. South Caro-
                                                                                                                         1; j
                                                                                                                                                  lina pocosins can be found throughout the Coastal Plain.
                                                                                                                                                          Carolina bay wetlands are isolated freshwater wetlands formed
                                                                                                                                                  in elliptical depressions. Because of their variability in size, depth,
                                                                                                                                                  and substrate conditions, Carolina bays support plant communities
                                                                                                                                                  ranging from grass-sedge prairies (emergent wetlands) to cypress-
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            are scattered
                                                                                                                                                  gum swamps (forested wetlands). Carolina bays
                                                                                                                                                  throughout the Coastal Plain. The State Heritage Trust Program has
                                                                                                                                                  identified 2,651 Carolina bays that are 2 acres or larger (Bennett
                                                                                                                                                  and Nelson, 199 1).
                                                                                                                                                          Beaver ponds are freshwater forested, scrub-shrub or emergent
                                                                                                                                                  wetlands typically associated with river flood plains and can be
                                           Figure 1. A freshwater forested wetland at the upper                                                   found throughout the State. As beavers impound a stream and flood
                                          end of Lake Marion in South Carolina.                                                                   a bottom-land area, many of the trees are killed, thus opening the








                                   346         National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: STATE SUMMARIES



                                   canopy and allowing for growth of herbaceous vegetation. Plant                                                                     Tidal-freshwater marshes (emergent wetlands) occur along
                                   communities associated with South Carolina beaver-pond wetlands                                                            South Carolina's coast, where they are tidally influenced, but fresh-
                                   include water oak, sweet gum, red maple, buttonbush, and rice                                                              water input from precipitation and rivers prevents significant salt-
                                   cutgrass. The structure of the plant community is influenced by                                                            water intrusion from the ocean. Dominant plants in tidal-freshwater
                                   factors such as the age, topography, and substrate soil characteris-                                                       marshes include yellow pond lily, arrowheads, and sedges. There
                                   tics of the pond. Amer and Hepp (1989) reported that a 1976 sur-                                                           are an estimated 46,300 acres of tidal-freshwater marshes in South
                                   vey revealed that beavers have created an estimated 4,400 acres of                                                         Carolina (Field and others, 1991), mostly occurring along the Santee
                                   wetlands in South Carolina.                                                                                                River and the rivers that form Winyah Bay (the Sampit, Black, Pee
                                          Bottom-land hardwood forests and swamps are woody com-                                                              Dee, and Waccamaw), Charleston Harbor (the Cooper and Ashley),
                                   munities that are found primarily on alluvial flood plains. These                                                          and Saint Helena Sound (the Ashepoo, Edisto, and Combahee).
                                   wetlands, found along the rivers of South Carolina, occur in the                                                                   Lacustrine wetlands include the shallows of permanently
                                   Piedmont Province and Coastal Plain. Bottom-land hardwood for-                                                             flooded lakes and reservoirs and inten-nittent lakes. Common lacus-
                                   ests support a variety of tree species including oaks, ashes, maples,                                                      trine wetland plants include American lotus, pickerelweed,
                                   hackberries, cypress, and tupelo. The presence of extensive wetlands                                                       duckweed, arrowheads, and sedges. Lacustrine wetlands occur
                                   along a 45-mile segment ofthe Congaree River has resulted in con-                                                          throughout the State, most notably along major reservoirs and in as-
                                   sideration of the Congaree River for the State Scenic Rivers Pro-                                                          sociation with ephemeral lakes such as Carolina bays. Along the
                                   gram. Within this section of the Congaree River flood plain is the                                                         shores of Lake Marion is the Santee National Wildlife Refuge, a
                                   Congaree Swamp National Monument, a 15,000-acre wetland that                                                               15,000-acre wetland used by migrating waterfowl.
                                   contains one of the few remaining tracts of old-growth bottom-land                                                                 The Riverine and Marine Systems contain mostly deepwater
                                   hardwoods. The Sumter National Forest in the upper Savannah River                                                          habitat. Riverine wetlands are limited to shallow freshwater river
                                   Basin contains about 1,500 acres of bottom-land hardwood-forest                                                            and stream channels or, in the case of deep rivers, to shallow areas
                                   wetlands, and the U.S. Department of Energy's Savannah River Site                                                          near the bank. South Carolina riverine wetlands can contain float-
                                   contains approximately 34,500 acres of bottom-land hardwood-for-                                                           ing aquatic plants, such as water lily and nonpersistent emergent
                                   est wetlands (Bebber, 1988).                                                                                               plants such as pickerelweed. The Marine System is limited to the



                                                                                                                                                                                    B                                Blue Ridge




                                                                                                                                                                                                                 Piedmont
                                                                                    82@
                                 A
                                           351
                              Sumter N                                                                                                                                                                                                Coastal Plain
                                                                          r"n 'Ile                                Car.          1                          80.
                                                            iter
                                                                                                             .0



                                                                                                                                        Wa


                                                                                      !ki
                                                                                          Fal-
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                 PHYSIOGRAPHIC DIVISIONS

                                                                                                                                         re       Inp





                                                                                                                                       1.k-                                                  Sraplt R

                                                                               Savannah                                                                                                   -Wiyh Bay
                                                                                    River
                                                                                      Site       33-                                                                            Cape Ronnain NWR          0

                                                                                                                                                                        C-p- Ri-,
                                                                                                                                                                  Charl@ton Harbor

                                                                                                                                                                                                  WETLANDS AND DEEPWATER HABITATS
                                                                                                                                                         Cornbahee-Edisto Oman NWR and            Distribution of wetlands and deepwater habitats-
                                                                                                                                                National Estuarine Research Reserve                  This map shows the approximate distribution of large
                                                                                                                                                 t IM- S,..d                                         wetlands in the State. Because of limitations of scale
                                                  0             25              50 MILES                     Pickn   sl    N                                                                         and source material, some wetlands are not shown
                                                  0        25       50 KILOMETERS                                                                                                                 E@]       Predominantly wetland
                                                                                                                                                                                                  =         Predominantly deepwater habitat

                                   Figure 2. Wetland                distribution in South Carolina and                       physiography of the State. A, Distribution of wetlands and deepwater habitats.
                                   8, Physiography. (Sources: A, TE. Dahl, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, unpub. data, 199 1. B, Physiographic divisions from Fenneman,
                                   1946; landforms data from EROS Data Center.)








                                                                                       National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: SOUTH CAROLINA                  347



               open ocean overlying the continental shelf and its associated coast-         flooded for several months during the winter and during storms.
               line.                                                                        Near the coast, daily tides back up freshwater onto these flood
                     Estuarine wetlands include intertidal flats and irregularly and        plains. Bottom-land hardwood forests dominated by trees that are
               regularly tidally flooded salt marshes dominated by emergent veg-            tolerant of a long dormant season and occasional flooding during
               etation such as saltmeadow cordgrass, black needlerush, and smooth           the growing season are particularly well developed on these wide
               cordgrass. Intertidal flats are generally devoid of vegetation as a          flood plains.
               result of unstable sand or mud sediments that are regularly exposed                As the rivers flow into the sea, freshwater riverine flow mixes
               and flooded by tides. There are about 32,000 acres of intertidal flats       with daily tidal influxes from the ocean. The hydrology of the mix-
               and 366,000 acres of salt-marsh wetlands in South Carolina (Field            ing area is poorly understood. However, a combination of factors
               and others, 1991). The Cape Romain National Wildlife Refuge, a               including freshwater input, tidal influx, and wind direction and
               64,000-acre salt-marsh wetland, is located near the mouth of the             velocity create an environment suitable for tidal-freshwater wet-
               Santee River. At the mouth of the Coosawhatchie River is Pickney             lands.
               Island National Wildlife Refuge, a 4,053-acre expanse of salt-marsh                The flood plains near the mouths of these large rivers and the
               wetlands. Nearby axe the Ashepoo - Combahee -Edisto Basin Na-                bays behind the barrier island provide protection from destructive
               tional Wildlife Refuge (18,000 acres of salt marsh), and the 144,000-        waves and storms. These protected areas allow for the accretion of
               acre Ashepoo- Combahee - Edisto National Estuarine Research Re-              clay and silt sediments and the establishment of vegetation. The
               serve.                                                                       extensive estuarine wetlands of South Carolina are formed and
                                                                                            maintained by incursions of brackish water over these sediments.
               HYDROLOGIC SETTING
                     Wetlands generally develop where the land surface is relatively        TRENDS
               flat and the water table is shallow. Most of South Carolina's wet-                 Wetland losses in South Carolina have occurred as a result of
               lands occur in the Coastal Plain where alluvial, marginal-marine,            both natural and human influences. Natural factors have included
               and marine sediments have been deposited and sometimes reworked              sea-level rise, natural succession, erosion and accretion, animal
               in lowland flats or upland depressions. Coastal Plain deposits con-          activity, droughts, and major storms. Human factors have included
               sist of consolidated and unconsolidated sediments of continental and         draining and clearing wetlands for agriculture, pond and reservoir
               marine origin that range in thickness from a few feet at the Fall Line       construction, urban development, coastal impoundment construc-
               to more than 4,000 feet at the southern tip of the State. The gently         tion, and pollution. Wetland loss in South Carolina from the 1780's
               rolling hills of the Piedmont Province and the mountains of the Blue         to 1980's has been estimated to be 27 percent (Dahl, 1990). During
               Ridge Province are underlain by metamorphosed sedimentary, vol-              the period from 1974 through 1983 alone, South Carolina had an
               canic, and igneous rocks. Where hydric soils occur in the Blue Ridge         estimated wetland loss of about 1.3 percent, approximately 6 1,000
               and Piedmont Provinces, they are commonly overlain by 2 to 5 feet            acres of wetlands (John Hefner, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, oral
               of loam and clay as a result of erosion from agricultural areas (Larry       commun., 1993).
               Robinson, Natural Resources Conservation Service, oral commun.,                    Freshwater-wetland losses in South Carolina are not well docu-
               1993). Thus, identification of wetlands in the Blue Ridge and Pied-          mented but appear to be less extensive than in some other South-
               mont Provinces based on the presence of hydric soils has been dif-           eastern States. However, studies conducted by the South Carolina
               ficult.                                                                      Heritage Trust Program indicated that Carolina bay wetlands have
                     The State's moist climate produces ample precipitation, which          been extensively disturbed and altered. Of the 2,651 Caxolina bays
               finds its way to the wetlands by way of overland runoff, periodic            that are 2 acres or larger identified by the State Heritage Trust Pro-
               flooding by rivers, and ground-water discharge. Average annual               gram in 1983 (Bennett and Nelson, 1991), more than 80 percent
               precipitation is 80 inches in the Blue Ridge Province, decreasing            have been significantly altered and degraded. Many of South
               to approximately 48 inches in the Piedmont Province and most of              Carolina's tidal-freshwater marshes were diked, impounded, and
               the Coastal Plain, and then increasing to about 50 inches near the           converted to rice fields during the 18th and 19th centuries. Esti-
               coast (Purvis and others, 1990). Rainfall is greatest during spring          mates of changes in wetland areas as a result of Hurricane Hugo
               and summer and least in fall. Average annual runoff ranges from 10           are difficult to determine, but as much as 90 percent of the wet pine
               inches in the Coastal Plain Province to about 50 inches in the Blue          flatwoods of the Francis Marion National Forest may have been
               Ridge Province. Annual potential evapotranspiration ranges from              damaged by the wind.
               about 30 inches in the Blue Ridge Province to about 47 inches in                   Loss of freshwater wetlands has also been caused by changes
               the Coastal Plain. Most evaporation occurs during summer (about              in the hydrologic regime of South Carolina rivers. Alteration of the
               3 to 5 inches per month) and the least occurs during winter (about           normal hydrologic regime by construction of dams on the upper Sa-
               l inch per month).                                                           vannah, Santee, and Pee Dee Rivers has changed the natural pat-
                     Pocosins and Carolina bays are examples of isolated wetlands           tem of annual flooding and has directly affected forested-wetland
               that characteristically have no tributary streams, are not spring fed,       regeneration in South Carolina wetlands. Conversely, beaver-pond
               and rely on direct precipitation and overland runoff to maintain water       wetlands are thought to be increasing in South Carolina, though
               volume (Sharitz and Gibbons, 1982). Ground-water recharge has                information on changes in beaver-pond wetland acreage is limited
               been suggested as an additional source in some situations (Schalles          (Amer and Hepp, 1989).
               and Shure, 1989). Pocosiris are typically characterized by poorly
               drained mineral soils and peats. Carolina bays, generally found in           CONSERVATION
               sandy terrain but typically having a clay layer, are aligned in a north-
               west-southeast direction.                                                          Many government agencies and private organizations partici-
                     The structure and function of South Carolina's bottom-land             pate in wetland conservation in South Carolina. The most active
               hardwood-forest wetlands are determined primarily by the hydro-              agencies and organizations and some of their activities are listed in
               logic regime of the State's large rivers (Patterson and others, 1985).       table 1.
               The principal river basins in South Carolina-the Pee Dee, Santee,                  Federal wetland activities. -Development activities in South
               Edisto, and Savannah -contain rivers that flow eastward through              Carolina wetlands are regulated by several Federal statutory prohi-
               the Coastal Plain to the sea. They have broad flood plains that are          bitions and incentives that are intended to slow wetland losses. Some









                          348       National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: STATE SUMMARIES



                          of the more important of these are contained in the 1899 Rivers and                             Table 1. Selected wetland-related activities of government
                          Harbors Act; the 1972 Clean Water Act and amendments; the 1985                                  agencies and private organizations in South Carolina, 1993
                          Food Security Act; the 1990 Food, Agriculture, Conservation, and                                [Source: Classification of activities is generalized from information provided
                          Trade Act; the 1986 Emergency Wetlands Resources Act; and the                                       by agencies and organizations. *, agency or organization participates in
                          1972 Coastal Management Act.                                                                        wetland-related activity;      agency or organization does not participate in
                                Section 10 of the Rivers and Harbors Act ivestheU.S.ArTny                                     wetland-related activity. MAN, management; REG, regulation; R&C, res-
                                                                                       9                                      toration and creation; LAN, land acquisition; R&D, research and data col-
                          Corps of Engineers (Corps) authority to regulate certain activities                                 lection; D&I, delineation and inventory]
                          in navigable waters. Regulated activities include diking, deepening,
                          filling, excavating, and placing of structures. The related section 404
                          of the Clean Water Act is the most often-used Federal legislation                               Agency or organization
                          protecting wetlands. Under section 404 provisions, the Corps issues                             FEDERAL
                          permits regulating the discharge of dredged or fill material into                               Department of Agriculture
                          wetlands. Permits are subject to review and possible veto by the U.S.                             Consolidated Farm Service Agency      ........................... ...0
                          Environmental Protection Agency, and the Fws has review and ad-                                   Natural Resources Conservation Service           ........ ... *
                          visory roles. Section 401 of the Clean Water Act grants to States                               Department of Commerce
                                                                                                                            National Oceanic and Atmospheric
                          and eligible Indian Tribes the authority to approve, apply conditions                             Administration   .................................................................00
                          to, or deny section 404 permit applications on the basis of a pro-                              Department of Defense
                          posed activity's probable effects on the water quality of a wetland.                              Army Corps of Engineers     ..............................................*a
                                Most farming, ranching, and silviculture activities are not sub-                          Department of the Interior
                          ject to section 404 regulation. However, the "Swampbuster" provi-                                 Fish and Wildlife Service   ..............................................e
                                                                                                                            Geological Survey    .......................................................... ... ... ... ...0
                          sion of the 1985 Food Security Act and amendments in the 1990                                     National Biological Service   ......................................... ... ... ... ...0
                          Food, Agriculture, Conservation, and Trade Act discourage (through                                National Park Service    ...................................................0-000   *
                          financial disincentives) the draining, filling, or other alteration of                          Environmental Protection Agency      .................................. ...
                          wetlands for agricultural use. The law allows exemptions from pen-                              STATE
                          alties in some cases, especially if the farmer agrees to restore the                            Belle W. Baruch Institute   ................................................. ... ...
                                                                                                                          Clemson University    ............................................................ ... ... ...
                          altered wetland or other wetlands that have been convened to agri                               Coastal Council  ................................................................... ... ... ... ...
                          cultural use. The Wetlands Reserve Program of the 1990 Food,                                    Department of Health and Environmental
                          Agriculture, Conservation, and Trade Act authorizes the Federal                                 Control  .................................................................................. ... ... ... ... ...
                          Government to purchase conservation easements from landowners                                   Department of Highways and Public
                          who agree to protect or restore wetlands. The Consolidated Farm                                 Transportation  ..................................................................... ... ...
                          Service Agency (formerly the Agricultural Stabilization and Con-                                Department of Parks, Recreation, and Tourism      ..........*
                                                                                                                          Forestry Commission    .........................................................0... ... ... ...
                          servation Service) administers the Swampbuster provisions and Wet-                              Land Resources Commission      ...........................................*... ... ... ...
                          lands Reserve Program. The Natural Resources Conservation                                       Sail and Water Conservation District    ............................*
                          Service (formerly the Soil Conservation Service) determines com-                                University of Georgia
                          pliance with Swampbuster provisions and assists farmers in the iden-                              Savannah River Ecology Lab      ....................................... ... ...
                          tification of wetlands and in the development of wetland protection,                            University of South Carolina   ............................................ ... ... ... ...
                                                                                                                          Water Resources Commission       ........................................ ...@
                          restoration, or creation plans.                                                                 Department of Natural Resources      ................................. ... ... . ... ...
                                The 1986 Emergency Wetlands Resources Act and the 1972                                      Heritage Trust Program    .................................................e
                          Coastal Zone Management Act and amendments encourage wetland                                    PRIVATE
                          protection through funding incentives. The Emergency Welland                                    Ducks Unlimited   ..................................................................0
                          Resources Act requires States to address wetland protection in their                            South Carolina Waterfowl Association      .........................9
                          Statewide Comprehensive Outdoor Recreation Plans to qualify for                                 The Nature Conservancy     ..................................................*
                          Federal funding for State recreational land; the National Park Ser-
                          vice provides guidance to States in developing the wetland compo-
                          nent of their plans. Coastal and Great Lakes States that adopt coastal-
                          zone management programs and plans approved by the National                                           The South Carolina Department of Health and Environmental
                          Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration are eligible for Federal                                 Control is active in wetland conservation through the section 401
                          funding and technical assistance through the Coastal Zone Mariage-                              and 402 requirements of the Clean Water Act. Section 401 requires
                          ment Act.                                                                                       that a permit applicant provide certification from the State that a
                                State wetland activities. -South Carolina regulates coastal                               discharge will comply with water-quality standards. The certifica-
                          wetlands under the South Carolina Coastal Management Act. 'The                                  tion from the Department is necessary before a permit from the
                          act authorizes the South Carolina Coastal Council to regulate any                               Corps can be obtained. Section 402 of the Clean Water Act requires
                          activities that fill, remove, dredge, drain, construct, or in any way                           that permits be obtained for discharges of treated wastewater to
                          alter any critical area within the eight coastal counties that are un-                          wetlands and other water bodies under the National Pollutant Dis-
                          der its jurisdiction. The State Coastal Management Act provides 10                              charge Elimination System program. The Department of Health and
                          criteria to guide the Coastal Council in determining whether to issue                           Environmental Control is the State agency delegated to administer
                          a permit. Two of the key criteria are (1) a comparison of economic                              this program.
                          benefits to preservation benefits and (2) the extent to which all fea-                                Another State program that has relevance to wetlands is the
                          sible safeguards to avoid adverse economic impact are considered.                               South Carolina Navigable Waters Permitting Program administered
                          Under the Coastal Council regulations, dredging and filling wetlands                            by the South Carolina Water Resources Commission in association
                          is undertaken only if the activity is water dependent and no feasible                           with the State Budget and Control Board. Under this program, a
                          alternatives exist. Applications are denied for purposes other than                             permit is required for any kind of construction or alteration activ-
                          access, navigation, mining, or drainage unless an overriding public                             ity in what the State considers navigable waters, similar to the re-
                          interest can be demonstrated. The Coastal Council regulates fresh-                              quirements of Section 10 of the Federal Rivers and Harbors Act
                          water wetlands indirectly through review of other State or Federal                              Program. However, most wetlands in the State are outside the juris-
                          permits required in coastal areas.                                                              diction of the Navigable Waters Permitting Program.







                                                                                              National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: SOUTH CAROLINA                        349


                      The Heritage Trust Program of the South Carolina Department                   Dahl, T.E., 1990, Wetlands - Losses in the United States, 1780's to 1980's:
                of Natural Resources has been involved in the study and acquisi-                          Washington, D.C., U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Report to Congress,
                tion of Carolina bay wetlands. The Department manages about                               13 p.
                42,000 acres of wetlands contained within Wildlife Management                       Fenneman, N.M., 1946, Physical divisions of the United States: Washing-
                Areas. The Department of Parks, Recreation, and Tourism manages                           ton, D.C., U.S. Geological Survey special map, scale 1:7,000,000.
                                                                                                    Field, D.W., Reyer, A.J., Genovese, PX, and Shearer, B.D., 199 1, Coastal
                approximately 15,000 acres of wetlands included in the South Caro-                        wetlands of the United States: Washington, D.C., National Oceanic and
                lina State Park system. The South Carolina Forestry Commission                            Atmospheric Administration and U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service co-
                and South Carolina Land Resources Commission have developed                               operative report, 59 p.
                best-management practices for activities in forested wetlands. Un-                  Gordon, D.H., Gray, B.T., Perry, R.D., Prevost, M.B., Strange, T.H., and
                der the South Carolina Scenic Rivers Act, the South Carolina Water                        Williams, R.K., 1989, South Atlantic coastal wetlands, in Smith, L.M.,
                Resources Commission and the Department of Natural Resources                              Pederson, R.L., and Kaminski, R.M., Habitat management for migrat-
                share responsibilities for planning, acquisition, regulation, and en-                     ing and wintering waterfowl in North America: Lubbock, Texas Tech
                forcement.                                                                                University Press, p. 57-92.
                      Private wetland activities. -The Nature Conservancy has                       Patterson, G.G., Speiran, G.K., and Whetstone, B.H., 1985, Hydrology and
                acquired more than 35,000 acres of wetlands in South Carolina and                         its effects on distribution of vegetation in Congaree Swamp National
                                                                                                          Monument, South Carolina: U.S. Geological Survey Water-Resources
                currently manages about 9,000 acres of wetlands. Ducks Unlimited                          Investigations Report 85-4256, 31 p.
                and the South Carolina Waterfowl Association are actively involved                  Purvis, J.C., Tyler, Wes, and Sidlow, Scott, 1990, General characteristics of
                in wetland acquisition and management of waterfowl. One focus of                          South Carolina's climate: Columbia, South Carolina Water Resources
                the Association is to work with landowners who wish to flood former                       Commission, 22 p.
                rice fields to increase tidal freshwater marsh acreage. The South                   Schalles, IT., and Shure, D.J., 1989, Hydrology, community structure, and
                Carolina Wildlife Federation promotes education concerning the                            productivity patterns of a dystrophic Carolina bay wetland: Ecologi-
                importance of wetlands and also reviews permit applications.                              cal Monographs, v. 59, p. 365-385.
                                                                                                    Sharitz, R.R., and Gibbons, J.W., 1982, The ecology of southeastern shrub
                                                                                                          bogs (pocosins) and Carolina bays -A community profile: U.S. Fish
                References Cited                                                                          andWildlife ServiceReport, FWS/OBS-82/04,93 p.

                Amer, D.H, and Hepp, G.R., 1989, Beaver pond wetlands-A southem
                      perspective, in Smith, L.M., Pederson, R.L., and Kaminski, R.M.,
                      Habitat management for migrating and wintering waterfowl in North             FOR ADDITIONAL INFORMATION: District Chief, U.S. Geological
                      America: Lubbock, Texas Tech University Press, p. 130-177.                    Survey, 720 Gracem Road, Stephenson Center, Suite 129, Columbia, SC
                Bebber, T.L., 1988, Soutl@ Carolina wetlands study-A component of the               29210; Regional Weiland Coordinator, U.S. Fish andWildlife Service, 1875
                      State Comprehensive Outdoor Recreation Plan: Columbia, South                  Century Building, Suite 200, Atlanta, GA 30345
                      Carolina Department of Parks, Recreation, and Tourism, 235 p.
                Bennett, S.H., and Nelson, J.B., 1991, Distribution and status of Carolina
                      bays in South Carolina: Columbia, South Carolina Wildlife and Ma-                                             Prepared by
                      rine Resources Department, 88 p.                                                                         Michael R. Meador,
                Cowardin, L.M., Carter, Virginia, Golet, F.C., and LaRoe, E.T., 1979, ClasL                                  U.S. Geological Survey
                      sification of wetlands and deepwater habitats of the United States: U.S.
                      Fish and Wildlife Service Report FWS/OBS-79/31, 131 p.








                  350    National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: STATE SUMMARIES












































































                                                        U.S. Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper 2425







                                                                                                                   National Water Summary-Wetland Resources 351
                                                                                                                South Dakota
                                                                                                                    Wetland Resources
                Although wetlands cover only 3.6 percent of South Dakota (Dahl,                      There is no current (1993) estimate of statewide wetland acre-
                1990), they are of substantial ecological and economic importance               age in each of the systems. Final mapping and digitizing for the Fws
                to the State and Nation. Depressional wetlands in the glaciated east-           National Wetlands Inventory has been completed for eastern South
                ern part of South Dakota, commonly referred to as prairie potholes,             Dakota, but only preliminary draft mapping has been completed for
                and wetlands associated with reservoirs provide important breed-                the remainder of the State (Chuck Elliot, U.S. Fish and Wildlife
                ing and resting. habitat for migratory and resident waterfowl (fig.             Service, oral commun., 1993). Final mapping and digitizing for the
                1). South Dakota wetlands also provide important habitat to many                entire State may be completed within a few years.
                other nongame and game wildlife species, including pheasants                         An inventory of wetland and open-water areas conducted in
                (Sather-Blair and Linder, 1980; Soil Conservation Service, 1985)                1973 -74 estimated that 71 percent of South Dakota's wetlands were
                and whitetail deer (Kramlich, 1985), which are economically valu-               palustrine (Ruwaldt and others, 1979); 19 percent were mixed lacus-
                able to the State.                                                              trine and palustrine associated with prairie ponds and lakes and
                     Hydrologic functions of wetlands include water retention and               marmiade stock ponds and dugouts; and 10 percent were riverine.
                flood attenuation (Hubbard and Linder, 1986) and, on a local basis,             Stock ponds are impoundments constructed by damming deep
                ground-water recharge (Hubbard, 1988a). Hunting, trapping, fish-                draws; dugouts are constructed by excavating a depression and do
                ing, bird watching, nature photography, camping, hiking, and boat-              not have dams (Ruwaldt and others, 1979). Palustrine wetlands in
                ing are some of the recreational opportunities provided by wetlands,            South Dakota primarily include emergent wetlands such as marshes
                and the South Dakota tourist industry relies heavily on the recre-              and sloughs, in which coarse, herbaceous vegetation like cattails and
                ational and esthetic value of the State's wetlands. Other important             bulrushes are predominant; wet meadows, in which low, herbaceous
                benefits of wetlands in South Dakota include livestock forage                   vegetation like grasses and sedges are predominant; and vegetated,
                (Hubbard, 1088b), bait-fish production (Carlson and Berry, 1990),               shallow-water zones of stock ponds and dugouts (Stewart and
                and mineral mining. These benefits are provided by diverse wet-                 Kantrud, 1971). Lacustrine wetland areas occur in the numerous
                lands distributed across South Dakota's plains and the Black Hills.             glacial lakes in the eastern part of the State and in artificial impound-
                                                                                                ments throughout the State. Submersed vegetation like widgeongrass
                TYPES AND DISTRIBUTION                                                          and pondweed are common in lacustrine wetlands. Prairie potholes
                                                                                                (a palustrine emergent wetland) that contain erect, rooted, herba-
                     Wetlands are lands transitional between terrestrial and                    ceous hydrophytes are by far the most common wetland type in
                deepwater habitats where the water table usually is at or near the              South Dakota (Kantrud, Krapu, and Swanson, 1989).
                land surface or the land is covered by shallow water (Cowardin and                   Wetlands occupy about 1.8 million acres (3.6 percent) of South
                others, 1979). The distribution of wetlands and deepwater habitats              Dakota (Dahl, 1990). In the Great Plains (fig. 2B), the natural drain-
                in South Dakota is shown in figure 2A; only wetlands are discussed              age system generally is well developed, and there are few natural
                herein.                                                                         wetlands. Wetlands in the Great Plains generally are associated with
                     Wetlands can be vegetated or nonvegetated and are classified               manmade stock ponds. The Central Lowland is entirely within the
                on the basis of their hydrology, vegetation, and substrate. In this             glaciated part of South Dakota (fig. 2C), and most wetlands are in
                summary, wetlands are classified according to the system proposed               depressions among ground moraines deposited by the glaciers.
                by Cowardin and others (1979), which is used by the U.S. Fish and
                Wildlife Service (Fws) to map and inventory the Nation's wetlands.              HYDROLOGIC SETTING
                At the most general level of the classification system, wetlands are
                grouped into five ecological systems: Palustrine, Lacustrine, Riv-                   Wetlands form where there is a persistent water supply at or
                erine, Estuarine, and Marine. The Palustrine System includes only               near the land surface. The location and persistence of the supply is
                wetlands, whereas the other systems comprise wetlands and                       a function of interdependent climatic, physiographic, geologic, and
                deepwater habitats. Wetlands of the systems that occur in South
                Dakota are described below.



                System                                 Wetland description

                Palustrine  .................. Wetlands in which vegetation is predominantly
                                         trees (forested wetlands); shrubs (scrub-shrub
                                         wetlands); persistent or nonpersistent emergent,
                                         erect, rooted, herbaceous plants (persistent- and
                                         nonpersistent-emergent wetlands); or sub-
                                         mersed and (or) floating plants (aquatic beds).
                                         Also, intermittently to permanently flooded
                                         open-water bodies of less than 20 acres in which
                                         water is less than 6.6 feet deep.
                Lacustrine  ................. Wetlands within an intermittently to permanently
                                         flooded lake or reservoir. Vegetation, when pres-
                                         ent, is predominantly nonpersistent emergent
                                         plants (non pe rsistent-emergent wetlands), or         Figure 1. Palustrine wetland in the Sand Lake National Wildlife
                                         submersed and (or) floating plants (aquatic            Refuge. This refuge encompasses about 22,000 acres (mostly
                                         beds), or both.                                        palustrine and lacustrine wetlands) and is an important nesting and
                Riverine  ..................... Wetlands within a channel. Vegetation, when pres- staging area for migratory waterfowl. (Photograph by Bill Schultze,
                                         ent, is same as in the Lacustrine System.              U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service.)








                          352        National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: STATE SUMMARIES



                          hydrologic factors such as precipitation and runoff patterns, evapo-                                   Precipitation and runoff rates in South Dakota differ annually
                          ration, topography, and configuration of the water table. In South                               and with season and location. The normal annual precipitation in
                          Dakota, the dominant factors influencing the distribution of wet-                                South Dakota ranges from about 16 inches in the northwest to about
                          lands are moisture deficit, topography, and composition of surficial                             24 inches in the Black Hills and the southeast (Benson, 1986). About
                          materials.                                                                                       70 percent of annual precipitation occurs during the growing sea-

                              104'                                           102-                                           100.                                           98.









                          45@








                                                                                                                       P



                                                 Rapi     ity
                                                                                               d













                       43@


                                         A            WETLANDS AND DEEPWATER HABITATS
                                                      Distribution of wetlands and deepwater habitats-
                                                          This ma p shows the approximate distribution of large                                                    0         25           50 MILE  S
                                                          wetlands in the State. Because of limitations of scale                                                   i      .   I  I
                                                          and source material, some wetlands are not shown                                                         0     25     50 KILOMETERS

                                                              Predominantly wetland

                                                              Predominantly cleepwater habitat

                                                              Area typified by a high density of small wetlands











                                                                                         Central
                                                     Great           1,         1;
                                                          plans                             Lowland



                                 Black
                                 Hills



                                     B         PHYSIOGRAPHIC DIVISIONS                                                                C             GLACIATION

                                                                                                                                                         Glacial extent during
                                                                                                                                                           most recent glacial
                                                                                                                                                           maximum


                          Figure 2. Wetland distribution in South Dakota and physical features that control wetland distribution in the State. A, Distribution of
                          wetlands and deepwater habitats. 8, Physiography. C, Extent of most recent glaciation. (Sources: A, TE. Dahl, U.S. Fish and Wildlife
                          Service, unpub. data, 1991. B, Physiographic divisions from Fenneman, 1946; landform data from EROS Data Center C, South Dakota
                          Geological Survey, 1971).







                                                                                         National Water Summary@Wetland Resources: SOUTH DAKOTA                353



               son (May through October). The average annual runoff ranges from            of water on the surface and extensive ponding, (3) low permeabil-
               about 0.2 inch in the northwest to about 2 inches in the Black Hills.       ity of the geologic materials (soils and fine-grained glacial till) re-
               A large percentage of runoff occurs as a result of snowmelt and             sults in minimal infiltration of water, and (4) in the spring, when
               rainfall in the spring and early summer. Precipitation and snowmelt         most of the annual precipitation and runoff occurs, frozen soils fur-
               runoff are the principal water sources for prairie pothole wetlands         ther restrict infiltration of water and cause the water to pond (Win-
               (Shjeflo, 1968).                                                            ter, 1989). About 90 percent of the wetland area of the glaciated
                    Annual lake evaporation in South Dakota ranges from about              eastern part of South Dakota is associated with prairie ponds and
               38 inches in the northeast to about 48 inches in the southwest              lakes (primarily palustrine emergent wetlands); the remaining 10
               (Benson, 1986). About 75 percent of the annual evaporation occurs           percent is divided between riverine wetlands and those associated
               during the growing season. In South Dakota, evaporation exceeds             with stock ponds or dugouts (Ruwaldt and others, 1979).
               precipitation in most years, and there is a net statewide annual                  Ground-water interactions with palustrine wetlands in the prai-
               moisture deficit that ranges from about 20 inches along the eastern         rie region can be complex (Winter, 1989). The flat topography pro-
               border of the State to about 32 inches in the southwest. Evapora-           vides opportunity for infiltration, but the impermeable substrate
               tion is the principal source of water loss from prairie pothole wet-        inhibits infiltration. Because the glacial till in eastern South Da-
               lands (Shjeflo, 1968).                                                      kota generally is composed of fine-grained materials and has a high
                    Climatic, topographic, and hydrologic characteristics differ           smectite-clay content, it expands greatly on wetting and becomes
               among and sometimes within physiographic provinces. The two                 impermeable (Hubbard and others, 1988). Water can flow through
               major physiographic provinces in South Dakota (fig. 2B), the Great          fractures in the till; but even where fractures occur, permeability is
               Plains and the Central Lowland, generally have very different hy-           low (Winter, 1989; Grisak, 1975). Greater interaction between wet-
               drologic settings for wetland formation.                                    lands and ground water can exist in areas of glacial outwash where
                    The Great Plains physiographic province generally is                   lenses of coarser grained, more permeable materials exist (Lewis
               unglaciated, and the natural drainage system is well developed.             Howells, U.S. Geological Survey, oral commun., 1993). However,
               Steeper topography, a better developed drainage system, and a gen-          interaction between wetlands and ground water in eastern South
               erally more and climate are factors that result in substantially fewer      Dakota generally is small and typically accounts for about 5 to 25
               wetlands in the Great Plains than in the Central Lowland in eastern         percent of water exchange (Winter and Woo, 1990).
               South Dakota. Wetlands in the Great Plains occur primarily in as-                 Hubbard (1988a) and Winter (1989) have discussed a general
               sociation with manmade stock ponds and perennial and ephemeral              model of ground-water flow systems underlying prairie wetlands
               streams (Brewster and others, 1976; Ruwaldt and others, 1979).              (fig. 3). A local flow system (of which most shallow ground water
               Most of the wetland areas associated with perennial streams are             is a part) occurs where ground water moves from an adjacent up-
               classified as riverine, whereas those associated with ephemeral             land into a wetland or between adjacent wetlands. Intermediate flow
               streams generally arc palustrine because of the presence of emer-           systems generally underlie local flow systems, and water flowing
               gent plants (Hubbard, 1988a). Wetlands associated with stock ponds          in intermediate flow systems may pass under some streams and
               and dugouts generally are classified as palustrine or lacustrine.           wetlands. Regional flow systems underlie both local and interme-
               About 60 percent of the wetlands in the unglaciated western part            diate systems and discharge at major topographic lows such as large
               of South Dakota occur in association with stock ponds. Although             rivers, lakes, and wetlands. Factors that determine which ground-
               several studies have indicated that stock ponds do not equal natural        water flow systems a prairie pothole wetland is interacting with
               wetlands in habitat quality, the stock ponds provide valuable habi-         include the topographic setting, position of the water table, thick-
               tat for plants and animals, especially during drought (Duebbert,            ness and hydraulic characteristics of the aquifer material, and the
               1972; Flake, 1979). A small part of the Great Plains lies east of the       configuration of the underlying bedrock (Hubbard and others,
               Missouri River in a glaciated region known as the Missouri Coteau.          1988).
               Prairie pothole wetlands are common in this region.                               Depending on their location within the local, intermediate, and
                    In the glaciated Central Lowland, several factors result in re-        regional ground-water flow systems, individual wetlands can serve
               tention of water on the land surface and the occurrence of numer-           as discharge areas, recharge areas, or both (flow-through wetlands).
               ous prairie pothole wetlands: (1) the generally flat topography re-         In the prairie pothole region, wetland water quality is affected by
               sults in a poorly developed drainage system and low runoff veloci-          the interaction between wetlands and ground water: recharge wet-
               ties, (2) depressions in the glaciated topography result in retention       lands tend to have low dissolved-solids concentrations, discharge


                                                                                                                                      EXPLANATION
                       PALUSTRINE WETLANDS                                                                                                  Direction of ground-water
                                                                                                                                              flow
                                             i2                  PALUSTRINE WETLANDS
                                                                                                                                            Average water table
                                                                                               PALUSTRINE WETLANDS
                                                                                                                                       C;   Scrub-shrub vegetation
               A_@                                                                                               RIVERINE WETLAND
                                                                                                            L

                                                                                                                        E
                                                                                                                                            Trees


                                                           Local fjol,,
                                                                                                                                            Emergent vegetation

                                  Glacial drift        In
                                                       ____         W Syster,            Glacial drift
                                                       Avion all fit ow -,
                                                                   ,t.m





               Figure 3. Generalized hydrologic setting of South Dakota wetlands. (Source: Hydrologic concepts from Winter 1989.)








                                  354         National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: STATE SUMMARIES



                                  wetlands tend to have high dis solved- solids concentrations, and                                                          Tablel. Selected wetland-related activities of government
                                  flow-through wetlands tend to have intertnediate dissolved- solids                                                         agencies and private organizations in South Dakota, 1993
                                  concentrations (LaBaugh and others, 1987; Hubbard and others,                                                              [Source: Classification of activities is generalized from information provided
                                  1988). There can be seasonal reversals in the direction of water                                                                by agencies and organizations. e, agency or organization participates in
                                  exchange between a wetland and the ground water (Winter, t989).                                                                 wetland-related activity; ..., agency or organization does not participate in
                                                                                                                                                                  wetland-related activity. MAN, management; REG, regulation; R&C, res-
                                  In spring, water can seep from a wetland to the ground water when                                                               toration and creation; LAN, land acquisition; R&D, research and data col-
                                  wetland water levels are high and can then reverse later in summer                                                              lection; D&I, delineation and inventory)
                                  as evapotranspiration creates a discharge point for ground water.
                                  Although recharge of water from individual wetlands to the inter-
                                  mediate and regional ground-water flow system generally is small,                                                          Agency or organization
                                  on a regional basis the total contribution of recharge from prairie                                                        FEDERAL
                                  pothole wetlands to deep aquifers might be substantial (Winter,                                                            Department of Agriculture
                                  1989).                                                                                                                       Consolidated Farm Service Agency                 ................. ......... ...      ... ...        ... ...
                                          Wetlands also significantly affect the surface-water hydrology                                                       Forest Service        ..................................................................0            0      0
                                  of eastern South Dakota. The glacial depressions retain runoff, ef-                                                          Natural Resources Conservation Service                    ................ ...
                                                                                                                                                             Department of Commerce
                                  fectively reduce the contributing drainage area of a drainage basin,                                                         National Oceanic and
                                  and result in attenuation of flood peaks (Hubbard, 1988a; Hubbard                                                            Atmospheric Administration              ........................................ ... ...
                                  and Linder, 1986). Antecedent moisture conditions affect the ca-                                                           Department of Defense
                                  pacity of prairie pothole wetlands to retain runoff.                                                                         Army Corps of Engineers             ..............................................
                                                                                                                                                               Military reservations               ..................................................... . ... ...
                                                                                                                                                             Department ofthe Interior
                                  TRENDS                                                                                                                       Bureau of Land Management                 ......................................e
                                                                                                                                                               Bureau of Reclamation               ................................................. ... ...
                                          The Fws has estimated that, from the 1780's to the 1980's,                                                           Fish and Wildlife Service           ..............................................
                                  wetland area in South Dakota decreased by about 35 percent-from                                                              Geological Survey          ..........................................................
                                  about 2.7 million to about 1.8 million acres (Dahl, 1990). Histori-                                                          National Biological Service            ......................................... ... ... ... ...
                                  cally, agricultural conversions have accounted for most wetland                                                              National Park Service               ...................................................*-0   *
                                                                                                                                                             Environmental Protection Agency                .................................. ...
                                  losses in South Dakota. Kantrud, Millar, and van der Valk (1989)                                                           TRIBAL
                                  discussed the effects of agricultural disturbances in wetlands in the                                                      Cheyenne River Sioux Tribe            .............................................0
                                  prairie pothole region. In cropland areas, wetland losses have re-                                                         Crow Creek Sioux Tribe                .....................................................0
                                  sulted from tilling for crop production and from draining and fill-                                                        Lower Brule Sioux Tribe               ....................................................9
                                  ing to increase crop-producing land area and to avoid the inconve-                                                         Oglala Sioux Tribe       ...............................................................0
                                                                                                                                                             Rosebud Sioux Tribe          ..........................................................0
                                  nience of maneuvering farm machinery around wet spots. High                                                                Sisseton-Wahpoton Sioux Tribe               .....................................*
                                  erosion rates in agricultural areas due to exposed soils in cropland                                                       Standing Rock Sioux Tribe             .................................................
                                  areas and overgrazed parts of range and pastureland areas also have                                                        Yankton Sioux Tribe        ............................................................*
                                  contributed to wetland degradation and loss.                                                                               STATE
                                          Other practices that have had an adverse effect on South Da-                                                       Department of Agriculture             ............................................... ... ...
                                                                                                                                                             Department of Environment and
                                  kota wetlands include inundation of wetlands during reservoir fill-                                                        Natural Resources         ............................................................. ...
                                  ing, timber harvesting, dugout construction (for livestock watering)                                                       Department of Game, Fish and Parks                 ............................*
                                  in existing wetlands, and contamination from inadequately treated                                                          Department of Transportation             .........................................*
                                  sewage and industrial waste. In urban areas, wetlands have been                                                            State universities       ............................................................... ... ...
                                  drained and filled for residential and commercial expansion. Stream                                                        PRIVATE ORGANIZATIONS
                                  channelization and road construction have adversely affected wet-                                                          Ducks Unlimited        ..................................................................
                                                                                                                                                             The National Wildlife Federation             ....................................
                                  lands directly by draining wetlands within construction areas and                                                          The Nature Conservancy                ..................  ___ .................
                                  indirectly by providing convenient drainage outlets that encourage
                                  unauthorized wetland drainage by adjacent landowners (Erickson                                                             bitions and incentives that are intended to slow wetland losses. Some
                                  and others, 1979; Smith and others, 1989).                                                                                 ofthe more important ofthese are contained in the 1899 Rivers and
                                          Some land-use practices have created new wetlands or enlarged                                                      Harbors Act; the 1972 Clean Water Act and amendments; the 1985
                                  existing ones. Seepage associated with distribution and application                                                        Food Security Act; the 1990 Food, Agriculture, Conservation, and
                                  of irrigation water has increased wetland acreage, especially on the                                                       Trade Act; and the 1986 Emergency Wetlands Resources Act.
                                  large Bureau of Reclamation (BOR) irrigation projects in western                                                                   Section 10 of the Rivers and Harbors Act gives the U.S. Army
                                  South Dakota (primarily Belle Fourche and Angostura Reservoirs).                                                           Corps of Engineers (Corps) authority to regulate certain activities
                                  In many parts of South Dakota, flowing artesian wells constructed                                                          in navigable waters. Regulated activities include diking, deepening,
                                  for livestock watering or fish production have increased wetland                                                           filling, excavating, and placing of structures. The related section 404
                                  area. Stock ponds and dugouts constructed for livestock watering                                                           of the Clean Water Act is the most often-used Federal legislation
                                  constitute an important part of South Dakota wetlands, especially                                                          protecting wetlands. Under section 404 provisions, the Corps issues
                                  in the unglaciated western part of the State. Reservoir construction                                                       permits regulating the discharge of dredged or fill material into
                                  has undoubtedly increased the acreage of lacustrine wetlands.                                                              wetlands. Permits are subject to review and possible veto by the U.S.
                                                                                                                                                             Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), and the FWS has review and
                                  CONSERVATION                                                                                                               advisory roles. Section 401 of the Clean Water Act grants to States
                                                                                                                                                             and eligible Indian Tribes the authority to approve, apply conditions
                                          Many govemment agencies and private organizations partici-                                                         to, or deny section 404 permit applications on the basis of a pro-
                                  pate in wetland conservation in South Dakota. The most active agen-                                                        posed activity's probable effects on the water quality of a wetland.
                                  cies and organizations and some of their activities are listed in table                                                           Most farming, ranching, and silviculture activities are not sub-
                                  I .                                                                                                                        ject to section 404 regulation. However, the "Swampbuster" provi-
                                          Federal wetland activities. -Development activities in South                                                       sion of the 1985 Food Security Act and amendments in the 1990
                                  Dakota wetlands are regulated by several Federal statutory prohi-                                                          Food, Agriculture, Conservation, and Trade Act discourages








                                                                                          National Water Surnmary-Wetland Resources: SOUTH DAKOTA                355



               (through financial disincentives) the draining, filling, or other al-        ing developed by the BOR (Rick Nelson, Bureau of Reclamation, oral
               teration of wetlands for agricultural use. The law allows exemptions         commun., 1993). The BOR has been involved in wetlands creation
               from penalties in some cases, especially if the farmer agrees to             on its jurisdictional land, but there are no estimates of total acres
               restore the altered wetland or other wetlands that have been con-            involved,
               verted to agricultural use. The Wetlands Reserve Program of the                    Tribal wetland activities. -There are eight Indian reservations
               1990 Food, Agriculture, Conservation, and Trade Act authorizes the           in South Dakota, and the different tribes have varying levels of in-
               Federal Government to purchase conservation easements from land-             volvement in wetland management and enhancement on their lands.
               owners who agree to protect or restore wetlands. The Consolidated            Most of the tribes are developing wetland-managcment plans for
               Farm Service Agency (formerly the Agricultural Stabilization and             their reservations, and four tribes are participating financially with
               Conservation Service) administers the Swampbuster provisions and             the FWS in wetland-creation programs on tribal lands.
               Wet-lands Reserve Program. The Natural Resources Conservation                      State wetland activities. -Although South Dakota currently
               Service (formerly the Soil Conservation Service) determines com-             (1993) has no comprehensive wetland-protection program, the State
               pliance with Swampbuster provisions and assists farmers in the iden-         is developing a wetland policy. The State, with the assistance of an
               tification of wetlands and in the development of wetland protection,         EPA grant, has created a wetlands -coordinator position whose re-
               restoration, or creation plans.                                              sponsibility it is to develop a wetland-protection program. The po-
                     The 1986 Emergency Wetlands Resources Act encourages                   sition is within the South Dakota Department of Agriculture under
               wetland protection through funding incentives. The act requires              the oversight of a committee that has members from four State agen-
               States to address wetland protection in their Statewide Comprehen-           cies: the Department of Agriculture; the Department of Game, Fish
               sive Outdoor Recreation Plans to qualify for Federal funding for             and Parks; the Department of Environment and Natural Resources;
               State recreational land; the National Park Service (NPS) provides            and the Department of Transportation.
               guidance to States in developing the wetland component of their                    Several State agencies participate in aspects of Federal pro-
               plans.                                                                       grams, and wetlands are enhanced or protected under some State
                     Federal agencies are responsible for the proper management             programs. The Department of Game, Fish and Parks has diverse
               of wetlands on public land under their j Lirisdiction and also are in-       wetland responsibilities under the mission statement of the Divi-
               volved in other wetland-enhancement and protection activities. With          sion of Wildlife: to manage South Dakota's wildlife and fisheries
               the mission to conserve, protect, and enhance fish and wildlife popu-        resources and their associated habitats for their sustained and eq-
               lations and their habitats, the FWS is perhaps the most active Fed-          uitable use and for the benefit, welfare, and enjoyment of the citi-
               eral agency in wetlands management and protection in South Da-               zens of South Dakota and its visitors. Specific activities of the agency
               kota. The FWS manages about 47,000 acres in six National Wildlife            include providing technical advice regarding effects on fish, wild-
               Refuges that are predominantly wetlands, and about 146,000 acres             life, and habitat for section 404 permit applications; providing tech-
               in numerous waterfowl-production areas in the eastern part of the            nical expertise to the Department of Transportation to mitigate
               State. The FWS protects wetlands on private lands through its Wet-           wetland impacts from road-construction activities; being actively
               lands Easement Program, in which private landowners agree not to             involved in educational programs to teach landowners and school-
               drain, bum, level, or fill specified wetlands in exchange for mon-           age children the importance of wetland habitats; managing State-
               etary payment. About 500,000 acres of wetlands are protected by              owned recreational and wildlife-production lands to protect and
               this program. The FWS also is involved in a program to construct             maintain wetland areas; and acquiring new land for wetland pro-
               3,000 acres of new wetlands on private and Indian-reservation lands          tection.
               in South Dakota (Carl Madsen, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service,                      The Department of Environment and Natural Resources' Di-
               written commun., 1993).                                                      vision of Environmental Regulation reviews section 404 permit
                     The U.S. Forest Service (FS) manages about 2.1 million acres           applications to ensure compliance with State water-quality laws. A
               in three National Forests and three National Grasslands in South             permit is not issued by the Corps without a Clean Water Act sec-
               Dakota. The Fs is in the process of compiling estimates of wetlands          tion 401 certification of such compliance. Pursuant to section 305(b)
               and other riparian areas on their jurisdictional lands in South Da-          of the Clean Water Act, the Department's Division of Water Re-
               kota. A preliminary estimate is that about I percent Of FS lands are         sources Management submits to the EPA and the U.S. Congress a
               wetlands or other riparian areas (Barry Parrish, U.S. Forest Service,        biennial assessment of the State's surface-water quality, including
               oral commun., 1993). The Fs also is involved in wetland-creation             that of wetlands. The Department's Division of Geological Survey
               activities on their land.                                                    and Division of Water Resources collects wetland hydrologic and
                     The Bureau of Land Management (BLM) manages about                      water-quality data.
               273,000 acres in South Dakota, of which about 1,560 acres are in                   The Department of Transportation attempts to mitigate and
               riparian areas (Eric Luse, Bureau of Land Management, oral                   minimize impacts to wetlands that result from its road-construction
               commum., 1993). The FS and the BLM have riparian-area manage-                activities. The Department is the most frequent applicant for sec-
               ment plans whose goals include restoring, maintaining, and protect-          tion 404 permits and avoids wetland alteration unless there is no
               ing riparian areas; educating the public concerning the importance           feasible alternative. When wetland alteration is considerable, new
               of healthy riparian areas; and cooperating with private landown-             wetland areas equal to or greater than the size of the losses typi-
               ers, resource users, and other Federal agencies in the protection of         cally are created within the project area. When orisite mitigation is
               riparian areas (Bureau of Land Management, 1991). The NPS man-               not possible, a Wetlands Bank program is used to create new wet-
               ages about 274,000 acres in two National Parks, one National Monu-           lands outside the project area that are equal to or greater than the
               ment, and one National Memorial in South Dakota, but currently               size of the altered wetland.
               there are no estimates of wetland acreage on those lands.                          State universities in South Dakota, including South Dakota
                   . The BOR has jurisdiction over about 63,500 acres in South              State University, Northern State University, and the South Dakota
               Dakota, including land in existing irrigation projects and land in           School of Mines and Technology, are active in wetlands research.
               proposed, but not yet constructed, projects (Loren Hindbjorgen,              South Dakota State University participates in the National Wetlands
               Bureau of Reclamation, oral commun., 1993). Currently, there are             Inventory program of the FWs and is coordinating an EPA-funded
               no estimates of wetland acreage on BOR lands in the State. The BOR           study of the effects of global climate change on wetlands in the
               does not have a specific wetland-management plan, but a wetland              United States (Carter Johnson, South Dakota State University, writ-
               and riparian-habitat element is being included in an initiative be-          ten commun., 1993).








                        356      National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: STATE SUMMARIES



                              Private wetland activities. -Ducks Unlimited owns about                          _1988b, Using your wetland for forage: South Dakota State Univer-
                        2,000 acres and manages those lands for wetlands enhancement                                 sity, Department of Wildlife and Fisheries Sciences, 4 p.
                        (Rick Warhurst, Ducks Unlimited, oral commun., 1993). The organ-                       Hubbard, D.E., and Linder, R.L., 1986, Spring runoff retention in prairie
                        ization also has participated in cost-shared purchases ofabout 2, 100                        pothole wetlands: Journal of Soil and Water Conservation, v. 41,
                        wetland acres with the Department of Game, Fish and Parks and                                p. 122-125.
                                                                                                               Hubbard, D.E., Richardson, J.L., and Malo, D.D., 1988, Glaciated prairie
                        has implemented wetland creation, restoration, and enhancement                               wetlands - Soils, hydrology, and land-use implications in Kusler, J.A.,
                        projects on about 9,500 acres of State or federally owned lands. The                         and Brooks, eds., Proceedings of the National Wetland Hydrology
                        National Wildlife Federation is active in educating the public con-                          Symposium, September, 1987: Chicago, Ill., Association of State
                        cerning wetland issues and has shared costs of land purchases with                           Wetland Managers Technical Report 6, p. 137-143.
                        the Department of Game, Fish and Parks and the Fws (Dan Limmer,                        Kantrud, H.A., Krapu, G.L., and Swanson, G.A., 1989, Prairie basin wet-
                        National Wildlife Federation, oral commun., 1993). The Nature                                lands of the Dakotas -A community profile: U. S. Fish and Wildl ife
                        Conservancy owns about 8,000 acres of wetlands in South Dakota                               Service Biological Report 85(7.28).
                        and is active in monitoring and protecting endangered species on                       Kantrud, H.A., Millar, J.B., and van der Valk, A.G., 1989, Vegetation of
                        those lands (Joe Satrom, The Nature Conservancy, oral commun.,                               wetlands in the prairie pothole region, in van der Valk, A.G., ed.,
                                                                                                                     Northern prairie wetlands: Ames, Iowa State University Press, p. 132-
                        1993). Other organizations that participate in wetland-protection                            197.
                        activities in the State include the Izaak Walton League, the National                  Kramlich, T.J., 1985, Evaluation of seasonal habitat use by white-tailed deer
                        Audubon Society, and the Sierra Club. The South Dakota Associa-                              in eastern South Dakota: Brookings, South Dakota State University,
                        tion of Conservation Districts (an organization closely associated                           Masters thesis, 36 p.
                        with the South Dakota Department of Agriculture) also has been                         LaBaugh, JW., Winter, TC., Adomaitis, V.A., and Swanson, G.A., 1987,
                        involved in wetlands enhancement, with most of the 69 conserva-                              Hydrology and chemistry of selected prairie wetlands in the Cotton-
                        tion districts in the State participating financially in wetland-cre-                        wood Lake area, Stutsman County, North Dakota: U.S. Geological
                        ation programs of the FWS.                                                                   Survey Professional Paper 1431, 26 p.
                                                                                                               Ruwaldt, J.J., Flake, L.D., and Gates, J.M., 1979, Waterfowl pair use of
                                                                                                                     natural and man-made wetlands in South Dakota: Journal of Wildlife
                        References Cited                                                                             Management, v. 43, p. 375-383.
                                                                                                               Sather-Blair, Signe, and Linder, R.L., 1980, Pheasant use of South Dakota
                        Benson, R.D., 1986, South Dakota surface-water resources, in National                        wetlands during the winter: Proceedings of the South Dakota Acad-
                              water summary 1985-Hydrologic events and surface-water re-                             emy of Sciences, v. 59, p. 147-155.
                              sources: U.S. Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper 2300, p. 419-                 Shjeflo, J.B., 1968, Evapotranspiration and the water budget of prairie pot-
                              424.                                                                                   holes in North Dakota: U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper
                        Brewster, W.G., Gates, J.M., Flake, L.D., 1976, Breeding waterfowl popu-                     585-B, 49 p.
                              lations and their distribution in South Dakota: The Journal of Wild-             Smith, B.J., Browers, H.W., Dahl, T.E., Nomsen, D.E., and Higgins, K.F.,
                              life Management, v. 40, p. 50-59.                                                      1989, Indirect wetland drainage in association with Federal highway
                        Bureau of Land Management, 1991, Riparian-wetland initiative for the                         projects in the prairie pothole region: Wetlands, v. 9, p. 27-39.
                              1990's: Bureau of Land Management Report BLM[WO/GI-91/                           Soil Conservation Service, 1985, Duck and pheasant use of water bank pro-
                              00 1 +4340, 50 p.                                                                      gram agreement areas in east-central South Dakota: Soil Conserva-
                        Carlson B.N., and Berry, C.R., 1990, Population size and economic value                      tion Service, 67 p.
                              of aquatic bait species in palustrine wetlands of eastern South Dakota:          South Dakota Geological Survey, 197 1, Generalized glacial map of South
                              Prairie Naturalist, v. 22, p. 119 -128.                                                Dakota: South Dakota Geological Survey Educational Series, Map 2,
                        Cowardin, L.M., Carter, Virginia, Golet, F.C., and LaRoe, E.T., 1979, Clas-                  I sheet.
                              sification of wetlands and deepwater habitats ofthe UnitedStates: U.S.           Stewart, R.E., and Kantrud, H.A., 197 1, Classification of natural ponds and
                              Fish and Wildlife Service, FWS/OBS-79/31, 131 p.                                       lakes in the glaciated prairie region: U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service
                        Dahl, T.E., 1990, Wetlands-Losses in the United States, 1780's to 1980's:                    Resource Publication 92, 57 p.
                              Washington, D.C., U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Report to Congress,             Winter, T.C., 1989, Hydrologic studies of wetlands in the Northern Prairie,
                              13 p.                                                                                  in van der Valk, A.G., ed., Northern prairie wetlands: Ames, Iowa State
                        Duebbert, H.F., 1972, Ducks on stock ponds in north central South Dakota,                    University Press, p. 16 - 54,
                              in Miller, H.W., ed., Wildlife on man-made water areas -Reports and              Winter, T.C., and Woo, M.K., 1990, Hydrology of lakes and wetlands, in
                              discussions at the second seminar, April 15 -16, 1970, Jamestown, N.                   Wolman M.G., and Riggs, H.C., eds., The Geology of North America,
                              Dak.: U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Northern Prairie Wildlife Re-                    Surface water hydrology: Boulder, Colo., Geological Society of
                              search Center, p. 33-35.                                                               America, v. 0-1, p. 159-187.
                        Erickson, R.E., Linder, R.L., and Harmon, K.W., 1979, Stream
                              channelization (P.L. 83-566) increased wetland losses in the Dako-
                              tas: The Wildlife Society Bulletin, v. 7, p. 71-78.                              FOR ADDITIONAL INFORMATION: District Chief, U.S. Geological
                        Fermeman, N.M., 1946, Physical divisions of the United States: Washing-                Survey, 1608 Mountain View Road, Rapid City, SD 57702; Regional Wet-
                              ton, D.C., U.S. Geological Survey special map, scale 1:7,000,000.                land Coordinator, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Fish and Wildlife Enhance-
                        Flake, L.D., 1979, Wetland diversity and waterfowl, in Greeson, P.E., Clark,           ment, P.O. Box 25486, Denver Federal Center, Denver, CO 80225
                              J.R., and Clark, J.E., eds., Proceedings of the National Symposium
                              on Wetlands, November 1978: Minneapolis, Minn., American Water
                              Resources Association, p. 312-319.                                                                               Prepared by
                        Grisak, G.E., 1975, The fracture porosity of glacial till: Canadian Journal                                         Steven K. Sando,
                              of Earth Science, v. 12, p. 513 -515.                                                                     U.S. Geological Survey
                        Hubbard, D.E., 1988a, Glaciated prairie wetlands functions and values-
                              A synthesis of the literature: U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Biologi-
                              cal Report 88(43), 50 p.









                                                                            U.S. Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper 2425








                                                                                                                                                                                National Water Summary-Wetland Resources 357

                                                                                                                                                                                                   Tennessee
                                                                                                                                                                                  Wetland Resources
                        Recent surveys have indicated that Tennessee has between 640,000                                                                  Palustrine System. -Palustrine wetlands are the predominant
                        and 787,000 acres of wetlands (Tennessee Department of Conser-                                                            wetlands in Tennessee. Most of these wetlands are in the Coastal
                        vation, 1988; Dahl, 1990). Another recent, unpublished survey de-                                                         Plain in the western part of the State along alluvial flood plains of
                        termined that the State might have as much as 1.4 million acres of                                                        the Mississippi River and its tributaries (fig. 2A and 2B). Tennessee's
                        wetlands (D.L. Porter, Tennessee Valley Authority, written commun.,                                                       palustrine wetlands include bottom-land hardwood forests and up-
                        1993). Although wetlands constitute a small percentage of Tenn-                                                           land swamps (forested wetlands), scrub-shrub wetlands, beaver
                        essee's total area, wetlands, such as the bottom-land hardwood forest                                                     ponds (unconsolidated-bottom, aquatic-bed, or emergent wetlands),
                        shown in figure 1, are ecologically and economically important to                                                         wet meadows and marshes (emergent wetlands), and highland bogs
                        the State.                                                                                                                (forested, scrub-shrub, or emergent wetlands that have organic
                                The benefits of Tennessee's wetlands include enhanced water                                                       soils).
                        quality, fish and wildlife productivity, and socioeconomic values.                                                                Bottom-land hardwood forests are the most common wetlands
                        Wetlands enhance water quality by filtering nutrients, wastes, and                                                        in Tennessee. These forests have formed primarily in the flat flood
                        sediment from upland runoff. Fish and wildlife benefit from the                                                           plains along streams that drain into the Mississippi and Tennessee
                        abundance of habitat and food that wetlands provide. More than 95                                                         Rivers in western Tennessee. Unaltered bottom-land hardwood-for-
                        plant, 65 mollusk, and 44 vertebrate species listed by the State as                                                       est wetlands in western Tennessee typically contain bald cypress,
                        rare are found in Tennessee's wetlands (Tennessee Department of                                                           water tupelo, oaks, sweet gum, red and silver maple, river birch, box
                        Conservation, 1988). Socioeconomic values of wetlands include                                                             elder, and green ash (Hupp, 1992). Scrub-shrub wetlands are present
                        flood-damage reduction through temporary storage of floodwaters,                                                          along downstream reaches of channelized streams in western Ten-
                        erosion control, and, in a few areas, ground-water recharge. Ten-                                                         nessee. These areas support dense thickets of buttonbush and alder.
                        nessee wetlands also provide economically important recreational
                        opportunities, such as hunting, fishing, boating, wildlife photogra-
                        phy, hiking, and bird watching for residents and tourists.


                        TYPES AND DISTRIBUTION

                                Wetlands are lands transitional between terrestrial and deep-
                        water habitats where the water table usually is at or near the land                                                                                    Q
                        surface or the land is covered by shallow water (Cowardin and oth-
                        ers, 1979). The distribution of wetlands and deepwater habitats in
                        Tennessee is shown in figure 2A; only wetlands are discussed herein.
                                Wetlands can be vegetated or nonvegetated and are classified
                        on the basis of their hydrology, vegetation, and substrate. In this
                        summary, wetlands are classified according to the system proposed
                        by Cowardin and others (1979), which is used by the U.S. Fish and
                        Wildlife Service (FWS) to map and inventory the Nation's wetlands.
                        At the most general level of the classification system, wetlands are
                        grouped into five ecological systems: Palustrine, Lacustrine, Riv-
                        erine, Estuarine, and Marine. The Palustrine System includes only
                                                                                                                                                                                                           lot_-            J
                        wetlands, whereas the other systems comprise wetlands and
                        deepwater habitats. Wetlands of the systems that occur in Tennes-
                        see are described below.



                        System                                                      Wetland description

                        Palustrine      ...... ........   Wetlands in which vegetation is predominantly
                                                              trees (forested wetlands); shrubs (scrub-shrub
                                                              wetlands); persistent or nonpersistent emergent,
                                                              erect, rooted, herbaceous plants (persistent- and
                                                              nonpersistent-emergent wetlands); or sub-
                                                              mersed and (or) floating plants (aquatic beds).
                                                              Also, intermittently to permanently flooded                                         Figurel. Forested wetland along the Hatch ie
                                                              open-water bodies of less than 20 acres in which                                    River in western Tennessee. (Photograph by Cliff
                                                              water is less than 6.6 feet deep.                                                   R. Hupp, U.S. Geological Survey.)
                        Lacustrine       ................. Wetlands within an intermittently to permanently
                                                              flooded lake or reservoir. Vegetation, when pres-                                           Isolated forested wetlands known locally as upland swamps are
                                                              ent, is predominantly nonpersistent emergent                                        found in the Highland Rim, Central Basin, Cumberland Plateau,
                                                              plants (nonpersistent-emergent wetlands), or
                                                              submersed and (or) floating plants (aquatic                                         Valley and Ridge, and Blue Ridge Provinces. The predominant trees
                                                              beds), or both.                                                                     in upland swamps are sweet gum, sycamore, and species of oak,
                        Riverine     ..................... Wetlands with in a channel. Vegetation, when pres-                                     willow, and maple. Anderson Pond (72 acres), Cedar Hill Swamp
                                                              ent, is same as in the Lacustrine System.                                           (207 acres), and Mingo Swamp (563 acres), located in the High-









                     358    National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: STATE SUMMARIES



                     land Rim, are examples of upland swamps. Each represents land-             HYDROLOGIC SETTING
                     forms that were once commonplace and have been recommended
                     for consideration as National Natural Landmarks (Ellis and Chester,               Wetland hydrology is a complex interaction of local and re-
                     1989).                                                                     gional factors, including topography, climate, soil characteristics,
                            Beaver ponds, typically associated with flood plains, are           and geology. Wetlands typically form along the margins of rivers
                     present throughout the State. As beavers impound water in a hot-           and lakes that are subject to flooding and in depressions where the
                     tom-land area, many of the less flood-tolerant trees are killed, thus      water table is at or near the land surface. Some wetlands form on
                     opening the canopy and allowing for growth of herbaceous vegeta-           highland slopes and are associated with ground-water-discharge
                     tion. The vegetation, which is determined by factors such as the age       points such as springs or seeps.
                     of the pond, topography, and soil characteristics, commonly includes              Tennessee has a diverse topography, ranging from rolling hills
                     cattails and sedges. The acreage of Tennessee wetlands attributable        and broad flood plains in the Coastal Plain in western Tennessee to
                     to beaver activity is unknown (Arner and Hepp, 1989).                      the mountains and valleys in the cast. Annual precipitation averages
                            Wet meadows are most common in the western and central              about 50 inches statewide and ranges from approximately 47 inches
                     parts of Tennessee. Grasses, sedges, and rushes are the predomi-           in the west to 80 inches in the mountains in the east. About 20 per-
                     nant plants. These wetlands typically are covered by shallow water         cent of the precipitation infiltrates into the ground to recharge the
                     for only short periods during the growing season, typically after          State's aquifers. Average annual runoff ranges from approximately
                     heavy rains. In dry years, wet meadows may be grazed by cattle.            18 to 40 inches. During winter and spring, when evapotranspira-
                     Such grazing generally alters the vegetation community.                    tion is low, flooding is common. The abundance of water in the State
                            Freshwater marshes exist throughout Tennessee. Freshwater           enhances the potential for wetland development and persistence.
                     marshes, vegetated primarily by smartweed and southern wild rice,                 The structure and function of Tennessee's bottom-land hard-
                     can be found along the shores of 15,500-acre Reelfoot Lake, a res-         wood-forest wetlands are determined primarily by the hydrologic
                     ervoir in northwestern Tennessee. Extensive freshwater marshes also        regime of the State's rivers. Annual flooding for as long as 60 days
                     are present along the shores of the Tennessee River.                       in winter and early spring is typical of Tennessee's larger river sys-
                            Highland bogs have formed in the Valley and Ridge Province          tems such as the Tennessee, Hatchie, and Mississippi (Carter and
                     of eastern Tennessee. Sedges, ferns, and manna grass are typical           Burbank, 1978). Rivers of western Tennessee lie almost entirely
                     examples of emergent vegetation in these bogs. Buttonbush and tag          within the nearly flat Coastal Plain and include the Obion, Forked
                     alder (scrub-shrub vegetation) commonly are prevalent, and under           Deer, Hatchie, Loosahatchie, and Wolf. Low stream gradients, which
                     some conditions, red maple and river birch also are present.               contribute to the frequency and severity of flooding, and broad flood
                            Lacustrine and Riverine Systems. -In Tennessee, lakes               plains provide a suitable environment for bottom-land hardwood
                     (mainly reservoirs) and rivers contain mostly deepwater habitat.           forests dominated by trees tolerant of a long dormant season and
                     However, aquatic beds consisting of floating and submersed aquatic         occasional growing-season flooding.
                     plants, such as water lily and coontail, and nonpersistent-emergent               Many streams in western Tennessee have been channelized to
                     wetlands consisting of plants such as pickerelweed and American            enhance drainage of adjacent wetlands (fig. 3), making cultivation
                     lotus are associated with Tennessee's rivers, lakes, and reservoirs.       possible. However, these streams flow through unconsolidated and


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                                                                            -       7--                                                  __77 -

                                                                   0
                            A



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                                               ----------                                              Pa 7'1/J
                                                                            ;JI                        0                                               36-
                                                                                                                                       0 d

                                                   Y

                                                             k

                              -h-C
                            mphis                                                                                                      0     25     50 MILES
                                W.                                                                                                     i   I
                                                                                          MT;    P        sit 00 a                     0  25   50  KILOMETERS
                                                                                                                         35.

                     WETLANDS AND DEEPWATER HABITATS
                     Distribution of wetlands and cleepwater habitats-
                        This map shows the approximate distribution of large
                        wetlands in the State. Because of limitations of scale andB
                        source material, some wetlands are not shown
                     EM     Predominantly wetland                                                                                     E
                     E:1    Predominantly cleepwater habitat                              A                       D                       G
                                                                                                       B




                                                                                PHYSIOGRAPHIC DIVISIONS
                                                                                  A. Coastal Plain Province E. Cumberland Plateau Section
                                                                                  B. western Valley        F. Sequatchie Valley
                                                                                  C. Highland Rim Section  G. Valley and Ridge Province
                                                                                  D. Central Basin         H. Blue Ridge Province

                     Figure 2. Wetland distribution in Tennessee and physiography of the State. A,     Distribution of wetlands and cleepwater habitats. B, Physio-
                     graphy. (Sources: A, TE. Dahl, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, unpub, data, 1991. 13, Physiographic divisions from Fenneman, 1946, and
                     Miller 7974; landforms data from EROS Data Center)









                                                                                                                                                       National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: TENNESSEE                                                       359



                                                                                                                                                     reestablishment of bottom-land hardwood forests takes at least 65
                                                                                                                                                     years (Hupp, 1992). Although agricultural conversions could be
                                                                                                                                                     decreasing, future losses of wetlands might occur as a result of ur-
                                                                                                                                                     ban conversion, transportation construction, and channelization.
                                                                                                                                                     A
                                                                                                                                                       Iso, though wetland losses are most notable in the western part of
                                                                                                                                                     the State, significant losses of upland swamps, freshwater marshes,
                                                                                                                                                     and bottom-land hardwood forests have occurred and could con-
                                                                                                                                                     tinue to occur in middle and eastern Tennessee (Tennessee Depart-
                                                                                                                                                     ment of Conservation, 1988).
                                                                                                                                                            In 1988, the Governor of Tennessee established the Interagency
                                                                                                                                                     Wetlands Committee in response to concerns over the significant
                                                                                                                                                     losses of wetlands, The purpose of this committee is to exchange
                                                                                                                                                     information and coordinate programs of Federal, State, and local
                                                                                                                                                     agencies, conservation organizations, and private landowners to
                                                                                                                                                     manage, conserve, or restore wetlands for beneficial uses.

                         Figure 3.          Channelized creek in western Tennessee. (Photograph                                                      CONSERVATION
                         by Cliff R. Hupp, U.S. Geological Survey)                                                                                          Many government agencies and private organizations partici-
                                                                                                                                                     pate in wetland conservation in Tennessee. The most active agen-
                         erodible alluvial deposits, and channelization causes the streams to                                                        cies and organizations and some of their activities are listed in table
                         erode their channel beds and banks in some reaches, whereas other                                                           I
                         reaches fill with the material eroded from upstream (Robbins and                                                                   Federal wetland activities. -Development activities in Tennes-
                         Simon, 1983; Simon and Hupp, 1992). Thus, channelization has had                                                            see wetlands are regulated by several Federal statutory prohibitions
                         a direct influence on wetland hydrologic processes in Tennessee by                                                          and incentives that are intended to slow wetland losses. Some of the
                         reducing flooding and lowering the water table in upper reaches of                                                          more important of these are contained in the 1899 Rivers and Har-
                         streams but increasing downstream deposition of sediment and                                                                bors Act; the 1972 Clean Water Act and amendments; the 1985 Food
                         contributing to downstream flooding (Shankman and Samson, 199 1;                                                            Security Act; the 1990 Food, Agriculture, Conservation, and Trade
                         Hupp, 1992).                                                                                                                Act; and the 1986 Emergency Wetlands Resources Act.
                                 Isolated wetlands, such as highland bogs and upland swamps,                                                                Section 10 ofthe Rivers and Harbors Act gives the U.S. Army
                         are not associated with streams and typically are formed in lime-                                                           Corps of Engineers (Corps) authority to regulate certain activities
                         stone sinkholes or depressions on stream terraces. These wetlands                                                           in navigable waters. Regulated activities include diking, deepening,
                         rely on direct precipitation and runoff, ground-water discharge, or                                                         filling, excavating, and placing of structures. The related section 404
                         both, to maintain water volume. Whereas water levels associated                                                             of the Clean Water Act is the most often-used Federal legislation
                         with these wetlands fluctuate and can be no more than a few inches
                         deep during dry seasons, complete drying rarely occurs. Soils of                                                            Table 1. Selected wetland-related activities of government
                         these wetlands typically are poorly drained, organic, and acidic.                                                           agencies and private organizations in Tennessee, 1993
                                                                                                                                                     tSource: Classification of activities is generalized from information provided
                                                                                                                                                         by agencies and organizations. e, agency or organization participates in
                         TRENDS                                                                                                                          wetland-related activity;                 agency or organization does not participate in
                                                                                                                                                         wetland-related activity. MAN, management; REG, regulation; R&C, res-
                                 The Fws National Wetland Inventory has estimated that Ten-                                                              toration and creation; LAN, land acquisition; R&D, research and data col-
                         nessee lost as much as 59 percent of its wetland area in the 200 years                                                          lection; D&I, delineation and inventory]
                         before the 1980's (Dahl, 1990). Although wetland loss can occur as
                         a result of natural ecological succession, human activities such as
                         livestock grazing, draining, and clearing for agriculture, logging,                                                         Agency or organization                                                                01            op 01
                         pond and lake construction, and urban development are most often                                                            FEDERAL
                         the cause. Losses have been particularly extensive in western Ten-                                                          Department of Agriculture
                         nessee.                                                                                                                       Consolidated Farm Service Agency                 ........................... ...*      ... ...      ... ...
                                 Logging of western Tennessee bottom lands proceeded rapidly                                                           Natural Resources Conservation Service                    ................ ...  0
                         after about 1880, and favorable agricultural prices provided an eco-                                                        Department of Defense
                                                                                                                                                       Army Corps of Engineers           ..............................................*0
                         nomic incentive to cultivate marginal lands in the area. Drainage                                                             Military reservations         .....................................................0
                         districts were formed to establish dredging and channelization                                                              Department of the Interior
                         projects to drain the bottom lands to exploit their agricultural po-                                                          Fish and Wildlife Service         ..............................................*
                         tential. By the 1930's, many dredged channels in western Tennes-                                                              Geological Survey             ....................................................
                         see were partially or completely filled by sediment from agricul-                                                             National Biological Service           ......................................... ... ... ... ...
                                                                                                                                                       National Park Service         .......................................................  .      0
                         tural operations. This sedimentation has altered the hydrology of                                                           Environmental Protection Agency               .................................. ...
                         the bottom lands and caused changes in vegetation patterns and                                                              Tennessee Valley Authority                .......................................0
                         wetland types (Wolfe and Diehl, 1993). As much as 83 percent of                                                             STATE
                         the original bottom-land hardwood-forest wetlands in the Obion and                                                          Department of Environment and Conservation                     ........... *
                         Forked Deer River Basins alone have been lost (Tennessee Depart-                                                            Department of Transportation            ......................................... ...
                                                                                                                                                     Tennessee Technological University               .............................. ... .1 . ... ...
                         ment of Conservation, 1988).                                                                                                University of Tennessee         .................................................... ... ... ... ...
                                 The Hatchie and Wolf Rivers are the remaining major rivers                                                          Wildlife Resources Agency           ............ ....... . ........................
                         in western Tennessee that have not been channelized along substan-                                                          PRIVATE
                         tial parts of their courses. Most other streams, including tributaries                                                      The Nature Conservancy...           ............................................... ... ... ... . ...
                         to the Hatchie River, have been repeatedly channelized from their                                                           Ducks Unlimited       ............. ............. ................  ................
                         mouths nearly to the drainage divides. Following channelization,                                                            Farm Bureau Federation          .................................._ .............. ... ...









                     360      National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: STATE SUMMARIES



                     protecting wetlands. Under section 404 provisions, the Corps issues                Water Conservation Act of 1965, the Department is active in wet-
                     permits regulating the discharge of dredged or fill material into                  land-program planning by amending and updating the Statewide
                     wetlands. Permits are subject to review and possible veto by the U.S.              Comprehensive Outdoor Recreation Plans to identify wetlands that
                     Environmental Protection Agency, and the FWs has review and ad-                    have high recreation potential.
                     visory roles. Section 401 of the Clean Water Act grants to States                       The Tennessee Wildlife Resources Agency administers the
                     and eligible Indian Tribes the authority to approve, apply conditions              Wetlands Acquisition Fund. The Tennessee Wetlands Acquisition Act
                     to, or deny section 404 permit applications on the basis of a pro-                 of 1986 sets aside a part of the State real estate transfer tax for ac-
                     posed activity's probable effects on the water quality of a wetland.               quisition of wetlands. The acquisition of wetlands through the Wet-
                           Most farming, ranching, and silviculture activities are not sub-             lands Acquisition Fund must be approved by the Director of the
                     ject to section 404 regulation. However, the "Swampbuster" provi-                  Wildlife Resources Agency and the Commissioner ofAgriculture.
                     sion of the 1985 Food Security Act and amendments in the 1990                           The Tennessee Department of Transportation conducts wetland
                     Food, Agriculture, Conservation, and Trade Act discourage (through                 restorations along its construction projects to mitigate unavoidable
                     financial disincentives) the draining, filling, or other alteration of             wetland destruction. The Department of Transportation also con-
                     wetlands for agricultural use. The law allows exemptions from pen-                 structs wetlands as large as 450 acres to compensate for unavoid-
                     alties in some cases, especially if the farmer agrees to restore the               able losses.
                     altered wetland or other wetlands that have been converted to agri-                     County and local wetland activities. -There has been little
                     cultural use. The Wetlands Reserve Program of the 1990 Food,                       involvement by county and local governments in wetlands issues
                     Agriculture, Conservation, and Trade Act authorizes the Federal                    in Tennessee. Notable exceptions include Knoxville, Nashville,
                     Government to purchase conservation easements from landowners                      Chattanooga, and Memphis. These metropolitan areas have devel-
                     who agree to protect or restore wetlands. The Consolidated Farm                    oped plans for the construction of greenway recreational areas, some
                     Service Agency (formerly the Agricultural Stabilization and Con-                   of which will contain wetlands. However, as of 1993, the only city
                     servation Service) administers the Swampbuster provisions and Wet-                 that had begun implementing its plan was Chattanooga.
                     lands Reserve Program. The Natural Resources Conservation                               Private wetland activities. - Several private groups are actively
                     Service (formerly the Soil Conservation Service) determines com-                   involved in wetlands issues in Tennessee. The Farm Bureau Fed-
                     pliance with Swampbuster provisions and assists farmers in the iden-               eration promotes funding and research concerning the use of con-
                     tification of wetlands and in the development of wetland protection,               structed wetlands for water-quality improvement. The Nature Con-
                     restoration, or creation plans.                                                    servancy cooperates with the State in acquiring areas for preserva-
                           The 1986 Emergency Wetlands Resources Act encourages                         tion. The Tennessee Conservation League and the Sierra Club pro-
                     wetland protection through funding incentives. The act requires                    mote public use and conservation of wetlands. Through its national
                     States to address wetland protection in their Statewide Comprehen-                 headquarters in Memphis, Ducks Unlimited cooperates with the
                     sive Outdoor Recreation Plans to qualify for Federal funding for                   Tennessee Wildlife Resources Agency in acquiring and managing
                     State recreational land; the National Park Service provides guidance               wetlands and assists private landowners in constructing wetlands.
                     to States in developing the wetland component of their plans.
                           The Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA) does not directly regu-
                     late wetland activities but conducts a wetlands review for any action              References Cited
                     affecting TVA-controlled properties. Through the review process, the               Amer, D.H., and Hepp, G.R., 1989, Beaver pond wetlands-A southern
                     TVA attempts to minimize the destruction, loss, or degradation of                       perspective, in Smith, L.M., Pederson, R.L., and Kaminski, R.M., eds.,
                     wetlands. In cooperation with the FWS, the TVA operates projects in                     Habitat management for migrating and wintering waterfowl in North
                     western Tennessee that provide wetland habitat for migratory                            America: Lubbock, Texas Tech University Press, p. 130-177.
                     waterfowl. In addition, the TVA promotes the use of constructed wet-               Carter, Virginia, and Burbank, J.H., 1978, Weiland classification system for
                     lands as a means of wastewater treatment.                                               the Tennessee Valley Region: Tennessee Valley Authority Technical
                           State wetland activities. -The Tennessee Department of En-                        Note B 24, 3 6 p.
                     viroament and Conservation was created in 1990 by combining the                    Cowardin, L.M., Carter, Virginia, Golet, F.C., and LaRoe, E.T., 1979, Clas-
                     Department of Conservation and the Department of Health and                             sification ofwetlands and deepwater habitats ofthe United States: U.S.
                     Environment. The Department of Environment and Conservation                             Fish and Wildlife Service Report FWS/OBS-79/31, 131 p.
                     regulates development activities in wetlands through sections 401                  Dahl, T.E., 1990, Wetlands -Losses in the United States, 1780's to 1980's:
                                                                                                             Washington, D.C., U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Report to Congress,
                     and 402 of the Clean Water Act. The section 401 program requires                        13 p.
                     that a section 404 pen-nit applicant provide certification from the                Ellis, W.H., and Chester, E.W., 1989, Upland swamps ofthe Highland Rim
                     State that a discharge will comply with State water-quality standards.                  of Tennessee: Journal of the Tennessee Academy of Science, v. 64,
                     The section 401 certification from the Department is necessary                          no.3,p.97-101.
                     before a section 404 permit can be obtained from the Corps. Sec-                   Fermeman, N.M., 1946, Physical divisions of the United States: Washing-
                     tion 402 of the Clean Water Act requires that permits be obtained                       ton, D.C., U.S. Geological Survey special map, scale 1:700,000.
                     for discharges of treated wastewater to wetlands under the National                Hupp, C.R., 1992, Riparian vegetation recovery patterns following stream
                     Pollutant Discharge Elimination System Program. The Department                          channelization: A geomorpbic perspective: Ecology, v. 73, no. 4,
                     of Environment and Conservation is the State agency delegated to                        p. 1,209-1,226.
                                                                                                        Miller, R.A., 1974, The geologic history of Tennessee: Tennessee Division
                     administer this program. The Tennessee Water Quality Control Act                        of Geology Bulletin 74, 63 p,
                     of 1977 requires that a State permit be obtained if changes are pro-               Robbins, C.H., and Simon, Andrew, 1983, Man-induced channel adjustment
                     posed to an existing aquatic environment; agricultural and forestry                     in Tennessee streams: U.S. Geological Survey Water-Resources Inves-
                     activities are exempted.                                                                tigations Report 82- 4098, 129 p.
                           Through the Tennessee Natural Areas Preservation Act of 197 1,               Shankman, David, and Samson, S.A., 1991, Channelization effects on Obion
                     the Department of Environment and Conservation has assumed the                          River flooding, western Tennessee: Water Resources Bulletin, v. 27,
                     former Department of Conservation's responsibility for acquiring                        no. 2, p. 247-254.
                     wetlands that represent outstanding examples of the State's natural                Simon, Andrew, and Hupp, C.R., 1992, Geomorphic and vegetative recov-
                     landscape. The Tennessee Oil and Gas Law enables the Department                         ery processes along modified stream channels of western Tennessee:
                                                                                                             U.S. Geological Survey Open-File Report 91-502, 142 p.
                     to regulate oil and gas drilling by placing special conditions on                  Tennessee Department of Conservation, 1988, Tennessee wetlands plan:
                     drilling activities near wetlands. As a result of the U.S. Land and                     Nashville, Tennessee Department of Conservation, I 18 p.







                                                                                               National Water Surnmary-Wetland Resources: TENNESSEE               361



               Wolfe, W.J., and Diehl, T.H., 1993, Recent sedimentation and surface-wa-
                    ter flow patterns on the flood plain of the North Fork Forked Deer
                    River, Dyer County, Tennessee: U.S. Geological Survey Water-Re-
                    sources Investigations Report 92-4082, 22 p.


               FOR ADDITIONAL INFORMATION: District Chief, U.S. Geological
               Survey, 810 Broadway, Suite 500, Nashville, IN 37203; RegionalWetland
               Coordinator, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 1875 Century Building, Suite
               200, Atlanta, GA 30345


                                            Prepared by
                                        Michael R. Meador,
                                      U.S. Geological Survey








                 362    National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: STATE SUMMARIES











































































      I






                                                        U.S. Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper 2425








                                                                                                                                                           National Water Summary-Wetland Resources 363

                                                                                                                                                                                                       Texas
                                                                                                                                                               Wetland Resources
                     Wtlands cover about 7.6 million acres of Texas -a decrease of                                               d .eepwater habitats. Wetlands of the systems that occur in Texas are
                     about 52 percent from the State's original wetland acreage (Dahl,                                           described below.
                     1990). Wetlands have considerable environmental and economic
                     value. In river basins, wetlands provide flood attenuation, bank sta-                                       System                                               Wetland description
                     bilization, and water-quality maintenance. ne tourist industry ben-
                     efits from the scenic beauty of the State's many and diverse wetlands,                                      Palustrine      .................. Nontidal and tidal-freshwater wetlands in which
                     which afford opportunities for recreational activities that include                                                                           vegetation is predominantly trees (forested wet-
                     hunting, fishing, bird watching, nature photography, camping, and                                                                             lands); shrubs (scrub-shrub wetlands); persistent
                                                                                                                                                                   or nonpersistent emergent, erect, rooted herba-
                     hiking. Coastal wetlands (fig. 1) are essential to maintaining im-                                                                            ceous plants lpersistent- and nonpersistent-
                     portant fish and shellfish population and habitat, which in turn pro-                                                                         emergent wetlands); or submersed and (or)
                     vide an economic benefit from the recreational and commercial                                                                                 floating plants Jacluatic beds). Also, intermit-
                                                                                                                                                                   tently to permanently flooded open-water bod-
                     harvesting of these resources (Tiner, 1984).                                                                                                  ies of less than 20 acres in which water is less
                             Wetlands provide important wildlife habitat. For example,                                                                             than 6.6 feet deep.
                     about 90 percent of overwintering waterfowl in the High Plains                                              Lacustrine      ................. Nontidal and tidal-freshwater wetlands within an
                     inhabit playa lake wetlands (Nelson and others, 1983). Statewide                                                                              intermittently to permanently flooded lake or
                     riparian and coastal wetlands provide stopover, feeding, and breed-                                                                           reservoir larger than 20 acres and (or) deeper
                     ing grounds to migratory waterfowl and habitat to nonmigrating                                                                                than 6.6 feet. Vegetation, when present, is pre-
                     wildlife. Among the migrants from Canada that stop at riparian                                                                                dominantly nonpersistent emergent plants (non-
                                                                                                                                                                   persistent-emergent wetlands), or submersed
                     wetlands and overwinter in wetlands along the Texas coast are snow                                                                            and (or) floating plants (aquatic beds), or both.
                     geese, Canada geese, and whooping cranes (an endangered species).                                           Riverine     ..................... Nontidal and tidal-freshwater wetlands within a
                     Some of the migratory ducks that reside on coastal marshes are                                                                                channel. Vegetation, when present, is same as
                     American widgeon, mallard, green-winged teal, and blue-winged                                                                                 in the Lacustrine System.
                     teal. The mottled duck is a common year-round resident on coastal                                           Estuarine      ................... Tidal wetlands in low-wave-energy environments
                     marshes (Britton and Morton, 1989).                                                                                                           where the salinity of the water is greaterthan 0.5
                                                                                                                                                                   part perthousand (ppt) and isvariable owing to
                                                                                                                                                                   evaporation and the mixing of seawater and
                     TYPES AND DISTRIBUTION                                                                                                                        freshwater.
                             Wetlands are lands transitional between terrestrial and deep-                                       Marine     ....................... Tidal wetlands that are exposed to waves and cur-
                                                                                                                                                                   rents of the open ocean and to water having a
                     water habitats where the water table usually is at or near the land                                                                           salinity greater than 30 ppt.
                     surface or the land is covered by shallow water (Cowardin and oth-
                     ers, 1979). The distribution of wetlands and deepwater habitats in                                                 Most Texas wetlands are palustrine; estuarine wetlands are next
                     Texas is shown in figure 2A; only wetlands are discussed herein.                                            in area. Lacustrine, riverine, and marine wetlands are ecologically
                             Wetlands can be vegetated or nonvegetated and are classified                                        significant but cover a smaller area. The most extensive wetlands
                     on the basis of their hydrology, vegetation, and substrate. In this                                         are the bottom-land hardwood forests and swamps (forested and
                     summary, wetlands are classified according to the system proposed                                           scrub-shrub wetlands) of East Texas (the part of the State east of
                     by Cowardin and others (1979), which is used by the U.S. Fish and                                           about 96 degrees longitude); the marshes (emergent wetlands),
                     Wildlife Service (FWS) to map and inventory the Nation's wetlands.                                          swamps, and tidal flats (unconsolidated-shore wetlands) of the Gulf
                     At the most general level of the classification system, wetlands are                                        of Mexico coast; the playa lakes of the High Plains; and the small,
                     grouped into five ecological systems: Palustrine, Lacustrine, Riv-                                          shallow, inland depressional basins called potholes found in coastal
                     erine, Estuarine, and Marine. The Palustrine System includes only                                           areas from Brownsville to Port O'Connor.
                     wetlands, whereas the other systems                           comprise wetlands and                                Most of the State's wetlands are palustrine bottom-land hard-
                                                                                                                                 wood forests and swamps, and most of these are in the flood plains
                                                                                                                                 of East Texas rivers. A recent inventory estimated that, as of the early
                                                                                                                                 1980's, forested wetlands in the State consisted of about 6,068,000
                                                                                                                                 acres, including 5,973,000 acres of bottom-land hardwood forest
                                                                                                                                 and other riparian vegetation and 95,000 acres of swamp (Frye,
                                   Jh                                                                                            1987). East Texas contains about 7 1 percent of the forested wetlands,
                                                                                                                                 and the remaining 29 percent is located along rivers and streams
                                                                                                                                 throughout the rest of the State.
                                                                                                                                        Data from LANDSAT images taken from 1972 through 1980
                                                                                                                                 provided the basis for the preceding acreage estimates. The use of
                                                                                                                                                                                                                              P
                                                                                                                                 the LANDSAT images enabled the Texas Parks and Wildlife De art-
                                                                                                                                 ment to determine the distribution and types of forested wetlands.
                                                                                                                                 Five principal vegetative groups were determined. They include (1)
                                                                                                                                 cottonwood-hackberry-salt cedar brush/woods, (2) pecan-elm for-
                                                                                                                                 est, (3) water oak-elm-hackberry forest, (4) willow oak-water oak-
                             Figure 1. Wetlands in Welder Flats Coastal                      Preserve. The                       blackgum forest, and (5) bald cypress-water tupelo swamp
                             preserve was established to manage sensitive and productive                                         (McMahan and others, 1984).
                             estuarine wetlands and protect the endangered whooping                                                     Texas coastal wetlands -wetlands that are either on the coast,
                             cranes that overwinter there. (Photograph by B.D. Jones,                                            in or adjacent to estuaries, or in or near the tidal reaches of the
                             U.S. Geological Survey)                                                                             rivers-extend the entire length of the coast. Palustrine wetlands,








                         364      National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: STATE SUMMARIES


                         such as swamps and fresh nI occupy the flood plains and line                                               B
                         the shores of tidal freshwater reaches of sluggish coastal rivers. Pot-
                         hole wetlands are small, circular bodies of water fringed by emer-                                                  High Plains
                         gent vegetation. The pothole wetlands are found inland from the
                         coast and generally contain freshwater. Estuarine wetlands such as
                         salt marshes (emergent wetlands) and tidal flats (mostly unconsoli-
                         dated-shore, unconsolidated-bottom, and aquatic-bed wetlands)
                         form in tidal reaches of rivers and in sounds and bays, where the                                                                 Central
                                                                                                                                                          Lowland
                         salinity of the water can range from slightly more salty than fresh-
                         water to nearly as salty as seawater.                                                                           Great
                               A recent inventory of coastal wetlands performed by the Na-
                         tional Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) (Field and                                                                                             Coastal
                         others, 1991) estimated the area covered by fresh marsh to be                                                        Plains                                Plain
                         530,300 acres. Estuarine wetlands comprised most of the coastal
                         acreage-710,300 acres. Of the estuarine wetlands, 432,100 acres

                                                                  A






                                                                                                                             PHYSIOGRAPHIC DIVISIONS



                                                                    35.






                                                                                                                                                97'









                                                                                                                  liens


                           EJ Poso,





                                 31-






                                                                                                                                   Awtin

                                                                                                                                                                      on



                                                                                                                                                                                  Glvaif..
                                                                                                                                                                                     Boy

                                                                                                                                                             ldl@
                                             WETLANDS AND DEEPWATER HABITATS
                                             Distribution of wetlands and deepwater habitats-                                       elde                   Pon O'Connor
                                                This map shows the approximate distribution of large
                                                wetl:nds in the State. Because of limitations of scale                                                   S- A-1. By
                                                and ource material, some wetlands are not shown
                                             M Predominantly wetland

                                                     Predominantly cleepwater habitat
                                                                                                               27@                                                    0       50         100 MILES
                                                     Area typified by a high density of small wetlands                                                                1    ,   , .
                                                                                                                                                                      0   50    100 KILOMETERS

                                                     Dams (storage capacity at least 5,000 acre/feet)



                                                                                                                                   Brownsville
                         Figure 2. Wetland distribution in Texas and physical and climatological features that control                       wetland distribution in the State. A, Dis-
                         tribution of wetlands and deepwater habitats. 8, Physiography. (Sources: A, TE. Dahl, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, unpub. data, 1991.
                         B, Physiographic divisions from Fenneman, 1946; landforms data from EROS Data Center.)








                                                                                                        National Water Surnmary-Wetland Resources: TEXAS                365



                were salt marsh, 275,300 acres were tidal flats, and 2,900 acres were             HYDROLOGIC SETTING
                forested or scrub-shrub wetlands. The acreage summaries were
                produced using a grid-sampling procedure and wetland maps from                         Wetlands form where there is a persistent water supply at or
                the National Wetland Inventory project of the FwS (Tiner, 1984).                  near the land surface. The location and persistence of the water
                      The Welder Flats Coastal Preserve (fig. 1) consists of approxi-             supply is affected by many factors, such as climate, physiography,
                mately 1,400 acres of wetlands adjacent to San Antonio Bay (Texas                 and hydrology.
                Parks and Wildlife Department, 1990). These wetlands are a part                        Precipitation and runoff rates in Texas vary annually and with
                of a dynamic estuarine system that has developed in response to the               location and season. The average annual precipitation in the State
                physical, chemical, and biological processes of the Guadalupe                     ranges from about 8 inches at El Paso in the Basin and Range Prov-
                River-San Antonio Bay estuary. The wetlands consist of salt                       ince to about 56 inches in the lower Sabine River valley in the
                marshes, submersed vegetation known as seagrass beds (aquatic                     Coastal Plain of extreme eastern Texas (fig. 2B and 2C). The wet-
                beds), nonvegetated mud and sand flats, and shallow saltwater ponds               test seasons are spring and late summer (Jones, 1991). Evaporation
                and lagoons. Welder Flats is near the Aransas National Wildlife Ref-              is highest in West Texas and is lowest in East Texas (fig. 2D). In West
                uge, which provides critical shelter and plant food for a large vari-             Texas, annual lake evaporation is 4 to 5 times annual precipitation,
                ety of bay waterfowl, estuarine fishes, and bottom-dwelling organ-                whereas in East Texas, annual precipitation approaches annual
                isms. It is also an overwintering area for endangered whooping                    evaporation. The areas with the highest annual precipitation and
                cranes, a migration stopover for shorebirds, and a roosting and for-              lowest evaporation are also the areas that have the most wetlands.
                aging area for nonmigrating wildlife.                                             East Texas contains more than one-half of the wetland acres in the
                      The State's playa lakes are predominantly within the High                   State.
                Plains. The natural landscape is grassland except along the south-                     Bottom-land hardwood or flood-plain forests in East Texas are
                eastern border of the area of playa lakes, where it becomes grass-                diverse wetland ecosystems dominated by woody vegetation
                land and forest. The playa lakes, which range from dry lakebeds to                (Wilkinson and others, 1987). These wetlands form in alluvial sedi-
                shallow lakes, have been estimated to total 296,000 acres, or about               ments deposited in flood plains when streams overflow their banks.
                4 percent of Texas' wetland area (Guthery and Bryant, 1982). The                  The wetlands are maintained by fluctuating water levels resulting
                estimated 20,000 or more playa lakes range in size from about 1                   from flooding, by stream meanders that retard flow, and by the ad-
                acre to more than 100 acres and in salinity from freshwater to sa-                aptation of woody vegetation to an environment in which the roots
                line. The freshwater playas are numerous, small to medium in size,                are in organic soils that are inundated or saturated during the grow-
                and serve as zones ofrecharge to the underlying aquifer (Osterkamp                ing season.
                and Wood, 1987). The saline playas are fewer, larger, and are areas                    In East Texas, abundant precipitation and annual flooding in
                of discharge from the underlying aquifer. The density ofplaya lakes               the seven major river basins cause fluctuation of water levels in
                is generally highest in the central part of the High Plains (Nelson               stream channels, bottom lands, flood plains, and backwater areas,
                and others, 1983).                                                                which promotes the development and maintenance of forested wet-
                      The playas can be dry for extended periods. In wet conditions,              lands. Other conditions conducive to wetland development and
                the playa wetlands are either shallow lakes having little or no veg-              maintenance in East Texas are low evaporation rates, shallow ground
                etation or lakes having aquatic vegetation (Nelson and others, 1983).             water, many springs, and nutrient-rich, clayey bottom-land soils.
                Most of the playas are palustrine wetlands. However, playa lakes that                  The estuaries of the Gulf of Mexico coast were formed when
                exceed 20 acres are classified as lacustrine wetlands.                            water from melting glaciers caused sea level to rise and inundate

                            C        N11                                                                        D


                                                20




                          12             -lop

                              12                                                                                                                                           4
                                                                                    40
                                                            Ts
                                                              32


                                                                                                                      A





                PRECIPITATION                                                                     LAKE-SURFACE EVAPORATION
                                                                                                                      I





















                -16- Line of equal annual precipffirtion-                                         -so- Line of equal annual evaporation-
                         Interval 4 inches                                                                Interval 10 inches




                Figure 2. Continued. Wetland distribution in Texas and physical and climatological features that control wetland distribution in the
                State. C, Average annual precipitation. D, Average annual gross lake-surface evaporation. (Sources: C, Woodward, 1986. D, Kane, 1967.)








                      366     National Water Surnmary-Wetland Resources: STATE SUMMARIES



                      coastal river valleys. These drowned valleys were separated from                  type have been affected. Some of these losses can be attributed to
                      the open sea by barrier islands, forming the bays and lagoons of the              natural causes, but a large percentage were caused by human ac-
                      present shoreline. The bays and lagoons became shallow as they                    tivities. In rural agricultural areas, losses can be attributed to con-
                      received sediment from rivers and wind to form estuaries. A vari-                 version to cropland, declining water levels due to pumpage for irri-
                      ety of habitats develop in an estuary. Each habitat's ecological char-            gation, and overgrazing of wetland vegetation by livestock, which
                      acteristics are the result of the stability of the substrate, rates of sedi-      can increase erosion and evaporation. In urban areas, wetland losses
                      ment accumulation or erosion, water depth, cuffent flow, and other                occur because of encroachment by residential and commercial con-
                      variables (Britton and Morton, 1989). The salinity of coastal wet-                struction and industrial development. Wetland degradation has re-
                      lands depends upon whether the source of most of the water enter-                 sulted from the discharge of inadequately treated sewage and indus-
                      ing the estuary is from ocean tides or inland streams.                            trial waste into wetlands. Other activities that can cause wetland
                           The soils that support wetlands on the coast have level to de-               losses are filling, water diversion, drainage and river channelization,
                      pressed relief and low permeability. These soils typically are poorly             clearcutting, burning, lowering or disturbing the shallow water table,
                      drained and have a high clay content and a moderate to high water-                and the construction of dams, reservoirs, flood-control ditches,
                      holding capacity (Barrera and Kelly, 1990).                                       levees, irrigation canals, and barge and ship canals. In recent years,
                           Rainfall along the coast ranges from 56 inches per year in the               several State agencies have begun to develop wetland plans and strat-
                      subhumid east to 26 inches per year in the semiarid south at the                  egies to reduce wetland losses (Texas Parks and Wildlife Depart-
                      Mexico border. Other principal factors in the climate of the coast                ment, 1988).
                      are windspeed and direction. Wind, in combination with rainfall,                       Bottom-land-hardwood-forest acreage has declined from about
                      evaporation, humidity, and temperature, affects most of the natural               16 million acres in early Texas history (Kier and others, 1977) to
                      coastal processes. Evaporation generally exceeds precipitation in                 about 5.9 million acres (Frye, 1987), a 63 percent loss. A study by
                      summer owing to high winds and temperatures. During fall and                      the Texas A&M University Remote Sensing Center conducted in the
                      winter, there is generally a water surplus because of lower tempera-              early 1980's indicated that some areas of eastem and southeastern
                      tures and increased rainfall from tropical storms. Severe tropical                Texas had wetland increases, and some areas had decreases (R.G.
                      storms cause flooding of tidal flats, streams, and hummocky, wind-                Frye, Texas Parks and Wildlife Department, written commun.,
                      blown depressions that have poor drainage. Flooding from these                    1985). The FWs has reported, on the basis of U.S. Forest Service
                      tropical storms also results in widespread pending and development                (FS) statistics, that commercial bottom-land forests decreased by 18
                      of a shallow water table in the wind-deposited sand overlying older               percent between 1935 and 1975 and by 10 percent between 1975
                      deposits that have very low permeability.                                         and 1985 (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 1984). Lake and reser-
                           The playa lakes of the High Plains typically are shallow de-                 voir construction, based on the Texas Water Plan to meet projected
                      pressions that have a large surface area relative to the volume of                water needs, would further reduce these wetlands by about 262,000
                      water contained in them. Consequently, most playa lakes have a                    acres if the 44 reservoirs proposed by the plan were constructed
                      small storage capacity. Osterkamp and Wood (1987) stated that playa               (Texas Department of Water Resources, 1984).
                      lakes form in the Great Plains wherever surface depressions col-                       Some of the fresh and salt marshes along the Gulf of Mexico
                      lect water. The lakes enlarge as a result of dissolution of carbon-               coast have been lost because of dredging, agricultural drainage, and
                      ates by water infiltrating the unsaturated zone above the underly-                industrialization and urbanization. On the basis of estimates of
                      ing aquifer and subsequent subsidence of the lakebed. There is no                 coastal-wetland area (fresh and salt marshes) made in 1956 and 1980
                      general agreement on the origin of saline lakes; however, the source              (Texas Parks and Wildlife Department, 1988), the estimated loss in
                      of the salinity might be the concentration by evaporation of shal-                wetland acreage was about 35 percent during that period. Seagrass
                      low ground water that discharges from the underlying aquifer (Wood                beds in the Galveston Bay estuarine system decreased from about
                      and Jones, 1990).                                                                 2,500 acres in the 1950's to about 700 acres in 1989 (White and
                           The playa-lake area has topography classified as either smooth               others, 1993). The decrease was attributed to Hurricane Carla, land-
                      plains, irregular plains, or tablelands (Nelson and others, 1983).                surface subsidence, and human activity. A study of six coastal coun-
                      Smooth plains are largely on upland terrain, and irregular plains and             ties found a 41 percent loss in pothole wetlands from 1955 to 1979
                      tablelands are mostly on lowland terrain. Because of the flatness of              (Spiller and French, 1986). Most of the loss was attributed to con-
                      the terrain, there is generally little stream drainage; consequently,             version to agriculture. It also is probable that many of the remain-
                      playa lakes collect most of the surface runoff. Water probably is                 ing coastal wetlands have been degraded by land subsidence, salt-
                      removed from playa lakes by evaporation that can range as high as                 water intrusion, and pollution from industry, shipping, and urban-
                      96 to 112 inches per year (Nelson and others, t983) and by slow                   ization (D.W. Moulton, Texas Parks and Wildlife Department, writ-
                      leakage to the ground-water system (Osterkamp and Wood, 1987).                    ten commun., 1990).
                      The playa-lake beds generally have a layer ofclay that retards move-                   The playa lakes of the High Plains have been affected by in-
                      ment of water from the playa lakes to the underlying aquifer.                     tense cultivation and irrigation for the last 50 years. It has been
                           Annual precipitation in the playa-lake area ranges from 15                   estimated that about 90 percent of the playas have been modified
                      inches along the westem edge of the High Plains to 21 inches along                (W.W. Wood, U.S. Geological Survey, written commun., 1994), and
                      the eastem edge. On average, more than an inch of rain falls each                 that more than two-thirds of the larger playas (10 acres or more) have
                      month between April and October. Windspeeds can range between                     been modified drastically (Guthery and Bryant, 1982). However, no
                      40 and 60 miles per hour for as long as a day in March, April, and                comprehensive estimates of acreage losses exist for the playa-lakes
                      May. Extreme winter temperatures range from -8'F in the south to                  area. Losses of other types of wetlands, such as freshwater springs
                      -I 8'F in the north. Extreme summer temperatures range from 109'F                 and riparian wetlands, have occurred throughout the State.
                      to 1 120F (Nelson and others, 1983).                                                   Some land-use practices have led to the creation of new wet-
                                                                                                        lands or the enlargment of existing wetlands. Rice farming near the
                      TRENDS                                                                            gulf coast might have contributed to increases in wetland acreage,
                                                                                                        and construction of lakes and reservoirs undoubtedly has increased
                           The Fws has estimated that from the 1780's to the 1980's, wet-               the acreage of lacustrine wetlands. However, those gains cannot
                      land acreage in Texas decreased by 52 percent-from about 16                       offset the losses of wetland acreage, function, and value that have
                      million to about 7.6 million acres (Dahl, 1990). Wetlands of every                occurTed in the State.







                                                                                                                                           National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: TEXAS                                      367



                      Table 1. Selected wetland-related activities of government                                                         Most farming, ranching, and silviculture activities are not sub-
                      agencies and private organizations in Texas, 1993                                                           ject to section 404 regulation. However, the "Swampbuster" provi-
                      [Source: Classification of activities is generalized from information provided                              sion of the 1985 Food Security Act and amendments in the 1990
                           by agencies and organizations. a, agency or organization participates in                               Food, Agriculture, Conservation, and Trade Act discourage (through
                           wetland-related activity; ..., agency or organization does not participate in                          financial disincentives) the draining, filling, or other alteration of
                           wetland-refated activity. MAN, management; REG, regulation; R&C, res-
                           toration and creation; LAN, land acquisition; R&D, research and data col-                              wetlands for agricultural use. The law allows exemptions from pen-
                           lection; D&I, delineation and inventory]                                                               alties in some cases, especially if the farmer agrees to restore the
                                                                                                                                  altered wetland or other wetlands that have been converted to agri-
                                                                                                                                  cultural use. The Wetlands Reserve Program of the 1990 Food,
                      Agency or organization                                                              \Y          1;:;@       Agriculture, Conservation, and Trade Act authorizes the Federal
                      FEDERAL                                                                                                     Government to purchase conservation easements from landowners
                      Department of Agriculture                                                                                   who agree to protect or restore wetlands. The Consolidated Farm
                         Consolidated Form Service Agency           ........................... ...                               Service Agency (formerly the Agricultural Stabilization and Con-
                         Forest Service     .................................................................*                    servation Service) administers the Swarripbuster provisions and Wet-
                         Natural Resources Conservation Service             ................ ...                                  lands Reserve Program. The Natural Resources Conservation Set-
                      Department of Commerce
                         National Oceanic and Atmospheric                                                                         vice (formerly the Soil Conservation Service) determines compli-
                         Administration     .................................................................0                    ance with Swampbuster provisions and assists farmers in the iden-
                      Department of Defense                                                                                       tification of wetlands and in the development of wetland protection,
                         Army Corps of Engineers       ..............................................0                            restoration, or creation plans,
                         Military reservations...      ...................................................4... ... ... ...  ...          The 1986 Emergency Wetlands Resources Act and the 1972
                      Department of the Interior                                                                                  Coastal Zone Management Act and amendments encourage wetland
                         Fish and Wildlife Service     ..............................................*0    0     0      *
                         Geological Survey      .......................................................... ... ... ... ...0       protection through funding incentives. The Emergency Weiland
                         National Biological Service       ......................................... ...                          Resources Act requires States to address wetland protection in their
                         National Park Service         ...................................................*                       Statewide Comprehensive Outdoor Recreation Plans to qualify for
                      Environmental Protection Agency           ..................................0                               Federal funding for State recreational land; the National Park Ser-
                      STATE                                                                                                       vice (NPS) provides guidance to States in developing the wetland
                      Department of Agriculture        ............................................... ... ... ... ...
                      Department of Transportation         ......................................... ... ...0                     component of their plans. Coastal and Great Lakes States that adopt
                      Forest Service    ............................................  ........................ ... ... ... ...    coastal-zone management programs and plans approved by NOAA
                      General Land Office      ..................................  ........................ ... ...               are eligible for Federal funding and technical assistance through the
                      Parks and Wildlife Department          .......................................e*                            Coastal Zone Management Act.
                      Railroad Commission        ......................................................... ...0... ... ... ...           Federal agencies that have public land under their jurisdiction
                      Water Development Board          ............................................... ...0
                      SOME COUNTIES AND LOCAL GOVERNMENTS                                a     *      ... ...    ... ...          are responsible for the proper management of any wetlands that exist
                      PRIVATE ORGANIZATIONS                                                                                       on these lands. In Texas, the FS manages about 636,000 acres of
                      Ducks Unlimited     .........................................  ........................0                    forested land and riparian habitat and about 148,600 acres of grass-
                      National Audubon Society         ............................................... ... ...                    land (Dallas Morning News, 1992). About 8,500 acres of this land
                      The Conservation Fund              .....................  ................ ... ... ...                      is estimated to be wetlands. The FS goal is to provide for healthy,
                      The Nature Conservancy           ..................................................
                      Trust for Public Land            .................................... ...............                       diverse, and productive ecosystems that will sustain a variety of
                                                                                                                                  public benefits now and in the future.
                                                                                                                                         The Fws manages about 396,000 acres in 14 National Wildlife
                      CONSERVATION                                                                                                Refuges in Texas, About 228,000 acres of this land is estimated to
                                                                                                                                  be wetlands (D.W. Moulton, Texas Parks and Wildlife Department,
                             Many government agencies and private organizations partici-                                          written commun., 1990). The FWS mission is to conserve, protect,
                      pate in wetland conservation in Texas. The most active agencies and                                         and enhance fish, wildlife, and their habitats.
                      organizations and some of their activities are listed in table 1.                                                  The NPS manages about 260,000 acres of land in Texas, and
                             Federal wetland activities. -Development activities in Texas                                         more than 99,000 acres of this land is protected waterfowl habitat
                      wetlands are regulated by several Federal statutory prohibitions and                                        (D.W. Moulton, Texas Parks and Wildlife Department, written
                      incentives that are intended to slow wetland losses. Some of the more                                       commun., 1990). Regional water-resource coordinators are respon-
                      important of these are contained in the 1899 Rivers and Harbors                                             sible for wetlands programs within their respective regions. The
                      Act; the 1972 Clean Water Act and amendments; the 1985 Food                                                 mission of the NPS is to conserve, preserve, and manage resources
                      Security Act; the 1990 Food, Agriculture, Conservation, and Trade                                           of the lands in the National Park system.
                      Act; the 1986 Emergency Wetlands Resources Act; and the 1972                                                       State wetland activities. -Several State agencies participate
                      Coastal Zone Management Act.                                                                                in managing natural resources. Agencies whose responsibilities in-
                             Section 10 of the Rivers and Harbors Act gives the U.S. Army                                         clude some aspect of wetland conservation and a brief description
                      Corps of Engineers (Corps) authority to regulate certain activities                                         of their activities follow:
                      in navigable waters. Regulated activities include diking, deepening,                                               The Texas Railroad Commission is responsible for the regula-
                      filling, excavating, and placing of structures. The related section 404                                     tion of surface coal mining and oil and gas production and trans-
                      of the Clean Water Act is the most often-used Federal legislation                                           port. The regulations are oriented toward production stabilization
                      protecting wetlands. Under section 404 provisions, the Corps issues                                         and include prevention of pollution of wetlands.
                      permits regulating the discharge of dredged or fill material into                                                  The Texas Department of Transportation is responsible for
                      wetlands. Permits are subject to review and possible veto by the U.S.                                       avoiding damage to wetlands while constructing roads and bridges.
                      Environmental Protection Agency, and the FWS has review and ad-                                             They also are responsible for acquiring upland disposal areas for
                      visory roles. Section 401 of the Clean Water Act grants to States                                           maintenance material from the Gulf Intracoastal Waterway.
                      and eligible Indian Tribes the authority to approve, apply conditions                                              The Texas Forest Service and Texas Department of Agriculture
                      to, or deny section 404 permit applications on the basis of a pro-                                          are involved in wetlands primarily in an advisory capacity to land-
                      posed activity's probable effects on the water quality of a wetland.                                        owners. The agencies assist private owners in the management of








                       368      National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: STATE SUMMARIES



                       forested land and use of land in crop production, including land                              ministration and U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service cooperative publica-
                       containing wetlands.                                                                          tion, 59 p.
                             The Texas Water Development Board prepares the State Water                         Frye, R.G., 1987, Current supply, status, habitat quality and future impacts
                       Plan and administers funds for reservoir construction and flood                               from reservoirs, in McMahan, C.A., and Frye, F.G., eds., Bottomland
                       control. The State Water Plan must consider the effect of upstream                            hardwoods in Texas -Proceedings of an interagency workshop on
                                                                                                                     status and ecology, May 6- 7, 1986, Nacogdoches, Tex.: Texas Parks
                       development on bays and estuaries.                                                            and Wildlife Report PWD -RP-7100-133 -3/87, p. 24 - 28.
                             The Texas Natural Resource Conservation Commission regu-                           Guthery, F.S., and Bryant F.C., 1982, Status ofplayas in the southern Great
                       lates the allocation of State waters. The effects on fish and wildlife                        Plains: Wildlife Society Bulletin, v. 10, no. 4, p. 309-317.
                       must be considered in permit application for allocations of 5,000                        Jones, B.D., 1991, Texas floods and droughts, in U.S. Geological Survey,
                       acre-feet or more. The Commission is involved in the process for                              National watersummary 1988 -89 -Hydrologic events and floods and
                       granting permits for draining, channelizing, levee improvement,                               droughts: U.S. Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper 2375, p. 513 -
                       construction of wastewater-treatment facilities, and wastewater dis-                          520.
                       charge. The degradation of waters and wetlands in the State is con-                      Kane JW., 1967, Monthly reservoir evaporation rates for Texas, 1940
                       sidered in all permit applications.                                                           iturough 1965: Texas Water Development Board Report 64, 111 p.,
                                                                                                                     7 pls., scale 1:5,000,000.
                             The Texas General Land Office has management responsibil-                          Kier, R.S., Garner, L.E., and Brown, L.F., Jr., 1977, Land resources of
                       ity for 15 large bays totaling over 1.5 million acres. The Land Of-                           Texas-A map ofTexas lands classified according to natural suitabil-
                       fice manages State lands and leases and grants easements to these                             ity and use considerations: University of Texas at Austin, Bureau of
                       lands under rules and regulations that require protection of natural                          Economic Geology, 42 p., 4 map sheets, scale 1:500,000.
                       resources, including fish and wildlife habitats.                                         McMahan, C.A., Frye, R.G., and Brown, K.L., 1984, The vegetation types
                             The Texas Parks and Wildlife Department manages the State                               of Texas-Including cropland: Texas Parks and Wildlife Department,
                       Park system, which features many wetland habitats. The Department                             PWD Bulletin 7000-120, 40 p., map, scale 1: 1,000,000.
                       acquires lands for the preservation, management, and study of wild-                      Nelson, R.W., Logan, W.J., and Weller, E.C., 1983, Playa wetlands and
                       life. It also conducts research on management practices for waters                            wildlife on the southern Great Plains -A characterization of habi-
                                                                                                                     tat: U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Report FWS/OBS -93/28, 163 p.
                       and wetlands necessary to promote and sustain fisheries. As the State                    Osterkamp, W.R., and Wood, W.W., 1987, Playa take basins on the south-
                       agency responsible for fish and wildlife, it reviews permit applica-                          ern High Plains ofTexas and New Mexico-Part 1. hydrologic, geo-
                       tions submitted to Federal and other State permitting agencies and                            morphic, and geologic evidence for their development: Geological
                       evaluates their impact on wildlife habitat.                                                   Society of America Bulletin, v. 99, p. 215 -223.
                             Counties and local wetland activities. -Counties and cities                        Spiller, S.F., and French, J.D., 1986, The value and status of inland pothole
                       in Texas differ greatly in their commitment to the protection of wet-                         wetlands in the lower Rio Grande Valley, Texas: U.S. fish and Wild-
                       land resources. A few municipalities, such as Austin and San Marcos                           life Service Special Report, 18 p.
                       have implemented watershed-development controls to protect wa-'                          Texas Department ofWater Resources, 1984, Water for Texas-Acompre-
                       ter quality and riparian wetlands. Some counties and cities have                           S hensive plan for the future: Texas Department of Water Resources
                                                                                                                     Report G-P-4-1, 2 volumes, 72 p.
                       acquired wetlands in order to protect them.                                              Texas Parks and Wildlife Department, 1988, The Texas wetlands plan-
                             Private wetland activities. -Private organizations have an                              Addendum to the 1985 Texas outdoor recreation plan: Austin, Texas
                       important function as advocates of wetland conservation and pro-                              Parks an&Wildlife Department, 35 p.
                       tection. Texas has many private groups that inform the public, or-                               1990, Welder Flats Coastal Preserve- Baseline studies report: Aus-
                       ganize citizen groups, and lobby governments for the protection of                            tin, Texas Parks and Wildlife Department [variously paged].
                       wetlands. The Conservation Fund, National Audubon Society, The                           Tiner, R.W., Jr., 1984, Wetlands of the United States -Current status and
                       Nature Conservancy, and Trust for Public Land havd programs for                               recent trends: Washington, D.C., U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 59 p.
                       the purchase of wetlands for preservation. These lands can be trans-                     U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 1984, Texas bottomland hardwood preser-
                       ferred to State or Federal ownership or, in some cases, may remain                            vation program: Albuquerque, N. Mex., U.S. Fish and Wildlife Ser-
                                                                                                                     vice, 378 p.
                       in private ownership. Groups that provide information, education,                        White, W.A., Tremblay, T.A., Wermund, E.G., Jr., and Handley, L.R., 1993,
                       evaluation, and technical help to both public and private owners of                           Trends and status of wettand habitats in the Galveston Bay system,
                       wetlands include Ducks Unlimited, Galveston Bay Foundation, Si-                               Texas: U.S. Fish and Wildlife Publication GBNEP- 31, 225 p.
                       erra Club, and the Texas Committee on Natural Resources.                                 Wilkinson, D.L., Schneller-McDonald, Karen, Olson, R.W., and Auble, G.T.,
                                                                                                                     1987, Synopsis of wetlands functions and values -Bottomland hard-
                                                                                                                     woods with special emphasis on eastern Texas and Oklahoma: U.S.
                       References Cited                                                                              Fish and Wildlife Service Biological Report 87(12), 131 p.
                       Barrera, T.A., and Kelly, Nivra, 1990, Weiland creation and enhancement                  Wood, W.W., and Jones, B.F., 1990, Origin of saline lakes and springs on
                             on private lands along the mid to lower gulf coast of Texas under the                   the southern High Plains ofTexas and New Mexico, in Gustavson, T.C.,
                             north American waterfowl management plan: U.S. Fish and Wildlife                        ed., Geological framework and regional hydrology-Upper Cenozoic
                             Service Report CCSU-9002-CCS, 62 p.                                                     Blackwater Draw and Ogallala Formation, Great Plains: Austin, Tex.,
                       Britton, J.C., and Morton, Brian, 1989, Shore ecology of the Gulf ofMexico:                   Bureau of Economic Geology, p. 193 -208.
                             Austin, University of Texas Press, 289 p.                                          Woodward D.G., 1986, Texas surface-water resources, in National water
                       Cowardin, L.M., Carter, Virginia, Golet, F.C., and LaRoe, E.T., 1979, Clas-                   summary 1995 -Hydrologic events and surface-water resources: U.S.
                             sification of wetlands and deepwater habitats of the United States: U.S.                Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper 2300, p. 431-440.
                             Fish and Wildlife Service Report FWS/OBS-79/31, 131 p.
                       Dahl, T.E., 1990, Wetlands -Losses in the United States, 1780's to 1980's:
                             Washington, D.C., U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Report to Congress,               FOR ADDITIONAL INFORMATION: District Chief, U.S. Geological
                             13 p.                                                                              Survey, 8011 Cameron Road, Building A, Austin, TX 78754; Regional
                       Dallas Morning News, 1992, 1990-91 Texas Almanac: Dallas, Texas                          Weiland Coordinator, U.S. Fish andWildlife Service, 500GoIdAvenue, SW,
                             Monthly Press, 607 p.                                                              Room 4012, Albuquerque, NM 87103
                       Fenneman, N.M., 1946, Physical divisions of the United States: Washing-
                             ton, D.C., U.S. Geological Survey special map, scale 1:7,000,000.                                                   Prepared by
                       Field, D.W., Reyer, A.J., Genovese, PX, and Shearer, B.D., 1991, Coastal                                                  B.D. Jones,
                             wetlands of the United States-An accounting of a valuable national
                             resource: Washington, D.C., National Oceanic and Atmospheric Ad-                                             U.S. Geological Survey

                                                                            U.S. Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper 2425







                                                                                                                                                                                   National Water Summary-Wetland Resources 369
                                                                                                                                              U.S. Virgin Islands
                                                                                                                                                                                      Wetland Resources
                           The wetlands of the U.S. Virgin Islands, which comprise St. Croix,                                                        by Cowardin and others (1979), which is used by the U.S. Fish and
                           St. Thomas, St. John, and about 50 smaller islands, are limited in                                                        Wildlife Service (FWS) to map and inventory the Nation's wetlands.
                           area but are an important natural resource. The U.S. Virgin Islands                                                       At the most general level of the classification system, wetlands are
                           are located on the northeastern edge of the Caribbean Sea east of                                                         grouped into five ecological systems: Palustrine, Lacustrine, Riv-
                           Puerto Rico's Vieques and Culebra islands in the arc of the Lesser                                                        erine, Estuarine, and Marine. The Palustrine System includes only
                           Antilles, which curves southward toward South America. The wet-                                                           wetlands, whereas the other systems comprise wetlands and
                           lands of these islands generally are coastal wetlands such as man-                                                        deepwater habitats. Wetlands of the systems that occur in the U.S.
                           grove forests and saltponds (fig. 1). Many of these valuable wetlands                                                     Virgin Islands are described below.
                           are threatened by development.
                                   Wetlands on the U.S. Virgin Islands are biologically produc-                                                      System                                                       Wetland description
                           tive. They support food webs intricately linked to seagrasses and
                           coral reefs of the nearshore waters of the Caribbean Sea by provid-                                                       Palustrine        .................. Nontidal and tidal-freshwater wetlands in which
                           ing nursery and feeding habitat for marine fish and shellfish (Lopez                                                                                             vegetation is predominantly trees (forested wet-
                           and others, 1988). Seagrass beds provide foraging for the threat-                                                                                                lands); shrubs (scrub-shrub wetlands); persistent
                                                                                                                                                                                            or noripersistent emergent, erect, rooted herba-
                           ened green turtle and important nursery grounds for lobster and                                                                                                  ceous plants (persistent- and nonpersistent-
                           conch. Ninety percent of the U.S. Virgin Islands' resident and mi-                                                                                               emergent wetlands); or submersed and (or)
                           gratory bird species use wetlands (Philibosian and Yntema, 1977).                                                                                                floating plants (aquatic beds). Also, intermit-
                           One-hundred twenty-one species of birds have been observed in                                                                                                    tently to permanently flooded open-water bod-
                                                                                                                                                                                            ies of less than 20 acres in which water is less
                           coastal wetlands (William Knowles, U.S. Virgin Islands Department                                                                                                than 6.6 feet deep.
                           of Planning and Natural Resources, written commun., 1994). En-                                                            Riverine       ..................... Nontidal and tidal-freshwater wetlands within a
                           dangered species, such as the peregrine falcon and brown pelican,                                                                                                channel. Vegetation, when present, is same as
                           and other rare species, such as the white-cheeked pintail and white-                                                                                             in the Lacustrine System.
                           crowned pigeon, nest and feed within the wetlands. Sandpipers,                                                            Estuarine        ................... Tidal wetlands in low-wave-energy environments
                           plovers, snipe, and other shorebirds depend on these areas during                                                                                                wherethe salinity ofthe water is greaterthan 0.5
                           migration. The wetlands also maintain water quality by trapping                                                                                                  part per thousand (ppt) and is variable owing to
                           sediments transported in runoff from the island interior, protect the                                                                                            evaporation and the mixing of seawater and
                           shoreline from wave erosion, and dampen the effects of storm surges.                                                                                             freshwater.
                                                                                                                                                     Marine       ....................... Tidal wetlands that are exposed to waves and cur-
                                                                                                                                                                                            rents of the open ocean and to water having a
                           TYPES AND DISTRIBUTION                                                                                                                                           salinity greater than 30 ppt.

                                   Wetlands are lands transitional between terrestrial and deep-                                                              As a result of steep terrain, small drainage basins, and limited
                           water habitats where the water table usually is at or near the land                                                       rainfall, freshwater wetlands and deepwater habitats are scarce on
                           surface or the land is covered by shallow water (Cowardin and oth-                                                        the U.S. Virgin Islands. St. Thomas, about 28 square miles in area,
                           ers, 1979). The distribution of wetlands and deepwater habitats in                                                        reaches an altitude of 1,556 feet above sea level and is very steep.
                           the U.S. Virgin Islands is shown in figure 2; only wetlands are dis-                                                      St. John, about 19 square miles in area, reaches an altitude of 1,297
                           cussed herein.                                                                                                            feet above sea level and is also steep. St. Croix, about 84 square miles
                                   Wetlands can be vegetated or novegetated and are classified                                                       in area, reaches an altitude of 1, 165 feet above sea level and is less
                           on the basis of their hydrology, vegetation, and substrate. In this                                                       rugged - more than 50 percent of the landscape has a slope of less
                           summary, wetlands are classified according to the system proposed                                                         than 10 percent. No lacustrine habitats (large freshwater bodies)
                                                                                                                                                     occur in the islands. Because nearly all streams are ephemeral, riv-
                                                                                                                                                     erine wetlands are limited to channels of intermittent streams.
                                          @6                                                                                                         Palustrine wetlands consist of a few small marshes. Constructed
                                                                                                                                                     catchment basins fill with water during the wet season and may be
                                                                                                                                                     vegetated by cattails or other wetland plants, depending on the time
                                                                                                                                                     of year, age of the impoundment, and degree of maintenance. There
                                                                                                                                                     are three small, natural freshwater marshes on St. Croix. One is a
                                                                                                                                                     small emergent area at the interior edge of the Sugar Bay wetland
                                                                                                                                                     complex. The second is a 7-acre, seasonally flooded marsh about I
                                                                                                                                                     mile north of Frederiksted. The third is a small area owned and
                                                                                                                                                     managed by the University of the Virgin Islands northeast of Krause
                                                                                                                                                     Lagoon.
                                                                                                                                                              Most wetlands of the U.S. Virgin Islands are located along the
                                                                                                                                                     coasts and are classified as estuarine or marine wetlands. The larg-
                                                          A                                                                                          est of the wetlands are on St. Croix, where the terrain is less steep
                                                                                                                                                     and the drainage basins are larger than on St. Thomas or St. John.
                                                                                                                                                             Estuarine intertidal vegetated wetlands in the U.S. Virgin Is-
                                      Figure 1.          Salt Pond near SaItpond                  Bay in Virgin Islands                              lands are dominated by red, white, and black mangroves. Button-
                                      National        Park on St. John, U.S. Virgin Islands. (Photograph                                             wood also is common, particularly in hypersaline (salinity greater
                                      by D. Briane Adams, U.S. Geological Survey.)                                                                   than seawater) environments. Mangroves grow in shallow lagoons,








                       370        National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: STATE SUMMARIES








                          A


                                                 St Thomas                                                                                         StJohn
                                                              -11       1       J_1,                                                          -T'""k
                                                                   Bonne-'                                                                       Bay
                                                               Resolution
                                                                      Gut       harlotte                                                                     -Vir 'is
                                                                                -Am   -,                                                           Guin
                         18'21                                                                                                                     Gut,      Nat      Park
                                                                                                                                                                t
                                                                                                                                   Cruz @a
                                                                         @J b@,
                                                                                                Turpe ne
                                                                                41@
                                                                                                                                                                                    Salt Pond
                                                                                                                  %,.@B nner
                                                              13@            64' 57'                                 B y                                             Saltpond
                                                                                                     Lagoon                                                               Bay 64" 42'

                                  WETLANDS AND DEEPWATER HABITATS
                                  Distribution of wetlands and deepwater habitats-                    -1plo
                                    This map  shows the approximate distribution of large
                                    wetl:nds in the State. Because of limitations of scale
                                    and ource material, some wetlands are not shown
                                  0      Predominantly wetland
                                  El     Predominantly deepwater habitat                                                             St Croix

                                                                                                 Soft River Buy
                                                                                                       Su @r                           Southgate
                                                                                                                                            Pondff@ w


                                                                                                                          tianst                          rea
                                                                                                                                                                                  64'35'
                                                                                                                                                        Po d


                                                                                                             rouse
                                               Frederiksted                                                Lagoon
                                                       -     Ij    K:)
                                                    ,7
                                                                                                                                         0          2           4 MILES

                                                                                64* 50'
                                  Sandy Point Nationa                                                                                    0      2       4    KILOMETERS
                                       Wildlife Refuge




                          B
                                                    Gulf and land                                                                                                                      65'
                                                    moisture                                                                                                 A TLANTIC OCF-AN            St Thomas
                                                                                                                                                                     Culebra
                                                                                                                                                        Puerto          L   lz@@
                                                                                                                                                        Rico                               StJohn
                                                                                                                                                    18,                    Vieques

                                                    Thom    s                                                                                             CARIBBE,4,VS&q                  St Croix
                                                  St
                                                                                        StJohn                                                                                           C=:_




                                                                                                                    Trade wind
                                                                                                                    moisture



                                                                                    St Croix


                       Figure 2.       Distribution of wetlands and deepwater habitats in the U.S. Virgin Islands. 6, Principal sources and patterns of delivery of
                                                                                                                                                                     'Park*
                                                                                                       Run@
                                                                                                                  @Be                                                               So
                                                                                                    @._q,ove         B.















































                                                                                                                                                        Puerto



















                       moisture into the U.S. Virgin Islands. (Sources: A, Digitized from USFWS-NWI, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, National Wetland Inventory,
                       unpub. data, 1994. B, Data from Douglas Clark and Andrea Lage, Wisconsin Geological and Natural History Survey.)








                                                                                      National Water Surnmary-Wetland Resources: U.S. VIRGIN ISLANDS                 371



                such as Mangrove Lagoon on St. Thomas; ring "saltponds," such                  as pronounced as for larger Caribbean islands with higher moun-
                as Great Pond on St. Croix; or fringe bays and coves, such as the              tain peaks. Clouds form as they pass over St. Thomas and St. Croix,
                Salt River Bay-Sugar Bay estuary on St. Croix.                                 but most resultant precipitation falls in the Caribbean Sea on the
                      Saltponds are the predominant wetlands in the U.S. Virgin                lee side of the islands.
                Islands. They are tidal flats or basins that are at least partially sepa-           The geology and topography of the U.S. Virgin Islands are
                rated from direct contact to the sea by a beach berm. Saltponds range          major factors influencing the hydrology of the islands, which in turn
                in size from less than I acre to more than 125 acres. An example of            controls the presence or absence of wetlands. The U.S. Virgin Is-
                this wetland type is Salt Pond near SaItpond Bay in Virgin Islands             lands are composed of volcanic rock that was uplifted by tectonic
                National Park on St. John (fig. 1). Saltwater inputs to the ponds              activity. The islands have steep slopes and irregular coastlines. Both
                result from tidal or storm-surge overwash of the berm, seepage of              St. Thomas and St. John have steep slopes throughout, but on St.
                seawater through the berm, or from subterranean connections to the             Croix the mountains in the northwest give way to rolling hills that
                sea. Ponds that have sporadic input of seawater go through an an-              broaden to an expanse of relatively low flatland along the southern
                nual cycle of filling with freshwater runoff and rainfall during the           two-thirds of the island.
                rainy season and drawing down or drying during the remainder of                     Ground water in the U.S. Virgin Islands is scarce. The most
                the year. Consequently, saltponds are subject to extreme salinity              extensive ground-water source on the islands is the fractured vol-
                variations during the annual cycle.                                            canic rocks of which the islands are generally composed (G6mez-
                      Coral reefs ring many of the U.S. Virgin Islands. Though most            G6mez and others, 1985). Embayment aquifers occur near guts
                of the reefs and seagrass beds are submersed, at least some are ex-            (stream drainages) along the coasts of the islands. These aquifers
                posed at low tide and thus are classified as wetlands. The most ex-            are composed principally of weathered rocks overlain by shallow
                tensive of the reefs surround St. Croix. The reef in Trunk Bay in              alluvium. They are recharged by seepage from the surrounding vol-
                Virgin Islands National Park on St. John is the site of an underwa-            canic rocks and by direct infiltration from ephemeral runoff and
                ter trail and has corals typical of those in the Caribbean area.               precipitation. Discharge from these aquifers to the oceans is a source
                                                                                               of freshwater for estuarine wetlands, such as mangrove wetlands,
                HYDROLOGIC SETTING                                                             in the coastal embayments. On St. Croix, an aquifer composed of
                                                                                               limestone interbedded with sand and gravel and covered by allu-
                      Wetlands form where the local hydrology makes possible a                 vium exists throughout most of the lowlands. This aquifer dis-
                dependable water supply at or near the land surface. In the U.S.               charges small amounts of ground water to coastal wetlands.
                Virgin Islands, the type of wetland that exists at a particular loca-               On an annual basis, surface runoff, which is a major factor in
                tion is deteriiiined by the local hydrologic setting. The components           the formation of strearnside and coastal wetlands, is low. There are
                of that setting include the duration of inundation or saturation, the          no perennial streams, and most natural surface-water drainages are
                salinity of the water, and the nature of the substrate, which in turn          dry for long periods of time and flow only during periods of intense
                are the result of climate, geology, and topography.                            rainfall. Because of the impermeable underlying volcanic rocks,
                      The climate of the U.S. Virgin Islands is classified as subtropical      floodwaters accumulate and recede rapidly, generally in less than
                (Ewell and Whitmore, 1973). Winters are mild and dry, whereas sum-             I day. During a year of average precipitation, annual runoff ranges
                mers are warm and humid. In the winter, precipitation generally comes          from about 2 to 8 percent of the rainfall (Santiago-Rivera and Col6n-
                from frontal systems from the northwest and is greatest during Febru-          Dieppa, 1986), which is about 0.5 to 2 inches, depending on con-
                ary and March, when the regional climate is influenced by a subtropi-          ditions in a particular basin. Runoff is controlled by topography,
                cal high pressure area. During summer, the regional climate is no longer       soil moisture, local evaporation rates, and vegetation cover. On St.
                influenced by high atmospheric pressure, and there is a steady west-           Croix, runoff is stored in ponds for agricultural uses. Commonly,
                erly flow of moist air from the Atlantic Ocean (die trade winds) that is       total runoff from individual storms exceeds 10 percent of the rain-
                the primary source of summer and fall precipitation (fig. 2B).                 fall and can be as high as 30 percent when rainfall is intense and
                      Average annual precipitation ranges from about 30 inches in              soil moisture demands are low. As these floodwaters reach the
                the lowlands of St. Croix to about 55 inches in the mountain peaks             coastal areas, they overflow saltponds and provide freshwater in-
                of St. John. Precipitation increases with altitude because moist air           flow to embayments that support mangrove stands and coral reefs
                in the weather systems is forced up the slopes into the cooler air at          (fig. 3).
                the higher altitudes, causing the moisture to condense and fall as                  A few streams are intermittent; that is, they flow year-round
                rain. However, because of the small size of the islands and brief              in some reaches. For Turpentine Run on St. Thomas, base flow is
                time for passage of these systems over them, these effects are not             predominantly from sewage effluent, and about one-half to three-




                             PALUSTRINE WETLAND


                                                              ESTUARINE WETLAND


                                                                Mangrove swarnp                         MARINE WETLAND

                       Off

                                                                                                       Seagrasses
                                                                                            overweah                       Coral reef


                    Vol-ni-ock                     AtIluvium               Infiltration

                Figure 3. Generalized hydrologic setting of wetlands in the U.S. Virgin Islands. (Source: Wettand types from
                Lugo and Brown, 1988.)








                    372 . National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: STATE SUMMARIES



                    fourths of total flow is from storm runoff (Santiago-Rivera and                 mas and St. John (J.H. Farrelly, U.S. Virgin Islands Department of
                    Col6n-Dieppa, 1986). Turpentine Run discharges to Mangrove La-                  Planning and Natural Resources, written commun., 1992). The
                    goon (fig. 4A) on the southeastern side of the island. On St. Tho-              most extensive wetland alteration took place in St. Croix at Krause
                    mas, the only other intermittent stream is Bonne Resolution Gut.                Lagoon, the largest of the U.S. Virgin Island wetlands. By the late
                    Guinea Gut on St. John, which has base flow from spring discharge,              1970's, Krause Lagoon was virtually eliminated by dredging and
                    and Jolley Hill Gut on St. Croix, once reported to be perennial, axe            filling for construction of port facilities for a major oil refinery, an
                    the only intermittent streams on those islands.                                 aluminum plant, and a container manufacturer. An important large
                                                                                                    wetland complex, Mangrove Lagoon- Benner Bay (fig. 4A) on St.
                    TRENDS                                                                          Thomas, has been similarly affected. Mangrove Lagoon is one of
                                                                                                    the U.S. Virgin Islands' largest wetland complexes, consisting of
                          Wetlands in the U.S. Virgin Islands occupy less than 3 percent            saltponds, a barrier reef, and fringe mangroves. Loss of mangroves
                    of the land area. On the basis of mapping by the Fws National Wet-              and associated submersed seagrasses and corals has resulted from
                    lands Inventory, there are 960 acres of wetlands on St. Croix, 320              construction of marinas, recreation facilities, a wastewater treat-
                    acres of wetlands on St. Thomas, and 425 acres of wetlands on St.               ment facility, and encroachment by a major landfill. Most of the
                    John.                                                                           adverse impacts, except for dredging, are the result of alterations
                          The wetlands of the U.S. Virgin Islands have been adversely               that have disrupted the normal patterns of runoff to the bay.
                    affected by both natural forces and human activities. Hurricane                      Wetlands of the U.S. Virgin Islands remain susceptible to de-
                    Hugo, which passed directly over St. Croix in September 1989, was               velopment. Their location along the shoreline make them particu-
                    the last major storm to significantly alter the wetlands of the islands.        larly attractive as sites for tourist facilities and water-dependent
                    Hurricane winds defoliated mangroves to such an extent that many                developments. It is relatively easy to construct marinas from
                    died. In addition, many black and white mangroves were uprooted                 saltponds, as was done in Southgate Pond on the north shore of St.
                    (Knowles and Amrani, 199 1). Although recovery might be slow, the               Croix and saltponds on St. Thomas (fig. 4B). The demand for such
                    wetland vegetation probably will become reestablished if it is not              facilities is great; mote than 4,000 vessels are registered in the U.S.
                    disturbed.                                                                      Virgin Islands (J.H. Farrelly, U.S. Virgin Islands Department of
                          Human-caused wetland alterations have been severe and will                Planning and Natural Resources, written commun., 1992).
                    likely be long lasting. Wetlands in the islands remained virtually                   Wetlands also are susceptible to degradation by sedimenta-
                    untouched until the 1960's. During the economic growth period of                tion and septic tank leachate from upland areas. The extent to which
                    the 1960's and 1970's, numerous wetlands were altered on St. Tho-               this type of impact is occurring is unknown.





                                                                                  "14-
                                                                                                                                                44117







                               A                                                                    B















                                                                                                                                                      r







                              C                                                                     D


                    Figure 4. Selected U.S. Virgin Islands wetlands. A, Mangrove Lagoon -Benner Bay on St. Thomas. 0, Saltpond on St. Thomas. C, Trunk
                    Bay on St. John. D, Salt River Bay on St. Croix. (Photographs by D. Briane Adams.)







                                                                                                                        National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: U.S. VIRGIN ISLANDS                                            373



                      CONSERVATION                                                                                               wetlands for agricultural use. The law allows exemptions from pen-
                                                                                                                                 allies in some cases, especially if the farmer agrees to restore the
                             Many government agencies and private organizations partici-                                         altered wetland or other wetlands that have been converted to agri-
                      pate in wetland conservation in the U.S. Virgin Islands. The most                                          cultural use. The Wetlands Reserve Program of the 1990 Food,
                      active agencies and organizations and some of their activities are                                         Agriculture, Conservation, and Trade Act authorized the Federal
                      listed in table 1.                                                                                         Government to purchase conservation easements from landowners
                                                                                                                                 who agree to protect or restore wetlands. The Consolidated Farm
                      Table 1. Selected wetland-related activities of government                                                 Service Agency (formerly the Agricultural Stabilization and Con-
                      agencies and private organizations in the U.S. Virgin Islands, 1993                                        servation Service) administers the Swampbuster provisions and
                      [Source: Classification of activities is generalized from information provided                             Wetlands Reserve Program. The Natural Resources Conservation
                           by agencies and organizations. 9, agency or organization participates in                              Service (formerly the Soil Conservation Service) determines com-
                           wetland-related activity;          agency or organization does not participate in                     pliance with Swampbuster provisions and assists farmers in the iden-
                           wetland-related activity. MAN, management; REG, regulation; R&C, res-                                 tificationof wetlands and in the development of wetland protection,
                           toration and creation; LAN, land acquisition; R&D, research and data col-                             restoration, or creation plans.
                           lection; D&I, delineation and inventory]                                                                 . The 1986 Emergency Wetlands Resources Act and the 1972
                                                                                                                                 Coastal Zone Management Act and amendments encourage wetland
                      Agency or organization                                                       9@ 4-                         protection through funding incentives. The Emergency Wetlands
                      FEDERAL                                                                                                    Resources Act requires States to address wetland protection in their
                      Department of Agriculture                                                                                  Statewide Comprehensive Outdoor Recreation Plans to quality for
                        Consolidated Farm Service Agency            ........................... ...  ... ...      ... ...        Federal funding for State recreational land; the National Park Ser-
                        Forest Service      .................................................................e0*  0     0        vice (NPS) provides guidance in developing the wetland component
                        Natural Resources Conservation Service             ................ ...      0            0     0        of their plans. Coastal States that adopt coastal-zone management
                      Department of Commerce                                                                                     programs and plans approved by the National Oceanic and Atmo-
                        National Oceanic and Atmospheric                                                                         spheric Administration are eligible for Federal funding and techni-
                        Administration      .................................................................00   0              cal assistance through the Coastal Zone Management Act.
                      Department of Defense
                        Army Corps of Engineers         ..............................................e00  0      0     0                Large tracts of land, many containing wetlands, are managed
                      Department of the Interior                                                                                 by the FwS and the NPS. The largest area managed by the FWS is the
                        Fish and Wildlife Service       ..............................................00   0      0     0        326-acre Sandy Point National Wildlife Refuge in southwestern St.
                        Geological Survey       .......................................................... ... ... ... ...*      Croix. The NPS manages most of the Island of St. John, along with
                        National Biological Service       ......................................... ... ... ... ...0             extensive offshore areas, such as the under-water trail at Trunk Bay
                        National Park Service        ...................................................00 0      o     0
                      Environmental Protection Agency           .................................. ...0                          in Virgin Islands National Park (fig. 4C). The NPs has received au-
                      TERRITORY OF TH E U.S. VI RG IN ISLAN DS                                                                   thorization to acquire lands around Salt River Bay on St. Croix (fig.
                      Department of Planning and Natural Resources                                                               4D). Not only is the area one of the U.S. Virgin Islands'most im-
                        Department of Planning and Coastal Zone                                                                  portant wetland complexes, but it is also a valuable historical re-
                        Management Program           ..................................................o00        0     0        source believed to be the landing site of Christopher Columbus on
                        Division of Fish and Wildlife     .........................................o 0            0
                      PRIVATE                                                                                                    his second voyage to the Americas in 1493.
                      Island Resources Foundation         .......................................... ... ... ... ...                     Territorial wetland activities. -ne Department of Planning
                                                                                                                                 and Natural Resources is the principal agency requiring permit ap-
                             Federal wetland activities. -Development within ornear wet-                                         plication for construction activities in the coastal zone, where wet-
                      lands is regulated by several Federal statutory prohibitions and in-                                       lands usually form. This responsibility was granted to the Depart-
                      centives that are intended to slow wetland losses. Some of the more                                        ment by the Coastal Zone Management Act passed in 1978. In ad-
                      important of these are contained in the 1899 Rivers and Harbors                                            dition to evaluating permit requests, the Department comments on
                      Act; the 1972 Clean Water Act and amendments; the 1985 Food                                                Federal permit applications to ensure consistency with the Coastal
                      Security Act; the 1990 Food, Agriculture, Conservation, and Trade                                          Zone Management Plan. When wetland losses are unavoidable, the
                      Act; the 1986 Emergency Wetlands Resources Act; and the 1972                                               Department requires mitigation actions to ameliorate anticipated
                      Coastal Zone Management Act. In the following description of                                               losses. The Department also monitors wetlands to ensure that
                      wetland-related Federal legislation, regulations that apply to States                                      unpermitted activities are not taking place and that authorized ac-
                      also apply to the U.S. Virgin Islands.                                                                     tivities are in full compliance with pen-nit requirements. The Terri-
                             Section 10 of the Rivers and Harbors Act gives the U.S. Army                                        torial Legislature adopted the Indigenous and Endangered Species
                      Corps of Engineers (Corps) authority to regulate certain activities                                        Act of 1990, in which section 104(e) establishes a policy of "no net
                      in navigable waters. Regulated activities include diking deepening,                                        loss of wetlands" to the maximum extent possible.
                      filling, excavating, and placing of structures. The related section 404                                            Private wetland activities. - The Island Resources Foundation
                      of the Clean Water Act is the most often-used Federal legislation                                          is headquartered on St. nomas. The Foundation is an important
                      protecting wetlands. Under section 404 provisions, the Corps issues                                        advocate for conservation of island wetlands and other natural re-
                      permits regulating the discharge of dredged or fill material into                                          sources unique to islands of the Caribbean and elsewhere. Through
                      wetlands. Permits are subject to review and possible veto by the U.S.                                      lobbying, organization of citizen networks, and development of
                      Environmental Protection Agency, and the Fws has review and ad-                                            educational materials and research, the Foundation promotes sound
                      visory roles. Section 401 of the Clean Water Act grants to States                                          management of the area's natural resources.
                      and eligible Indian Tribes the authority to approve, apply conditions
                      to, or deny section 404 permit applications based on a proposed                                            References Cited
                      activity's probable effects on the water quality of a wetland.                                             Cowardin, L.M., Carter, Virginia, Golet, F.C., and LaRoe, E.T., 1979, Clas-
                             Most farming, ranching, and silviculture activities are not sub-                                            sification of wetlands and deepwater habitats of the United States: U.S.
                      ject to section 404 regulation, but the "Swampbuster" provision of                                                 Fish and Wildlife Service Report FWS/OBS-79/31, 131 p.
                      the 1985 Food Security Act and amendments in the 1990 Food,                                                Ewell, J.J., and Whitmore, J.L., 1973, The ecological life zones of Puerto
                      Agriculture, Conservation, and Trade Act discourage (through fi-                                                   Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands: U.S. Forest Service Research Paper
                      nancial disincentives) the draining, filling, or other alteration of                                               ITF - 18, 72 p.








                     374     National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: STATE SUMMARIES



                     G6mez-G6mez, Fernando, Guifiones-Mdrquez, Ferdinand, and Zack, A.L.,           Santiago-Rivera, Luis, and Col6n-Dieppa, Eloy, 1986, U.S. Virgin Islands
                          1985, U.S. Virgin Islands ground-water resources, in U.S. Geologi-             surface-water resources, in U.S. Geological Survey, National water
                          cal Survey, National water summary 1984- Hydrologic events, se-                summary 1985 -Hydrologic events and sw-face-water resources: U.S.
                          lected water-quality trends, and ground-water resources: U.S. Geo-             Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper 2300, p. 447-452.
                          logical Survey Water-Supply Paper 2275, p. 409 -414.
                     Knowles,W.C., andAmrani, Cheri, 1991,Wildlife use of the Virgin Islands'
                          wetlands: St. Thomas, U.S. Virgin Islands, Department of Planning         FOR ADDITIONAL INFORMATION: District Chief, U.S. Geological
                          and Natural Resources, Division of Fish and Wildlife, 220 p.              Survey, P.O. Box 364424, San Juan, PR 00936; Regional Wetland Coordi-
                     Lopez, J.M., Stoner, A.W., Garcia, J.R., and Garcfa-Mufifz, Ivan, 1988,        nator, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, i 875 Century Building, Suite 200,
                          Marine food webs associated with Caribbean island mangrove wet-           Atlanta, GA 30345
                          lands: Acta Cientifica, v. 2, no. 2 -3, p. 94-123.
                     Lugo, A.E., and Brown, Sandra, 1988, The wetlands of the Caribbean is-
                          lands: Acta Cientifica, v. 2, no. 2 - 3, p. 48 - 6 1.                                                  Prepared by
                     Philibosian, Richard, and Yntema, J.A., 1977, Annotated checklist of the        D. Briane Adams, U.S. Geological Survey, and John M. Hefner,
                          birds, mammals, reptiles, and amphibians of the Virgin Islands and                           U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service
                          Puerto Rico: St. Croix, U.S. Virgin Islands, Information Services,
                          48 p.


























































                                                                    U.S. Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper 2425







                                                                                                                   National Water Summary-Wetland Resources 375
                                                                                                                                                      Utah
                                                                                                                      Wetland Resources
                Wtlands cover only a small part of Utah but provide critical                    ers, 1979). The distribution of wetlands and deepwater habitats in
                aquatic habitat in an and environment (fig. 1) as well as economic              Utah is shown in figure 2A; only wetlands are discussed herein.
                and other benefits. Utah's wetlands provide habitat for fish, fur-                   Wetlands can be vegetated or nonvegetated and are classified
                bearing wildlife, resident waterfowl, shorebirds, songbirds, and                on the basis of their hydrology, vegetation, and substrate. In this
                nearly 500 species of wetland plants (Reed, 1986). Wetlands also                summary, wetlands are classified according to the system proposed
                provide stopover and breeding habitat for migratory waterfowl, in-              by Cowardin and others (1979), which is used by the U.S. Fish and
                cluding an estimated I million ducks and 65,000 swans and geese                 Wildlife Service (Fws) to map and inventory the Nation's wetlands.
                that pass through the State during fall migration (Redelfs, 1980).              At the most general level of the classification system, wetlands are
                Recreational activities associated with wetlands, such as hunting,              grouped into five ecological systems: Palustrine, Lacustrine, Riv-
                bird watching, canoeing, fishing, and camping, provide consider-                erine, Estuarine, and Marine. The Palustrine System includes only
                able revenue to the State. Duck and goose hunting on wetlands ad-               wetlands, whereas the other systems comprise wetlands and
                jacent to Great Salt Lake alone resulted in an estimated expendi-               deepwater habitats. Wetlands of the systems that occur in Utah are
                ture of $6.4 million dollars by hunters in 1974 (Rawley, 1974).                 described below.
                     About 30 percent of the ducks migrating along the Pacific Fly-
                way stop at marshes around Great Salt Lake (Rawley, 1980), and                  System                                 Wetland description
                74 percent of the waterfowl harvested in the State comes from this
                area (Rawley, 1974). Because of the importance of Great Salt Lake               Palustrine  .................. Wetlands in which vegetation is predominantly
                and its associated wetlands to migratory birds, in 1991 the lake was                                     trees (forested wetlands); shrubs (scrub-shrub
                                                                                                                         wetlands); persistent or nonpersistent emergent,
                designated a Hemispheric Reserve in the Western Hemisphere                                               erect, rooted, herbaceous plants (persistent- and
                Shorebird Reserve Network. At least 33 species of shorebirds use                                         nonpersistent-emergent wetlands); or sub-
                Great Salt Lake and its wetlands at some point in their life cycle;                                      mersed and (or) floating plants (aquatic beds).
                typically, 500,000 Wilson's phalaropes (about 80 percent of the                                          Also, intermittently to permanently flooded
                                                                                                                         open-water bodies of less than 20 acres in which
                world's population) visit the lake in the summer. From 2 to 5 mil-                                       water is less than 6.6 feet deep.
                lion shorebirds use the lake annually (Utah Division of Wildlife                Lacustrine.. .......  Wetlands within an intermittently to permanently
                Resources, 1992).                                                                                        flooded lake or reservoir. Vegetation, when pres-
                     Wetlands aid in flood control by slowing water velocity and                                         ent, is predominantly nonpersistent emergent
                providing ponding areas, which in some places can function as re-                                        plants (non persistent-e merge nt wetlands), or
                bliarge basins for ground water. Wetland vegetation along streams                                        submersed and (or) floating plants (aquatic
                and rivers stabilizes banks and reduces erosion. Wetlands improve                                        beds), or both.
                water quality by settling particulates, producing oxygen, recycling             Riverine  ..................... Wetlands within a channel. Vegetation, when pres-
                nutrients, and degrading many harmful compounds found in water.                                          ent, is same as in the Lacustrine System.
                Mountain wetlands can reduce the concentration of trace metals in                    Several studies of wetlands in Utah have determined wetland
                mine drainage (Owen and others, 1992), lessening the impact on                  acreages and types throughout the State. An inventory done by the
                receiving streams. Because wetlands commonly are associated with                FWS in the 1950's (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 195 5) identified
                rich soils and dependable water sources, Utah's wetlands also are               1,200,000 acres of wetlands in Utah. Sixty-eight percent were salt
                important grazing areas for cattle and sheep.                                   flats (nonvegetated lacustrine and palustrine wetlands). In 1974,
                                                                                                only 558,000 acres of wetlands were identified by Utah's Division
                TYPES AND DISTRIBUTION                                                          of Wildlife Resources (Jensen, 1974). Wetlands were classified as
                                                                                                first-, second-, and third-magnitude marshes, depending on their
                     Wetlands are lands transitional between terrestrial and deep-              ability to support waterfowl. Because of the criteria for classifica-
                water habitats where the water table usually is at or near the land             tion, many mountain wetlands and areas defined as "incidental
                surface or the land is covered by shallow water (Cowardin and oth-              waterfowl habitat," such as Sevier Lake, were not included in the
                                                                                                total wetland acreage of the State. More recent National Wetlands
                                                                                                Inventory data (Bob Freeman and Clark Johnson, U.S. Fish and
                                                                                                Wildlife Service, written commun., 1993) indicate that there are
                                                                                                5 10,000 acres of emergent marshes and nonvegetated mud flats and
                                                                                                salt flats along the eastern shore of Great Salt Lake, within an area
                                                                                                that covers less than 2 percent of the State. (The inventory has not
                                                                                                been completed for the rest of the State.) Wetland losses, naturally
                                                                                                changing boundaries, different classification systems, changing
                                                                                                ideas about functions and values of wetlands, and different study
                                                                                                objectives are all partly responsible for the discrepancies in total
                                                                                                acreage.
                                                                                                     Wetlands in Utah include the shallows of small lakes, reservoirs,
                                                                                                ponds, and streams (emergent and aquatic-bed weilands); riparian
                                                                                                wetlands (forested, scrub-shrub, and emergent wetlands); marshes
                            Figure 1. Pelicans at Bear River Migratory Bird Refuge,             and wet meadows (emergent wetlands); nonvegetated mudflats and
                            northeast shore of Great Salt Lake. (Photograph courtesy            salt flats; and playas (unconsolidated-shore wetlands). In the moun-
                            of U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service.)                                 tains of Utah, wetlands occur as open bodies of water or near them,








                   376    National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: STATE SUMMARIES



                   near springs, and where snowmelt collects. The largest and most             Middle Rocky Mountains. -Sorne of the highest mountain
                   notable wetlands in the State, however, occur in western Utah adja-      peaks in the Uinta Mountains and the Wasatch Range reach alti-
                   cent to Great Salt Lake, where much of the mountain runoff even-         tudes of 10,000 to 13,000 feet and receive more than 60 inches of
                   tually discharges. Wetlands in western Utah also occur as playas,        precipitation per year (Cruff, 1986), mostly as snow. The large ac-
                   near springs in tectonically active areas, and near freshwater bod-      cumulation of snow in the mountains ultimately provides much of
                   ies. In eastern Utah, wetlands are sparse but are present in the flood   the water to wetlands throughout Utah. Mountain wetlands occur
                   plains of some streams and rivers.                                       as small lakes (such as cirque and moraine lakes), reservoirs, ponds
                                                                                            (such as beaver ponds), and streams; as marshes along flood plains;
                   HYDROLOGIC SETTING                                                       and as wet meadows below snow fields and dams, near springs, and
                                                                                            along flood plains (fig. 3A). Some wetlands receive moisture only
                        Wetlands form under conditions of continuous water supply           during periods of runoff, whereas others are recharged continuously
                   at or near the land surface. The location and persistence of the wa-     by shallow ground water or by water impounded in lakes, rivers,
                   ter supply depends on physiographic features that control runoff and     and streams.
                   impoundment of water, climatic conditions such as precipitation and          One of the few wetland studies conducted in Utah's mountains
                   evaporation, and hydrologic factors such as location of the water        identified 200 acres of wetlands in Albion Basin (Jensen, 1993).
                   table and discharge areas. Conditions in Utah differ greatly from        Most of the wetlands are classified as scrub-shrub where willows
                   one part of the State to another, but three principal physiographic      predominate, but persistent-emergent and forested wetlands are also
                   provinces (fig. 2B) define areas with similarities. The Middle Rocky     common where veratrum, sedges, and bluebells occur and where
                   Mountains contain the Uinta Mountains and the Wasatch Range. The         spruce and fir grow. These wetlands provide habitat for a diversity
                   Basin and Range Province is characterized by a series of alternat-       of wildlife including moose, beaver, and abundant nongame birds.
                   ing north-south-trending ranges and valleys. The Colorado Plateaus       Studies in a small part of the wetlands showed that, during runoff,
                   consist of plateaus and mesas interspersed with deep canyons.            83 to 85 percent of the suspended solids and two trace metals were

                          114-
                     A            7"                                   42@
                                                   Beff R'
                                                   Mill 8T




                                                                                                                                         Middle Rocky
                                                                                                                                          Mountains
                                                       yl


                                                                                                                     Basin
                                                                  derliPW
                                                                                                                      and
                                  Salt             Rf"r       lbi                                                    Range
                                  Lake             f
                                 Dawn                 Um h        R-       Won                ra
                                                      Loh a                                  Ou y NVVR,
                                    @ph Spri@ N@y                                           all@    whh@                                    Colorado
                               J,                                                                                                           Plateaus






                           10
                              \_-1
                                                                                                                          PHYSIOGRAPHIC DIVISIONS
                                                     .0                                     We





                                                                                                            WETLANDS AND DEEPWATER HABITATS
                                                                                                      38'   Distribution of wetlands and cleepwater habitats-
                                         04                                                                    This map shows the approximate distribution of large
                                                                                                               wetlands in the State. Because of limitations of scale
                                                                                                               and source material, some wetlands are not shown

                                                                                                                   Predominantly wetland

                                                                                                                   Predominantly deepwater habitat
                                                                   lak.


                                                                                                                   Area typified by a high density of small wetlands


                                                                           0    25      50  MILES
                                                                           i   I I I
                                                                           0  25 50 KILOMETERS

                   Figure 2. Wetland distribution in Utah and physiography of the State. A, Distribution of wetlands and cleepwater habitats. B, Physio-
                   graphy. (Sources: A, TE. Dahl, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, unpub. data, 1991. B, Physiographic divisions from Fenneman, 1946;
                   landforms data from EROS Data Center.)








                                                                                                            National Water Surnmary-Wetland Resources: UTAH                377



                retained by the wetlands (Jensen, 1993), reducing the potential for
                downstream contamination.
                      Much of the runoff in the Uinta Mountains and Wasatch Range                  A. Middle Rocky Mountains
                leaves the Middle Rocky Mountains as surface water in streams and                                                                                 Snow
                rivers or as seepage into the ground that recharges basin aquifers.                                                       Snow
                Much of the runoff from the Middle Rocky Mountains eventually
                reaches Great Salt Lake in the Basin and Range Province by way of
                the Bear, Weber, and Jordan Rivers or as ground-water discharge
                along the eastern shore of the lake.                                                                              Snow          Cirque fa.
                      Basin andRange Province. -Great Salt Lake is located at the                                                  fleld
                base of the Wasatch Range and is a remnant of an ancient and much
                larger lake. It receives 66 percent of its annual water supply from
                surface runoff, 31 percent from direct precipitation, and 3 percent                                             Glad  diot
                from ground-water inflow (Arnow and Stephens, 1990). Great Salt
                Lake is a terminal lake; that is, it has no outlets. It is the fourth largest                                         Moraine lake
                lake of this type in the world (Arnow and Stephens, 1990). Because                                                      *"MAN
                the lake is located in a discharge area (fig. 3B), where movement                                                      VlOnAW
                of confined ground water is upward (Clark and others, 1990), down-                                                                Sprov
                ward seepage of lake water is limited. Water remains in the lake until
                it evaporates or is used by plants. Wetlands adjacent to Great Salt
                Lake are abundant and include marshes, mud flats, and salt flats.                            of
                Marshes occur where freshwater enters the lake along the eastern                                ro4nd.water flow
                shore, including areas near springs and the mouths of rivers. Com-
                mon vegetation includes cattails and bulrush. Mud and salt flats
                occur along flood plains, generally between upland or marshes and
                the lake itself. Mud and salt flats usually are barren, although emer-
                gent vegetation and plants adapted to alkali conditions, such as salt              B. Basin and Range
                grass, grow nearby.                                                                                                                         no.
                      Above-average precipitation during the early 1980's resulted
                in flooding of rivers statewide, and Great Salt Lake reached its high-
                est level on record. Transgression of the shorelines, inundation of
                areas that were normally dry, and the development of new wetlands
                served as a reminder of the functions of flood plains, which were
                slowly being developed. Sevier Lake, which covers 850 square miles
                                                                                                                   Spring
                near Delta, is a typical playa that flooded during the 1980's. It
                reached a depth of 13 feet (Wilberg, 1991).                                             Great Salt EMERGENT
                      "Playa" is a geologic term for very flat, and usually barren,                       Lake     W     DS
                areas of closed and drainage basins that occasionally flood (Neal,                  441,,@.
                                                                                                                          Flood-plain
                1975). Playas form in areas where evaporation exceeds precipita-                                           mud flats Spring
                tion, which is true of most of Utah. In western Utah, annual evapo-                                    Bulrush
                ration rates are as high as 65 inches per year (Farnsworth and oth-
                ers, 1982), and annual precipitation is as low as 5 inches (Cruff,
                1986). Playa lakes like Great Salt Lake commonly are flooded by
                desert thunderstorms, receiving direct precipitation and runoff in
                washes and ephemeral stream channels from the ranges of western
                Utah.
                      Playas in valleys where ground water is at or near land surface,
                such as the Great Salt Lake Desert, can become flooded by a rising
                water table during periods of minimal evaporation and can remain                   C. Colorado Plateaus
                wet throughout the year. Evaporites accumulate as a result of dis-
                solution of lakebed material during flooding that is followed by
                continued evaporation and by capillary rise of saline ground water.
                A layer of white salt crystals commonly develops at the surface over                                                 O*OW
                mud and other evaporites (Snyder, 1975). Although the playa is
                                                                                                                                                             X
                usually devoid of vegetation, salt grass is common near the edges,
                                                                                                                                            4,
                and Nuttall alkali-grass, sea blight, and pickleweed also can be found
                                                                                                      @,,U.oAk-t
                (Vice and Messmer, 1993). Playas in valleys where ground water                             N,                                                       Z
                never reaches the surface, such as Wah Wah Valley, become flooded                                      Direction of
                                                                                                                          -water flow                                 M
                only after rains. The ponded water dissipates more rapidly because
                                                                                                                         mjlluvsum
                of downward seepage. The playa surface is dry and hard most of
                the time and consists of fine sand, silt, and clay; evaporites are ab-
                sent (Snyder, 1975). Any vegetation near a dry playa is adapted to
                long periods of extreme dryness.
                      Great Salt Lake and playas provide critical habitat for resident             Figure 3. Generalized      hydrologic setting of wetlands in Utah. A,
                wildlife and migrating waterfowl in an and environment, but                        Middle Rocky Mountains. 8, Basin and Range Province. C, Colo-
                ground-water discharge from springs and freshwater bodies also                     rado Plateaus.








                                 378          National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: STATE SUMMARIES



                                 maintain wetlands in the Basin and Range Province. Fish Springs                                                             Table 1. Selected wetland-related activities of government
                                 National Wildlife Refuge, in Utah's western desert, is an example                                                           agencies and private organizations in Utah, 1993
                                 of a spring-fed wetland. Discharge from 10 springs maintains 12,000                                                         [Source: Classification of activities is generalized from information provided
                                 acres of ponds and marsh habitat. Marshes and mud flats also oc-                                                                 by agencies and organizations. o, agency or organization participates in
                                 cur in western Utah along flood plains of streams and rivers, and                                                                wetland-related activity;                agency or organization does not participate in
                                                                                                                                                                  wetland-related activity. MAN, management; REG, regulation; R&C, res-
                                 adjacent to freshwater lakes and reservoirs. Utah Lake covers more                                                               toration and creation; LAN, land acquisition; R&D, research and data col-
                                 surface area than any other natural freshwater body in Utah and wet-                                                             lection; D&I, delineation and inventory]
                                 lands dot its shores.
                                          Colorado Plateaus. -The Colorado Plateaus, south of the
                                 Middle Rocky Mountains and east of the Basin and Range Prov-                                                                Agency or organization                                                                         \Y
                                 ince, receive about 10 to 20 inches of precipitation per year. Three                                                        FEDERAL
                                 major rivers, the Colorado, Green, and San Juan, flow through the                                                           Department of Agriculture
                                 Colorado Plateaus and gouge deep canyons that do not provide con-                                                              Consolidated Farm Service Agency                  ........................... ...
                                 ditions for development of large wetlands. Some emergent wetlands                                                              Forest Service       .................................................................*
                                 occur on river and tributary flood plains where the canyons widen                                                              Natural Resources Conservation Service                    ................ ...
                                                                                                                                                             Department of Defense
                                 and the terrain becomes less steep (fig. 3C). These wetlands pro-                                                              Army Corps of Engineers           ..............................................0
                                 vide oases for migrating and resident waterfowl and backwater habi-                                                         Department of the Interior
                                 tat for fish. Common vegetation in these areas includes boxelder and                                                           Bureau of Land Management                ......................................*
                                 cottonwood trees, willows and tamarisk (an introduced species),                                                                Bureau of Reclamation             .................................................   0       0     0       0
                                 cattails, bulrush, and a variety of grasses.                                                                                   Fish and Wildlife Service         ..............................................      0       0     *       0
                                          Ouray National Wildlife Refuge, near Vernal, is an example of                                                         Geological Survey          .......................................................... ... ... ... ...*
                                                                                                                                                                National Biological Service            ......................................... ... ... ... ...    0
                                 an emergent wetland on the flood plain of the Green River. The                                                                 National Park Service             ...................................................0... ... ... ...       ...
                                 Green River provides the principal source of water, which reaches                                                           Environmental Protection Agency                .................................. ...
                                 the wetlands by flooding and managed pumping. Since its develop-                                                            STATE
                                 ment, supplemental water from Pelican Lake and seeps in uplands                                                             Depa rtment of Ag riculture
                                 to the north has been required to help support the 2,100 acres of                                                              Environmental Quality Section              .................................... ... ...
                                                                                                                                                             Department of Environmental Quality
                                 wetland habitat.                                                                                                               Division of Water Quality         .............................................. ...
                                                                                                                                                             Department of Natural Resources
                                                                                                                                                                Division of Oil, Gas, and Mining            .................................. ... ...
                                 TRENDS                                                                                                                         Division of Parks and Recreation              ...............................a  0
                                          On the basis of unpublished U.S. Department of Agriculture                                                            Division of State Lands and Forestry               ......................... ...e     ... ...       ... ...
                                                                                                                                                                Division of Water Resources              ....................................... ... ... ... ...
                                 records, Dahl (1990) estimated that 244,000 acres of Utah's wet-                                                               Division of Water Rights          ................................................ ...
                                 lands had been lost from the 1780's to the 1980's, apparently from                                                             Division of Wildlife Resources            .....................................0
                                 agricultural drainage alone. Large-scale water-development projects                                                         D epa rtment of Tra nsportation           .........................................0
                                 also have resulted in losses of wetland habitat. According to records                                                       University of Utah
                                 filed with the Utah Division of Water Rights, at least 1,600 dams                                                              Department of Botany              ................................................... ... ... ... ...
                                                                                                                                                                Red Butte Garden and Arboretum                 ..............................9
                                 have been constructed in Utah since the mid-1800's. Ofthese dams,                                                           Utah State University
                                 445 impound 20 acre-feet of water or more (Joe Borgione, Utah                                                                  Department of Fisheries and Wildlife                ........................*
                                 Division of Water Rights, oral commun., 1993). Impounded water                                                              SOME COUNTY AND LOCAL GOVERNMENTS                              .............e
                                 provides some wetland habitat but might not compensate for wet-                                                             PRIVATE ORGANIZATIONS
                                 lands lost to dam construction, rising waters in reservoirs, or re-                                                         National Audubon Society             ............................................... ... ...
                                 ceding rivers. Because ofdam construction, less than 10 percent of                                                          Brigham Young University
                                                                                                                                                                Department of Botany              ...................................................
                                 the original riparian area (uplands and wetlands associated with                                                            Ducks Unlimited         ..................................................................
                                 unimpounded water bodies) along the Colorado River still exists                                                             The Nature Conservancy               ..................................................
                                 (Redelfs, 1980). The FWs has estimated that 50 to 60 percent of ri-                                                         Southern Utah Wilderness Alliance                 ..............................   . ... ...
                                 parian wetlands in Utah have been lost (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Ser-                                                         Utah Riparian and Management Coalition                    ................... ... ...    ... ...
                                 vice, 1990). Expansion of agricultural areas, encroachment of resi-                                                         Utah Wetlands Foundation             ............................................... ... ...
                                 dential developments, industrial growth, mining, ski-area develop-
                                 ment, and grazing also have resulted in wetland losses.                                                                     of the Clean Water Act is the most often-used Federal legislation
                                                                                                                                                             protecting wetlands. Under section 404 provisions, the Corps issues
                                 CONSERVATION                                                                                                                permits regulating the discharge of dredged or fill material into
                                                                                                                                                             wetlands. Permits are subject to review and possible veto by the U.S.
                                          Many government agencies and private organizations partici-                                                        Enviromriental Protection Agency (EPA), and the Fws has review and
                                 pate in wetland conservation in Utah. The most active agencies and                                                          advisory roles. Section 401 of the Clean Water Act grants to States
                                 organizations and some of their activities are listed in table 1.                                                           and eligible Indian Tribes the authority to approve, apply conditions
                                          Federal wetland activities. -Development activities in Utah                                                        to, or deny section 404 permit applications on the basis of a pro-
                                 wetlands are regulated by several Federal statutory prohibitions and                                                        posed activity's probable effects on the water quality of a wetland.
                                 incentives that are intended to slow wetland losses. Some of the more                                                               Most farming, ranching, and silviculture activities are not sub-
                                 important of these are contained in the 1899 Rivers and Harbors                                                             ject to section 404 regulation. However, the "Swampbuster" provi-
                                 Act; the 1972 Clean Water Act and amendments; the 1985 Food                                                                 sion of the 1985 Food Security Act and amendments in the 1990
                                 Security Act; the 1990 Food, Agriculture, Conservation, and Trade                                                           Food, Agriculture, Conservation, and Trade Act discourage (through
                                 Act; and the 1986 Emergency Wetlands Resources Act.                                                                         financial disincentives) the draining, filling, or other alteration of
                                          Section 10 of the Rivers and Harbors Act gives the U.S. Army                                                       wetlands for agricultural use. The law allows exemptions from pen-
                                 Corps of Engineers (Corps) authority to regulate certain activities                                                         alties in some cases, especially if the farmer agrees to restore the
                                 in navigable waters. Regulated activities include diking, deepening,                                                        altered wetland or other wetlands that have been converted to agri-
                                 filling, excavating, and placing of structures. The related section 404                                                     cultural use. The Wetlands Reserve Program of the 1990 Food,








                                                                                                             National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: UTAH                  379



                 Agriculture, Conservation, and Trade Act authorizes the Federal                    Green, Utah Division of Parks and Recreation, written commun.,
                 Government to purchase conservation easements from landowners                      1993). In compliance with the requirements of the Emergency
                 who agree to protect or restore wetlands. The Consolidated Farm                    Wetlands Resources Act, Utah's 1992 Statewide Comprehensive
                 Service Agency (formerly the Agricultural Stabilization and Con-                   Outdoor Recreation Plan (unpublished draft) identifies priority
                 servation Service) administers the Swampbuster provisions and Wet-                 wetlands. The Division of Parks and Recreation also provides pro-
                 lands Reserve Program. The Natural Resources Conservation Ser-                     tection for wetlands by regulating development along the Jordan and
                 vice (formerly the Soil Conservation Service) (NRCS) determines                    Provo River corridors under the Utah River Enhancement Act. Other
                 compliance with Swampbuster provisions and assists farmers in the                  divisions of the Utah Department of Natural Resources participate
                 identification of wetlands and in the development of wetland pro-                  in wetland-related activities: the Division of State Lands regulates
                 tection, restoration, or creation plans.                                           wetlands through land-use permits; the Division of Oil, Gas, and
                       The 1986 Emergency Wetlands Resources Act encourages                         Mining restores degraded habitat under the Abandoned Mine Rec-
                 wetland protection through funding incentives. The act requires                    lamation Program; the Division of Water Resources addresses the
                 States to address wetland protection in their Statewide Comprehen-                 State's future water needs and potential effects of proposed projects
                 sive Outdoor Recreation Plans to qualify for Federal funding for                   on water resources; and the Division of Water Rights issues some
                 State recreational land; the National Park Service (NPS) provides                  section 404 permits under the guidance of the Corps.
                 guidance to States in developing the wettand component of their                         The Utah Department of Environmental Quality, Division of
                 plans.                                                                             Water Quality, is responsible for Clean Water Act section 401 certi-
                       Federal land-management agencies provide for the protection                  fication, which helps ensure that water quality will not be adversely
                 and management of natural resources on land they administer, which                 affected by activities specified in a section 404 permit. The Divi-
                 includes wetlands. Most of the wetlands are not formally managed                   sion of Water Quality and the Environmental Quality Section of the
                 and are associated with riparian areas. Riparian acreages determined               Department of Agriculture evaluate riparian areas and potential
                 by agencies likely often include both uplands and wetlands. The                    nonpoint sources of pollution and develop plans for priority water-
                 Bureau of Land Management (BLM) manages 22,142,000 acres of                        sheds that include alternatives for water-quality improvement. The
                 land in Utah. An estimated 216,000 acres of this total are classified              Utah Department of Transportation mitigates wetland loss when it
                 as riparian-wetland areas (Bureau of Land Management, 1991).                       cannot be avoided during construction of new highways or improve-
                 Pariette Wetlands near Vernal is the largest wetland (3,000 acres)                 ment of existing highways.
                 managed by the BLM.                                                                     County and local wetland activities. - Several county and lo-
                       The U.S. Forest Service manages 8,099,000 acres of land in                   cal agencies participate in the management of water resources. The
                 six National Forests in Utah (Bruce Strom, U.S. Forest Service, oral               EPA provides support and funding for Weiland Advance Identifica-
                 commun., 1993). An estimated 250,000 acres of this total are ri-                   tion Studies, which are usually collaborative efforts by local coop-
                 parian areas (Roland Leidy, Livia Crowley, Gil Garcia, Dennis Kelly,               erating agencies. The data collected during these studies facilitate
                 and Rick Patton, U.S. Forest Service, oral commun., 1993). The                     the section 404 permitting process. An Advance Identification of
                 Ashley National Forest accounts for about 148,000 acres of the total,              wetlands along the Jordan River was conducted by the Salt Lake
                 of which an estimated 70,000 acres have been identified as wet                     City-County Health Department. Advance Identification Studies of
                 meadows (Roland Leidy, U.S. Forest Service, oral commun., 1993).                   wetlands also have been conducted in Albion and Snyderville Ba-
                 The NPS manages 2,096,000 acres of land in Utah (Marty Ott, Na-                    sins.
                 tional Park Service, oral commun., 1993). Currently (1993), no                          Private wetland activities. -The National Audubon Society
                 estimates exist of wetland or riparian acres on land administered                  promotes public awareness and educational programs concerning
                 by the Nps.                                                                        wetlands and provides physical assistance in wetland restoration and
                       Other Federal agencies also manage Utah wetlands. The FWS                    creation projects. Ducks Unlimited is dedicated to funding wetland
                 manages three refuges. Bear River Migratory Bird Refuge is the                     acquisition. Seven wetland projects in Utah, funded cooperatively
                 largest federally managed refuge in the State and the largest man-                 by Ducks Unlimited, have involved land acquisition and improved
                 aged wetland near Great Salt Lake. It includes 63,000 acres of wet-                water-resource utilization. The Nature Conservancy seeks to pro-
                 lands, but expansion plans will increase that to 93,500 acres. The                 tect plants and animals from extinction through acquisition of areas
                 Bureau of Reclamation mitigates sites affected by dam and reser-                   for critical habitat. They currently manage two notable wetlands in
                 voir construction and is creating new wetlands downstream from                     Utah: the Matheson Wetlands Preserve near Moab and the Layton
                 Jordanelle Reservoir along the Provo River. The Utah office of the                 Marsh near Ogden. Twenty-six private hunt clubs manage 46,000
                 NRCS prepares resource-management plans, which often address                       acres of wetlands and uplands surrounding Great Salt Lake (Jensen,
                 management of wetlands for landowners engaging in agricultural                     1974). Other private organizations involved in wetland activities
                 activities.                                                                        include the Utah Wetlands Foundation, the Southern Utah Wilder-
                       State wetland activities.-The Utah Department of Natural                     ness Alliance, the Summit County Land Trust, and the Utah Ripar-
                 Resources, Division of Wildlife Resources, in cooperation with other               ian Management Coalition.
                 State agencies, is developing a State wetland policy and plan under
                 the EPA's Weiland Protection Program. The plan will serve as a man-                References Cited
                 agement guide for all State-owned lands and will provide for con-
                 sistency in actions taken'on Utah's wetlands. The Division also is                 Arnow, Ted, and Stephens, Doyle, 1990, Hydrologic characteAstics of the
                 conducting an inventory to identify, classify, and develop a base map                   Great Salt Lake, Utah- 1847-1986: U.S. Geological Survey Water-
                 of Utah wetlands. The Division administers 20 designated Water-                         Supply Paper 2332, 32 p.
                 fowl Management Areas (87,000 acres) throughout Utah that include                  Bureau of Land Management, 1991, Riparian-wetlands initiative for the
                 64,000 acres of wetlands. The Division also participates in many                        1990's: Bureau of Land Management Report BLM/WO/GI-91/
                                                                                                         001+4340, 50 p.
                 cooperative efforts with private organizations to acquire wetland                  Clark, David W., Appel, Cynthia L., Lambert, Patrick M., Puryear, Robert
                 areas by using funds from the sale of State waterfowl stamps and                        L., 1990, GroLmd-water resources and simulated effects of withdraw-
                 from Ducks Unlimited marsh funds.                                                       als in the east shore area of Great Salt Lake, Utah: Utah Department
                       The Utah Department of Natural Resources, Division of Parks                       of Natural Resources Technical Publication 93, 150 p., 1 pl.
                 and Recreation, manages 46 parks that total more than 95,000 acres.
                 This acreage includes an estimated 5,800 acres of wetlands (Terry








                       380      National Water Surnmary-Wetland Resources: STATE SUMMARIES



                       Cowardin, L.M, Carter, Virginia, Golet, F.C., and LaRoe, E.T., 1979, Clas-             Reed, P.B., Jr., 1986, Wetland plant list-Utah: U.S. Fish and Wildlife Ser-
                             sification ofwetlands and deepwater habitats ofthe United States: U.S.                 vice WELUT-86/Wl 2.44, 26 unnumbered pages.
                             Fish and Wildlife Service Report FWS/OBS -79/31, 131 p.                          Snyder, C.T., 1975, A hydrologic classification of valleys, the Great Basin,
                       Cruff, R.W., 1986, Utah surface-water resources, in U.S. Geological Sur-                     Western United States, in Neal, J.T., ed., Benchmark Papers in Geol-
                             vey, National water summary 1985 -Hydrologic events and surface-                       ogy/20, Playas and dried lakes, occurrence and development:
                             water resources: U.S. Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper 2300,                       Stroudsburg, Pa., Dowden, Hutchinson, and Ross, Inc., p. 113-119.
                             p. 453-460.                                                                      U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 1955, Wetlands inventory -Utah: Albuquer-
                       Dahl, T.E., 1990, Wetlands-Losses in the United States, 1780's to 1980's:                    que, N. Mex., U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 15 p., 7 pls.
                             Washington, D.C., U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Report to Congress,             -1990, Regional wetlands concept plan -Emergency wetlands re-
                             13 p.                                                                                  sources act: Lakewood, Colo., U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 90 p.,
                       Farnsworth, R.K., Thompson, E.S., and Peck, E.L., 1982, Evaporation at-                      4 apps.
                             las for the contiguous 48 United States: National Oceanic and Atmos-             Utah Division ofWildlife Resources, 1992, Wilson's phalarope: Utah Divi-
                             pheric Administration Technical Report NWS 33, 27 p.                                   sion of Wildlife Resources Wildlife Notebook Series No. 6, 4 p.
                       Fenneman, N.M., 1946, Physical divisions of the United States: Washing-                Vice, Daniel, and Messmer, Terry, 1993, Wetlands ofUtah-A citizen's guide
                             ton, D.C., U.S. Geological Survey special map, scale 1:7,000,000.                      to the enjoyment and conservation of Utah's wetlands: Logan, Utah
                       Jensen, F.C., 1974, Evaluation of existing wetland habitat in Utah: Utah State               State University, 20 p.
                             Division ofWildlife Resources Publication 74-17, 219 p.                          Wilberg, D.E., 199 1, Hydrologic reconnaissance of the Sevier Lake area,
                       Jensen, S.F., 1993, Ecological characterization and functional evaluation of                 west-central Utah: Utah Department of Natural Resources Technical
                             subalpine and lower montane wetlands in the Albion Basin region of                     Publication 96, 51 p.
                             Utah: Salt Lake City, Salt Lake County Commission Staff Office, 45
                             p., 4 apps-
                       Neal, J.T., 1975, Introduction, in Neal, J.T., ed., Benchmark papers in ge-            FOR ADDITIONAL INFORMATION: District Chief, U.S. Geological
                             ology/20-Playas and dried lakes, occurrence and development:                     Survey, Administration Building Room 1016, 1745 West 1700 South, Salt
                             Stroudsburg, Pa., Dowden, Hutchinson, and Ross, Inc., p. 1-5.                    Lake City, UT 84104; Regional Wetland Coordinator, U.S. Fish and Wild-
                       Owen, D.E., Otton, J.K., Hills, F.A., and Schumann, R.R., 1992, Uranium                life Service, Fish and Wildlife Enhancement, P.O. Box 25486, Denver Fed-
                             and other elements in Colorado Rocky Mountain wetlands -A recon-                 eral Center, Denver, CO 80225
                             naissance study: U.S. Geological Survey Bulletin 1992, 33 p.
                       Rawley, E.V., 1974, The Great Salt Lake biotic system: Utah Division of
                             Wildlife Resources Publication 74-13, 431 p.                                                                     Prepared by
                       -1980, Wildlife of the Great Salt Lake, in Gwynn, JW., ed., Great                                     Doyle W. Stephens and Linda J. Gerner,
                             Salt Lake-A scientific, historical and economic overview: Utah Geo-                                       U.S. Geological Survey
                             logical and Mineral Survey Bulletin 116, p. 287-304.
                       Redelfs, A.E., 1980, Wetlands values and losses in the United States:
                             Stillwater, Oklahoma State University, M.S. thesis, 144 p.







































                                                                           U.S. Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper 2425







                                                                                                                   National Water Summary-Wetland Resources 381

                                                                                                                                       Vermont
                                                                                                                     Wetland Resources
                 Recent estimates of the area covered by wetlands in Vermont range                    The Fws National Wetlands Inventory estimated that Vermont
                 from 4 to 6 percent of the State's total area. Many of the State's              contains approximately 243,000 acres of wetlands, including
                 wetlands are small; about 80 percent are less than 10 acres (Par-               218,600 acres of palustrine wetland, 800 acres of lacustrine wet-
                 sons, 1988a). The largest wetlands are in the broad valleys of north-           land (exclusive of Lake Champlain), and less than 200 acres of riv-
                 eastern Vermont and in the flood plains and deltas of rivers that               erine wetland, as well as 23,400 acres of lacustrine wetlands in Lake
                 discharge into Lake Champlain (fig. 1).                                         Champlain (Tiner, 1987). The 243,000-acre total represents about
                      Despite their small collective area, wetlands are an integral part         4 percent of the State's area. The Wetlands Office in the Water Qual-
                 of Vermont's natural resources. They provide essential habitat for              ity Division of the Vermont Agency of Natural Resources' Depart-
                 certain types of wildlife and vegetation, including rare and endan-             ment of Environmental Conservation, considers the State's actual
                 gered species. Wetlands provide timber and opportunities for                    wetland acreage to be as much as 50 percent higher (George
                 hunting and fishing; education and research; and bird, wildlife, and            Springston, Vermont Agency of Natural Resources, written com-
                 plant observation that all boost the tourist industry and economy,              mun., 1993).
                 Beneficial wetland functions include flood control, bank- and shore-                 The distribution of wetlands in Vermont is influenced by physi-
                 line-erosion control, sediment retention, water filtration, and nu-             ography (fig. 2B). About one-half of the State's wetlands are in the
                 trient uptake. In recognition of the importance of wetlands, many               Lake Champlain Valley (Tiner, 1987), either in river flood plains
                 government and private organizations have worked to preserve                    and low-lying areas in valleys, or in deltas, bayheads, and other areas
                 wetlands and educate the public about wetland values. For example,              of shallow water in Lake Champlain. Wetlands are sparse in the
                 wetlands in the delta of the Missisquoi River contain one of the                mountains and southern parts of the New England Upland, where
                 largest great blue heron colonies in the Northeastern United States             they have formed primarily in river valleys. Several large wetlands
                 (Warmer, 1979) and are protected as part of the Nfissisquoi National            are present in the Otter Creek Valley between the Taconic and Green
                 Wildlife Refuge.                                                                Mountains. About one-third of the State's wetlands are in northeast-
                                                                                                 em Vermont (Tiner, 1987), where they have formed in broad val-
                 TYPES AND DISTRIBUTION                                                          leys over thick glacial deposits, such as in Victory Basin along the
                                                                                                 Moose River. Except in the headwaters and a few areas where dams
                      Wetlands are lands transitional between terrestrial and deep-              have created backwater conditions along tributaries, wetlands are
                 water habitats where the water table usually is at or near the land             sparse in the lowlands of the Connecticut River Valley.
                 surface or the land is covered by shallow water (Cowardin and                        Palustrine forested wetlands constitute about 55 percent of
                 others, 1979). The distribution of wetlands and deepwater habitats              Vermont's wetlands (Tiner, 1987). Forested wetlands that have min-
                 in Vermont is shown in figure 2A; only wetlands are discussed                   eral soils rich in organic material are commonly refer-red to as
                 herein.                                                                         swamps, whereas wetlands that have organic soils over mineral soils
                      Wetlands can be vegetated or nonvegetated and are classified               are called peatlands. Forested wetlands in southern Vermont and
                 on the basis of their hydrology, vegetation, and substrate. In this             in the Connecticut River and Lake Champlain Valleys contain hard-
                 summary, wetlands are classified according to the system proposed               wood communities similar to those in southern New England wet-
                 by Cowardin and others (1979), which is used by the U.S. Fish and               lands. For example, silver maple and swamp white oak predomi-
                 Wildlife Service (Fws) to map and inventory the Nation's wetlands.              nate in swamps along Lake Champlain, silver maple and black ash
                 At the most general level of the classification system, wetlands are
                 grouped into five ecological systems: Palustrine, Lacustrine, Riv-
                 erine, Estuarine, and Marine. The Palustrine System includes only
                 wetlands, whereas the other systems comprise wetlands and
                 deepwater habitats. Wetlands of the systems that occur in Vermont
                 are described below.


                 System                                 Wetland description
                 Palustrine  .................. Wetlands in which vegetation is predominantly
                                          trees (forested wetlands); shrubs (scrub-shrub
                                          wetlands); persistent or nonpersistent emergent,
                                          erect, rooted, herbaceous plants (persistent- and
                                          non persistent-emergent wetlands); or sub-
                                          mersed and (or) floating plants (aquatic beds).
                                          Also, intermittently to permanently flooded
                                          open-water bodies of less than 20 acres in which
                                          water is less than 6.6 feet deep.
                 Lacustrine  ................. Wetlands within an intermittently to permanently
                                          flooded lake or reservoir. Vegetation, when pres-
                                          ent, is predominantly nonpersistent emergent
                                          plants (nonpersistent-emergent wetlands), or
                                          submersed and (or) floating plants (aquatic            Figure 1. Fall foliage in a cattail marsh along East Creek, south-
                                          beds), or both.                                        west of Middleburg. About two-thirds of the wetland has been
                 Riverine  ..................... Wetlands within a channel. Vegetation, when pres- protected by the Vermont chapter of The Nature Conservancy.
                                          ent, is same as in the Lacustrine System.              (Photograph courtesy ofjohn Roe, The Nature Conservancy.)








                     382      National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: STATE SUMMARIES



                     are common in flood plains of major rivers, and red maple-black                     scrub-shrub wetlands) are acidic, nutrient-poor peatlands that have
                     ash swamps typically are present in poorly drained basins and along                 a low species diversity; whereas fens (palustrine forested, scrub-
                     small streams (Thompson, 1989). Some red maple swamps, such                         shrub, and persistent-emergent wetlands) are less acidic and have
                     as Cornwall Swamp near Middlebury, were northern white cedar                        higher nutrient levels and plant-species diversity. The herbaceous-
                     swamps before they were logged. The distribution of northern white                  plant community in bogs is generally dominated by sphagnurn moss,
                     cedar in Vermont corresponds well to the distribution of calcare-                   whereas in fens it typically is dominated by sedges and mosses.
                     ous soils (Meeks, 1986), which exist where the underlying bedrock                       Palustrine scrub-shrub wetlands constitute about 29 percent
                     is limestone, marble, or other rock that contains calcium carbon-                   of Vermont's wetlands (Tiner, 1987). Scrub-shrub vegetation grows
                     ate. A few wetlands in extreme southwestern Vermont and in the                      in most wetlands, generally either as a transitional community be-
                     Lake Champlain Valley contain black gum, a species at the north-                    tween emergent wetlands and forested wetlands or upland, or be-
                     em extent of its range. Forested wetlands in northeastern Vermont                   tween open water and forested wetlands or upland. Broad-leaved
                     and at higher altitudes elsewhere in the State are similar to those in              deciduous shrubs such as willow and alder typically predominate
                     Canadian wetlands. For example, swamps containing red spruce,                       in shrub swamps (Thompson, 1989); stunted black spruce and larch
                     balsam fir, and larch are most common in poorly drained basins and                  and broad-leaved evergreen shrubs such as leatherleaf and labra-
                     along streams, whereas black spruce, larch, and northern white                      dor tea are characteristic of scrub-shrub communities in bogs; and
                     cedar predominate in evergreen forested peatlands (Thompson,                        broad-leaved evergreen shrubs, broad-leaved deciduous shrubs, and
                     1989).                                                                              northern white cedar commonly grow in fens.
                          Peatlands are present throughout Vermont but are less com-                         Palustrine emergent wetlands, cornmonly referred to as marsh-
                     mon in the southeastern part of the State. The terms "bog" and "fen"                es, constitute about 11 percent of Vermont's wetlands (Tiner, 1987).
                     have been used to differentiate peatlands in some classification                    Most of the State's largest marshes are in the Lake Champlain Val-
                     systems (Damman and French, 1987). Bogs (palustrine forested and                    ley in deltas and flood plains of rivers that flow into the lake. For




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                                                                                                                                       PHYSIOGRAPHIC DIVISIONS
                                                                                                                                           A. Hudson Valley
                                                                                                                                           B. Lake Champlain Valley
                                                                                                                                           C. Taconic Mountains
                         44'                                                                                                               D. Green Mountains
                                                                                                                                           E. New England Upland
                                  P                                                                                                        F. White Mountains
                                                                       op


                         E.t
                         C=reek

                                      B nd                                                                                          C            4
                                                  Mniain
                                             z    Fdtat                      WETLANDS AND DEEPWATER HABITATS
                                                                                                                                                 J
                                                                             Distribution of wetlands and deopwater habitats-
                                                                                This map shows the approximate distribution of large
                                                                                wetlands in the State. Because of limitations of scale
                                                                                and source material, some wetlands are not shown

                                                                                    Predominantly wetland                                             J,

                                                                                    Predominantly deepwater habitat

                             43.


                                                                                                                                                            GLACIAL LAKES
                                                                       0       10    20     30 MILES                                                             Maximum extent of
                                                                                                                                                                  glacial lakes
                                                                       0   10 20 30    KILOMETERS

                     Figure 2. Wetland distribution and physical features that determine wetland distribution in Vermont. A, Distribution of wetlands and
                     deepwater habitats. B, Physiography. C, Maximum extent of glacial lakes. (Sources: A, TE Dahl, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, unpub.
                     data, 1991. B, Physiographic divisions modified from Fennernan, 1946; landforms from EROS Data Center. C, Modified from Meeks, 1986;
                     and Doll, 1970.)








                                                                                                 National Water Surnmary-Wetland Resources: VERMONT                383



                example, extensive marshes have formed near the mouths of the                 length of the growing season decrease, and the average annual pre-
                Missisquoi, Lamoille, and Winooski Rivers and also along several              cipitation and runoff increase (Meeks, 1986; Hammond and Cot-
                smaller rivers and creeks such as the La Platte and Poultney Rivers,          ton, 1986). The structure of plant communities in Vermont's wet-
                and Otter, Little Otter, and East Creeks. A large marsh is in a simi-         lands is influenced by these climatic differences.
                lar setting at the mouth of the Barton River where it discharges into              The distribution of wetlands in Vermont is partly determined
                Lake Memphremagog. Several marshes line creeks and fringe                     by physiography, glacial history, and characteristics of the under-
                bayheads in the islands and peninsulas of northern Lake Champlain,            lying bedrock. Areas of steep topography do not retain water long
                Elsewhere in Vermont, marshes are generally small and are associ-             enough for wetlands to form. However, given favorable hydrologic
                ated with lacustrine and riverine wetlands. Marsh vegetation is               conditions, wetlands form on drainage divides and near mountain
                largely determined by the wetland's hydrologic setting or soil type.          tops. For example, a small alpine bog lies near the summit of Mount
                Cattails and bulrushes are characteristic of semipermanently or               Mansfield, the highest mountain in the State. Most of Vermont's
                permanently flooded marshes; grasses predominate in, areas that               wetlands, however, are in lowlands, valleys, and depressions that
                have permanently saturated mineral soils, such as swales; and sedges          have more favorable hydrologic conditions for wetlands.
                are typical of permanently saturated or seasonally flooded peatlands               Many of the low-lying areas of Vermont are covered by strati-
                or areas that have muck soils (Thompson, 1989).                               fied sand, gravel, clay, and silt deposited by glacial meltwater and
                     Lacustrine wetlands in Vermont include about 600 acres of                by modem streams in the time since glaciation. Stratified deposits
                open water, 200 acres of aquatic-bed wetlands, less than 50 acres             in the lowlands of the Lake Champlain Valley include marine clay
                of emergent wetlands, and 23,400 acres of unclassified near-shore             deposited during glaciation when the land was depressed by the
                wetlands in Lake Champlain (Tiner, 1987). Riverine emergent wet-              weight of glacial ice, allowing an arm of the Atlantic Ocean to oc-
                lands cover about 174 acres. Many of the shores and bottoms of                cupy the valley (Meeks, 1986). Most mountains and uplands in
                shallow lakes and rivers are unconsolidated gravel, sand, or rock.            Vermont are composed of bedrock mantled by glacial till, an un-
                Although largely unvegetated, these habitats are classified as wet-           stratified mixture of clay, silt, sand, gravel, and boulders. Both till
                lands. Most ofVermont's lakes and rivers have areas of shallow water          and fine-grained sediments can restrict drainage and retain surface
                or slow reaches where aquatic-bed and nonpersistent-emergent                  water. Thus, wetlands occur over till in northeastern Vermont and
                vegetation is established. These wetlands and associated riparian             at higher altitudes elsewhere, over fine-grained glacial-lake and
                wetlands are very important to the biological productivity of lakes           marine deposits in the lowlands of the Lake Champlain Valley, over
                and rivers.                                                                   fine-grained glacial-lake deposits in the lowlands around Lake
                     As a result of recent increases in beaver populations, many              Memphremagog, and over fine-grained glacial-lake deposits in parts
                riverine and riparian wetlands in smaller streams and rivers have             of the Missisquoi, Lamoille, Winooski, and Connecticut River Val-
                been flooded behind beaver dams. Over time, this flooding promotes            leys (fig. 2C ). A lack of clay exposures accounts in part for the scar-
                a cyclical change from shrub swamps to small ponds and marshes                city of wetlands in parts of the Connecticut River Valley (Fred
                to wet meadows and then back to shrub swamps (George Springston,              Larson, Norwich University, oral commun., 1993). In parts of north-
                Vermont Wetlands Office, written commun., 1993). This flooding                eastern Vermont, thick sand and till deposits (moraines) contain
                can be detrimental to existing wetlands but also can create wetlands          many poorly drained depressions favorable for wetlands. In a few
                that have high value to some wildlife, such as waterfowl.                     areas, depressions called kettle holes formed when ice blocks buried
                                                                                              by glacial outwash melted. These kettles either filled with water or
                HYDROLOGIC SETTING                                                            passed through several successional stages of infilling to become
                                                                                              kettle bogs. Molly Bog, near Morrisville, likely developed in this
                     Wetlands are hydrologic features that occur wherever climate             manner (Johnson, 1985). Most Vermont bogs are in small depres-
                and physiography favor the retention of water (Winter, 1992). Wet-            sions, although some are in basins that also include open water, such
                lands are found along rivers and lakes where flooding is likely to            as around the margins of small ponds or in lake-level basins cut off
                occur, in isolated depressions where surface water collects, and on           from the influence of lake water. The absence of extensive peatlands
                slopes and surface drainageways where ground water discharges to              in northern Vermont is due to the mountainous terrain and the lim-
                the land surface in spring or seepage areas (Federal Interagency              ited extent of glacial outwash and glacially derived surface features
                Committee for Wetland Delineation, 1989). Soil saturation favors              in Vermont (Johnson, 1985).
                the growth of wetland plants and the development of hydric soils.                  Differences in the interactions of hydrology and vegetation in
                Water either can be present on the surface of wetlands or it can keep         different wetland types can be illustrated by peatlands and lakeside
                underlying soils saturated near the surface with no surface water             wetlands. In peadands, vegetation patterns are determined largely
                present (Tiner, 1991).                                                        by water chemistry and movement (Damman and French, 1987). For
                     The timing and duration of the presence of water affects water           instance, bogs receive little input from runoff or ground water and
                chemistry, soil development, and plant communities in wetlands.               rely on precipitation (including fog) and wind-blown dust as sources
                Although degree of wetness is important in the determination of               for water, nutrients, and minerals. Vegetation in bogs commonly
                wetland type, many ecological functions of wetlands also depend               grows in a concentric pattern because of the scarcity of nutrients
                upon wetland size, position of the wetland in a drainage network,             and minerals in the center of the bog and the increased availability
                and sources of water (Brinson, 1993). Differences in climate, physi-          of nutrients and minerals along bog margins. In contrast, fens rely
                ography, and geology influence the hydrology and water quality of             principally on ground-water discharge and runoff for inputs of water,
                wetlands. The complex interactions of these factors with biology,             minerals, and nutrients. Flooding is the major hydrologic influence
                in combination with site history, determine the type of wetland that          in lakeside wetlands. The water level in Lake Champlain is unregu-
                develops in any particular setting.                                           lated and fluctuates by an average of 6 feet annually, but the range
                     Although Vermont is the driest of the New England States,                can be as much as 9 feet (Downer, 197 1; Meeks, 1986). In response
                adequate moisture exists to support the development and mainte-               to these fluctuations, vegetation communities in lakeside wetlands
                nance of wetlands. Many climatic and hydrologic variables in Ver-             grow in zones; wetlands nearest lake level have more flood-toler-
                mont are influenced by altitude and miffor the State's topography             ant species. Furthermore, changes in lake level change the sediment
                when mapped. For instance, from the lowlands of the Lake                      and nutrient dynamics in lakeside wetlands. High water levels in
                Champlain and Connecticut River Valleys to higher altitudes of the            spring can dilute nutrient and sediment concentrations (Clausen and
                Taconic and Green Mountains, the average summer temperature and               Johnson, 1990). For example, wetlands at the mouth of the Lamoille








                        384       National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: STATE SUMMARIES



                        River and in nearby Colchester Bog receive floodwaters from Lake                                Table 1. Selected wetland-related activities of government
                        Champlain. However, Lamoille River wetlands support a large va-                                 agencies and private organizations in Vermont, 1993
                        riety of vegetation largely owing to nutrient inputs from the river,                            [Source: Classification of activities is generalized from information provided
                        whereas Colchester.Bog, which receives no river input, remains                                      by agencies and organizations. *, agency or organization participates in
                        nutrient poor and has low plant-species diversity.                                                  Wetland-related activity; ..., agency or organization does not participate in
                                                                                                                            wetland-related activity. MAN, management; REG, regulation; R&C, res-
                                                                                                                            toration and creation; LAN, land acquisition; R&D, research and data col-
                        TREND        IS                                                                                     lection; D&I, delineation and inventory]

                               Flood-plain forests and wetlands once were extensive in Ver-
                        mont. In the 1800's and early 1900's, timber harvesting and clear-                              Agency or organization                                                           0"
                        ing and draining of wetlands for crops and grazing resulted in the                              FEDERAL
                        degradation or loss of many wetlands (Bulmer, 1988), particularly                               Department of Agriculture
                        in the Connecticut RiverValley. As much as 35 percent of Vermont's                                Consolidated Farm Service Agency       ........................... ...
                        wetland resources have been lost since settlement by Europeans;                                   Forest Service  .................................................................0
                        much of the loss has been emergent and scrub-shrub wetlands (Par-                                 Natural Resources Conservation Service       ................ ...*  a          o     9
                                                                                                                        Department of Commerce
                        sons, 1988a). Although Federal and State regulations focus on ruinli-                             National Oceanic and Atmospheric
                        mizing wetland losses, many wetlands remain threatened. Before                                    Administration  ................................................................. ...0
                        the adoption of the Vermont Wetland Rules in 1990, annual wet-                                  Department of Defense
                        land losses were estimated to be 200 acres (Parsons, 1988a). Present                              Army Corps of Engineers     ..............................................**00 0
                        losses are as much as 30 to 40 acres per year (George Springston,                                 Military reservations  .....................................................0... ... ... ... ...
                        Vermont Wetlands Office, written commun., 1993). These losses                                   Department of the Interior
                                                                                                                          Fish and Wildlife Service   ..............................................o00  o     0
                        commonly are in areas where pressure from population growth has                                   Geological Survey    .......................................................... ... .-00
                        resulted in development in and adjacent to wetlands, such as in the                               National Biological Service   ......................................... ... ... ... ...0
                        Lake Champlain Valley and in other seasonal residential and recre-                                National Park Service    ...................................................00       0
                        ation areas (Parsons, 1988a). Other factors that can destroy wetlands                           Environmental Protection Agency     .................................. ...       0     0
                        or affect wetland functions include road building, reservoir construc-                          STATE
                                                                                                                        Agency of Natural Resources
                        tion, agricultural activities, peat harvesting, timber harvesting, hy-                            Department of Environmental Conservation       ............*                   0     0
                        dropower releases, inadequate bridge and culvert sizing, navigation,                              Department of Fish and Wildlife   .................................*oo         *     o
                        and air or water pollution. The cumulative effect of loss or alter-                               Department of Forests, Parks, and Recreation             *     o
                        ation of wetlands in Vermont is yet to be determined but is likely to                             Vermont Geological Survey     .......................................... ...   0     0
                        be an important issue in the future.                                                            Vermont Housing and Conservation Board        .................. ... ... ...
                                                                                                                        State universities  ...............................................................
                                                                                                                        COUNTY AND LOCAL
                        CONSERVATION                                                                                    District environmental commissions     .............................. ... ... ... ... ...
                                                                                                                        Soil and water conservation districts    ........................... ... ...0
                               Many government agencies and private organizations partici-                              Some county, town, and city governments       ..................00    0     0
                        pate in wetland conservation in Vermont. The most active agencies                               Winooski Valley Park District   ..........................................*00
                                                                                                                        PRIVATE ORGANIZATIONS
                        and organizations and some of their activities are listed in table 1.                           Ducks Unlimited   .................................................................. ... ... ...0
                               Federal wetland activities. -Development activities in Ver-                              Private colleges and universities   ...................................
                        mont wetlands are regulated by several Federal statutory prohibi-                               The Nature Conservancy      ..................................................
                        tions and incentives that are intended to slow wetland losses, Some                             Vermont Land Trust    ....................................I.......................
                        of the more important of these are contained in the 1899 Rivers and
                        Harbors Act; the 1972 Clean Water Act and amendments; the 1985
                        Food Security Act; the 1990 Food, Agriculture, Conservation, and                                Agriculture, Conservation, and Trade Act authorizes the Federal
                        Trade Act; and the 1986 Emergency Wetlands Resources Act.                                       Government to purchase conservation easements from landowners
                               Section 10 of the Rivers and Harbors Act gives the U.S. Army                             who agree to protect or restore wetlands. The Consolidated Farm
                        Corps of Engineers (Corps) authority to regulate certain activities                             Service Agency (formerly the Agricultural Stabilization and Con-
                        in navigable waters. Regulated activities include diking, deepening,                            servation Service) administers the Swampbuster provisions and Wet-
                        filling, excavating, and placing of structures. The related section 404                         lands Reserve Program. The Natural Resources Conservation
                        of the Clean Water Act is the most often-used Federal legislation                               Service (formerly the Soil Conservation Service) determines com-
                        protecting wetlands. Under section 404 provisions, the Corps issues                             pliance with Swampbuster provisions and assists farmers in the iden-
                        permits regulating the discharge of dredged or fill material into                               tification of wetlands and in the development of wetland protection,
                        wetlands. Permits are subject to review and possible veto by the U.S.                           restoration, or creation plans.
                        Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), and the Fws has review and                                      The 1986 Emergency Wetlands Resources Act encourages
                        advisory roles. Section 401 of the Clean Water Act grants to States                             wetland protection through funding incentives. The act requires
                        and eligible Indian Tribes the authority to approve, apply conditions                           States to address wetland protection in their Statewide Comprehen-
                        to, or deny section 404 permit applications on the basis of a pro-                              sive Outdoor Recreation Plans to qualify for Federal funding for
                        posed activity's probable effects on the water quality of a wetland.                            State recreational land; the National Park Service (NIPS) provides
                               Most farming, ranching, and silviculture activities are not sub-                         guidance to States in developing the wetland component of their
                        ject to section 404 regulation. However, the "Swampbuster" provi-                               plans.
                        sion of the 1985 Food Security Act and amendments in the 1990                                          Federal agencies manage many wetlands in Vermont. The Fws
                        Food, Agriculture, Conservation, and Trade Act discourage (through                              manages wetlands in waterfowl protection areas, National Fish
                        financial disincentives) the draining, filling, or other alteration of                          Hatcheries, and National Wildlife Refuges. For example, the FWs is
                        wetlands for agricultural use. The law allows exemptions from pen-                              responsible for about 5,800 acres of wetlands in the Missisquoi
                        alties in some cases, especially if the fanner agrees to restore the                            National Wildlife Refuge. Also, the FWs administers wetland-acqui-
                        altered wetland or other wetlands that have been converted to agri-                             sition programs such as the Partners for Wildlife Program, which
                        cultural use. The Wetlands Reserve Program of the 1990 Food,                                    helps restore wetlands on private lands, and the North American







                                                                                             National Water Surnmary-Wetland Resources: VERMONT             385



               Waterfowl Management Plan, a cooperative program that provides             wedand conservation programs that will analyze the strengths and
               funding for purchasing wetlands and contiguous uplands. In addi-           weaknesses of wedand conservation at the Federal, State, munici-
               tion, the Fws has funded research on peatland ecology (Damman              pal, and private levels and recommend and rank actions to improve
               and French, 1987). The Nps has designated 11 sites in Vermont as           wetland conservation in Vermont (George Springston, Vermont
               National Natural Landmarks, 5 of which contain significant wet-            Wetlands Office, written commun., 1993).
               lands. Some of these are protected voluntarily by individual land-              Several other State agencies own wetlands or have jurisdiction
               owners. The U.S. Forest Service manages about 3,750 acres of               in wetland protection. The Vermont Department of Fish and Wild-
               wetlands in the Green Mountain National Forest. The Corps owns             life comments on projects that arise during Act 250 permit process
               and manages several impoundments that have an undetermined                 and review (Parsons, 1988a). The Department has compiled a list
               amount of wedand acreage (Parsons, 1988a). The EPA has funded              of wetland-acquisition priorities (Parsons, 1988b) and has purchased
               several wetland studies in Vermont, including the study of wetlands        wetlands and surrounding uplands for waterfowl habitat through
               of outstanding ecological significance in Chittenden County (which         administration of a duck-stamp program and through implementa-
               contains Burlington, Vermont's largest city) and Grand Isle County         tion of the Matching Aid to Restore States' Habitat program in co-
               (Vermont Department of Fish and Wildlife, 1992), the study of              operation with the Vermont chapter of Ducks Unlimited. The De-
     A         threats to wetlands in the Lake Champlain region (Borre, 1989), and        partment protects over 9,000 acres of wetlands within its waterfowl
               the study of calcareous fens. The EPA has provided partial funding         and wildlife management areas. The Vermont Department of For-
               to the Lake Champlain Basin Program, which has included wedand-            ests, Parks, and Recreation has established and enforces acceptable
               acquisition study (Jon Binhammer, The Nature Conservancy, writ-            timber-management practices near surface waters and wetlands. The
               ten commun., 1993).                                                        Vermont Nongame and Natural Heritage Program has inventoried
                    State wetland activities. -Vermont protects wed ands primar-          natural wetland communifies and rare and endangered species of
               ily through the Vermont Wedand Rules and Act 250 (Vermont's Land           wetlands and their habitats. This program also helps administer the
               Use and Development Law) permit process and review. The Vermont            Fragile Areas Registry and, along with the Department of Forests,
               Wetland Rules are administered by the Wetlands Office of the Ver-          Parks, and Recreation, administers State Natural Areas. There are
               mont Agency of Natural Resources'Department of Environmental               more than 30 designated Natural Areas in Vermont, comprising
               Conservation. The Vermont Wedand Rules establish three classes             more than 14,000 acres, some of which include wetlands. Designa-
               of wetlands (Vermont Department of Environmental Conservation,             tion as a Fragile Area does not provide direct protection but encour-
               1990a). Class One wetlands are those determined to provide an              ages landowners to conserve sensitive areas. The Department of
               exceptional and irreplaceable contribution to Vermont's natural heri-      Forests, Parks, and Recreation also is responsible for producing the
               tage in addition to providing other functions and have the highest         wetlands component of the Vermont Statewide Comprehensive
               level of protection. Class Two wetlands provide valuable ecologic,         Outdoor Recreation Plan (Parsons, 1988a), which is the primary
               hydrologic, water-quality, cultural, or economic functions. Class TWO      document guiding wedand acquisition with some Federal funding.
               wetlands include most wetlands shown on the National Wetland               The Vermont Housing and Conservation Board administers the
               Inventory maps for Vermont and wedand areas contiguous to those            Housing and Conservation Trust Fund. Approximately $ 10 million
               wetlands but do not include seven categories of riverine and lacus-        is appropriated annually to this fund by the State legislature. Part
               trine open-water, beach, or bar wetlands. Class One and TWo wet-           of these funds is granted to State agencies and nonprofit organiza-
               lands are protected by 100-foot and 50-foot buffer zones, respec-          tions for the purchase of easements and fee title acquisition of con-
               tively, unless otherwise ruled by the Water Resources Board. Under         servation lands, including wetlands, and of farm and forest lands,
               certain guidelines, activities such as logging and agriculture are         which sometimes include wetlands. For instance, the Vermont of-
               allowed in Class One and TWo wetlands. Class Three wetlands are            fice of The Nature Conservancy has received grants to acquire
               those wetlands not designated as Class One or Two wetlands but             wetland and upland buffers along East Creek, a tributary to Lake
               which may still be protected under other Federal, State, or local          Champlain (fig. 1).
               regulations (Vermont Department of Environmental Conservation,                  County and local wetland activities. -More than 20 towns in
               1990).                                                                     the State have adopted zoning bylaws to provide additional protec-
                    Act 250 requires a permit for every major land development            tion to wetlands (George Springston, Vermont Wetlands Office,
               and subdivision in Vermont. Administrative support for Act 250 is          written commun., 1993). Several intermunicipal districts in Vermont
               provided by nine District Environmental Commissions and an En-             protect wetland areas. For example, the Winooski Valley Park Dis-
               vironmental Board. Each Act 250 penrnit must comply withVermont            trict, a consortium of several towns in Chittendon County near
               Wetland Rules, and all permit applications are reviewed by the Wet-        Burlington, owns and manages several hundred acres of wetlands
               lands Office (Vermont Department of Environmental Conservation,            along the lower Winooski River (Parsons, 1988a). Vermont statutes
               1990b). Some Class Three wetlands not protected under Vermont              authorize municipalities to acquire conservation easements as a
               Wetland Rules may be protected under several criteria of Act 250.          land-protection tool, but few wetlands have been protected this way.
                    The Department of Environmental Conservation administers                   Private wetland activities. -Private organizations provide
               sections 305(b) and 401 of the Federal Clean Water Act. Section            complementary functions that cannot readily be accomplished in
               305(b) requires States to submit biennial water-quality-assessment         governmental agencies. Private organizations, such as The Nature
               reports to Congress and the EPA, a part of which specifically ad-          Conservancy, can provide rapid action in the purchase of property.
               dresses water quality in wetlands. Section 401 requires State water-       The Nature Conservancy manages nine sites in Vermont that include
               quality certification before a section 404 permit may be issued. A         significant wetlands and has assisted in the protection or purchase
               number of other programs, acts, and laws protect Vermont's wet-            and transfer of nine additional sites. In 1993, The Nature Conser-
               lands. For example, a lake- and pond-management law protects               vancy received a $600,000 grant from the Fws North American
               wetlands below the average water level of lakes and ponds. A stream-       Wetlands Conservation Council for easements and fee title acqui-
               alteration law protects wetlands within and along streambanks. Act         sition of approximately 1,500 acres of Lake Champlain wetlands.
               200, Vermont's growth bill, encourages local, regional, and State          The Vermont chapter of Ducks Unlimited has worked in coopera-
               agency planning and has established broad goals for quality of wet-        tion with the Department of Fish and Wildlife to purchase about 430
               lands and other resources. Through a grant from the EPA, the De-           acres of waterfowl habitat, much of which is wetland. The Vermont
               partment of Environmental Conservation is undertaking the Ver-             Land Trust is a private organization that negotiates conservation
               mont Wetlands Conservation Strategy, a comprehensive review of             easements with landowners to protect productive agricultural and








                      386       National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: STATE SUMMARIES



                      forest lands. The Trust's holdings include several properties that have                   Meeks, H.A., 1986, Vermont's land and resources: Shelburne, Vt., The New
                      wetlands. Other organizations involved in wetland protection include                            England Press, 332 p.
                      the National Audubon Society, the New England Wildflower Soci-                            Parsons, Jeffrey, 1988a, Wetlands component, 1988 Vermont recreation plan:
                      ety, the Izaak Walton League, the Sierra Club, the Appalachian                                  Waterbury, Vermont Department of Forests, Parks, and Recreation,
                      Mountain Club, and others. Individuals, timber companies, towns,                                Recreation Division, 43 p.
                                                                                                                -1 988b, A characterization of Vermont's more important wetlands:
                      and other private landowners own most ofVermont's wetlands, and                                 Waterbury, Vermont Department of Forests, Parks, and Recreation,
                      many actively pursue wetland conservation.                                                      23 p.
                                                                                                                Thompson, Liz, 1989, Natural communities of Vermont: Waterbury, Ver-
                      References Cited                                                                                mont Department of Fish and Wildlife, Nongame and Heritage Pro-
                                                                                                                      gram, 12 p.
                      Borre, M.A., 1989, Threats to wetlands in the Lake Champlain region of                    Tiner, R.W., 1987, Preliminary National Wetlands Inventory report on
                             Vermont -Boundary determination for the EPA!s proposed advance                           Vermont's wetland acreage: Newton Comer, Mass., U.S. Fish and
                             identification: New Haven, Conn., Yale University, School of Forestry                    Wildlife Service, 5 p.
                             and Environmental Studies, 51 p.                                                   -1991, Maine wetlands and their boundaries-A guide for code en-
                      Brinson, M.M., 1993, Changes in the functioning of wetlands along envi-                         forcement officers: Augusta, Maine Department of Economic and
                             ronmental gradients: Wetlands, v. 13, no. 2, p. 65 - 74.                                 Community Development, Office of Comprehensive Planning, 72 p.
                      Bulmer, S.K., 1988, 1988 Vermont recreation plan: Waterbury, Vt., Agency                  Vermont Department of Environmental Conservation, 1990a, Wetland fact
                             of Natural Resources, Department of Forests, Parks, and Recreation,                      sheet number 4, wetland rules summary: Waterbury, Vermont Depart-
                             128 p.                                                                                   ment of Environmental Conservation, Water Quality Division, Wet-
                      Clausen, J.C., and Johnson, G.D., 1990, Lake level influences on sediment                       lands Office, 2 p.
                             and nutrient retention in a lakeside wetland: Journal of Environmen-               _1990b, Weiland fact sheet number 1, Act 250 review guidelines:
                             tal Quality, v. 19, no. 1, p. 83 - 88.                                                   Waterbury, Vermont Department of Environmental Conservation,
                      Cowardin, L.M., Carter, Virginia, Golet, FC., and LaRoe, E.T., 1979, Clas-                      Water Quality Division, Wetlands Office, 2 p.
                             sification ofwetlands and deepwater habitats of the United States: U.S.            Vermont Department of Fish and Wildlife, 1992, Wetlands of outstanding
                             Fish and Wildlife Service Report FWSIOBS -79/31, 131 p.                                  ecological significance in Chittenden County, Vermont: Waterbury,
                      Damman, A.W.H., and French, T.W., 1987, The ecology of peat bogs of the                         Vermont Department ofFish and Wildlife, Nongame and Natural Heri-
                             glaciated northeastern United States -A community profile: U.S. Fish                     tage Program, 122 p.
                             and Wildlife Service Biological Report 85(7.16), 114 p.                            Warmer, R., 1979, Wetlands in Vermont, their identification and protection:
                      Doll, C.G., comp., 1970, Surficial geologic map of Vermont: Waterbury,                          Montpelier, Vermont Natural Resources Council, 71 p.
                             Vermont Geological Survey Division, scale 1:250,000.                               Winter, T.C., 1992, A physiographic and climatic framework for hydrologic
                      Downer, R.N., 1971, Extreme mean daily annual water levels of Lake                              studies of wetlands, in Robarts, R.D., and Bothwell, M.L., eds.,
                             Champlain: University of Vermont, Vermont Water Resources Re-                            Aquatic ecosystems in semi-arid regions - Implications for resource
                             search Report 3, 18 p.                                                                   management, 1992: National Hydrologic Research Institute Sympo-
                      Federal Interagency Committee for Wetland Delineation, 1989, Federal                            sium Series 7, Environment Canada, Saskatoon, p. 127-148.
                             manual for identifying and delineating jurisdictional wetlands: Wash-
                             ington, D.C., U.S. Anny Corps of Engineers, U.S. Environmental
                             Protection Agency, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, and U.S. Depart-
                             ment ofAgriculture Soil Conservation Service Cooperative Technical                 FOR ADDITIONAL INFORMATION: District Chief, U.S. Geological
                             Publication, 76 p.                                                                 Survey, 525 Clinton Street, Bow, NH 03304; Regional Weiland Coordina-
                      Fenneman, N.M., 1946, Physical divisions of the United States: Washing-                   tor, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 300 Westgate Center Drive, Hadley, MA
                             ton D.C., U.S. Geological Survey special map, scale 1:7,000,000.                   01035
                      Hammond, R.E., and Cotton, J.E., 1996, Vermont surface-water resources,
                             in U.S. Geological Survey, National water summary 1985-Hydro-                                                       Prepared by
                             logic events and surface-water resources: U.S. Geological Survey
                             Water-Supply Paper 2300, p. 461-466.                                                                           David S. Armstrong,
                      Johnson, C.W., 1985, Bogs of the northeast: Hanover, N.H., The Univer-                                              U.S. Geological Survey
                             sity Press of New England, 269 p.







                                                                                                                                                            National Water Summary-Wetland Resources 3117



                                                                                                                                                                                         V
                                                                                                                                                                                                  0               0          0
                                                                                                                                                                                                   irginia
                                                                                                                                                                 Wetland Resources
                       WtIands cover about 4 percent of Virginia (Dahl, 1990). These                                              ers, 1979). The distribution of wetlands and deepwater habitats in
                       wetlands support rich biotic communities in freshwater, saltwater,                                         Virginia is shown in figure 2A; only wetlands are discussed herein.
                       and brackish-water settings across the State. Well-known Virginia                                                  Wetlands can be vegetated or nonvegetated and are classified
                       wetlands include the extensive estuarine marshes behind the coastal                                        on the basis of their hydrology, vegetation, and substrate. In this
                       barrier islands and the forested wetlands along tidal rivers and in                                        summary, wetlands are classified according to the system proposed
                       the Great Dismal Swamp (fig. 1).                                                                           by Cowardin and others (1979), which is used by the U.S. Fish and
                              Wetlands have many chemical, physical, and biological func-                                         Wildlife Service (Fws) to map and inventory the Nation's wetlands.
                       tions. They benefit entire ecosystems, including resident human                                            At the most general level of the classification system, wetlands are
                       populations (Hershner, 1992). Wetlands trap waterborne sediments                                           grouped into five ecological systems: Palustrine, Lacustrine, Riv-
                       and retain nutrients and toxic chemicals by filtering them out of                                          erine, Estuarine, and Marine. The Palustrine System includes only
                       inflowing water and storing or transforming them. Wetlands also                                            wetlands, whereas the other systems comprise wetlands and
                       can recharge ground-water supplies or serve as points of ground-                                           deepwater habitats. Wetlands of the systems that occur in Virginia
                       water discharge to the surface. Coastal-zone and flood-plain wet-                                          are described below.
                       lands mitigate the effects of flooding caused by tides and runoff by
                       reducing flow velocity, storing water temporarily, and releasing it                                        System                                               Wetland description
                       gradually. Vegetation in riparian wetlands maintains stream chan-
                       nels by stabilizing the banks, and vegetated tidal wetlands act as                                         Palustrine      .................. Nonticlal and tidal-freshwater wetlands in which
                       buffers against storm tides and waves, thus impeding erosion. One                                                                            vegetation is predominantly trees (forested wet-
                                                                                                                                                                    lands); shrubs (scrub-shrub wetlands); persistent
                       of the most important functions of wetlands is to provide habitat                                                                            or noripersistent emergent, erect, rooted herba-
                       for waterfowl, terrestrial and aquatic animals, and a wide variety of                                                                        ceous plants (persistent- and nonpersistent-
                       plant life. Wetlands in Virginia provide food, shelter, and resting                                                                          emergent wetlands); or submersed and (or)
                       places for migratory birds, as well as breeding areas and nurseries                                                                          floating plants (aquatic beds). Also, intermit-
                       for many animals, including those of particular economic interest                                                                            tently to permanently flooded open-water bod-
                                                                                                                                                                    ies of less than 20 acres in which water is less
                       in Virginia such as blue crabs, muskrat, fish, ducks, and geese. Many                                                                        than 6.6 feet deep.
                       rare and endangered plant species are adapted to hydrologic condi-                                         Lacustrine       ................. Nonticlal and tidal-freshwater wetlands within an
                       tions present only in wetlands.                                                                                                              intermittently to permanently flooded lake or
                              Virginia's wetlands have considerable esthetic, historic, archeo-                                                                     reservoir larger than 20 acres and (or) deeper
                       logical, recreational, and economic value (Hershner, 1992). Humans                                                                           than 6.6 feet. Vegetation, when present, is pre-
                       have inhabited the coastal wetlands of Virginia for thousands of                                                                             dominantly nonpersistent emergent plants (non-
                                                                                                                                                                    persistent-emergent wetiands), or submersed
                       years, and unique cultures have developed there. Wetlands provide                                                                            and (or) floating plants (aquatic beds), or both.
                       outdoor educational and recreational opportunities such as                                                 Riverine     ..................... Nontidal and tidal-freshwater wetlands within a
                       birdwatching, hiking, and canoeing. They also support the hunting,                                                                           channel. Vegetation, when present, is same as
                       fur trapping, commercial and sport fishing, lumbering, and tourist                                                                           in the Lacustrine System.
                       industries, which benefit the economy of the State.                                                        Estuarine      ................... Tidal wetlands in low-wave-energy environments
                                                                                                                                                                    where the salinity of the water is greater than 0.5
                                                                                                                                                                    part per thousand (ppt) and is variable owing to
                       TYPES AND DISTRIBUTION                                                                                                                       evaporation and the mixing of seawater and
                              Wetlands are lands transitional between terrestrial and deep-                                                                         freshwater.
                                                                                                                                  Marine      ....................... Tidal wetlands that are exposed to waves and cur-
                       water habitats where the water table usually is at or near the land                                                                          rents of the open ocean and to water having a
                       surface or the land is covered by shallow water (Cowardin and oth-                                                                           salinity greater than 30 ppt.

                                                                                                                                          Palustrine wetlands comprise about 72 percent of the wetland
                                                                                                                                  area of Virginia (Tiner and Finn, 1986). Estuarine wetlands com-
                                                                                                                                  prise about 23 percent of the State's wetlands. Lacustrine wetlands
                                                                                                                                  in freshwater ponds comprise most of the remaining 5 percent. Only
                                                                                                                                  a few hundred acres of marine and riverine wetlands exist in Vir-
                                                                                                                                  ginia. Palustrine forested wetlands (swamps) are the most abundant
                                                                                                                                  type of wetland in Virginia, accounting for about 60 percent of the
                                                                                                                                  total wetland area in the State. Estuarine emergent wetlands (tidal
                                                                                                                                  marshes) are the second-most abundant type of wetland, compris-
                                                                                                                                  ing about 8 percent of the wetlands in the State (Tiner and Finn,
                                                                                                                                  1986).
                                                                                                                                          Virginia has many different types of wetlands. Salt marshes
                                                                                                                                  include the extensive estuarine wetlands along the Chesapeake Bay
                                                                                                                                  that are characterized by vegetation tolerant of brackish to salty
                                                                                                                                  water. Other tidal marshes include estuarine wetlands located along
                                      Figure 1. Wetlands in the Great Dismal Swamp, a                                             freshwater parts of tidal rivers. Interdunal swales are topographic
                                      palustrine forested wetland. (Photograph by Virginia                                        depressions among sand dunes on the Atlantic coast that contain
                                      Carter U.S. Geological Survey.)                                                             palustrine emergent or scrub-shrub wetlands. Virginia's Atlantic








                    388     National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: STATE SUMMARIES



                    white cedar swamps, red spruce swamps, and cypress-tupelo                        supplies adequate moisture for wetland formation and maintenance
                    swamps and its nontidal flood-plain forests are palustrine forested              and ranges statewide from 36 to 52 inches per year (Prugh and Scott,
                    wetlands that have seasonally occurring standing water and flood-                1986). Precipitation does not have a strong seasonal pattern during
                    tolerant trees. Pocosins are palustrine scrub-shrub wetlands that are            the year, but 80 to 85 percent of evaporation from open bodies of
                    slightly elevated above the surrounding landscape and have flat to-              water occurs from April to October. That period coincides with the
                    pography and poor natural drainage. Virginia's bogs, fens, and wet               higher transpiration rates of the growing season.
                    meadows are palustrine emergent wetlands that are often underlain                    Annual and seasonal fluctuations in local precipitation and
                    by organic soils. The presence and composition of plant communi-                 evapotranspiration rates combine with local differences in geology,
                    ties in the wetlands of Virginia are determined by factors such as               topography, and soil characteristics to create short- or long-term
                    the extent and duration of flooding, climate, type of soil, and ground-          changes in the interactions of ground water and surface water in
                    and surface-water chemistry.                                                     wetlands. These changes can result in alternating flooded and dry
                         About 72 percent of the wetland area in Virginia, including all             conditions, especially in small wetlands (Winter, 1992; Phillips and
                    the estuarine wetlands and most of the large nontidal wetlands, is               Shedlock, 1993). Additionally, larger wetlands (tidal and nontidal)
                    in the Coastal Plain (fig. 2A and 2B) (Tiner and Finn, 1986). Ex-                can interact with regional ground-water flow systems. In tidal wet-
                    tensive estuarine wetlands have developed in low-lying areas along               lands, a major source of water is tidal inundation. Overland runoff
                    the shores of the Chesapeake Bay and its tributaries and behind the              and ground-water discharge can be important secondary sources.
                    barrier beaches of the Atlantic coast. Palustrine wetlands are dis-              The major sources of water in nontidal wetlands are precipitation
                    tributed throughout the State and are located primarily in bottom                and ground-water discharge.
                    lands and in flood plains along stream channels, especially in head-                 Virginia includes five physiographic provinces: the Coastal
                    water areas. About 22 percent of the wetlands in Virginia are in the             Plain, Piedmont, Blue Ridge, Valley and Ridge, and Appalachian
                    Piedmont, and most of the remaining wetland area is in the Appa-                 Plateaus (fig. 2B). Each province is characterized by geologic fea-
                    lachian Plateaus (Tiner and Finn, 1986; Harlow and LeCain, 1991).                tures, landforms, and soils that directly affect the hydrology of
                                                                                                     wetlands.
                    HYDROLOGIC SETTING                                                                   Coastal Plain. -The Coastal Plain is relatively flat, rising
                                                                                                     from below sea level to about 50 feet above sea level on the Delmarva
                         Virginia's wetlands (fig. 3A-3C) are formed and maintained                  Peninsula east of the Chesapeake Bay and to about 200 feet above
                    by water supplied by precipitation, overland runoff from precipita-              sea level on the upper Coastal Plain west of the Chesapeake Bay.
                    tion, local and regional ground-water flow, and tides. Precipitation             This province is underlain by an extensive and locally complex





                     B       PHYSIOGRAPHIC DIVISIONS




                                        Appalachian
                                        Plateaus

                                                                    Piedmont
                                                                    Province
                                       7,



                                  Blue Ridge
                                   Province



                     A       WETLANDS AND DEEPWATER HABITATS
                             Distribution of wetlands and deepwater habitats-                                                                0      25      50 MILES
                                This map shows the approximate distribution of large                                  a
                                wetlands in the State. Because of limitations of scale                                                       0    25  50 KILOMETERS
                                and source material, some wetlands are not shown

                                    Predominantly wetland                    Spring
                                    Predominantly deepwater habitat                                  War @1.dw
                                                                              t/;                           +               -                                      ATLANTIC
                                                                                                                         '* n
                                                                                                                      ic    d

                                                  %                                 Roan             Ly Ib                                                   ng Island Say

                                                                                                                                                -P                  OCEAN
                                                                                                                                                    37.

                                                        I fen

                                                                       a
                               83
                                                                81.                                  79-                              77'       Great Dismal
                                                                                                                                                Swamp

                    Figure 2. Wetland distribution in Virginia and physiography of the State.        A, Distribution of wetlands and deepwater habitats. B, Physi-
                    ography. (Sources: A, TE. Dahl, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, unpub. data, 199 1. B, Physiographic divisions from Fenneman, 1946;
                    landforms data from EROS Data Center.)







                                                                                                                                         National Water Surnmary-Wetland Resources: VIRGINIA                                    389




                         A. Coastal Plain-Eastern Shore                                                                                                                                       EXPLANATION
                         WEST                                                                              PALUSTRINE WETLANDS,                                                EAST                      Direction of ground-water
                                                                                                         r-1    n                                                                                        flow
                                                          PALUSTR)NE WETLANDS
                                                            r____I                                          RIVERINE WETLANDS
                                                                                                           r___1                                                                                         Average water table
                                               RIVERINE WETLAND                                             E                   E                                                                        Scrub-shrub vegetation
                         ESTUARINE WETLAND
                                                                                                                                                 ESTUARINE WMAND


                                                                                                                                                                                                         Forest vegetation
                                                                                                                                                                            Barrier
                                                                                                                                                                            Wand

                                                                                                                                                                                                         Emergent vegetation
                                                                                                                                                                            Fresh-
                                                                                                                                                                           ,,!ater                       Farmed crops
                                                                                                                                                                         Surficiial                      Submersed aquatic
                                                                                                                                                                     sand aquifer                        vegetation

                                                                                                                                                                                                         Solution holes In


                                                                                                                                                            Confin                                       Organic deposits
                                                                                                                                                              d aqu
                                                                    ----------------------                   ---                                          sand aqu                                       Regolith
                                                                                                                                                                                                         limestone






                                                                                                                                                                                                         Note:
                                                                                                                                                                                                         Vertical scale greatly
                         A Coastal Plain-West of the Chesapeake Bay                                                                                                                                      exaggerated
                         WEST                                                                                                                                                  EAST
                                            PALUSTRINE WETLANDS
                                    r___I                 r-----l I

                                                          RIVERINE WETLAND                     PALUSTRINE WETLANDS
                                                                                                      r_1      M

                       -------                                                                    RIVERINEWETLAND                                ESTUARINE WETLAND











                                                                       Surficial
                                                                     sand aquifer






                         C. Region West of the Coastal Plain                                        PALUSTRINE WETLANDS           PALUSTRINE WETLANDS                          PALUSTRINE WETLAND
                         WEST                                                                                                                                                                                               EAST

                                                                                                                                                                                                          PALUSTRINE WETLANDS
                                                                                                     RrVERINEWETLAND
                                                                                                                                        c                                                                @J  RIVERINE WETLAND
                                                          PALUSTRINE WETLANDS                                 E
                                                             r-i      r-1  n n


                            PALUSTRINE WETLANDS
                       r____1     r-------  I     m   n



                       RIVERINE WETLAND
                                                                                                                                                                            Fractu,
                                                                                                                                            /7-                                    a



                                                                                                                                                                                  Crystalline rmk
                                                                                                       Sandsone (Sal



                       Figure 3. Generalized geohydrology of wetlands in Virginia. A, Coastal Plain-Eastern Shore. B, Coastal Plain-west of the Chesapeake
                       Bay. C, Region west of the Coastal Plain. (Sources: A, Based on information in Harsh and Laczniak, 1986; Richardson, 1992; and Mj
                       Focazio, written commun., 1993. B, Based on information in Back, 1966; Harsh and Laczniak, 1986; and Winter 1992. C, Based on
                       information in Heath, 1984.)








                   390     National Water Surnmary-Wetland Resources: STATE SUMMARIES



                   surficial aquifer composed primarily of unconsolidated sediments.            ground water available to wetlands is held in the regolith (Powell
                   Below the surficial aquifer are several confined aquifers and con-           and Abe, 1985; Wright, 1990; Harlow and LeCain, 1991). Topo-
                   fining layers.                                                               graphically high areas (ridges) function as aquifer recharge areas
                        Coastal Plain wetlands are maintained by precipitation, over-           (Harlow and LeCain, 199 1). Water infiltrates the surface, seeps into
                   land runoff, flooding from streams, and ground-water discharge.              the regolith, and flows downward and laterally through fractures and
                   Wetlands in the Coastal Plain generally intersect the water table of         solution cavities in the shallow bedrock. If the vertical hydraulic
                   the surficial aquifer. Recharge of the surficial aquifer in the Coastal      conductivity of the bedrock is negligible, water is discharged wher-
                   Plain is mainly by infiltration of precipitation in interstream areas        ever the water table intersects the land surface, forming springs or
                   (Heath, 1984). Discharge occurs by evapotranspiration and by seep-           seeps on hill slopes and fens in closed topographic depressions. If
                   age to wetlands, streams, estuaries, wells, ditches, and the ocean.          the conductivity is appreciable, ground water follows a stairstep path
                        Many Coastal Plain wetlands are in local and regional ground-           through the regolith, fractures, bedding planes, and coal seams,
                   water discharge areas of coastal and riparian zones. Low-lying areas         eventually discharging to streams. With increasing depth, ground
                   of the Coastal Plain contain extensive wetlands in the form of               water flows primarily in a lateral direction. Deep, regional ground-
                   seagrass beds, salt and brackish marshes, and tidal freshwater               water flow is not a significant source of moisture for wetlands in
                   marshes and swamps. These wetlands have complex hydrology;                   this region.
                   strearnflow, local and regional ground-water flow, and tidal flow all             Wetlands west of the Coastal Plain are commonly found along
                   are components. Nontidal wetlands of the Coastal Plain are main-             riparian valleys and other low areas of the ground surface, which
                   tained by local and regional ground-water flow systems and storm-            typically overlie fracture zones in the bedrock. Water is more likely
                   related flooding. The area of forested wetlands in flood plains of-          to discharge into these depressions than into other areas because
                   ten is reduced by artificial draining and conversion of the land for         fracture zones are major pathways of ground-water movement
                   agricultural and urban uses.                                                 (Heath, 1994).
                        The Coastal Plain can be divided into two subregions of dif-                 Types of wetland west of the Coastal Plain include flood-plain
                   fering geohydrology: the Eastern Shore, on the Delmarva Peninsula            marshes and swamps, seeps, fens, and excavated farm ponds. No-
                   (fig. 3A) and the area of the Coastal Plain west of the Chesapeake           table wetlands in this region include the Slate River and Willis River
                   Bay (fig. 3B). On the Eastern Shore, the surficial sand aquifer over-        wetlands in the Piedmont; Big Spring Bog, Piney Creek Bog, Big
                   lies eastward-dipping confined aquifers and confining layers. The            Meadows and South River Wet Meadow in the Blue Ridge; and
                   center of the Delmarva Peninsula is poorly drained and has small             Barns Chapel Fen, Falling Spring Creek, and the Clinch River flood-
                   depressional palustrine wetlands (Delmarva bays) and narrow bands            plain wetlands in the Valley and Ridge (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Ser-
                   of palustrine wetlands along ditches and streams. Extensive brack-           vice, 1990; T.J. Rawinski, Virginia Department of Conservation and
                   ish and saline estuarine wetlands are located along the eastern shore        Recreation, written commun., 1993).
                   of the peninsula behind a barrier-island complex and on the west-
                   ern shore of the peninsula.                                                  TRENDS
                        West of the Chesapeake Bay, several major aquifers crop out
                   and dip to the east under the bay and the Delmarva Peninsula. In                  In the 1780's, wetlands covered about 1,849,000 acres (more
                   this region, large freshwater swamps dominated by cypress, red               than 7 percent) of Virginia (Dahl, 1990). By the mid-1980's, about
                   maple, black gum, and tupelo gum trees are located along the many            1,075,000 wetland acres remained in Virginia- a loss of about 42
                   tidal rivers (Virginia Sea Grant College Program, 1989). Nurner-             percent in 200 years (Dahl, 1990). Inventories published in 1989
                   ous nontidal freshwater forested wetlands also are in the region,            by the Virginia Institute of Marine Science and the Fws estimated
                   especially along the boundary between the sediments of the Coastal           that there were approximately 215,000 acres of vegetated tidal wet-
                   Plain and the higher altitude crystalline rocks of the Piedmont.             lands and 673,192 acres of vegetated nontidal wetlands remaining
                        ne Coastal Plain ofVirginia has many notable wetlands. They             in Virginia (Virginia Department of Conservation and Recreation,
                   include the extensive tidal freshwater marshes and swamps along              1989).
                   the Chickahominy River, the salt marshes behind the coastal bar-                  Agriculture, industrial and urban development, and recreation
                   rier islands that protect Hog Island Bay, and the forested wetlands          have led to the draining, dredging and ditching, filling, diking, and
                   along the Mattaponi, Parminkey, James, and York Rivers, as well as           damming of wetlands in Virginia. These practices -combined with
                   those in the Great Dismal Swamp. This swamp (fig. 1) is the largest          human activities that affect water quality and natural phenomena
                   nontidal freshwater wetland in the State.                                    that result in erosion, saltwater inundation, and botanical succes-
                        West of the Coastal Plain. -West of the Coastal Plain, there            sion -have contributed to the widespread wetland loss and degra-
                   is considerably more topographic relief. The gently rolling hills of         dation and some wetland generation. The estimated annual loss of
                   the Piedmont are generally less than 800 feet above sea level. The           all wetland types between 1955 and 1977 was about 3,000 acres
                   mountains of the Blue Ridge rise to more than 1,600 feet. Altitudes          (Tiner, 1987), amounting to a total wetland loss of about 6 percent
                   in the Valley and Ridge range from about 400 feet in the valleys to          during that period. Eighty percent of estimated losses of freshwa-
                   about 1,500 feet on the ridges. The valleys and mountains of the             ter vegetated wetlands (mostly palustrine forested systems) occur-red
                   Appalachian Plateaus range from 1,500 to more than 3,000 feet                in the Coastal Plain.
                   above sea level. The aquifers west of the Coastal Plain generally are             Major causes of nontidal wetland loss have been direct con-
                   unconfined; in highly fractured, saturated crystalline or sedimen-           version to agriculture (about 45 percent), channelization and ditch-
                   tary bedrock; and overlain by regolith of irregular thickness (Meng          ing (about 27 percent), and lake and pond creation (about 25 per-
                   and others, 1985). Regolith, which forms the land surface nearly             cent) (Tiner, 1987). Between 1955 and 1977, pond construction and
                   everywhere, is a layer of unconsolidated, mostly fine-grained ma-            beaver impoundment resulted in an estimated 170-percent (35,000
                   terial composed of fragmented, weathered bedrock and alluvium                acres) increase in freshwater pond acreage across the State, mostly
                   overlying unweathered bedrock.                                               in upland areas. Major causes of tidal wetland loss have been ur-
                        Wetlands west of the Coastal Plain are generally small and              banization (about 43 percent), inundation by submersion, dredging,
                   localized (fig. 3C). Their location and size are controlled mainly           or impoundment (about 36 percent), agricultural conversion (about
                   by topography, precipitation, and ground-water availability. Much            5 percent), and pond creation (about 5 percent).
                   of the precipitation in this province is transported to surface depres-           Small areas of wetland have been created in recent times, es-
                   sions and streams by overland runoff (Heath, 1984). Much of the              pecially by flooding during road, lake, and pond construction and,








                                                                                                                                                             National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: VIRGINIA                                                  391



                          most recently, by the establishment of compensatory wetland-miti-                                                          Table 1. Selected wetland-related activities of government
                          gation sites. New wetlands also have formed on sediments depos-                                                            agencies and private organizations in Virginia, 1993
                          ited by storms and dredging activities in coastal areas.                                                                   [Source: Classification of activities is generalized from information provided
                                  Management policies and rationales generally reflect the lat-                                                           by agencies and organizations. a, agency or organization participates in
                          est technical understanding within the field but not necessarily the                                                            wetland-related activity;               agency or organization does not participate in
                                                                                                                                                          wetland-related activity, MAN, management; REG, regulation; R&C, res-
                          latest scientific understanding. For example, up to the early years                                                             toration and creation; LAN, land acquisition; R&D, research and data col-
                          of the 20th century, wetlands were considered to be habitat for nox-                                                            lection; D&I, delineation and inventory]
                          ious pests and management policies focused on eliminating the
                          undesirable habitat value or the wetland itself. In the last 25 years,
                          numerous other wetland functions of significant potential value to                                                         Agency or organization                                                                               01 41
                          natural and human systems have been identified (Hershner, 1992),                                                           FEDERAL
                          and regulations have been changed to reflect this understanding.                                                           Department of Agriculture
                          Implementation of the 1972 Virginia Wetlands Act and the 1972                                                                Consolidated Farm Service Agency                 ...........................           ... ...       ... ...
                          Federal Clean Water Act markedly reduced the rate of human-in-                                                               Natural Resources Conservation Service                    ................ ...
                          duced tidal wetland loss. Between 1972, when the Wetlands Act was                                                          Department of Commerce
                                                                                                                                                       National Oceanic and Atmospheric
                          enacted, and 1977, the annual rate of tidal wetland loss decreased                                                           Administration        .................................................................
                          from between 400 and 600 acres to 20 acres or less (Dawes, 1978).                                                          Department of Defense
                          Still, however important wetlands may be environmentally, they                                                               Army Corps of Engineers             .............................................. ...
                          present a volatile issue because of development pressure (Virginia                                                         Department of the Interior
                          Sea Grant College Program, 1989), and the demand for space for                                                               Fish and Wildlife Service           ..............................................
                                                                                                                                                       Geological Survey         ...........  .................. ........................... ... ... ... ...0
                          an expanding human population has resulted in increasing conver-                                                             National Biological Service             ......................................... ... ... ... ...    0
                          sion of wetlands into developed landscapes (Hershner, 1992).                                                                 National Park Service           ...................................................9   9       *     e       e
                                                                                                                                                     Environmental Protection Agency                .................................. ...
                                                                                                                                                     STATE
                          CONSERVATION                                                                                                               College of William and Mary
                                                                                                                                                       Virginia Institute of Marine Science                      ................ ... ...     ... ...
                                  Many government agencies and private organizations partici-                                                        Department of Conservation and Recreation
                          pate in wetland conservation in Virginia. The most active agencies                                                           Division of Natural Heritage            .........................................0
                          and organizations and some of their activities are listed in table 1.                                                        Division of State Parks          ..................................................0
                                  Federal wetland activities. -Development activities in Vir-                                                        Department of Environmental Quality                ...........................*
                          ginia wetlands are regulated by several Federal statutory prohibi-                                                         Department of Game and Inland Fisheries                  ..........
                                                                                                                                                     Department of Transportation ..            .......................................
                          tions and incentives that are intended to slow wetland losses. Some                                                        Virginia Joint Venture Board            ............................................ ... ...
                          of the more important of these are contained in the 1899 Rivers and                                                        Virginia Marine Resources Commission                   .......................
                          Harbors Act; the 1972 Clean Water Act and amendments; the 1985                                                             Virginia Outdoors Foundation             ..........................................
                          Food Security Act; the 1990 Food, Agriculture, Conservation, and                                                           Virginia Polytechnic Institute and
                          Trade Act; the 1986 Emergency Wetlands Resources Act; and the                                                              State University      .................................................  ................ ... ... ... ...
                          1972 Coastal Zone Management Act.                                                                                          SOME COUNTY AND LOCAL GOVERNMENTS                              .............e
                                                                                                                                                     PRIVATE ORGANIZATIONS
                                  Section 10 ofthe Rivers and Harbors Act gives the U.S. Army                                                        Chesapeake Bay Foundation               ...........................................0
                          Corps of Engineers (Corps) authority to regulate certain activities                                                        Ducks Unlimited        ..................................................................0
                          in navigable waters. Regulated activities include diking, deepening,                                                       Friends of the Rivers of Virginia           ...................................... ... ... ... ...
                          filling, excavating, and placing of structures. The related section 404                                                    The Lower James River Association                  .............................*
                          of the Clean Water Act is the most often-used Federal legislation                                                          The Nature Conservancy             ..................................................0
                          protecting wetlands. Under section 404 provisions, the Corps issues
                          permits regulating the discharge of dredged or fill material into                                                          identification of wetlands and in the development of wetland pro-
                          wetlands. Permits are subject to review and possible veto by the U.S.                                                      tection, restoration, or creation plans.
                          Environmental Protection Agency, and the Fws has review and ad-                                                                    The 1986 Emergency Wetlands Resources Act and the 1972
                          visory roles. Section 401 of the Clean Water Act grants to States                                                          Coastal Zone Management Act and amendments encourage wetland
                          and eligible Indian Tribes the authority to approve, apply conditions                                                      protection through funding incentives. The Emergency Wetlands
                          to, or deny section 404 permit applications on the basis of a pro-                                                         Resources Act requires States to address wetland protection in their
                          posed activity's probable effects on the water quality of a wetland.                                                       Statewide Comprehensive Outdoor Recreation Plans to qualify for
                                  Most farming, ranching, and silviculture activities are not sub-                                                   Federal funding for State recreational land; the National Park Ser-
                          ject to section 404 regulation. However, the "Swampbuster" provi-                                                          vice provides guidance to States in developing the wetland compo-
                          sion of the 1985 Food Security Act and amendments in the 1990                                                              nent oftheirplans. Coastal and Great Lakes States that adoptcoastal-
                          Food, Agriculture, Conservation, and Trade Act discourage (through                                                         zone management programs and plans approved by the National
                          financial disincentives) the draining, filling, or other alteration of                                                     Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration are eligible for Federal
                          wetlands for agricultural use. The law allows exemptions from pen-                                                         funding and technical assistance through the Coastal Zone Manage-
                          alties in some cases, especially if the farmer agrees to restore the                                                       ment Act.
                          altered wetland or other wetlands that have been converted to agri-                                                                State wetland activities. -Activities in both tidal and nontidal
                          cultural use. The Wetlands Reserve Program of the 1990 Food,                                                               wetlands in the State of Virginia are regulated through the Depart-
                          Agriculture, Conservation, and Trade Act authorizes the Federal                                                            ment of Environmental Quality's Water Division by means of the
                          Government to purchase conservation easements from landowners                                                              Virginia Water Protection Permit. This permit is issued to ensure
                          who agree to protect or restore wetlands. The Consolidated Farm                                                            compliance with the State Water Control Law and serves as the
                          Service Agency (formerly the Agricultural Stabilization and Con-                                                           certification of Virginia's compliance with section 401 of the Fed-
                          servation Service) administers the Swampbuster provisions and Wet-                                                         eral Clean Water Act. To obtain this permit and other permits show-
                          lands Reserve Program. The Natural Resources Conservation Ser-                                                             ing compliance with the Virginia Wetlands Act and section 404 of
                          vice (NRCS) (formerly the Soil Conservation Service) determines                                                            the Federal Clean Water Act, a Joint Permit Application is submit-
                          compliance with Swampbuster provisions and assists farmers in the                                                          red to the Virginia Marine Resources Commission.








                      392     National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: STATE SUMMARIES



                            The Virginia Marine Resources Commission has ultimate                         Fenneman, N.M., 1946, Physical divisions of the United States: Washing-
                      regulatory authority for the coastal resources included in the State                      ton, D.C., U.S. Geological Survey special map, scale 1:7,000,000.
                      Wetlands Act, the Federal Chesapeake Bay Preservation Act, and                      Harlow, G.E., Jr., and LeCain, G.D., 1991, Hydraulic characteristics of, and
                      the State Coastal Primary Sand Dune Protection Act (Bradshaw,                             ground-water flow in, coal-bearing rocks of southwestern Virginia:
                      1991). Local governments have the option of adopting prescribed                           U.S. Geological Survey Open-File Report 91-250, 48 p.
                      zoning ordinances and forming citizen wetlands boards to regulate                   Harsh, LE, and Laczniak, R.J., 1986, Conceptualization and analysis of the
                                                                                                                ground-water system in the Coastal Plain aquifers of Virginia: U.S.
                      their own tidal wetlands. The Commission retains an oversight and                         Geological Survey Professional Paper 1404-E, 107 p.
                      appellate role in those localities, and the Virginia Institute of Ma-               Heath, R.C., 1994, Ground-water regions of the United States: U.S. Geo-
                      rine Science has an advisory role in the permitting process. Virginia                     logical Survey Water-Supply Paper 2242, 78 p.
                      has no laws that apply specifically to nontidal wetlands. However,                  Hershner, Carl, 1992, Ecological functions and values of nontidal wetlands,
                      the Water Control Board (now called the Department of Environ-                            in Perspectives on Chesapeake Bay, 1992-Advances in Estuarine
                      mental Quality, Water Division) adopted a wetlands policy in 1974                         Sciences: Chesapeake Research Consortium Publication 143, p. I-
                      (revised in 1982) that covers both nontidal and tidal wetlands. In                        16.
                      addition, the Scenic Rivers Act of 1970 prevents certain activities                 Meng, A.A., Harsh, J.F, and Kull, T.K., 1985, Virginia ground-water re-
                                                                                                                sources, in U.S. Geological Survey, National water summary 1984-
                      in designated riparian areas that include wetlands, and the Endan-                        Hydrologic events and selected water-quality trends and ground-wa-
                      gered Species Act of 1972 provides habitat preservation and                               ter resources: U.S. Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper 2275,
                      protection in wetlands and elsewhere. The Chesapeake Bay Preser-                          p. 427-432.
                      vation Act, which is implemented by local governments, calls for                    Phillips, P.J., and Shedlock, R.J., 1993, Hydrology and chemistry of ground-
                      establishment of protective buffers around tidal and nontidal wet-                        water and seasonal ponds in the Atlantic Coastal Plain in Delaware,
                      lands adjacent to surface waters or tidal wetlands in Virginia's                          USA: Journal of Hydrology, v. 141, p. 157-178.
                      coastal plain.                                                                      Powell, J.D., and Abe, J.M., 1985, Availability and quality of ground water
                            In 1990, the Division of Soil and Water Conservation of the                         in the Piedmont Province of Virginia: U.S. Geological Survey Water-
                      Virginia Department of Conservation and Recreation began to                               Resources Investigations Report 85-4235, 33 p.
                                                                                                          Prugh, B.J., and Scott, W.B., 1986, Virginia surface-water resources, in U.S.
                      gather and update all existing data on the wetlands of Virginia with                      Geological Survey, National water summary 1985 -Hydrologic events
                      the goal of creating a single, comprehensive data base (Virginia                          and surface-water resources: U.S. Geological Survey Water-Supply
                      Department of Conservation and Recreation, 1990). This project                            Paper 2300, p. 467-472.
                      has been designed to conform with the standards of the Fws Na-                      Richardson, D.L., 1992, Hydrogeology and analysis of the ground-water-
                      tional Wetland Inventory project. National Wetland Inventory data                         flow system of the Eastern Shore, Virginia: U.S. Geological Survey
                      for about three-fourths of the State have been digitized. Informa-                        Open-File Report 91-490, 117 p.
                      tion for the eastern part of the State is older and less detailed than              Tiner, R.W., 1987, Mid-Atlantic wetlands-A disappearing natural trea-
                      the western part, and about one-fourth of the eastern inland part of                      sure: Newton Comer, Mass., U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service and U.S.
                      the State is currently (1993) being reinventoried and digitized.                          Environmental Protection Agency cooperative publication, 28 p.
                                                                                                          Tiner, R.W., and Finn, J.T., 1986, Status and recent trends of wetlands in
                      Another comprehensive project to map wetland locations was con-                           five mid-Atlantic states -Delaware, Maryland, Pennsylvania, Vir-
                      ducted by the NRCS, which inventoried wetlands down to less than                          ginia, and West Virginia: Newton Comer, Mass., U.S. Fish and Wild-
                      one-fourth of an acre at different scales. This information has not                       life Service, National Wetlands Inventory project technical report, 40 p.
                      been standardized or published collectively but is available through                U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 1990, Regional wetlands concept plan,
                      county NRcs offices.                                                                      emergency wetlands resources act, Northeast Region: Newton Comer,
                            Private wetland organization activities. -Private organiza-                         Mass., U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, app. A.
                      tions with interests in wetlands in Virginia are active in policy plan-             Virginia Department of Conservation and Recreation, 1999, The 1989 Vir-
                      ning, the development of regulations, advocacy, land acquisition and                      ginia outdoors plan: Richmond, Virginia Department of Conservation
                      management, environmental education, and research. A few of the                           and Recreation, 289 p.
                                                                                                          -1990, The Virginia nontidal wetlands inventory: Richmond, Virginia
                      many such organizations in the State are The Nature Conservancy,                          Department of Conservation and Recreation, 19 p., 3 app.
                      the Chesapeake Bay foundation, the Friends of the Rivers of Vir-                    Virginia Sea Grant College Program, 1989, Marine resource bulletin: Vir-
                      ginia, The Lower James River Foundation, and Ducks Unlimited.                             ginia Graduate Marine Science Consortium, v. 21, no. 1, 21 p.
                      The State and The Nature Conservancy jointly administer the Vir-                    Winter, T.C., 1992, A physiographic and climatic framework for hydrologic
                      ginia Natural Heritage Program, which identifies natural areas, in-                       studies of wetlands, in Robarts, R.D., and Bothwell, M.L., eds., Pro-
                      cluding wetlands, for conservation planning.                                              ceedings of the Symposium on Aquatic Ecosystems in Senii-Arid
                                                                                                                Regions, 1990 -Implications for resource management: Saskatoon,
                                                                                                                Saskatchewan, Environment Canada, The National Hydrology Re-
                      References Cited                                                                          search Institute Symposium Series no. 7, p. 127-147.
                      Back, William, 1966, Hydrochemical facies and ground-water flow patterns            Wright, W.G., 1990, Ground-water hydrology and quality in the Valley and
                            in northern part of Atlantic Coastal Plain- Hydrology of aquifer Sys-               Ridge and Blue Ridge physiographic provinces of Clarke County,
                            tems: U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 498 - A, 42 p.                      Virginia: U.S. Geological Survey Water-Resources Investigations
                      Bradshaw, J.G., 1991, Coastal resources and the pen-nit process -Defini-                  Report 90-4134, 61 p.
                            tions and jurisdictions: Virginia Institute of Marine Science Techni-
                            cal Report no. 91-2, 7 p.                                              s-     FOR ADDITIONAL INFORMATION: District Chief, U.S. Geological
                      Cowardin, L.M., Carter, Virginia, Golet, F.C., and LaRoe, E.T., 1979, Cla           Survey, 3600 West Broad Street, Room 606, Richmond, VA 23230; Regional
                            sification of wetlands and deepwater habitats of the United States: U.S.      Wetland Coordinator, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 300 Westgate Center
                            Fish and Wildlife Service Report FWS/OBS -79/31, 131 p.                       Drive, Hadley, MA 01035
                      Dahl, T.E., 1990, Wetlands-Losses in the United States, 1780's to 1980's:
                            Washington, D.C., U.S. Fish andWildlife Service Report to Congress,
                            13 p.                                                                                                        Prepared by
                      Dawes, G.M., 1978, implementation of the Virginia Wetland Act of 1972,                                           Martha A. Hayes,
                            in Proceedings of the 1978 National Wetland Protection Symposium:                                      U.S. Geological Survey
                            Gloucester Point, Virginia Institute of Marine Science, p. 53-56.



                                                                        U.S. Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper 2425







                                                                                                                                                          National Water Summary-Wetland Resources 393
                                                                                                                                                                  Washington
                                                                                                                                                                  Wetland Resources
                     Wshington's wetlands are remarkably diverse, each having a                                                 bird watching, nature appreciation, camping, boating, fishing, and
                     unique combination of ecological characteristics such as altitude,                                         hunting.
                     seasonality, chemistry, and species composition. Although wetlands
                     cover only about 2 percent of the State, they are a valuable and                                           TYPES AND DISTRIBUTION
                     important resource.
                            Wetlands perform many important hydrologic functions, such                                                  Wetlands are lands transitional between ten-estrial and deep-
                     as maintaining streamflows, slowing and storing floodwaters, sta-                                          water habitats where the water table usually is at or near the land
                     bilizing streambanks, and reducing the erosion of shorelines. Al-                                          surface or the land is covered by shallow water (Cowardin and oth-
                     though usually thought of as areas of ground-water discharge, some                                         ers, 1979). The distribution of wetlands and deepwater habitats in
                     wetlands serve as areas of ground-water recharge (Washington State                                         Washington is shown in figure 2A; only wetlands are discussed
                     Department of Ecology, 1992a). Wetlands also improve water quality                                         herein.
                     by filtering out sediments, excessive nutrients, and toxic chemicals.                                              Wetlands can be vegetated or nonvegetated and are classified
                     By serving these and other functions, wetlands can sometimes re-                                           on the basis of their hydrology, vegetation, and substrate. In this
                     duce or eliminate the need for the costly engineering and construc-                                        summary, wetlands are classified according to the system proposed
                     tion of control, treatment, arid retention facilities (Puget Sound Water                                   by Cowardin and others (1979), which is used by the U.S. Fish and
                     Quality Authority, 1990).                                                                                  Wildlife Service (Fws) to map and inventory the Nation's wetlands.
                            For a vast and diverse array of wildlife, including invertebrates,                                  At the most general level of the classification system, wetlands are
                     fish, amphibians, reptiles, birds, and mammals, wetlands are essen-                                        grouped into five ecological systems: Palustrine, Lacustrine, Riv-
                     tial habitats for feeding, nesting, cover, or breeding. More than 315                                      erine, Estuarine, and Marine. The Palustrine System includes only
                     species of wildlife use the State's wetlands as primary feeding or                                         wetlands, whereas the other systems comprise wetlands and
                     breeding habitat. Wetlands are vital nursery and feeding areas for                                         deepwater habitats. Wetlands of the systems that occur in Washing-
                     anadromous fish such as salmon and steelhead trout (Washington                                             ton are described below.
                     State Department of Wildlife, undated). Wetlands are critical habi-
                     tats for at least one-third of the State's threatened or endangered                                        System                                               Wetland description
                     species of wildlife (Puget Sound Water Quality Authority, 1990).
                            Wetlands furnish many opportunities for education and scien-                                        Palustrine      .................. Nontidal and tidal-freshwater wetlands in which
                     tific research. The numbers and diversity of plants and animals found                                                                        vegetation is predominantly trees (forested wet-
                                                                                                                                                                  lands); shrubs (scrub-shrub wetlands); persistent
                     in wetlands make these habitats excellent locations for teaching and                                                                         or nonpersistent emergent, erect, rooted herba-
                     research in biology, botany, ornithology, environmental science, and                                                                         ceous plants (persistent- and nonpersistent-
                     ecology.                                                                                                                                     emergent wetlands); or submersed and (or)
                            Washington's wetlands provide many quality-of-life benefits.                                                                          floating plants (aquatic beds). Also, intermit-
                     As scenic areas, wetlands present a visually pleasing contrast to                                                                            tently to permanently flooded open-water bod-
                                                                                                                                                                  ies of less than 20 acres in which water is less
                     upland areas, open water, and forests (fig. 1). In addition, the State's                                                                     than 6.6 feet deep.
                     wetlands support a wide range of recreational activities, including                                        Lacustrine       ................. Nontidal and tidal-freshwater wetlands within an
                                                                                                                                                                  intermittently to permanently flooded lake or
                                                                                                                                                                  reservoir larger than 20 acres and (or) deeper
                                                                                                                                                                  than 6.6 feet. Vegetation, when present, is pre-
                                                                                                                                                                  dominantly nonpersistent emergent plants (non-
                                                                                                                                                                  persistent-emergent wetlands), or submersed
                                                                                                                                                                  and (or) floating plants (aquatic beds), or both.
                                                                                                                                Riverine     ..................... Nontidaf and tidal-freshwater wetlands within a
                                                                                                                                                                  channel. Vegetation, when present, is same as
                                                                                                                                                                  in the Lacustrine System.
                                                                                                                                Estuarine      ................... Tidal wetlands in low-wave-energy environments
                                                                                                                                                                  where the salinity of the water is greaterthan 0.5
                                                                                                                                                                  part per thousand (ppt) and is variable owing to
                                                                                                                                                                  evaporation and the mixing of seawater and
                                                                                                                                                                  freshwater.

                                                                                                                                Marine      ....................... Tidal wetlands that are exposed to waves and cur-
                                                                                                                                                                  rents of the open ocean and to water having a
                                                                                                                                                                  salinity greater than 30 ppt.

                                                                                                                                        According to a            1988 FWS inventory, wetlands cover about
                                                                                                                                939,000 acres in Washington (D.D. Peters, U.S. Fish and Wildlife
                                                                                                                                Service, unpub. data, 1990). That inventory, part of the Fws National
                                                                                                                                Wetlands Inventory, used color-infrared aerial photographs taken
                                                                                                                                from 1980 to 1984 combined with field inventories of selected wet-
                                                                                                                                lands. Owing to the limitations of this process, a small percentage
                                                                                                                                of wetlands might not have been included in the acreages.
                         Figure 1. Weiland in the Nisqually National Wildlife Refuge,                                                   Palustrine wetlands cover about 709,000 acres, about 75 per-
                         Washington. Mount Rainier is in the distance. (Photograph by                                           cent of the total wetland acreage in Washington (D.D. Peters, U.S.
                         James Lyles, U.S. Geological Survey.)                                                                  Fish and Wildlife Service, unpub. data, 1990). These wetlands ex-








                    394     National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: STATE SUMMARIES



                    ist throughout the State in coastal sand dunes; in lowlands adjacent           Riverine wetlands cover about 700 acres in Washington (D.D.
                    to estuaries, rivers, and lakes; in the backwaters of reservoirs and       Peters, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, unpub. data, 1990) and con-
                    irrigation wasteways; adjacent to springs or seeps; and in isolated        sist of the areas of river channels that are occasionally to perma-
                    depressions. Extensive tracts of palustrine wetlands cover the sand        nently flooded. These areas can be nonvegetated or vegetated by
                    spits of Grays Harbor and Willapa Bay and the banks of the Colum-          submersed and nonpersistent emergent aquatic plants. Areas of the
                    bia, Chehalis, Yakima, and Pend Oreille Rivers (Canning and                river channel that typically are exposed commonly are referred to
                    Stevens, 1989; Washington State Department of Ecology, 1992b).             as river bars, gravel bars, or unconsolidated shorelines. They com-
                         Palustrine forested wetlands commonly are referred to as              monly become vegetated by pioneering terrestrial species such as
                    swamps or coastal swamps. Their predominant vegetation includes            dandelion and fireweed during periods of low flow. Plant species
                    red alder, thin-leafed alder, black cottonwood, western red cedar,         commonly found in the flooded areas of the channel include true
                    Sitka spruce, and hemlock. Palustrine scrub-shrub wetlands com-            watercress, yelloweress, yellow water lily, arrowhead, water plan-
                    monly are referred to as swamps or bogs. Their predominant veg-            tain, and smartweed (Canning and Stevens, 1989).
                    etation includes willows, red Osier dogwood, Douglas spiraea,                  Estuarine wetlands cover about 202,000 acres, about 22 per-
                    snowberry, hawthorn, wild rose, and gooseberry. Palustrine emer-           cent of the total wetland acreage in Washington (D.D. Peters, U.S.
                    gent wetlands are also known as freshwater marshes, wet meadows,           Fish and Wildlife Service, unpub. data, 1990). These wetlands are
                    fens, bogs, prairies, potholes, vernal pools, and playas. Predomi-         present on the deltas and in the lower reaches of most of the rivers
                    nant emergent vegetation includes cattail, bulrush, and reed canary        in western Washington (the part of the State west of the crest of the
                    grass. Predominant aquatic-bed vegetation includes duckweed,               Cascade Range (fig. ZBJ). Broad expanses of estuarine wetlands
                    water lilies, and water buttercup (Canning and Stevens, 1989).             exist around Grays Harbor and Willapa Bay on the coast, at the
                         Lacustrine wetland acreage in Washington is not addressed in          mouth of the Columbia River, and around Skagit and Padilla Bays
                    this summary because the acreage has not yet been separated from           on Puget Sound (Canning and Stevens, 1999; Washington State
                    the acreage for lacustrine deepwater habitat (D.D. Peters, U.S, Fish       Department of Ecology, 1992b).
                    and Wildlife Service, unpub. data, 1990). Lacustrine emergent                  Predominant forest and scrub-shrub vegetation bordering es-
                    wetlands and aquatic beds exist in the shallows of lakes throughout        tuaries includes western crabapple, Hooker's willow, Sitka willow,
                    Washington. Predominant emergent vegetation includes duckweed,             red Osier dogwood, Pacific ninebark, red alder, western red cedar,
                    water lilies, water buttercup, arrowhead, water plantain, smartweed,       and Sitka spruce. Predominant herbaceous emergent vegetation
                    yellow water lily, common mare's tail, and pondweed. Predominant           includes pickleweed, salt grass, seaside arrowgrass, Jaumea, salt-
                    lacustrine aquatic-bed vegetation is the same as noted for palustrine      marsh sandspurry, Olney's Three Square, Lyngby's sedge, redtop,
                    aquatic beds (Canning and Stevens, 1989).                                  hardstem bulrush, and cattail. Estuarine aquatic beds are vegetated



                                A



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                                                  Joao                             C.
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                                                                                                                             s






                                                  oly
                                  Harbor                                 J

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                                       124-

                                                                                                                                             46-
                                                                                                                           lis-


                                                                                               120*
                                                                                                       WETLANDS AND DEEPWATER HABITATS
                                                                   122-                                Distribution of wetlands and deepwater habitats-
                                                                                                         This map shows the approximate distribution of large
                                                                                                         wetlands in the State. Because of limitations of scale
                                                         0     25      50 MILES
                                                                I     _J                                 and source material, some wetlands are not shown
                                                         0   25  50 KILOMETERS                         go    Predominantly wetland
                                                                                                       F-1   Predominantly deepwater habitat

                                Figure 2. Wetland distribution in Washington and physical and climatological factors that control wetland dis-
                                tribution in the State. A, Distribution of wetlands and deepwater habitats. (Sources: A, TE. Dahl, U.S. Fish and
                                Wildlife Service, unpub. data, 199 1.)








                                                                                                  National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: WASHINGTON                   395



                 rocky, sandy, or muddy substrates adjacent to tidal zones. Predomi-                   Although many wetlands in western Washington are associated
                 nant aquatic-bed vegetation includes eelgrass, kelp, and green algae.            with ponds, lakes, estuaries, or rivers, many more are isolated from
                 Estuarine unconsolidated shores consist of gravel, sand, or mud                  bodies of surface water and owe their existence to saturated soil
                 exposed by tides and commonly are known as tideflats or tidal flats.             conditions caused by precipitation or ground-water seepage (Can-
                 Large tidal fluctuations discourage most plant communities from                  ning and Stevens, 1989; Washington State Department of Ecology,
                 colonizing these sites. However, extensive mats of green and blue-               1992b,c). Wetlands that are isolated from bodies of surface water
                 green algae can develop during the summer months (Canning and                    typically occupy depressions in the land surface that are of glacial
                 Stevens, 1989).                                                                  origin. In the lowlands of western Washington, these depressions
                       Marine wetlands cover about 27,000 acres, about 3 percent of               generally are elongated troughs cut by continental glaciers, circu-
                 the total wetland acreage in Washington (D.D. Peters, U.S. Fish and              lar kettles left by the melting of blocks of glacial ice embedded in
                 Wildlife Service, unpub. data, 1990) and consist of beaches and                  glacial deposits, or simply shallow depressions on an irregular sur-
                 rocky shores. The high-energy tidal environment of these wetlands                face of glacial deposits. In the Olympic Mountains and the Cascade
                 keeps them unvegetated except for algae. Marine wetlands exist                   Range, the depressions generally have been cut into bedrock by local
                 along the Pacific coast and the Strait of Juan de Fuca, on some off-             alpine glaciers (Dion, 1978).
                 shore rocky islands, and in the San Juan Islands (Canning and                         Eastern Washington (the part of the State east of the crest of
                 Stevens, 1989).                                                                  the Cascade Range) has characteristics of both continental and
                                                                                                  marine climates with hot, dry summers and cold, wet winters
                 HYDROLOGIC SETTING                                                               (Phillips, 1960). Precipitation ranges from less than 10 inches per
                                                                                                  year to about 40 inches per year (fig. 2C). Evaporation ranges from
                       Western Washington has a predominantly marine climate with                 about 25 inches per year to more than 45 inches per year (fig. 2D)
                 cool, dry summers and mild, wet winters (Phillips, 1960). Precipi-               and generally exceeds annual precipitation.
                 tation ranges from less than 20 inches per year to about 200 inches                   As in western Washington, most wetlands on the eastern slope
                 per year (fig. 2C). Evaporation ranges from about 20 inches per                  of the Cascade Range and in Northeastern Washington (fig. 2B) are
                 year to about 25 inches per year (fig. 2D) and generally is less than            associated either with bodies of surface water or with depressions
                 annual precipitation.                                                            in the land surface that are of glacial origin (Dion, 1978; Washing-
                                                                                                  ton State Department of Ecology, 1992b). Most wetlands in the
                                                         Crest of Cascade Range                   Columbia Basin (fig. 2B) were created by human activities, such
                                                                                                  as large hydroelectric and irrigation projects, and typically owe their
                                                                                                  existence to shallow water tables caused by the importation and use
                                                                   T 1711, 1
                                                                           , , 1@ 1-71-1
                    B                                         T, 17 1
                                                                                 ero
                                                                         Washington,              of surface water for irrigation (Washington State Department of
                                                                                                  Ecology, 1992b). Almost 85 percent of the wetlands in the area are
                                                                                                  in isolated depressions in the land surface that were created by cata-
                                                                                                       hic floods resulting from the collapse of glacial ice dams and
                                                                                                  strop
                                                                                                  the ensuing rapid emptying of large glacial lakes in what is now
                                                                                                  Montana (Weis and Newman, 1989; Dion, 1978; Washington State
                                                                  colu
                                                                      mbla    in
                                                                                                  Department of Ecolo y, 1992b). Many of the other wetlands in the
                            Loy@4@ds of,                                                                                 9
                             Western                                                              Columbia River Basin are associated with reservoirs and irrigation
                            Washington    'L                                                      wasteways (Canning and Stevens, 1989; Washington State Depart-
                                                                Blue   Qun  ns
                                                                                                  ment of Ecolo y, 1992b).
                                                                                                                  9


                                                                                                  TRENDS

                                                            ECOREGIONS                                 Estimates of presettlement wetland acreage in Washington
                                                                                                  range from 1.17 to 1.53 million acres, depending on the historical

                    C                                                                             D


                                     0




                                                        40
                                                                                                                               lq
                                                              10                     20

                                                       20
                                                                                     20

                            11 100    D                                          2                                                                     J

                                                                                                                                              45


                                                           PRECIPITATION                                                            EVAPORATION
                                                          -80- Line of equal annual precipitation-                                  -30- Line of equal annual evaporation-
                                                                   Interval, in inches, is variable                                         Interval, in inches, is variable

                 Figure 2. Continued. Wetland distribution in Washington and physical and climatological factors that control wetland distribution in the
                 State. 8, Generalized physiographic areas. C, Precipitation. D, Free-water-surface evaporation. (Sources: B, C,            and D, Landforms data from
                 EROS Data Center. 6, Generalized physiographic areas modified from Dion, 1978. C, Williams, 1986. D, Farnsworth and others, 1982.)








                              396         National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: STATE SUMMARIES



                              information and research assumptions used (Canning and Stevens,                                                            Table 1. Selected wetland-related activities of government
                              1989; Dahl, 1990; Washington State Department of Ecology,                                                                  agencies and private organizations in Washington, 1993
                              1992b). Based on a 1988 estimate by the FwS, about 20 to 39 per-                                                           [Source: Classification of activities is generalized from information provided
                              cent of Washington's wetlands, have been lost during the past two                                                               by agencies and organizations. e, agency or organization participates in
                              centuries. Other estimates place the total loss as great as 50 per-                                                             wetland-related activity;                agency or organization does not participate in
                                                                                                                                                              wetland-related activity. MAN, management; REG, regulation; R&C, res-
                              cent, and some urbanized areas of the Puget Sound area have expe-                                                               toration and creation; LAN, land acquisition; R&D, research and data col-
                              rienced losses of from 70 to 100 percent. Estimates of continuing                                                               lection; D&I, delineation and inventory]
                              wetland loss range from 700 to 2,000 acres per year. In addition,
                              most of the State's remaining wetlands have been significantly de-
                              graded (Washington State Department of Ecology, 1992b,d).                                                                  Agency or organization                                                         40' R* 3;@
                                     The principal historical causes of wetland loss and degrada-                                                        FEDERAL
                              tion are the expansion of agriculture and the siting of ports and in-                                                      Department of Agriculture
                              dustrial facilities. The major causes of continuing loss and degra-                                                          Consolidated Farm Service Agency                  ........................... ...
                              dation of wetlands are urban expansion, forestry and agricultural                                                            Forest Service        .................................................................
                              practices, and the invasion of exotic plants and animals (Cannin                                                             Natural Resources Conservation Service                    ................ ...
                                                                                                                                               9         Department of Commerce
                              and Stevens, 1989; Washington State Department of Ecology,                                                                   National Oceanic and
                              1992b,d).                                                                                                                    Atmospheric Administration              ........................................*
                                                                                                                                                         Department of Defense
                                                                                                                                                           Army Corps of Engineers            ..............................................*
                              CONSERVATION                                                                                                                 Military reservations              .....................................................0... ... ... ...     ...
                                     Many government agencies and private organizations partici-                                                         Department of the Interior
                                                                                                                                                           Bureau of Land Management                 ......................................0
                              pate in wetland conservation in Washington. The most active agen-                                                            Bureau of Reclamation              ................................................. ... ...
                              cies and organizations and some of their activities are listed in table                                                      Fish and Wildlife Service          ..............................................0
                              1 .                                                                                                                          Geological Survey                  .......................................................... ... .. . ... ... 0
                                     Federal wetland activities. - Development activities in Wash-                                                         National Biological Service             ......................................... ... ... ... ...     .
                              ington wetlands are regulated by several Federal statutory prohibi-                                                          National Park Service              ...................................................a e      e      0
                                                                                                                                                         Environmental Protection Agency                .................................. ...0
                              tions and incentives that are intended to slow wetland losses. Some                                                        STATE
                              of the more important of these are contained in the 1899 Rivers and                                                        Department of Agriculture            ............................................... ...0
                              Harbors Act; the 1972 Clean Water Act and amendments; the 198 5                                                            Department of Community Development                     ......................0    0
                              Food Security Act; the 1990 Food, Agriculture, Conservation, and                                                           Department of Ecology                .....................................................00
                              Trade Act; the 1986 Emergency Wetlands Resources Act; and the                                                              Department of Fisheries              ...................................................00
                                                                                                                                                         Department of Health                 ........................................................0*
                              1972 Coastal Zone Management Act.                                                                                          Department of Natural Resources                 .................................* .
                                     Section 10 of the Rivers and Harbors Act gives the U.S. Army                                                        Department of Parks and Recreation                 ............................*   0
                              Corps of Engineers (Corps) authority to regulate certain activities                                                        Department of Transportation              .........................................0
                              in navigable waters. Regulated activities include diking, deepening,                                                       Department of Wildlife               ......................................................0
                              filling, excavating, and placing of structures. The related section 404                                                    REGIONAL
                                                                                                                                                         Puget Sound Water Quality Authority                ............................ ... ...
                              of the Clean Water Act is the most often-used Federal legislation                                                          COUNTY AND LOCAL
                              protecting wetlands. Under section 404 provisions, the Corps issues                                                        All counties and local governments                .............................. ...
                              permits regulating the discharge of dredged or fill material into                                                          Some counties and local governments                  .........................o
                              wetlands. Permits are subject to review and possible veto by the U.S.                                                      PRIVATE
                              Environmental Protection Agency, and the Fws has review and ad-                                                            Local chapters of the National
                                                                                                                                                         Audubon Society         ................................................................0
                              visory roles. Section 401 of the Clean Water Act grants to States                                                          Ducks Unlimited        ..................................................................
                              and eligible Indian Tribes the authority to approve, apply conditions                                                      Friends at the Earth                 ............................................................ ... ... ... ...
                              to, or deny section 404 permit applications on the basis of a pro-                                                         The Nature Conservancy               ..................................................0  0      0
                              posed activity's probable effects on the water quality of a wetland.                                                       Trust for Public Lands               ........................................................ ... ... ...0
                                     Most farming, ranching, and silviculture activities are not sub-                                                    Urban Wildlife Coalition             .................................................... ... ...0-
                              ject to section 404 regulation. However, the "Swampbuster" provi-                                                          Washington Environmental Council                ..................  ............ ... ...  ... ...
                              sion of the 1985 Food Security Act and amendments in the 1990
                              Food, Agriculture, Conservation, and Trade Act discourage (through
                              financial disincentives) the draining, filling, or other alteration of                                                     Coastal Zone Management Act and amendments encourage wetland
                              wetlands for agricultural use. The law allows exemptions from pen-                                                         protection through funding incentives. The Emergency Wetlands
                              alties in some cases, especially if the farmer agrees to restore the                                                       Resources Act requires States to address wetland protection in their
                              altered wetland or other wetlands that have been converted to agri-                                                        Statewide Comprehensive Outdoor Recreation Plans to qualify for
                              cultural use. The Wetlands Reserve Program of the 1990 Food,                                                               Federal funding for State recreational land; the National Park Ser-
                              Agriculture, Conservation, and Trade Act authorizes the Federal                                                            vice provides guidance to States in developing the wetland compo-
                              Government to purchase conservation easements from landowners                                                              nent oftheir plans. Coastal and Great Lakes States that adopt coastal-
                              who agree to protect or restore wetlands. The Consolidated Farm                                                            zone management programs and plans approved by the National
                              Service Agency (formerly the Agricultural Stabilization and Con-                                                           Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration are eligible for Federal
                              servation Service) administers the Swampbuster provisions and Wet-                                                         funding and technical assistance through the Coastal Zone Manage-
                              lands Reserve Program. The Natural Resources Conservation                                                                  mentAct.
                              Service (formerly the Soil Conservation Service) determines com-                                                                  Federal agencies own about 1.3 million acres of land in Wash-
                              pliance with Swampbuster provisions and assists farmers in the iden-                                                       ington, 30 percent of the total land area of the State. However, there
                              tification of wetlands and in the development of wetland protection,                                                       is no reliable estimate of the total acreage of wetlands owned by the
                              restoration, or creation plans.                                                                                            Federal Government. The major causes of this situation are budget
                                     The 1986 Emergency Wetlands Resources Act and the 1972                                                              constraints; differences in the missions, goals, and needs of the








                                                                                                        National Water Surnmary-Wetland Resources: WASHINGTON                     397



                    various agencies; and variations in the use and definitions of wet-                 References Cited
                    lands.                                                                              Canning, D.J., and Stevens, Michelle, 1989, Wetlands of Washington -A
                         State wetland activities. -Wetland protection and management                        resource characterization: Olympia, Washington State Department of
                    activities in Washington are almost as diverse as the State's wetlands.                  Ecology, 45 p.
                    Ile State uses the Fws classification system (Cowardin and others,                  Cowardin, L.M., Carter, Virginia, Golet, F.C., and LaRoe, E.T., 1979, Clas-
                    1979) for inventory purposes but uses the Federal Clean Water Act                        sification of wetlands and deepwater habitats of the United States: U.S.
                    definition of wetlands as vegetated sites for regulatory purposes.                       Fish and Wildlife Report FWS/OB S -79/31, 131 p.
                    Nonvegetated wetlands are regulated as marine waters, lakes, or                     Dahl, T.E., 1990, Wetlands -Losses in the United States, 1780's to 1980's:
                    other special aquatic sites (Canning and Stevens, 1989; Perry Lund,                      Washington D.C., U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 13 p.
                    Washington State Department of Ecology, written commun., 1993).                     Dion, N.P., 1978, Primer on lakes in Washington: Washington State Depart-
                    The Washington State Department of Ecology is the lead agenc                             ment of Ecology Water-Supply Bulletin 49, 55 p.
                                                                                                  y     Farnsworth, RX, Thompson, E,S., and Peck, E.L., 1982, Evaporation at-
                    for wetland activities in the State and has established a Wetlands                       las for the contiguous 48 United States: NationaJ Oceanic and Atmo-
                    Section to provide technical assistance and guidance to other Fed-                       spheric Administration Technical Report NWS 33, 26 p.
                    eral and State agencies and to local governments. In addition, all                  Granger, Teri, 1989, A guide to conducting wetlands inventories: Washing-
                    State agencies are required to exercise their authority to the maxi-                     ton State Department of Ecology Publication 89-60, 59 p.
                    mum extent in order to achieve the goal of "no overall net loss of                  Phillips, E.L., 1960, Climate ofWashington: U.S. Department of Commerce,
                    wetlands" in the State. The primary State regulations affecting                          Climatography ofthe United States no. 60-45,26 p. [Reprint 1972.1
                    wetlands include the Shoreline Management Act of 197 1, the Hy-                     Puget Sound Water Quality Authority, 1990, 1991 Puget Sound Water Quality
                    draulic Procedures Act of 1949, the State Environmental Policy Act                       Management Plan: Olympia, Puget Sound Water Quality Authority,
                    of 1983, the Growth Management Act of 199 1, and the Floodplain                          344 p.
                    Management Program. However, none of these regulations has the                      Seattle Audubon Society, 1993, WETNET citizen's directory - A guide to
                                                                                                             Washington organizations concerned with wetlands protection: Se-
                    protection of the wetlands as its main purpose (Washington State                         attle, Wash., Seattle Audubon Society, 59 p.
                    Department of Ecology, 1988, 1990, 1991, 1992b, 1993).                              Washington State Department of Ecology, 1988, Wetland regulations guide-
                         Regional wetland activities. -The Puget Sound Water Qual-                           book: Washington State Department of Ecology publication 98-5,
                    ity Authority is charged with the development of a comprehensive                         46 p.
                    plan for the protection of water quality in the Puget Sound Basin.                  -1990, Focus -Wetlands law: Olympia, Washington State Depart-
                    The wetlands-protection element of the plan is designed to ensure                        ment of Ecology, 2 p.
                    that the most valuable wetlands in the basin are preserved in perpe-                -1991, Focus -Ecology's wetlands section: Washington State Depart-
                    tuity and that degradation of other valuable wetlands is minimized                       ment of Ecology publication F-S-91-107, 2p.
                    (Puget Sound Water Quality Authority, 1990; Washington State De-                    _1992a, Washington's wetlands: Washington State Department of
                                                                                                             Ecology publication 92-105, 12 p.
                    partment of Ecology, 1988, 1992b,c).                                                _1992b, 1992 Statewide water quality assessment, 305(b) report:
                         County and local wetland activities. -The State's Growth                            Washington State Department of Ecology publication 92- 04, 245 p.
                    Management Act requires counties and local governments to pro-                      _1992c, Focus-Puget Sound wetland preservation: Washington
                    tect wetlands within each government's jurisdiction. The most com-                       State Department of Ecology publication F-S -92-112, 2 p.
                    mon means of protecting wetlands is through Shoreline Master Pro-                   _1992d, Focus-Wetlands in Washington State: Washington State
                    grams developed under the State's Shoreline Management Act and                           Department of Ecology publication F-S -92-108, 2 p.
                    the State Environmental Policy Act. Under these programs, policies                  -1993, Focus -Wetlands technical assistance to local government:
                                                                                                             Olympia, Washington State Department of Ecology, 2 p.
                    and regulations limit certain disruptive activities such as dredging                Washington State Department ofWildlife, undated, Washington wetlands-
                    and filling. Other local ordinances may establish sensitivity areas,                     Time is running out: Olympia, Washington State Department ofWild-
                    regulate clearing and grading practices, or require special analysis                     life, I I p.
                    and review for projects affecting wetlands covered by the master                    Weis, P.L., and Newman, W.L., 1989, The Channeled Scablands of eastern
                    program. In many cases, these programs and ordinances are more                           Washington-The geologic story of the Spokane flood (2d ed.):
                    restrictive than, and include wetlands not covered by, Federal or State                  Cheney, Eastern Washington University Press, 24 p.
                    regulations. However, the degree to which programs and ordinances                   Williams, J.R., 1986, Washington surface-water resources, in U.S. Geologi-
                    have been adopted and enforced varies greatly across the State                           cal Survey, National water summary 1985- Hydrologic events and
                    (Washington State Department of Ecology, 1988; Granger, 1989).                           surface-water resources: U.S. Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper
                         Private wetland activities. -More than 400 private organiza-                        2300, p. 473-478.
                    tions are active in the preservation and protection of wetlands in
                    Washington (Seattle Audubon Society, 1993). These organizations                     FOR ADDITIONAL INFORMATION: District Chief, U.S. Geological
                    keep the public informed on wetland issues, organize citizen net-                   Survey, 1201 Pacific Avenue, Suite 600, Tacoma, WA 98402; Regional Wet-
                    works, and lobby for wetland-protection measures. Local chapters                    land Coordinator, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 911 NE. 1 lth Avenue,
                    of the Audubon Society, The Nature Conservancy, and the Trust for                   Portland, OR 97232
                    Public Lands have purchased wetlands and associated buffer areas
                    in the State for preservation.                                                                                     Prepared by
                                                                                                                          R.C. Lane and William A. Taylor,
                                                                                                                                U.S. Geological Survey








               398     National Water Surnmary-Wetland Resources: STATE SUMMARIES












































                                                                                                                                                          I





















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                                                        U.S. Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper 2425
                                                                                                                                                          1@







                                                                                                                   National Water Summary-Wetland Resources 399
                                                                                                                 West Virginia
                                                                                                                      Wetland Resources
                WtIands constitute less than I percent of West Virginia's sur-                  grouped into five ecological systems: Palustrine, Lacustrine, Riv-
                face area but contribute significantly to the State's economic devel-           erine, Estuarine, and Marine. The Palustrine System includes only
                opment and ecological diversity (Tiner, 1987). Most of the State's              wetlands, whereas the other systems comprise wetlands and
                wetlands are in highlands that extend along a north-south axis near             deepwater habitats. Wetlands of the systems that occur in West Vir-
                the eastern State boundary and in the lower elevations of the                   ginia are described below.
                Potomac River drainage basin to the east and the Ohio River drain-
                age basin to the west. The plants and animals of upland West Vir-               System                                 Wetland description
                ginia bogs and marshes include species that are distinctly northern
                in range and distribution (Fortney, 1977). Some of these species may            Palustrine  .................. Wetlands in which vegetation is predominantly
                be ice age relicts that migrated southward during the last glacial                                       trees (forested wetlands); shrubs (scrub-shrub
                period and became established in the cool, moist environment of                                          wetlands); persistent or nonpersistent emergent,
                                                                                                                         erect, rooted, herbaceous plants (persistent- and
                the central Appalachian Mountains when the glaciers retreated.                                           nonpersistent-emergent wetlands); or sub-
                Wetlands that contain this unusually diverse assemblage of plants                                        mersed and (or) floating plants (aquatic beds).
                and wildlife draw large numbers of tourists to the State and provide                                     Also, intermittently to permanently flooded
                                                                                                                         open-water bodies of less than 20 acres in which
                educational and recreational opportunities.                                                              water is less than 6@6 feet deep.
                      The State's two largest wetlands and other wetlands associated            Lacustrine  ................. Wetlands within an intermittently to permanently
                with river main stems provide habitat for waterfowl and other game                                       flooded lake or reservoir. Vegetation, when pres-
                and nongarne animals and support many rare and endangered plant                                          ent, is predominantly nonpersistent emergent
                species. Natural and constructed wetlands in West Virginia have                                          plants (nonpersistent-emergent wetlands), or
                been used to mitigate the effects of road construction, to increase                                      submersed and (or) floating plants (aquatic
                habitat of nongame animals, and to treat both active- and abandoned-                                     beds), or both.
                mine drainage and municipal wastewater.                                         Riverine  ..................... Wetlands within a channel. Vegetation, when pres-
                                                                                                                         ent, is same as in the Lacustrine System.

                TYPES AND DISTRIBUTION                                                                WestVirginia's wetlands were inventoried by theWestVirginia
                      Wetlands are lands transitional between terrestrial and deep-             Division of Natural Resources (formerly the West Virginia Depart-
                water habitats where the water table usually is at or near the land             ment of Natural Resources) as part of a State survey initiated in 1975
                                                                                                and more recently by Fws as part of the National Wetlands Inven-
                surface or the land is covered by shallow water (Cowardin and oth-              tory. The Division surveyed all wetlands larger than 5 acres and listed
                ers, 1979). The distribution of wetlands and deepwater habitats in              them by class, location, size, source, and vulnerability to destruc-
                West Virginia is shown in figure 2A; only wetlands are discussed                tion. A total of 22,490 stream miles and 45,542 acres of wetlands
                herein.                                                                         were identified from ground and map searches. Palustrine and lacus-
                      Wetlands can be vegetated or nonvegetated and are classified              trine wetlands constituted 0.3 percent of the State's total land and
                on the basis of their hydrology, vegetation, and substrate. In this             water surface area (West Virginia Department of Natural Resources,
                summary, wetlands are classified according to the system proposed               1988).
                by Cowardin and others (1979), which is used by the U.S. Fish and                     The Fws National Wetlands Inventory identified West Virginia
                Wildlife Service (Fws) to map and inventory the Nation's wetlands.              wetlands on high-resolution aerial photographs and listed location,
                At the most general level of the classification system, wetlands are            type, and distribution of all wetlands 1 acre or larger. The results of
                F_                                                                              the inventory indicated that West Virginia has about 102,000 acres
                                                                                                of wetlands, including 42,000 acres of forested wetlands, 24,000
                                                                                                acres of scrub-shrub wetlands, 20,000 acres of emergent wetlands,
                                                                                                and 16,000 acres of ponds (Tiner, 1987). The difference in acreage
                ,,no,                                                                           reported by the two surveys reflects the large number of wetlands
                                                                                                in the State that are smaller than 5 acres and the inventory techniques
                                                                                                used.
                                                                                                      The Canaan Valley and Meadow River wetland complexes con-
                                                                                                tain about 14 percent of the State's wetlands. The Canaan Valley
                                                                                                wetland complex includes palustrine forested, scrub-shrub, and
                                                                                                emergent wetlands and, with an area of 6,740 acres, is the largest
                                                                                                wetland complex in the central Appalachian Mountains. The
                                                                                                Meadow River wetland complex is the second-largest wetland com-
                                                                                                plex in the State and, in terms of acreage, contains about one-fourth
                                                                                                of the State's swamps (forested and scrub-shrub wetlands) and one-
                                                                                                third of the State's wet meadows (emergent wetlands).
                Figure 1. Canaan Valley, West Virginia. The valley's extensive                        Other wetlands, commonly located along streams and rivers,
                upland bogs and marshes were designated a National Natural                      are mostly of small to moderate size and are distributed widely
                Landmark by the Secretary of the Interior in 1974. (Photograph by               across the State (West Virginia Department of Natural Resources,
                Stephen J. Shaluta, Jr, West Virginia Department of Commerce,                   1988). Forested wetlands are the most common type, with inter-
                Labor and Environmental Resources, Division of Tourism and                      spersed scrub-shrub, emergent, and open-water wetlands (ponds).
                Parks.)                                                                               West Virginia also has many small wetlands located on islands








                                 400          National Water Surnmary-Wetland Resources: STATE SUMMARIES



                                 and flood plains and along embayments adjacent to large rivers.                                                             contains a small section of the Blue Ridge Province. The region is
                                 Embayments are backwater zones that form at the mouths of tribu-                                                            drained by Potomac River tributaries to the north and by Kanawha
                                 taries where main-stem navigation dams raise upstream pool lev-                                                             River tributaries to the south, The Appalachian Plateaus physi-
                                 els.'Ibe Fws is inventorying the flora and fauna of Ohio River island                                                       ographic province of southern and western West Virginia contains
                                 wetlands and 79 West Virginia embayments between Ohio River                                                                 the Allegheny Mountain and Kanawha Sections.
                                 miles 47.5 and 312. Embayments and wetlands on islands are im-                                                                     Most of the State's wetlands are located in the Allegheny Moun-
                                 portant stopover areas for migrating waterfowl, nurseries for river-                                                        tain Section and along the Eastern Divide. The Eastern Divide is
                                 ine fish, and habitat for beaver, bald eagles, herons, sandpipers, and                                                      located along the boundary between the Appalachian Plateaus and
                                 ospreys (Patti Morrison, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, oral                                                               the Valley and Ridge Province and separates the Ohio River drain-
                                 commun., 1993). Ely (1993) surveyed the vascular plants in eight                                                            age basin to the west from the Potomac River drainage basin to the
                                 Ohio River embayments and identified 259 species in 169 genera                                                              east. The highest point on the Eastern Divide has an altitude of4,860
                                 and 76 families. Thirteen plant species are on the State Endangered                                                         feet. Predominantly westerly winds carry gulf, subtropical Atlan-
                                 Species list.                                                                                                               tic, and land-recycled moisture across the State. Air masses rise and
                                                                                                                                                             cool in the higher altitudes of the Eastern Divide, releasing mois-
                                 HYDROLOGIC SETTING                                                                                                          ture on the western slope. After crossing the Eastern Divide, the
                                                                                                                                                             air masses sink and warm and release little moisture, creating a "rain
                                         The distribution of wetlands in West Virginia is determined by                                                      shadow" to the east. Consequently, annual precipitation increases
                                 the interaction of climatic and orographic factors, local topography,                                                       eastward from about 40 inches along the State's western boundary
                                 and geologic setting. The State is in three physiographic provinces-                                                        to about 60 inches in the higher altitudes of the Eastern Divide and
                                 the Appalachian Plateaus, Valley and Ridge, and Blue Ridge (fig.                                                            then decreases to about 36 inches in the eastern panhandle. The
                                 2B). Eastern West Virginia is in the Valley and Ridge Province and                                                          abundance of precipitation along the western slopes of the Eastern
                                                                                                                                                             Divide supplies moisture needed to support wetlands and is the most
                                                                                                                                                             important determinant of wetland formation and maintenance in
                                                                                                                                                             West Virginia.
                                                                                                                                                                    Where ample water is available, wetland formation depends
                                                                                                                                                             primarily on local topography and geologic setting. Diehl and
                                                                                                                                                             Behling (1982) examined 49 wetlands in the Appalachian Plateaus
                                                                                                                                                             and identified geologic settings that affect wetland formation and
                                                                                                                                                             maintenance. Stream valleys with low gradients (less than 5 feet per
                                                                                                    40@



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                                                                                                                         7                                          ally       enic kea
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                                                                                                                                      as                         i       ing Run Bog


                                                                                                                                                                    George Washington NF
                                                                                                            orbo  RU
                                                                                                 -Manange
                                                       n or                    arteston

                                                                                                       err                                    a              25             50 MILES
                                                                                                                                                                           _J
                                        3V                                                                                                    0        25       50 KILOMETERS                                              Allegheny
                                                                                                                                                                                                                           Mountain
                                                                     N_                                     2,  a@sdo          tlarld complex                                                                              Section
                                                                       go N tj   Iff
                                                                                                             meada    Five?
                                                                                                                   a     "gernant Area

                                                                                                                                                                                                                Kanawha
                                                                                                                                                                                            B                     Section
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        Blue
                                                                                                                                                                                                       Appalachian                                      Ridge
                                                                                                                                                                                                         Plateaus

                                                       WETLANDS AND DEEPWATER HABITATS
                                                       Distribution of wetlands and deepwater habitats-
                                                           This map shows the approximate distribution of large
                                                           wetlands in the State. Because of limitations of scale
                                                           and source material, some wetlands are not shown
                                                       a         Predominantly wetland                                                                                                             PHYSIOGRAPHIC DIVISIONS
                                                       El        Predominantly deepwater habitat

                                 Figure 2. Wetland distribution in West Virginia and physiography of the State. A, Distribution of wetlands and deepwater habitats.
                                 8, Physiography. (Sources: A, TE. Dahl, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, unpub. data, 1991. B, Physiographic divisions from Fenneman,
                                 1946; landforms data from EROS Data Center.)







                                                                                                  National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: WEST VIRGINIA                   401



                   mile) and poorly drained alluvial plains were found to be condu-                 shallow bodies of water by photosynthesis. Marl wetlands in the
                   cive to wetland formation. Wetlands develop on the alluvial plain,               Shenandoah and Potomac River valleys of eastern West Virginia have
                   but because the stream channel typically has cut into the alluvial               near-neutral pH (6.8 -7.2), widely fluctuating amounts of surface
                   material, the water table can be several feet beneath the alluvial               water, and a 16- to 28-inch-thick bottom layer of organic material
                   plain; the wetlands are thus highly dependent on seasonal flood-                 underlain by about 10 feet of marl (Bartgis and Lang, 1984). West
                   ing. In mountain valleys, where streams have steeper gradients and               Virginia marl wetlands contain unique assemblages of calciphilic
                   rapid rates of flow, wetlands form near the slopes and receive abun-             plants (plants adapted to alkaline conditions). Bartgis and Lang
                   dant ground-water discharge (Winter, 1992).                                      (1984) inventoried the flora of 10 marl wetlands in eastern West
                        Most wetlands in the Allegheny Mountain Section are upstream                Virginia and recorded 12 vascular-plant species that are restricted
                   from where layers of erosion-resistant sedimentary rock intersect                to eastern West Virginia marl wetlands and 15 vascular-plant spe-
                   streambeds at an acute angle (Diehl and Behling, 1982). Erosion                  cies that are found in only a few sites other than marl wetlands. Five
                   of less resistant rock layers upstream and downstream from the point             marl wetlands in eastern West Virginia, including Lake Louise and
                   of intersection causes a widening of the stream channel upstream                 Altona Marsh, have been designated as National Natural Landmarks
                   and an increase in stream gradient downstream. Ponding and set-                  and are listed on the National Registry of Natural Landmarks (Na-
                   tling-out of fine sediments in the upstream area reduce permeabil-               tional Park Service, 1992).
                   ity and favor formation of wetlands. Cranesville Swamp on the West                    In West Virginia, sphagnum-dominated peatlands occur mainly
                   Virginia-Maryland border is an example of a wetland formed in this               in the mountainous, higher altitudes of the Eastern Divide. Few
                   type of geologic setting.                                                        peatlands occur south of West Virginia (Wieder, 1985). Southern
                        Anticlines are formed when stratified rock is folded downward               peatlands, such as those in West Virginia, have higher annual net
                   in opposite directions from a crest. Erosion of the crest produces a             primary production (Wieder and Lang, 1983) and higher annual
                   valley (a "breached" anticline) surrounded by mountains and ex-                  organic-matter decomposition (Lang and McDonald, 1982) than
                   ited by a water gap at the downstream end. Canaan Valley (fig. 3) is             those to the north. In West Virginia, peatlands range in size from
                   an example of a breached anticline in which weathering of the val-               widely distributed bogs of less than I acre to large areas ofthe State's
                   ley floor is proceeding at a faster rate than that of the downstream             largest wetland, the Canaan Valley wetland complex. Several
                   water gap (Diehl and Behling, 1982). Ponding of water over poorly                peatlands in the Monongahela National Forest- notably Cranberry
                   drained erosional sediments has produced conditions favorable to                 Glades, Blister Run Swamp, Big Run Bog, and Fisher Spring Run
                   wetland formation.                                                               Bog -contain unique plant associations such as cranberry glades
                        Highlands consisting of flat, or nearly flat, rock layers that have         interspaced with bog forests and shrub thickets, high-altitude bal-
                   been dissected by streams occur throughout the Allegheny Moun-                   sam fir swamps, and sphagnum-red spruce bogs (National Park
                   tain Section. These settings are conducive to wetland formation                  Service, 1992).
                   because water ponds on the flat topography. An example of a wet-                      The sphagnum-dominated peatlands of the Canaan Valley
                   land in this type of geologic setting is Big Run Bog, near Canaan                wetland complex occupy the largest intermontane valley east of the
                   Valley in north-central West    'Virginia.                                       Mississippi River. The valley floor is about 14 miles long and 5 miles
                        Embayments have formed in the mouths of many small tribu-                   wide. With an average altitude of 3,200 feet, it is the highest valley
                   taries of the Ohio and Kanawha Rivers because of higher pool lev-                of its size east of the Rocky Mountains. The valley is Ranked by
                   els upstream from main-stem navigation dams. These embayments                    Canaan and Cabin Mountains and is drained by the Blackwater
                   support wetland communities that did not exist along the rivers                  River, a tributary of the Cheat River, through a narrow water gap at
                   before construction of the dams. Although embayment-wetland                      the northwest end (fig. 2A). Once densely forested, the area was
                   communities have not been studied in detail, plant-species diver-                logged and burned in the late 1800's and early 1900's. The valley
                   sity in some is high Koryak, 1978; Ely, 1993).                                   now supports extensive wetlands resulting from abundant precipi-
                        West Virginia wetlands of special interest include marl wet-                tation (53 inches per year) and a blanket of poorly drained soils
                   lands in the eastern panhandle and sphagnum-dominated peatlands                  derived from the erosion of underlying limestone. Water enters the
                   situated along the Eastern Divide. Marl is a calcium carbonate pre-              wet] and by discharge from the surrounding mountain slopes and by
                   cipitate combined with lesser amounts of clay and organic mate-                  ground-water flow (fig. 3). Springs emanate from the contacts of
                   rial. The precipitate forms when carbon dioxide is removed from                  alternating layers of shale and sandstone. The wetland complex in-

                     CANAAN MOUNTAIN                                                                                      CABIN MOUNTAIN         EXPLANATION
                       PALUSTRINE WETLANDS                                                                           PALUSTRINE WETLANDS               Direction of ground-water
                                                                                                                                                         flow

                                                   PALUSTRINE WETLANDS                PALUSTRINE WETLANDS
                                                                                                                                                       Average water table
                                                                                                                                       A_
                                                                                                                                                       Scrub-shrub vegetation
                                                         RIVERINEWETLAND         RIVERINE WETLANDS


                                                                                                                                                       Forest vegetation
                                                                                                                                       to         M/1  Emergent vegetation

                                                                                                                                                       Moss-lichen vegetation

                                                                                                                                                       Submersed aquatic
                                                                                                                                                         vegetation

                                                                                                                                                       Alluvium and peat
                                                                                                                                0
                                                                       NA
                                                                                                                                                       Beaver dam
                                    'Pep                                            Shale         :Zj@


                   Figure 3. Geohydrologic setting of the Canaan Valley wetland complex in north-central West Virginia.








                          402         National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: STATE SUMMARIES



                          cludes wet meadows dominated by sedges and grasses, dense thick-                                            has purchased 8 Ohio River islands that contain important wetlands,
                          ets of alder and spiraea (scrub-shrub wetlands), and extensive peat                                         is acquiring 38 additional islands, and is inventorying the flora and
                          bogs (moss-lichen wetlands) consisting of sphagnum and haircap                                              fauna of several islands and embayments. These wetlands would
                          mosses, sedges, and heaths. Beavers have constructed darns on the                                           become part of the proposed Ohio River Islands National Wildlife
                          Blackwater River and many of its tributaries, flooding stream mar-                                          Refuge (Patti Morrison, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, oral
                          gins and forming ponds and marshes.                                                                         commun., 1993).


                          TRENDS                                                                                                      CONSERVATION
                                 Of the wetlands present in West Virginia in the 1780's, about                                               Many government agencies and private organizations partici-
                          three-fourths remain today (Dahl, 1990). Most of the loss was caused                                        pate in wetland conservation in West Virginia. The most active agen-
                          by agricultural drainage of wetlands in flood plains of the Ohio,                                           cies and organizations and some of their activities are listed in table
                          Kanawha, and Monongahela Rivers (West Virginia Department of                                                I .
                          Natural Resources, 1988). Agricultural drainage, channelization,                                                   Federal wetland activities.-Development activities in West
                          pond construction, urbanization, and reservoir construction are the                                         Virginia wetlands are regulated by several Federal statutory prohi-
                          primary causes of wetland loss in West Virginia (Tiner, 1987). From                                         bitions and incentives that are intended to slow wetland losses. Some
                          1957 to 1980, West Virginia gained 10,900 acres of forested and                                             of the more important of these are contained in the 1899 Rivers and
                          scrub-shrub wetlands and lost 5,800 acres of emergent wetlands                                              Harbors Act; the 1972 Clean Water Act and amendments; the 1985
                          (West Virginia Department of Natural Resources, 1988). Much of                                              Food Security Act; the 1990 Food, Agriculture, Conservation, and
                          the increase in wetland acreage was caused either by beaver activ-                                          Trade Act; and the 1986 Emergency Wetlands Resources Act.
                          ity, which through flooding converted uplands into forested and                                                    Section 10 of the Rivers and Harbors Act gives the U.S. Army
                          scrub-shrub wetlands, or by plant succession.                                                               Corps of Engineers (Corps) authority to regulate certain activities
                                 Residential, commercial, industrial, and highway-development                                         in navigable waters. Regulated activities include diking, deepening,
                          projects could threaten West Virginia wetlands (West Virginia De-                                           filling, excavating, and placing of structures. The related section 404
                          partment of Natural Resources, 1988). These developments often                                              of the Clean Water Act is the most often-used Federal legislation
                          are associated with inundation, filling, or drainage of large and small                                     protecting wetlands. Under section 404 provisions, the Corps issues
                          wetland areas. In 1990 the Canaan Valley Task Force, composed of                                            permits regulating the discharge of dredged or fill material into
                          Federal, State, and local government agencies, business concerns,                                           wetlands. Permits are subject to review and possible veto by the U.S.
                          and environmental groups, was organized to define and implement                                             Environmental Protection Agency, and the Fws has review and ad-
                          strategies to protect the unique natural resources of Canaan Valley                                         visory roles. Section 401 of the Clean Water Act grants to States
                          while considering local community needs. Current activities of the                                          and eligible Indian Tribes the authority to approve, apply conditions
                          task force include surveying and modeling water quality in the val-                                         to, or deny section 404 permit applications on the basis of a pro-
                          ley and producing materials designed to inform the public of the                                            posed activity's probable effects on the water quality of a wetland.
                          ecological and economic significance of the area (Canaan Valley                                                    Most fanning, ranching, and silviculture activities are not sub-
                          Task Force, 1992).                                                                                          ject to section 404 regulation. However, the "Swampbuster" provi-
                                 A section of Interstate Highway 64 has been constructed
                          through the Meadow River wetland complex. The West Virginia De-                                             Table 1. Selected wetland-related activities of government
                          partment of Highways is mitigating the impact of construction by                                            agencies and private organizations in West Virginia, 1993
                          purchasing or developing additional wetlands. Because future ur-                                            [Source: Classification of activities is generalized from information provided
                          banization associated with the highway might further threaten this                                              by agencies and organizations. o, agency or organization participates in
                          wetland, the Division of Natural Resources has made long-term ac-                                               wetland-related activity; ..., agency or organization does not participate in
                          quisition of Meadow River wetlands the State's foremost acquisi-                                                wetland-related activity. MAN, management; REG, regulation; R&C, restora-
                          tion priority. A large section of this wetland that has been purchased                                          tion and creation; LAN, land acquisition; R&D, research and data collection;
                          comprises the Meadow River Wildlife Management Area (West                                                       D&I, delineation and inventory]
                          Virginia Department of Natural Resources, 1988).
                                 The West Virginia Department of Transportation, Division of
                          Highways, and the U.S. Department of Transportation commis-                                                 Agency or organization                                               140             13@' 01    4Z;111
                          sioned a study of wetlands createdby orcontiguous with 511 miles                                            FEDERAL
                          of limited-access highways. The area contained 96 wetlands, 60 of                                           Department of Agriculture
                          which were produced by highway construction. The Division miti-                                               Consolidated Farm Service Agency           ........................... ...
                                                                                                                                        Forest Service     .................................................................0_... ... ... ..
                          gates wetland losses resulting from road construction by acquiring                                            N atural Resources Conservation Service            ................ ...9
                          additional wetlands or enhancing existing wetlands with sandbags,                                           Department of Defense
                          dikes, and drainage structures (Ben Hark, WestVirginia Department                                             Army Corps of Engineers        .............................................. ...0
                          of Transportation, Division of Highways, oral commun., 1993). The                                           Department of the Interior
                          Division is mitigating losses of wetlands from construction of lim-                                           Fish and Wildlife Service      ..............................................
                                                                                                                                        Geological Survey      .......................................................... ... ... ... ...0
                          ited-access highways and Federal facilities. The losses include about                                         National Biological Service       ......................................... ... ... ... ...0
                          48 acres of wetlands in the Meadow River Wildlife Management                                                  National Park Service       ...................................................0   0      0
                          Area that have been disturbed by construction of secondary high-                                            Environmental Protection Agency          .................................. ...
                          ways and about 10 acres of wetlands affected by construction of a                                           STATE
                          Federal facility near Clarksburg. Effects of these activities on wet-                                       Department of Labor, Commerce, and Environment
                                                                                                                                        Division of Natural Resources        .....................................
                          lands have been mitigated by purchase and enhancement of exist-                                               Division of Environmental Protection         ........................ ...          0      0   0
                          ing wetlands and by wetland construction (Ben Hark, West Virginia                                           Department of Transportation
                          Department of Transportation, Division of Highways, oral commun.,                                             Division of Highways       .....................................................
                          1993).                                                                                                      PRIVATE ORGANIZATIONS
                                 Federal and State agencies and private organizations are work-                                       Ducks Unlimited     .................................................................. ... ...
                          ing to preserve a diverse group of West Virginia wetlands. The Fws                                          The Nature Conservancy        ..................................................







                                                                                                 National Water Surnmary-Wetland Resources: WEST VIRGINIA                  403



                 sion of the 1985 Food Security Act and amendments in the 1990                     and which normally support a prevalence of vegetation typically
                 Food, Agriculture, Conservation, and Trade Act discourages                        found where wet soil conditions prevail" (West Virginia Code,
                 (through financial disincentives) the draining, filling, or other al-             Chapter 20, Section 5A-2: Definitions). West Virginia does not have
                 teration of wetlands for agricultural use. The law allows exemp-                  specific legislation protecting wetlands, but statutes under Chapter
                 tions from penalties in some cases, especially if the farmer agrees               20 of the West Virginia Code allow State involvement in section 404
                 to restore the altered wetland or other wetlands that have been con-              permitting through section 401 of the Clean Water Act (West Vir-
                 verted to agricultural use. The Wetlands Reserve Program of the                   ginia Department of Natural Resources, 1989). Presently, the State
                 1990 Food, Agriculture, Conservation, and Trade Act authorizes                    does not approve of all section 404 nationwide exemptions and re-
                 the Federal Government to purchase conservation easements from                    quires application for section 401 certification to fill any wetland,
                 landowners who agree to protect or restore wetlands. The Con-                     regardless of size or location. Applications for section 401 certifi-
                 solidated Farm Service Agency (formerly the Agricultural Stabi-                   cation are evaluated by the Division of Natural Resources and Di-
                 lization and Conservation Service) administers the Swampbuster                    vision of Environmental Protection of the State Department of La-
                 provisions and Wetlands Reserve Program. The Natural Resources                    bor, Commerce, and Environment. Applications are made directly
                 Conservation Service (fortnerly the Soil Conservation Service) de-                to the Division of Environmental Protection, which has signatory
                 termines compliance with Swampbuster provisions and assists                       authority for section 401 certification. However, through memoranda
                 farmers in the identification of wetlands and in the development                  of understanding, the Division of Environmental Protection certi-
                 of wetland protection, restoration, or creation plans.                            fies wetland filling associated with coal mining, and the Division
                       The 1986 Emergency Wetlands Resources Act encourages                        of Natural Resources certifies wetland filling for projects other than
                 wetland protection through funding incentives. The act requires                   mining.
                 States to address wetland protection in their Statewide Compre-                        Private wetland activities. -Through the Matching Aid to
                 hensive Outdoor Recreation Plans to qualify for Federal funding                   Restore State Habitat (MARSH) program, Ducks Unlimited has pro-
                 for State recreational land; the National Park Service (NPS) pro-                 vided funding for the purchase and restoration of West Virginia wet-
                 vides guidance to States in developing the wetland component of                   lands. Thirteen Ohio River islands that were purchased by Ducks
                 their plans.                                                                      Unlimited and deeded to the Fws contain wetlands. These wetlands
                       In addition to the regulatory responsibilities described above,             will be managed by the Fws as part of the proposed Ohio River Is-
                 Federal agencies are involved in other conservation activities. The               lands National Wildlife Refuge (Jerry Thomas, Ducks Unlimited,
                 Fws surveys wetlands in and around the Ohio River, assists the                    oral commun., 1993). Ducks Unlimited also matches funds that the
                 Division of Natural Resources in the evaluation of applications                   Division ofNatural Resources obtains from the sale ofDuck Stamps.
                 for Clean WaterAct Section 401 (water-quality) certification, and                 These funds are used to restore wetland habitat. In West Virginia,
                 cooperates with other agencies in the mitigation of wetland losses.               The Nature Conservancy has established the preservation of plant
                 Through the Partners for Wildlife program, the Fws is cooperat-                   and animal diversity in eastern West Virginia marl wetlands as its
                 ing with landowners to restore wetlands on privately owned land.                  first priority. The Nature Conservancy has secured a conservation
                 The program provides total funding for wetland restoration. To be                 easement that is used to protect and manage large areas of Altona
                 eligible for the program, landowners must agree to maintain re-                   Marsh and Cranesville Swamp, an important peatland in the north-
                 stored wetlands in their natural state for 10 years. The Fws is us-               central part of the State. These easements restrict development in
                 ing this program to restore wetlands in the Potomac and Ohio River                the area and guarantee public access for educational and scientific
                 drainages. In the Potomac River drainage, a 25- to 50-foot buffer                 purposes.
                 strip of riparian (streamside) wetlands is being developed. These
                 protected wetlands will prevent damage from grazing cattle and                    References Cited
                 allow riparian vegetation to develop along streambanks (John
                 Schmidt, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, written commun., 1993).                  Bartgis, R.L., and Lang, G.E., 1984, Marl wetlands in eastern West Vir-
                       The U.S. Forest Service (Fs) manages wetlands in the Monon-                      ginia-Distribution, rare plant species, and recent history: Castanea,
                 gahela and George Washington National Forests. The Fs regulates                        v. 49, p. 17-25.
                 access to important wetlands. These include four wetlands that                    Canaan Valley Task Force, 1992, Canaan Valley-A national treasure:
                 are registered as National Natural Landmarks (Cranberry Glades,                        Elkins, W. Va., Canaan Valley Task Force, 10 p.
                                                                                                   Cowardin, L.M., Carter, Virginia, Golet, F.C., and LaRoe, E.T., 1979, Clas-
                 Blister Run Swamp, Big Run Bog, and Fisher Spring Run Bog)                             sification ofwetlands and deepwater habitats ofthe United States: U.S.
                 and small bogs in the Monongahela National Forest, particularly                        Fish and Wildlife Service, Report FWS/OBS-79/31, 131 p.
                 in the Dolly Sods Scenic and Otter Creek Wilderness Areas. The                    Dahl, T.E., 1990, Wetlands-Losses in the United States, 1780's to 1980's:
                 Fs restricts activities that might directly affect or indirectly alter                 Washington, D.C., U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Report to Congress,
                 the water table near those wetlands. In addition, before any sale                      13 p.
                 of timber resources in national forests, the FS requires an inven-                Diehl, J.W., and Behling, R.E., 1982, Geologic factors affecting formation
                 tory of all affected wetlands.                                                         and presence of wetlands in the north central section of the Appala-
                       The Abandoned Mine Lands Section of the Office of Surface                        chian Plateaus Province of West Virginia, in McDonald, B.R., ed.,
                 Mining (osm) has oversight over wetlands that have developed as                        Proceedings of the Symposium on Wetlands of the Unglaciated Ap-
                                                                                                        palachian Region, May 26-28, 1982: Morgantown, West Virginia
                 a result of surface mining. Wetlands that have developed in and                        University, p. 3-9.
                 adjacent to mining impoundments commonly are liabilities to                       Ely, J.S., 1993,The vegetation of selected embayments along the upper to
                 landowners, who might seek to drain and fill the wetland. The osm                      mid-upper Ohio River floodplain: Huntington, W. Va., Marshall Uni-
                 enforces Clean Water Act Section 404 regulations, which require                        versity, M.S. thesis, 86 p.
                 that new wetlands be constructed to mitigate wetland loss.                        Fenneman, N.M., 1946, Physical divisions of the United States: Washing-
                       The NPs manages wetlands in Harpers Ferry National His-                          ton, D,C., U.S. Geological Survey special map, scale 1:7,000,000.
                 torical Park and the New River Gorge National River. The Nps has                  Fortney, R.H., 1975, The vegetation of Canaan Valley, West Virginia-A
                 recently completed an inventory of wetlands along the New River                        taxonomic and ecological study: Morgantown, West Virginia Univer-
                 Gorge National River.                                                                  sity, Ph.D. dissertation, 210 p.
                                                                                                   - 1977, A bit of Canada gone astray: Wonderful West Virginia, v. 4 1,
                       State wetland activities. -West Virginia State water-quality                     no. 5, p. 24-3 1.
                 standards define wetlands as "***such areas as swamps, marshes,
                 bogs, and other land subject to frequent saturation or inundation,








                       404      National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: STATE SUMMARIES



                       Koryak, Michael, 1978, Emergent and aquatic plants in the upper Ohio River             Wieder, R.K., and Lang, G.E., 1983, Net primary production of the domi-
                             and major tributaries, West Virginia and Pennsylvania: Castanea, v.                   nant bryophytes in a sphagnum-dominated wetland in West Virginia:
                             43,no.4,p.228-237.                                                                    The Bryologist, v. 86, no. 3, p. 280-286.
                       Lang, G.E., and McDonald, B.R., 1982, Loss of mass and elemental changes               Winter, T.C., 1992, A physiographic and climatic framework for hydrologic
                             in decomposing sedge and alder leaves, in McDonald, B.R., ed., Pro-                   studies of wetlands, in Robarts, R.D., and Bothwell, M.L., eds.,
                             ceedings of the Symposium on Wetlands of the Unglaciated Appala-                      Aquatic ecosystems in semi-arid regions-Implications for resource
                             chian Region, May 26-28, 1982: Morgantown, West Virginia Univer-                      management: Saskatoon, Saskatchewan, Environment Canada, The
                             sity, p. 31-41.                                                                       National Hydrology Research Institute Symposium Series 7, p. 127-
                       National Park Service, 1992, National registry of natural landmarks: Wash-                  149.
                             ington, D.C., National Park Service, Wildlife and Vegetation Division,
                             35 p.
                       Tiner, R.W., Jr., 1987, Mid-Atlantic wetlands-A disappearing natural trea-             FOR ADDITIONAL INFORMATION: District Chief, U.S. Geological
                             sure: Newton Corner, Mass., U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service and U.S.              Survey, I I Dunbar Street, Charleston, WV 25301; Regional Wetland Coor-
                             Environmental Protection Agency cooperative publication, 28 p.                   dinator, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 300 Westgate Center Drive, Hadley,
                       West Virginia Department of Natural Resources, 1988, West Virginia wet-                MA 01035
                             lands conservation plan: Charleston, West Virginia Department of
                             Natural Resources, Wildlife Resources Division, 22 p.
                       -1989, West Virginia water quality status assessment 1987-1989:                                                        Prepared by
                             West Virginia Department of Natural Resources, Wildlife Resources                               Michael Little and Marcus C. Waldron,
                             Division, 131 p.                                                                                          U.S. Geological Survey
                       Wieder, RX, 1985, Peat and water chemistry at Big Run Bog, a peatland
                             in the Appalachian mountains ofWest Virginia, USA: Biogeochemis-
                             try, v. 1, p. 277-302.


















































                                                                          U.S. Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper 2425








                                                                                                                                                           National Water Summary-Wetiand Resources 405
                                                                                               Western'Pacific Islands
                                                                                                                                                             Wetland Resources
                      le western Pacific Ocean contains thousands of small volcanic                                                      The Fws has mapped wetlands on Guam, Rota, Tinian, Aguijan,
                      islands and coral atolls, many of which are now or were formerly                                            and Saipan in the Mariana Islands (fig. 2). With the exception of
                      under thejurisdiction of the United States. Herein, those islands are                                       Guam, estimates of total wetland areas are not available for these
                      called the Western Pacific Islands. Wetlands are of great economic                                          islands.
                      importance on many of these islands because of the wetland culti-                                                  Wetlands on Guam were inventoried by the Guam Department
                      vation of taro, a staple food crop. Wetlands also provide important                                         of Parks and Recreation (1988). Using the Fws wetland maps, the
                      wildlife habitat on the larger islands (fig. 1) (U.S. Army Corps of                                         Department of Parks and Recreation estimated a total of about
                      Engineers, 1981; Guam Department of Parks and Recreation, 1988).                                            14,000 acres of wetland. Most of this total, about 9,000 acres, con-
                      Despite the economic importance of wetlands in the western Pa-                                              sists of marine coral reefs. Palustrine wetlands cover about 3,500
                      cific region, not much information is available concerning wetland                                          acres, equivalent to less than 3 percent of the land area of Guam.
                      resources on most of the islands. This summary, therefore, is re-                                           Most of the palustrine wetlands are forested with mangroves.
                      stricted to several major islands for which some published informa-
                      tion is available.


                      TYPES AND DISTRIBUTION

                             Wetlands are lands transitional between terrestrial and deep-
                      water habitats where the water table usually is at or near the land
                      surface or the land is covered by shallow water (Cowardin and oth-
                      ers, 1979). The distribution of wetlands and deepwater habitats in
                      the Western Pacific Islands is shown in figure 2A; only wetlands
                      are discussed herein.
                             Wetlands can be vegetated or nonvegetated and are classified
                      on the basis of their hydrology, vegetation, and substrate. In this
                      summary, wetlands are classified according to the system proposed
                      by Cowardin and others (1979), which is used by the U.S. Fish and
                      Wildlife Service (Fws) to map and inventory wetlands. At the most                                           Figure 1. Lake Susupe, a lacustrine wetland on Saipan
                      general level of the classification system, wetlands are grouped into                                       in the Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands.
                      five ecological systems: Palustrine, Lacustrine, Riverine, Estuarine,                                       (Photograph by S.K. Izuka, U.S. Geological Survey.)
                      and Marine. The Palustrine System includes only wetlands, whereas
                      the other systems comprise wetlands and deepwater habitats. Wet-
                      lands of the systems that occur in the Western Pacific Islands are                                                 Wetlands mapped by the Fws on Saipan are primarily marine
                      described below.                                                                                            and palustrine wetlands. Marine wetlands include coral reefs along
                      System                                               Wetland description                                    most of the shoreline and in the lagoons on the west side of the is-
                                                                                                                                  land. Palustrine wetlands are located mostly near the western shore
                      Palustrine     .................. Nontidal and tidal-freshwater wetlands in which                           at altitudes below 30 feet. The largest freshwater wetland is the Lake
                                                        vegetation is predominantly trees (forested wet-                          Susupe wetland near Chalan Kanoa in the southwestern part of the
                                                        lands); shrubs (scrub-shrub wetlands); persistent
                                                        or nonpersistent emergent, erect, rooted herba-                           island (fig. 2); this wetland includes lacustrine, palustrine emergent,
                                                        ceous plants (persistent- and nonpersistent-                              and palustrine scrub-shrub wetlands. Small estuarine, lacustrine,
                                                        emergent wetlands); or submersed and (or)                                 and riverine wetlands have been mapped along the western and
                                                        floating plants (aquatic beds). Also, intermit-                           eastern shores of the island. A few small and isolated riverine and
                                                        tently to permanently flooded open-water bod-
                                                        ies of less than 20 acres in which water is less                          palustrine wetlands have been mapped in the mountainous interior.
                                                        than 6.6 feet deep.                                                              Wetlands on Tinian are marine and palustrine. The marine
                      Lacustrine      ................. Nontidal and tidal-freshwater wetlands within an                          wetlands are predominantly coral reefs and rocky shores around
                                                        intermittently to permanently flooded lake or                             much of the coast. The palustrine wetlands are mostly emergent and
                                                        reservoir larger than 20 acres and (or) deeper                            are concentrated in two closed depressions that resulted from the
                                                        than 6.6 feet. Vegetation, when present, is pre-                          collapse of limestone solution cavities. These wetlands are known
                                                        dominantly nonpersistent emergent plants (non-
                                                        persistent-emergent wetlands), or submersed                               as the Magpo and Lake Hagoi wetlands. Tinian has no streams and,
                                                        and (or) floating plants (aquatic beds), or both.                         therefore, no riverine or estuarine wetlands. Several small marine
                      Fliverine    ..................... Nontidal and tidal-freshwater wetlands within a                          and palustrine wetlands also have been mapped on the nearby small
                                                        channel. Vegetation, when present, is same as                             island of Aguijan.
                                                        in the Lacustrine System.                                                        Numerous marine, palustrine, and riverine wetlands were
                      Estuarine      ................... Tidal wetlands in low-wave-energy environments                           mapped on Rota. The marine wetlands include reefs and rocky
                                                        where the salinity of the water is greater than 0.5                       shores. Reefs surround almost the entire island. Palustrine wetlands
                                                        part per thousand (ppt) and is variable owi ng to                         are mainly emergent and are concentrated in the southwestern end
                                                        evaporation and the mixing of seawater and
                                                        freshwater.                                                               of the island, where collapse of limestone solution cavities has cre-
                      Marine     ....................... Tdal wetlands that are exposed to waves and cur-                         ated several closed depressions on the plateau known as the Sabana.
                                                        rents of the open ocean and to water having a                             Riverine wetlands are confined to the few steep streams that flow
                                                        salinity greater than 30 ppt.                                             over volcanic terrain in the south of the island.









                     406      National Water   Summary-Wetiand Resources: STATE SUMMARIES




                        American Samoa                                                                  Mariana Islands
                                                                W
                                                  14- 16, S-,4
                                     Tutuila                                          Faimuliai
                                                                                   zMarsh                                                           Saipan
                         170150" W                                         Aunu'u,
                                                                             Island

                        14.20's


                                                                     0             6 MILES

                                                                     0       5 KILOMETERS                                           Lake Susupe                     16' 10'N

                                                                                                                                   Chelan Kanoa


                         Guam


                                                                                                                                                      144'45'E
                                                                                                                  Lake Hagoi Wetlan



                                                  Guam


                                                                                                                                             15' DO'N
                                            AganaSwam,'@
                                                             ..no              13' 30' N                                                  agpo Worland
                           Apra                            Agana                                                      Tinian
                         Harbor




                                                               1441 501 E

                                                                                                           Aguijan
                                         Feno a I                                                                 C-D
                                              rooir                                                               144' 35' E                                  144115'E


                                                      13' 20' N
                                                                                                                                        14@



                                                                                                                                                                   Rota
                                                                     0             5 MILES              0             5 MILES

                              1 4'40'E                               0      5 KILOMETERS                0        5 KILOMETERS




                                                                                                         140'E                               180*                              140OW


                                                                                                                                           0           1,000        2,000 Miles
                                                                                                           Japan                            i                I
                                                                                                                                            0     1,000   2,000 Kilometers




                                                                                                 Commonwealth                                                        Hawaiian
                                                                                     20*N -       oftheNorth,m                      Republic of the              4   Islands
                                                                                                M. We Islands                       Marsh I Islands
                                                                                                                 Mariana
                                                                                                                 Islands 1114@14c,"V

                                                                                                             yap I V:
                                                                                                      Republic    Pe a r 8                               Oc
                                                                                                                         d States
                                                                                                                   of ipronesia I'
                                                                                        0.            of Palau         I      I    Kosrae        NIC, jf@c
                                                                                                                   Chuck Pohnpei




                                                                                                                                                      Ila,   Pqan u'a
                     Figure2. Locations of selected wetlands in the                                                                                 American Islands
                     Western Pacific Islands. (Source: U.S. Fish and                 20*S -           tralis                                          Samoa
                     Wildlife Service National Wetlands Inventory maps.)
                                     Tq@,ufla                                                                                                  eSaipan
                              5w w
                                    1+










                              4


































                                                                                                  Aus








                                                                                National Water Surnmary-Wetland Resources: WESTERN PACIFIC ISLANDS                 407



                      Wetlands in American Samoa (fig. 2) were inventoried for the                  Lake Susupe on Saipan (figs. I and 2) is a lacustrine wetland,
                 American Samoa Department of Parks and Recreation by Ridings                  about 3 feet above sea level, surrounded by palustrine emergent and
                 (1987) on the basis of surveys by the Fws. Total wetland area was             forested wetlands. The lake is shallow, and the lake bottom is mostly
                 estimated to be 240 acres, which is less than 1 percent of the land           below sea level. Except during major storms, surface water does not
                 area of American Samoa. Wetlands were classed as coastal marshes              flow into the lake from the surrounding uplands or into the sea from
                 or as mangrove forests. American Samoa's coastal marshes, as de-              the lake. Apparently, the lake surface is continuous with the water
                 scribed by Ridings (1987), are palustrine (freshwater) emergent               table. The lake gains water from rainfall and runoff and loses water
                 wetlands. The total area of coastal marshes was estimated to be 89            owing to ground-water recharge and evaporation (U.S. Army Corps
                 acres. Mangrove forests are estuarine forested and scrub-shrub                of Engineers, 1981).
                 wetlands and comprise a total of 131 acres.                                        The Magpo wetland on Tinian (fig. 2) is a major source ofwater
                      A second inventory of wetlands in American Samoa, based on               for that island. The land surface and water table of this wetland are
                 field surveys and aerial-photograph interpretation, gave an estimate          at or near sea level. The wetland was considered to be a ground-
                 of 463 acres of wetlands in 1991 on Tutuila and Aunu'u Island                 water recharge zone for the principal aquifer in a recent proposal
                 (fig. 2) (BioSystemsAnalysis, Inc., 1991). Weiland areas were listed          for a watershed protection plan by the Coastal Resource Manage-
                 for 10 wetlands on Tutuila and 4 wetlands on Aunu'u Island.                   ment Office of the Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands
                      The difference between the estimates of Ridings (1987) and               (J.P. Villagomez, Coastal Resource Management Office, written
                 BioSystems Analysis, Inc. (1991) may be due to differences in                 commun., 1992).
                 methodology and classification. Marine wetlands and wetlands on                    Samoan Islands. -Coastal marshes in American Samoa oc-
                 the Manu'a Islands were not included in either survey.                        cur inland from beach berms and lack surface-water connections
                                                                                               to the sea. Marsh sediments generally are poorly permeable, and
                 HYDROLOGIC SETTING                                                            marsh water levels are only slightly affected by tides (Ridings,
                                                                                               1987). The soil of these marshes is almost always saturated (Ridings,
                      The Western Pacific Islands have a tropical climate that is af-          1987). Mangrove forests in American Samoa grow mainly at the
                 fected by prevailing northeasterly trade winds north of the equator           mouths of streams (Ridings, 1987).
                 and southeasterly trade winds south of the equator. The islands have               Caroline Islands. -Templin and others (1949) described a
                 distinct dry and wet (monsoon) seasons. On the islands discussed              large freshwater swamp (palustrine forested wetland) on the island
                 in this report, rainfO ranges from 80 to 250 inches annually, de-             ofAnguar in the Republic of Palau (fig. 2). The water table was re-
                 pending on location, and annual runoff ranges from 26 to 200 inches           ported to be within a few inches of the land surface most of the time
                 (Aldridge, 1986).                                                             and 2 to 4 feet below the surface during the driest periods. During
                      Bedrock of the Western Pacific Islands consists mainly of lime-          some severe storms, the swamp was inundated by. seawater. The
                 stone and two types of volcanic rocks (Detay and others, 1989). The           swamp was noted to be favorable for cultivation of taro. Wetland
                 Mariana Islands have cores of low-permeability, andesitic volcanic            taro cultivation in Palau (Belau) was described by Gressitt (1952).
                 rocks covered in most places by high-permeability limestone                        Artificial wetlands used for cultivation of taro and other crops
                 (Valenciano, 1985). Atolls in the Caroline and Marshall Islands               in the Caroline Islands were described by Niering (1956). These
                 (fig. 2) at formed of coral sand and limestone (Anthony and others,           wetlands consist of pits dug below the water table and partially filled
                 1989; Detay and others, 1989). The islands ofAmerican Samoa are               with decayed vegetation. The size of these pits ranged from a few
                 predominantly steep, volcanic edifices formed of low- to high-per-            square feet to 11 acres. The number of artificial wetlands created
                 meability basaltic lava flows rimmed with narrow coastal benches              for taro cultivation in the Caroline Islands was reported to be in-
                 formed of wave-deposited sediments (Bentley, 1975).                           creasing because of increases in population (Niering, 1956).
                      Most of the wetlands in the Western Pacific Islands are ma-                   Marshall Islands. -Wetlands in the Marshall Islands were
                 rine, estuarine, or palustrine wetlands in coastal areas. Both the land       described by Hatheway (1953). These included mangrove swamps
                 surface and the water table in these areas are near sea level owing           and freshwater swamps. Mangrove swamps (estuarine forested
                 to the proximity of the ocean and discharge of ground water from              wetlands) occurred in areas of saline or brackish water where ocean
                 fresh to brackish basal ground-water lenses (Valenciano, 1985). The           waves had created closed depressions owing to successive deposi-
                 balance between rainfall and evaporation, generally steep slopes,             tion of dunes or boulder ridges. Freshwater swamps (palustrine
                 and the high permeability of limestone and basaltic bedrock does              forested and scrub-shrub wetlands) and marshes (emergent wet-
                 not favor the retention of water near the land surface in upland areas        lands) include pits dug for taro cultivation as well as naturally formed
                 except where collapse of limestone eaves has created closed depres-           peat bogs that contain organic soils.
                 sions or where less-permeable volcanic rocks crop out.                             Wetlands on atolls in the Marshall Islands were briefly de-
                      Mariana Islands. -The largest coastal wetlands, such as                  scribed by Fosberg (1953). Most of these wetlands were artificial
                 Agana Swamp on Guam and Lake Susupe on Saipan (fig. 2), prob-                 marshes consisting of pits dug below the water table, partially filled
                 ably originated as marine embayments or lagoons (Ayers and                    with decayed vegetation, and planted in taro. Natural marshes and
                 Clayshulte, 1983). These wetlands were isolated from the ocean                a peat bog also were noted. Fosberg (1953) distinguished these two
                 when sea level declined and were subsequently filled with carbon-             wetland types on the basis of substrate; marshes have a muck bot-
                 ate and organic sediments. Tidal effects on water levels in these             tom and bogs consist of fibrous peat. Both of these wetland types
                 coastal wetlands apparently are small (U.S. Army Corps of Engi-               are palustrine emergent wetlands.
                 neers, 198 1; Ayers and Clayshulte, 1983).
                      The hydrogeology ofAgana Swamp on Guam was investigated                  TRENDS
                 by Ayers and Clayshulte (1983). They inferred that the water level
                 in the swamp was maintained largely by rainfall and surface-water                  Very little information concerning trends in wetland conditions
                 runoff. They also found that the swamp was hydraulically connected            is available for the Western Pacific Islands. Information available
                 to the basal freshwater lens that forms the primary ground-water              from published sources is mostly qualitative but does provide some
                 source for the island, and they hypothesized that the swamp furic-            indications of wetland changes in historic times.
                 tioned as a ground-water recharge zone during wet periods and a                    A large part of Agana Swamp on Guam was filled to provide
                 discharge zone during dry periods.                                            room for expansion of the town of Agana (Ayers and Clayshulte,








                          408        National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: STATE SUMMARIES



                          1983). The swamp was also affected by dredging in 1933 - 34, when                                           Table 1. Selected wetland-related activities of government agen-
                          a channel was cut through the swamp. Dredging resulted in consid-                                           cies and private organizations in the Western Pacific islands, 1993
                          erable drying of the swamp surface, decreased ground-water levels                                           [Source: Classification of activities is generalized from information provided
                          near the swamp, and increased flow in the Agana River, which flows                                              by agencies and organizations. e, agency or organization participates in
                          through the swamp (Ayers and Clayshulte, 1983).                                                                 wetland-related activity;           agency or organization does not participate in
                                                                                                                                          wetland-related activity. MAN, management; REG, regulation; R&C, res-
                                 Lake Susupe on Saipan also was subject to filling and drain-                                             toration and creation; LAN, land acquisition; R&D, research and data col-
                          ing during the Japanese occupation (1914-44) (U.S. Army Corps                                                   lection; D&I, delineation and inventory]
                          of Engineers, 198 1). Much of the wetland was used for cultivation
                          of sugarcane during this period. The lake and surrounding wetlands
                          were considered for use as a flood-control basin in 1981 and are                                            Agency or organization
                          presently (1993) being evaluated as a source of municipal water                                             FEDERAL
                          supply.                                                                                                     Department of Agriculture
                                 Wetland losses in American Samoa were assessed by Ridings                                             Consolidated Farm Service Agency            ........................... ...e ... ...    ... ...
                          (1987). Only one-third to one-half of the total area of coastal marsh                                        Natural Resources Conservation Service             ................ ...*
                          was reported to be in its natural condition. Faimulivai Marsh on                                            Department of Commerce
                                                                                                                                       National Oceanic and Atmospheric
                          Aunu'u Island was considered the only coastal marsh not disturbed                                            Administration      ..................................................................0
                          by taro cultivation or other agricultural uses. However, Ridings                                            Department of Defense
                          (1987) considered further disturbance of coastal marshes for agri-                                           All military reservations      ................................................0   . ... ...
                          cultural purposes unlikely as a result of demographic and economic                                           Army Corps of Engineers         ..............................................0
                          shifts (Ridings, 1987). About one-third of the original area of man-                                         Navy (Guam)       ....................................................................0
                                                                                                                                      Department of the Interior
                          grove forest was reported lost due to firewood cutting, land clearing,                                       Fish and Wildlife Service       ..............................................e
                          and filling for home sites and government land (Ridings, 1987).                                              Geological Survey       .......................................................... ... ...
                          Contamination of streams flowing into wetland areas was also con-                                           Environmental Protection Agency         .................................. ...0
                          sidered a threat to mangrove forests. Continued decrease in man-                                            TERRITORIAL AND COMMONWEALTH
                          grove forests was predicted.                                                                                American Samoa
                                 Trends in wetlands between 1961 and 1991 on Tutuila and                                               Department of Marine and Wildlife Resources              ....... ...   *
                                                                                                                                       Department of Parks and Recreation            ........................ ...a
                          Aunu'u Island in American Samoa were recently evaluated by                                                   Department of Public Works          ........................................ ... ...
                          BioSystems Analysis, Inc. (1991). Their report indicated a net loss                                          Economic Development Planning Office             ................... ...*
                          of 137 acres. On the basis of their estimates from aerial photogra-                                          Environmental Protection Agency           .............................. ...0... ...    ... ...
                          phy, this loss represents a 28-percent reduction in area (BioSystems                                         Village leaders and councils        ........................................_0
                          Analysis, Inc., 1991).                                                                                       Zoning Board      ................................................................... ... .. . ... ...
                                                                                                                                      Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands
                                                                                                                                       Coastal Resource Management Office              ..................... ...0   ... ...    ... ...
                          CONSERVATION                                                                                                 Commonwealth Utilities Commission             ........................ ...v
                                                                                                                                       Department of Commerce and Labor             ......................... ...*  ... ...    ... ...
                                 Wetland management in the western Pacific is complex because                                          Department of Health        .................................................... ...0
                          many islands of the former U.S. Trust Territory of the Pacific are                                           Department of Natural Resources            ............................. ...0
                                                                                                                                       Historical Preservation Commission           .......................... ...0 ... ...    ... ...
                          now governed by independent national governments. The Federated                                              Public Works Department          ............................................ ...0
                          States of Micronesia and the Republic of the Marshall Islands (fig. 2)                                      Guam
                          are now independent nations governing most of the Caroline and                                               Bureau of Planning       ........................................................ ...e
                          Marshall Islands. Guam and American Samoa are U.S. territories,                                              Department of Agriculture         ..........................................._a
                          and the Northern Mariana Islands are a U.S. commonwealth. The                                                Environmental Protection Agency           .............................. ... . ...
                                                                                                                                       Territorial Land Use Commission        ................................. ...w... ...    ... ...
                          Republic of Palau (Belau) remains at present (1993) a U.S. trust                                            PRIVATE ORGANIZATIONS
                          territory. Only islands under the jurisdiction of the United States                                         The Nature Conservancy       ................... .... .....  .................... ...0
                          are discussed below.
                                 Many government agencies and private organizations partici-
                          pate in wetland conservation in the Western Pacific Islands. The
                          most active agencies and organizations and some of their activities                                         Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), and the Fws has review and
                          are listed in table 1.                                                                                      advisory roles. Section 401 of the Clean Water Act grants to States,
                                 Federal wetland activities, -Development activities in wet-                                          eligible Indian Tribes, U.S. Trust Territories, Commonwealths, and
                          lands of the Western Pacific Islands that are under the jurisdiction                                        other U.S. territories the authority to approve, apply conditions to,
                          of the United States are regulated by several Federal statutory pro-                                        or deny section 404 permit applications on the basis of a proposed
                          hibitions and incentives that are intended to slow wetland losses.                                          activity's probable effects on the water quality of a wetland.
                          Some of the more important of these are contained in the 1899                                                     Most farming, ranching, and silviculture activities are not sub-
                          Rivers and Harbors Act; the 1972 Clean Water Act and amendments;                                            ject to section 404 regulation. However, the "Swampbuster" provi-
                          the 1985 Food Security Act; the 1990 Food, Agriculture, Conser-                                             sion of the 1985 Food Security Act and amendments in the 1990
                          vation, and Trade Act; the 1986 Emergency Wetlands Resources Act;                                           Food, Agriculture, Conservation, and Trade Act discourage (through
                          and the 1972 Coastal Zone Management Act.                                                                   financial disincentives) the draining, filling, or other alteration of
                                 Section 10 of the Rivers and Harbors Act gives the U.S. Army                                         wetlands for agricultural use. The law allows exemptions from pen-
                          Corps of Engineers (Corps) authority to regulate certain activities                                         alties in some cases, especially if the farmer agrees to restore the
                          in navigable waters. Regulated activities include diking, deepening,                                        altered wetland or other wetlands that have been converted to agri-
                          filling, excavating, and placing of structures. The related section 404                                     cultural use. The Wetlands Reserve Program of the 1990 Food,
                          of the Clean Water Act is the most often-used Federal legislation                                           Agriculture, Conservation, and Trade Act authorizes the Federal
                          protecting wetlands. Under section 404 provisions, the Corps issues                                         Government to purchase conservation easements from landowners
                          pemiits regulating the discharge of dredged or fill material into                                           who agree to protect or restore wetlands. The Consolidated Farm
                          wetlands. Permits are subject to review and possible veto by the U.S.                                       Service Agency (fornerly the Agricultural Stabilization and Conser-








                                                                                    National Water Summary-Wetiand Resources: WESTERN PACIFIC ISLANDS                       409



                  vation Service) administers the Swampbuster provisions and                              In American Samoa, wetlands are protected by the land-use
                  Wetlands Reserve Program. The Natural Resources Conservation                     permit system administered by the Economic Development Planning
                  Service (formerly the Soil Conservation Service) determines com-                 Office, which is developing a wetland-management plan under the
                  pliance with Swampbuster provisions and assists farmers in the iden-             authority of the Coastal Zone ManagementAct (BioSystems Analy-
                  tification ofwetlands and in the development ofwetland protection,               sis, Inc., 199 1). As part of this plan, wetlands were mapped for all
                  restoration, or creation plans.                                                  islands in American Samoa (Sheila Wiegman, American Samoa
                       The 1986 Emergency Wetlands Resources Act and the 1972                      Environmental Protection Agency, written commun., 1993). The
                  Coastal Zone Management Act and amendments encourage wetland                     American Samoa Environmental Protection Agency acts in an ad-
                  protection through funding incentives. The Emergency Wetlands                    visory role in the Economic Development Planning Office permit-
                  Resources Act requires States and U.S. territories to address wet-               ting process and also provides section 401 water-quality certifica-
                  land protection in their Statewide Comprehensive Outdoor Recre-                  tion for Corps permits. The American Samoa Environmental Pro-
                  ation Plans to qualify for Federal funding for recreational land; the            tection Agency also develops water-quality standards and issues
                  National Park Service provides guidance in developing the wetland                permits for activities affecting wetland water quality. The Depart-
                  component of their plans. Coastal States and U.S. territories that               ment of Marine and Wildlife Resources also acts in an advisory role
                  adopt coastal-zone management programs and plans approved by                     for Economic Development Planning Office permits affecting wet-
                  the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration are eligible                 lands and conducts habitat improvement and wetland-research
                  for Federal funding and technical assistance through the Coastal                 projects. The Department of Parks and Recreation has jurisdiction
                  Zone Management Act.                                                             over all areas between mean high tide and a depth of 60 feet and
                       The Fws is planning a National Wildlife Refuge on Guam. This                enforces rules protecting these areas. The Department of Public
                  refuge will include wetlands as well as terrestrial habitats. There are          Works reviews permit applications for dredging, filling, and exca-
                  no existing National Wildlife Refuges under United States jurisdic-              vation. The Zoning Board defines zones, which may include wet-
                  tion in the western Pacific.                                                     lands, where some land-use activities are prohibited. Local leaders
                       The U.S. Navy manages wetlands on Guam in the vicinity of                   and village councils also have authority to enforce regulations per-
                  Apra Harbor. The Navy is planning a wetlands-enhancement project                 taining to public health and natural resources.
                  in cooperation with Fws (Stephanie Aschmann, U.S. Navy, written                         The Republic of Palau has at present (1993) no wetland-pro-
                  commun., 1992).                                                                  tection program. The Palau Environmental Quality Protection Board
                       The U.S. Geological Survey collects hydrologic data in wet-                 is cooperating with the EPA in an effort to initiate a wetlands pro-
                  lands in the Mariana Islands. A bathymetric survey of Fena Valley                gram.
                  Reservoir on Guam was completed in 1990 (Nakama, 1992). Water-                          Private organizations. -The Nature Conservancy has a
                  quality samples were collected in Lake Susupe on Saipan in 1990.                 project in the Republic of Palau to protect freshwater marshes for
                  Monitoring wells are being drilled in the Magpo wetland on Tinian.               crocodile habitat. The Nature Conservancy is also working with
                       Territorial and Commonwealth activities. -Guam has at                       local governments on Pohnpei and Kosrae in the Federated States
                  present (1993) no laws specifically protecting wetlands, but Execu-              of Micronesia to protect wetlands,
                  tive Order 90-13 in June 1990 established the Guam Environmen-
                  tal Protection Agency as the lead agency for wetland protection in               References Cited
                  Guam. The Guam Environmental Protection Agency is responsible
                  for the inventory and classification of wetlands and development of              Aldridge, B.N., 1986, Surface-water resources of the Trust Territory of the
                  rules and regulations for wedand uses. The Agency provides water-                       Pacific Islands, Saipan, Guam, and American Samoa, in U.S. Geologi-
                  quality certification for permits issued by the Corps. The Agency                       cal Survey, National water summary 1985 -Hydrologic events and
                  also has established water-quality standards specific to wetlands and                   surface-water resources: U.S. Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper
                  instituted a wetlands education program. Fish and Wildlife Service                      2300, p. 441-446.
                  wetland maps are used to identify wetland areas, but Guam Envi-                  Anthony, S.S., Peterson, F.L., Mackenzie, FT., and Hamlin, S.N., 1989,
                                                                                                          Geohydrology of the Laura fresh-water lens, Majuro Atoll-A
                  roninental Protection Agency staff revise wetland delineations for                      hydrogeochemical approach: Geological Society ofAmerica Bulletin,
                  specific development sites. Development projects on Guam require                        v. 101, no. 8, p. 1,066-1,075.
                  permits from the Territorial Land Use Commission in addition to                  Ayers, J.F., and Clayshulte, R.N., 1983, Hydrogeologic investigation of
                  federally required permits. The comniission may require mitigation                      Agana Swamp, Northern Guam: University of Guam, Water and En-
                  of wetland losses. The Guam Environmental Protection Agency, the                        ergy Research Institute of the western Pacific, Technical Report 40,
                  Bureau of Planning, and the Department of Agriculture, Division                         25 p.
                  ofAquatic Resources and Wildlife, act as advocates before the coni-              Bentley, C.B., 1975, Ground-water resources of American Samoa with
                  mission for wetland concerns.                                                           emphasis onTafuna-Leone Plain, Tutuila Island: U.S. Geological Sur-
                       Wetland regulation in the Commonwealth of the Northern                             vey Water-Resources Investigations Report 29-75,32 p.
                                                                                                   BioSystems Analysis, Inc., 1991, A comprehensive wetlands management
                  Mariana Islands (fig. 2) is coordinated by the Coastal Resource                         plan for the islands of Tutuila and Aunu'u, American Sarnoa(prelimi-
                  Management Office under the authority of the Federal Coastal Zone                       nary draft): [available from BioSystems Analysis, Inc., 3152 Paradise
                  Management Act. The Office issues consolidated permits for wet-                         Drive, Tiburon, CA 94920].
                  land developments and may require mitigation. The Office consists                Cowardin, L.M., Carter, Virginia, Golet, F.C., and LaRoe, E.T., 1979, Clas-
                  of the directors of the Division of Environmental Quality, the De-                      sification ofwetlands and deepwater habitats ofthe United States: U.S.
                  partment of Natural Resources, the Commonwealth Utility Corpo-                          Fish and Wildlife Service Report FWS/OBS -79/31, 131 p.
                  ration, the Historical Preservation Commission, the Public Works                 Detay, M., Alessandrello, E., Come, R, and Groom, 1., 1989, Groundwater
                  Department, and the Department of Commerce and Labor. The                               contarridnation and pollution in Micronesia: Journal of Hydrology, v.
                  Office has produced its own wetland maps. The Department of                             112, p. 149-170.
                                                                                                   Fosberg, F.R., 1953, Vegetation of central Pacific atolls, a brief summary:
                  Environmental Quality is responsible for section 401 water-quality                      Washington, D.C., National Academy of Sciences, Pacific Science
                  certification of projects under the Clean Water Act and monitors                        Board, Atoll Research Bulletin 23, 26 p.
                  streams and coastal waters weekly. The Department of Health, under               Gressitt, J.L., 1952, Description of Kayangel Atoll, Palau Islands: Washing-
                  which the Department of Environmental Quality operates, has es-                         ton, D.C., NationalAcademy ofSciences, Pacific Science Board, Atoll
                  tablished local water-quality standards.                                                Research Bulletin 14, 5 p.








                     410     National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: STATE SUMMARIES



                     Guam Department of Parks and Recreation, 1988, Guam wetlands priority                   Saipan, Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands: U.S. Army
                          plan-1988 addendum to 1986 Guam Comprehensive Outdoor Rec-                         Engineer District, Honolulu, Hawaii [variously paged].
                          reation Plan: Agana, Guam Department of Parks and Recreation, 24 p.           Valenciano, Santos, 1985, Ground-water resources of the Trust Territory of
                     Hadieway, W.H., 1953, The land vegetation of Arno Atoll, Marshall Islands:              the Pacific Islands, Saipan, Guam, and American Samoa, in U.S.
                          Washington, D.C., National Academy of Sciences, Pacific Science                    Geological Survey, National water summary 1994-Hydrologic
                          Board, Atoll Research Bulletin 16, 68 p.                                           events, selected water-quality trends, and ground-water resources: U.S.
                     Nakama, L.Y., 1992, Storage capacity of Fena Valley Reservoir, Guam,                    Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper 2275, p. 403 -408.
                          Mariana Islands, 1990: U.S. Geological Survey Water-Resources In-
                          vestigations Report 92 -4114, 17 p.
                     Niering, W.A.,' 1956, Bioecology of Kapingamarangi Atoll, Caroline Is-             FOR ADDITIONAL INFORMATION: District Chief, U.S. Geological
                          lands -Terrestrial aspects: Washington, D.C., National Academy of             Survey, 677 Ala Moana Boulevard, Suite 415, Honolulu, HI 96813; Regional
                          Sciences, Pacific Science Board, Atoll Research Bulletin 49, 32 p.            Wetland Coordinator, U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 911 NE. I I th Avenue,
                     Ridings, P.J., 1987, American Samoa Territorial comprehensive outdoor              Portland, OR 97232
                          recreation plan 1987-1992 -Addendurn -Wetlands priority plan:
                          Pago Pago, American Samoa Department of Parks and Recreation,
                          11 P.                                                                                                       Prepared by
                     Templin, E.H,, Vessel, AJ., and McCracken, R.J., 1949, Land classification                                         B.R. Hill,
                          of Anguar, Palau Islands: U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Office of                                     U.S. Geological Survey
                          the Engineer, Far East Command, 16 p.
                     U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, 1981, Final detailed project report and
                          environmental statement, Susupe - Chalan Kanoa flood control study,



















































                                                                      U.S. Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper 2425







                                                                                                                             National Water Summary-Wetland Resources 411
                                                                                                                                         Wisconsin
                                                                                                                                Wetland Resources
                    Wtlands cover more than 5 million acres ofWisconsin. Although                              Wetlands can be vegetated or nonvegetated and are classified
                    once regarded as wastelands, wetlands are now recognized as eco-                     on the basis of their hydrology, vegetation, and substrate. In this
                    logically and economically valuable ecosystems. The preservation                     summary, wetlands are classified according to the system proposed
                    of wetlands is important for the continued survival of much of                       by Cowardin and others (1979), which is used by the U.S. Fish and
                    Wisconsin's plant and wildlife resources. Many fish and wildlife                     Wildlife Service (Fws) to map and inventory the Nation's wetlands.
                    species, including endangered and threatened species, depend on                      At the most general level of the classification system, wetlands are
                    wetlands for survival at one time or another during their life cycles.               grouped into five ecological systems: Palustrine, Lacustrine, Riv-
                    Animals that depend on wetlands include muskrats, ducks, water                       erine, Estuarine, and Marine. The Palustrine System includes only
                    snakes, and leopard frogs. Ducks, geese, and other migratory birds                   wetlands, whereas the other systems comprise wetlands and
                    depend on wetlands for resting and feeding during migration. Fish,                   deepwater habitats. Wetlands of the systems that occur in Wiscon-
                    including northern pike, walleye, and muskellunge, use wetlands for                  sin are described below.
                    spawning and feeding.
                          Wetlands (such as that shown in figure 1) help maintain water                  System                                   Wetland description
                    quality by acting as filters that trap suspended sediments and or-
                    ganic and inorganic contaminants suspended or dissolved in the                       Palustrine  .................. Wetlands in which vegetation is predominantly
                    waters that reach them. These trapped pollutants are stored in the                                             trees (forested wetlands); shrubs (scrub-shrub
                    wetland soils and plants. Wetlands help to regulate strearnflow by                                             wetlands); persistent or nonpersistent emer-
                                                                                                                                   gent, erect, rooted, herbaceous plants (persis-
                    temporarily storing floodwater and then slowly releasing it to the                                             tent- and non persistent-emergent wetlands); or
                    stream or river, reducing the magnitude of flooding downstream.                                                submersed and (or) floating plants (aquatic
                    Flood peaks in watersheds (drainage basins) containing a large area                                            beds). Also, intermittently to permanently
                    of wetlands can be as much as 80 percent lower than in watersheds                                              flooded open-water bodies of less than 20 acres
                    that have few or no wetlands (Novitzki, 1982). Wetlands also pro-                                              in which water is less than 6.6 feet deep.
                    tect the shorelines and banks of lakes and rivers from erosion by                    Lacustrine   ................. Wetlands within an intermittently to permanently
                                                                                                                                   flooded lake or reservoir. Vegetation, when pres-
                    absorbing wave energy, decreasing water velocity, and increasing                                               ent, is predominantly nonpersistent emergent
                    soil stability.                                                                                                plants (nonpersistent-emergent wetlands), or
                          Wetlands are productive ecosystems, yielding a large amount                                              submersed and (or) floating plants (aquatic
                    of plant material for wildlife and human consumption. Products that                                            beds), or both.
                    are harvested from wetlands include cranberries, wild rice, and                      Riverine  ..................... Wetlands within a channel. Vegetation, when pres-
                    sphagnurn moss. Wisconsin's tourist industry benefits from the rec-                                            ent, is same as in the Lacustrine System.
                    reational opportunities that wetlands provide, including hunting,                          About 15 percent (5,300,000 acres) of Wisconsin's land sur-
                    fishing, boating, hiking, camping, and bird watching. Many wetland                   face is covered by wetlands (fig. 2A) (Wisconsin Department of
                    areas throughout the State also provide educational opportunities                    Natural Resources, 1992a). The Wisconsin Department of Natural
                    for schools and the general public.                                                  Resources completed an inventory of Wisconsin's wetland locations,
                                                                                                         sizes, and types in 1984. The information from the inventory is
                    TYPES AND DISTRIBUTION                                                               being used by the Fws as part of its National Wetlands Inventory
                          Wetlands are lands transitional between terrestrial and dee                    project. Currently, this information is available only in map form,
                                                                                                 P_      and the statewide total acreages for specific wetland types have not
                    water habitats where the water table usually is at or near the land                  yet been computed.
                    surface or the land is covered by shallow water (Cowardin and oth-                         The classification system used by the Department of Natural
                    ers, 1979). The distribution of wetlands and deepwater habitats in                   Resources to map Wisconsin wetlands recognizes seven major
                    Wisconsin is shown in figure 2.4; only wetlands are discussed herein.                classes of wetlands: aquatic bed, moss (moss-lichen wetland), wet
                                                                                                         meadow (emergent wetland), scrub-shrub, forested, flats/unveg-
                                                                                                         etated wet soils (unconsolidated-shore wetland), and open water
                                                                                                         (Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources, 1992b). Common
                                                                                                         types of wetlands in Wisconsin include swamps, marshes, and peat-
                                                                                                         lands. Swamps and marshes are most common in southern Wiscon-
                                                                                                         sin, and peatlands are most common in northern Wisconsin
                                                                                                         (Yanggen and others, 1976). Swamps are palustrine forested wet-
                                                                                                         lands. Marshes are palustrine emergent wetlands dominated by
                                                                                                         grass, rush, and sedge species. Peatlands, including bogs and fens,
                                                                                                         are wetlands that accumulate organic material owing to limited in-
                                                                                                         flow and outflow. Peatlands can be forested, scrub-shrub, or emer-
                                                                                                         gent wetlands. Scrub-shrub wetlands (wetlands dominated by
                                                                                                         woody vegetation less than 20 feet tall) are common in Wisconsin
                                                                                                         and include both deciduous and evergreen vegetation. Many Wis
                                                                                                         consin wetlands are riparian (streamside) wetlands adjacent to riv-
                              Figure 1. Constructed wetland         near Tomah in     southwest-         ers or streams that periodically flood.
                              ern Wisconsin. (Photograph by Randall J. Hunt, U.S. Geo-                         Wetland distribution in Wisconsin is related to the extent of
                               logical Survey)                                                           the most recent glaciation. The southwestern part of the State (fig.








                             412          National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: STATE SUMMARIES



                             2B) was not affected by the latest glaciation, and wetlands are un-                                                         can be divided into four hydrologic classes: surface-water depres-
                             common there except in stream valleys filled with glacial drift                                                             sion, surface-water slope, ground-water depression, and ground-
                             (Novitzki, 1982). The rest of the State contains glacial deposits and                                                       water slope (Novitzki, 1982).
                             numerous wetlands.                                                                                                                 Surface-water-depression wetlands form where overland flow
                                                                                                                                                         and precipitation collect in a depression. Water leaves this type of
                             HYDROLOGIC SETTING                                                                                                          wetland by infiltrating through the substrate, evaporating, or being
                                                                                                                                                         transpired by plants. The water level in surface-water-depression
                                     Hydrology is the single most important determinant for estab-                                                       wetlands can fluctuate greatly, depending on surface-water flow.
                             lishing and maintaining wetlands (Mitsch and Gosselink, 1986).
                             Wetland formation is determined by the balance among the inflows
                             and outflows of water, surface contours of the land, soil type, geol-
                             ogy, and ground-water conditions. Topographic depressions caused                                                                                   B
                             by glacial and erosional processes, areas underlain by impermeable
                             substrates that prevent infiltration of water into the ground, and areas                                                                                                         Superior
                             where the water table is near the land surface provide ideal condi-                                                                                                                      uptend
                             tions for wetland formation.
                                     Wisconsin's wetlands generally are in depressions, poorly                                                                                                                               Province
                             drained areas, and, rarely, on slopes. All receive surface water, but
                             a large proportion also receive ground water. Wisconsin's wetlands

                                                                                                                91.

                                                                                  92-                                               Apostle Island
                                                                                                                                    National Lasshore
                                                                                                                                                                                                          Control Lowland Province

                                                         A                                                                                                             PHYSIOGRAPHIC                                                      Eastern
                                                                                                                                                                                                              Wisconsin                    Lake
                                                                                                     V.,                                                                         DIVISIONS                       Driftless               Section
                                                                                                                                                                                                                 Section
                                                                                                                                              90*



                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  Til
                                                                                                                                                                                            46                                    Plains
                                                                                                                                 01.
                                                                                                       %:
                                                                                                                                                                                                          880
                                                                                       %WNW
                                                                                                                                                                                                qwp


                                                                                                                                                                                                                    M-i- RI-
                                                                                                                                 F
                                                                                                                                                                                               - - - - - -                           87-        Green Bay NWR
                                                               %a.                                                                                                                     of
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            Grove] Island NWR


                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      45-
                                                                                                                                                                                         41
                                                                                                        CA
                                                                                        to                                                               ov


                                                                                                  6.o Ft



                                                                                                                              a
                                                                                                 tam                 ---                                                                                                    44-
                                                                                    Upper Mississippi            os"                                     Ri 'NWR'
                                                                                    River National                                                                                                                               4Q
                                                                                    Wildlife and                                                                                                      .1 9
                                                                                    Fish Refuge                                                                                           4           4       .
                                WETLANDS AND DEEPWATER HABITATS                                                                                                                             lot"   N
                                Distiribution of vretlands and deepwater
                                   habitats- This map shows the approximate
                                   di tribution of large wetlands in the State.
                                   Because of limitations of scale and source                                                                                                                        w
                                                                                                                                                                ;,me
                                   material, some wetlands are not shown                                                                                                                                             43'

                                          Predominantly wetland
                                L@                                                                      7                                                                                                                   0           25              50 MILES
                                          Predominantly deepwater habits                                 %/,                                                                                                                i       I        I
                                F-1                                                    t                                                                                                                                    0     25        50 KILOMETERS
                                   0      Ice Age National Scientific Reserve


                             Figure 2. Wetland distribution in Wisconsin and physical features that control wetland distribution in the State. A, Distribution of wetlands
                             and deepwater habitats. B, Physiography. (Sources: A, TE. Dahl, U.S. Fish and W;Idl;fe Service, unpub. data, 199 1. B, Physiographic
                             divisions from Fenneman, 1946; landforms data from EROS Data Center.)








                                                                                                         National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: WISCONSIN                    413



                   Water levels rise during periods of high strearnflow and fall during                      Wetlands are most numerous in areas that were covered by
                   low strearnflow. The bottom of the wetland is above the local water                glaciers during the most recent glacial period (fig. 2C). Glacial
                   table most of the time (Novitzki, 1982). Surface-water depressions                 erosion and deposition commonly create surface depressions and
                   typically support ponds, marshes, swamps, and wet meadows (emer-                   deposits of impermeable tills (sediments of glacial origin) that are
                   gent wetlands).                                                                    ideal for wetland development (Bushnell, 1989). The unglaciated
                         Surface-water-slope wetlands form on or near the margins of                  part of southwestem Wisconsin contains rugged terrain that is con-
                   lakes and streams. Included in this type of wetland are the shallow                ducive to overland runoff, leaving little water for wetland develop-
                   part of a lake or river and the bank to the point that is subject to               ment. Wetlands in the unglaciated areas are most commonly in
                   flooding. This type of wetland is generally above the local water                  riparian areas where glacial sediments have been deposited. Ripar-
                   table, and floodwaters from the lake or river drain quickly. These                 ian wetlands develop either as lateral erosion widens a river valley
                   wetlands are fed by precipitation, overland flow, and flooding from                or as deposition fills and flattens a valley. In riparian wetlands, a
                   lakes and rivers (Novitzki, 1982). Surface-water- slope wetlands                   depositional substrate of silt, mud, and clay combines with the shal-
                   typically support shrub swamps (scrub-shrub wetland) and shallow                   low water table near a river to create ideal conditions for the forma-
                   marshes.                                                                           tion of small lakes and swamps (Bushnell, 1989).
                         Ground-water-depression wetlands are located where a depres-                        Wisconsin has about 43,000 miles of streams and about 15,000
                   sion is below the water table. Water enters the wetland as precipita-              lakes. Statewide, the annual average precipitation is 31 inches and
                   tion, overland flow, and ground-water discharge. There generally is                annual evapotranspiration is 20 inches (Krohelski and others, 1990),
                   a lack of surface drainage away from this type of wetland. Although                so there is a moisture surplus on an annual basis. Many of Wis-
                   ground-water flow can be a small part of the total inflow, it can be               consin's wetlands are supported by precipitation, either directly by
                   an important water source during drought (Novitzki, 1982). Ground-                 surface-water runoff or indirectly by ground-water flow (Novitzki,
                   water-depression wetlands typically support forested and shrub                     1979). A wetland's water supply is determined by the balance be-
                   bogs, fens, and marshes.                                                           tween precipitation and evapotranspiration. In northern Wisconsin,
                         Ground-water-slope wetlands form at ground-water-discharge                   precipitation exceeds evaporation, whereas in the southern and
                   sites, such as springs and seeps, typically on hillsides or at the bot-            western parts of the State, precipitation and evaporation are about
                   tom of hills where the water table intersects the land surface. These              equal (Novitzki, 1982). Therefore, more water is available for wet-
                   wetlands receive continuous ground-water inflow, but drainage away                 land formation in northern Wisconsin than in the southern and
                   from the site reduces the ponding of water. The drainage commonly                  western parts of the State.
                   is the headwater of a small stream (Novitzki, 1982). Ground-water-                        Annual and seasonal variations in precipitation can affect the
                   slope wetlands typically support marshes, swamps, and wet mead-                    amount of water available for wetlands. In years when snowmelt
                   ows.                                                                               produces surface runoff and rain is frequent during the summer,
                                                                                                                         surface-water wetlands have large quantities of wa-
                                                                                                                         ter available. If the snowmelt recharges the ground-
                                                                                                                         water system, ground-water wetlands have large
                                                                                                                         amounts of water available to them. In general, water
                                                                                                                         levels are highest in the spring and early summer
                             C                                                                                           when snowmelt has collected; levels then decline
                                                                                                                         throughout the rest of the summer when evapotran-
                                                                                                                         spiration is at its highest. Ground-water wetlands are
                                                                                                                         more stable than surface-water wetlands during
                                                                                                                         drought because ground-water flow replaces some
                                                                                                                         of the water lost to evapotranspiration (Novitzki,
                                                                                                                         1982). These natural fluctuations in precipitation
                                                                                                                         quantity cause wetland vegetation to change in re
                                                                                                                         sponse to changes in moisture availability. Natural
                                                                                                                         climatic changes are cyclical, whereas manmade
                                                                                                                         changes, such as draining, cause a more permanent
                                                                                                                         change in hydrology and vegetative types (Novitzki,
                                                                                                                         1979).
                                                                                                                              In most of the State, except the southwestern
                                                                                                                         part, basement rocks are covered by unconsolidated
                                                                                                                         glacial deposits, in which formed the kettles and
                                                                                                                         potholes that contain many of the lakes and wetlands
                                                                                                                         in the State. The Wisconsin Driftless Section in the
                                                                                                                         southwestern part of the State is a region over which
                                                                                                                         the most recent continental ice sheets did not pass.
                                                                                                                         This region differs from the surrounding areas in
                                                                                                                         topography and soil (Atwood, 1940). The topogra-
                   DISTRIBUTION OF GLACIAL
                     AQUIFER AND WET SOILS
                                                                                                                         phy is rugged, and few wetlands exist.
                                                                                                                              Wisconsin is in the Central Lowland and Su-
                       Glacial aquifer
                   MR Wet soil                                                                                           perior Upland physiographic provinces (fig. 2B).
                                                                                                                         The major surface-water drainage basins in the
                                                                                                                         Central Lowland province are the Trempealeau-
                   Figure 2. Continued. Wetland distribution in Wisconsin and physical features that                     Black, Central Wisconsin, Lower Wisconsin, Fox-
                   control wetland distribution in the State. C, Distribution of glacial aquifers and wet                Wolf, Rock-Fox, and Pecatonica-Sugar River Ba-
                   soi Is. (Sources: C, Wet soils map from Frazier and Kiefer, 1974; limit of glacial                    sins, and the Lake Michigan Basin. The Wisconsin
                   aquifer from Devaul, 1975.)                                                                           River, the largest in the State, drains the central part








                                        414               National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: STATE SUMMARIES



                                        of the State from its headwaters at the Michigan border to its                                                                                                               Army Corps of Engineers (Corps) section 404 permits. A review of
                                        confluence with the Mississippi River. The Rock-Fox River Basin                                                                                                              permit decisions from 1982 to August 1990 indicated that permit-
                                        drains the southern part of the State and contains a large number                                                                                                            ted wetland losses were about 11,800 acres statewide. Annual losses
                                        of wetlands, including the 30,000-acre Horicon Marsh, which is                                                                                                               during 1989-90 increased by 220 percent over annual wetland
                                        located in the headwaters of the Rock River. The marsh is on a major                                                                                                         losses during the period 1982-89. That figure understates actual
                                        flyway and provides habitat for large numbers of migrating geese                                                                                                             losses because it does not include activities preauthorized by gen-
                                        and ducks. Flooding is reduced along the Rock River because of                                                                                                               eral or nationwide permits or activities not regulated by section 404
                                        runoff detention by the large number of wetlands in the basin                                                                                                                (Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources, 1992a).
                                        (Gebert, 1986). The Upper Mississippi River Basin drains west-                                                                                                                          The Partners for Wildlife Program administered by the Fws is
                                        central Wisconsin and includes numerous wetlands associated with                                                                                                             working to reverse these losses by restoring wetlands on private
                                        the headwaters of the Trempealeau and Black Rivers. The area                                                                                                                 lands and providing technical assistance to Federal and State agen-
                                        drained by tributaries to Lake Michigan contains wetlands that are                                                                                                           cies and private landowners. As part of the program, 1,071 wetland
                                        the headwaters for the streams that flow into the lake (Gebert, 1986).                                                                                                       restorations totaling 3,580 acres took place in Wisconsin in 1992
                                                   The major surface-water drainage basins in the Superior Up-                                                                                                       (Moriarty, 1992).
                                        land province are the St. Croix, Chippewa, Upper Wisconsin, and
                                        Menominee- Oconto-Peshtigo River Basins, and the Western Lake                                                                                                                CONSERVATION
                                        Superior Basin. The St. Croix River drains northwestern Wisconsin.
                                        This area has numerous wetlands, many of which are cranberry                                                                                                                            Many government agencies and private organizations partici-
                                        bogs. The Chippewa River Basin in north-central Wisconsin con-                                                                                                               pate in wetland conservation in Wisconsin. The most active agen-
                                        tains wetlands around the headwaters of most streams. The Upper                                                                                                              cies and organizations and some of their activities are listed in
                                        Wisconsin River Basin has one of the largest concentrations of lakes                                                                                                         table 1.
                                        in the world (Gebert, 1986). The Western Lake Superior Basin con-                                                                                                                       Federal wetland activities. -Development activities in Wis-
                                        tains many small streams, many inland lakes, and the Lake Super-                                                                                                             consin wetlands are regulated by several Federal statutory prohibi-
                                        ior shore, all of which support wetlands.                                                                                                                                    tions and incentives that are intended to slow wetland losses. Some
                                                   Wisconsin has coastal wetlands along the Lake Michigan and                                                                                                        of the more important of these are contained in the 1899 Rivers and
                                        Lake Superior shorelines. Most of the coastal wetlands are just land-                                                                                                        Harbors Act; the 1972 Clean Water Act and amendments; the 1985
                                        ward of the shoreline in shallow depressions called lagoons or flood                                                                                                         Food Security Act; the 1990 Food, Agriculture, Conservation, and
                                        ponds. Barriers created by multiple cycles of deposition and ero-
                                        sion reduce wave energy and allow sediments to accumulate and
                                        vegetation to become rooted. The upland boundaries of these wet-                                                                                                             Table 1. Selected wetland-related activities of government
                                        lands are formed by glacial features (Geis, 1985). Water-level fluc-                                                                                                         agencies and private organizations in Wisconsin, 1993
                                        tuations in coastal wetlands increase the area and diversity of shore-                                                                                                       [Source: Classification of activities is generalized from information provided
                                        line vegetation. Periods of high water prevent woody plants from                                                                                                                   by agencies and organizations. e, agency or organization participates in
                                        establishing and also prevent aggressive plants, such as cattails, from                                                                                                            wetland-related activity; ..., agency or organization does not participate in
                                        overtaking a site. When the high water drains away, emergent plants                                                                                                                wetland-related activity. MAN, management; REG, regulation; R&C, res-
                                                                                                                                                                                                                           toration and creation; LAN, land acquisition; R&D, research and data col-
                                        regenerate from buried seeds, creating a wetland high in vegetative                                                                                                                lection; D&I, delineation and inventory]
                                        diversity (Keddy and Reznicek, 1985).
                                        TRENDS                                                                                                                                                                       Agency or organization                                                                                          0          011                          lz@"Y
                                                                                                                                                                                                                     FEDERAL
                                                   Dahl (1990) estimated that from the 1780's to the 1980's, wet-                                                                                                    Department of Agriculture
                                        land acreage in Wisconsin decreased from 9.8 million acres to 5.3                                                                                                              Consolidated Farm Service Agency                                      ...........................      ...               ... ...             ... ...
                                        million acres -a 46-percent loss of the State's original wetlands.                                                                                                             Forest Service                 .................................................................       0
                                        Wetlands were converted to upland or to other types of wetlands                                                                                                                Natural Resources Conservation Service                                           ................      *
                                        primarily for agricultural, residential, commercial, and industrial                                                                                                            Rural Economic and Community Development
                                                                                                                                                                                                                     Department of Commerce
                                        development. Agricultural development in wetlands was the major                                                                                                                National Oceanic and Atmospheric
                                        cause of wetland losses. Agricultural uses of Wisconsin wetlands                                                                                                               Administration                 .................................................................       ...
                                        include cranberry cultivation, sphagnum moss harvesting, and feed-                                                                                                           Department of Defense
                                        crop production. Cranberry cultivation and sphagnurn moss harvest-                                                                                                             Army Corps of Engineers                          ..............................................        0                 0         0                   0
                                        ing severely alter wetlands but do not drain them. Feed-crop pro-                                                                                                            Department of the Interior
                                        duction necessitates wedand drainage.                                                                                                                                          Fish and Wildlife Service                        ..............................................        0
                                                                                                                                                                                                                       Geological Survey                     ..........................................................       ... ...           ...
                                                   Urban development also destroyed or altered many wetlands                                                                                                           National Biological Service                            .........................................       ... ...           ... ...
                                        in Wisconsin. Many cities were established in and around wetlands                                                                                                              National Park Service                            ...................................................   0       ... ...             ... ...
                                        because of a reliance on water for transportation. Milwaukee was                                                                                                             Environmental Protection Agency                                 ..................................       ...
                                        built over what was a large, marshy river delta. Riverbanks were                                                                                                             STATE
                                        established and the wetland was filled as the city grew (Wisconsin                                                                                                           Department of Natural Resources
                                                                                                                                                                                                                       Bureau of Water Regulation and Zoning                                         ...................      9
                                        Department of Natural Resources, undated).                                                                                                                                   Department of Transportation                             .........................................       0
                                                   Two studies of wetland losses were conducted by the Depart-                                                                                                       Regional planning commissions                                .....................................       ...
                                        ment of Natural Resources. One study tracked wetland losses in                                                                                                               State universities               ...............................................................
                                        seven counties in the southeastern part of the State from 1970 to                                                                                                            SOME COUNTY AND LOCAL GOVERNMENTS                                                     .............
                                        1985 (Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources, 1992a). The                                                                                                                 PRIVATE ORGANIZATIONS
                                                                                                                                                                                                                     Audubon Society                  ................................................................        ... ...
                                        area is highly developed, so study results cannot be extrapolated to                                                                                                         Ducks Unlimited                  ..................................................................      ... ...
                                        the entire State. Losses were 154 acres per year during 1970-75                                                                                                              Pheasants Forever                   .............................................................        ... ...
                                        320 acres per year during 1975 - 80, and 328 acres per year durin@                                                                                                           The Nature Conservancy                             ..................................................    0
                                        1980- 85. The Department of Natural Resources also conducted a                                                                                                               Wisconsin Waterfowl Association                                 ...............................   . ... ...
                                        study of wetland losses associated with projects that received U.S.                                                                                                          Wisconsin Wildlife Federation                             ........................................       ... ...           . ... ...                     ...








                                                                                                    National Water Surnmary-Wetland Resources: WISCONSIN                  415



                  Trade Act; the 1986 Emergency Wetlands Resources Act; and the                   Government has acquired by loan default. Wetlands on these lands
                  1972 Coastal Zone Management Act.                                               are delineated, and the land is sold with wetland easements on it.
                       Section 10 of the Rivers and Harbors Act gives the Corps au-               These wetland easements are then managed by the Fws. The EPA is
                  thority to regulate certain activities in navigable waters. Regulated           involved in wetlands planning projects including the Green Bay
                  activities include diking, deepening, filling, excavating, and plac-            Special Wetlands Inventory Study and Advanced Identification
                  ing of structures. The related section 404 of the Clean Water Act is            wetland projects in southeast Wisconsin.
                  the most often-used Federal legislation protecting wedands. Under                     State wetland activities. -Wisconsin has about 400,000 acres
                  section 404 provisions, the Corps issues permits regulating the dis-            of wetlands in county forests and 300,000 acres of wetlands in State
                  charge of dredged or fill material into wetlands. Permits are subject           forests, parks, wildlife areas, and natural areas. The Department of
                  to review and possible veto by the U.S. Environmental Protection                Natural Resources is the principal State agency responsible for
                  Agency (EPA), and the Fws has review and advisory roles. Section                wetland management and regulation. Applications for section 404
                  401 of the Clean Water Act grants to States and eligible Indian Tribes          permits are reviewed by the Department. Permit applications ap-
                  the authority to approve, apply conditions to, or deny section 404              proved by the Department are then reviewed by the Corps. Approval
                  permit applications on the basis of a proposed activity's probable              of both the Department and the Corps is required for a section 404
                  effects on the water quality of a wetland.                                      application to be approved. In August 199 1, Wisconsin became the
                       Most farming, ranching, and silviculture activities are not sub-           first State to adopt water-quality standards for wetlands. Wisconsin's
                  ject to section 404 regulation. However, the "Swampbuster" provi-               wetland water-quality standards allow the State to control wetland
                  sion of the 1985 Food Security Act and amendments in the 1990                   development under section 401 of the Clean Water Act. The Depart-
                  Food, Agriculture, Conservation, and Trade Act discourage (through              ment of Natural Resources maintains an antidegradation policy to
                  financial disincentives) the draining, filling, or other alteration of          ensure that no adverse effects will occur from human activities.
                  wetlands for agricultural use. The law allows exemptions from peri-             Projects must be water dependent and have no practicable alterna-
                  allies in some cases, especially if the farmer agrees to restore the            tives. The project must also have no significant adverse effect on
                  altered wetland or other wetlands that have been converted to agri-             wetland function, values, or water quality or have other enviromnen-
                  cultural use. The Wetlands Reserve Program of the 1990 Food, Ag-                tal consequences (Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources,
                  riculture, Conservation, and Trade Act authorizes the Federal Gov-              1992a).
                  ernment to purchase conservation easements from landowners who                        The Department of Natural Resources, in cooperation with the
                  agree to protect or restore wetlands. The Consolidated Farm Ser-                Fws, has restored 1,252 acres of historic wetlands on Conservation
                  vice Agency (formerly the Agricultural Stabilization and Conserva-              Reserve Program lands. The Department also is working in coop-
                  tion Service) administers the Swampbuster provisions and Wetlands               eration with the Fws, the EPA, and NOAA on an Advanced Identifica-
                  Reserve Program. The Natural Resources Conservation Service                     tion Project in the Green Bay area.
                  (NRCS) (formerly the Soil Conservation Service) determines com-                       The Wisconsin Department of Transportation follows a policy
                  pliance with Swampbuster provisions and assists farmers in the iden-            of avoiding wetlands in its construction projects. When a wetland
                  tification of wetlands and in the development of wetland protection,            is disturbed, the Department mitigates the impacts of the road con-
                  restoration, or creation plans.                                                 struction by enhancing and creating additional wetlands.
                       The 1986 Emergency Wetlands Resources Act and the 1972                           County and local activities. -Local governments are required
                  Coastal Zone Management Act and amendments encourage wetland                    to protect wetlands that are within 1,000 feet of navigable lakes and
                  protection through funding incentives. The Emergency Wetlands                   300 feet of navigable streams. Wetland protection is achieved
                  Resources Act requires States to addrqs wetland protection in their             through shoreland-wetland zoning ordinances overseen by the De-
                  Statewide Comprehensive Outdoor Recreation Plans to qualify for                 partment of Natural Resources. All counties currently have shore-
                  Federal funding for State recreational land; the National Park Ser-             land ordinances to protect their wetlands. Adoption of shoreland-
                  vice (NPs) provides guidance to States in developing the wetlarld               wetland ordinances is taking place in cities and villages.
                  component of their plans. Coastal and Great Lakes States that adopt                   Private wetland activities. -Private organizations in Wiscon-
                  coastal-zone management programs and plans approved by the                      sin participate in wedand activities that include policy planning, land
                  National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) are eli-                 acquisition and management, restoration and creation, research, and
                  gible for Federal funding and technical assistance through the                  public education. Some of the organizations active in Wisconsin are
                  Coastal Zone Management Act.                                                    The Nature Conservancy (land acquisition and management), the
                       Federal agencies are responsible for the management of wet-                Sierra Club, Wisconsin Wetland Association, and Wisconsin Envi-
                  lands on public lands under their jurisdiction. There are approxi-              ronmental Decade (policy planning and education). Organizations
                  mately 300,000 acres of wetlands in federally managed forests and               including Ducks Unlimited, the Audubon Society, Pheasants For-
                  wildlife refuges in Wisconsin. The FwS manages seven sites in Wis-              ever, Wisconsin Waterfowl Association, and the Wisconsin Wild-
                  consin: the Trempealeau, Necedah, Upper Mississippi, Horicon, Fox               life Federation, in cooperation with the Fws, the NRCS, and the
                  River, Green Bay, and Gravel Island National Wildlife Refuges. The              Department of Natural Resources, are involved in projects that cre-
                  Fws also has two wetland-management districts that cover about                  ate, restore, and enhance wetlands.
                  11,000 acres. The U.S. Forest Service manages more than I mil-
                  lion acres of land in the Chequarnegon National Forest and almost               References Cited
                  1 million acres of land in the Nicolet National Forest. Both National
                  Forests contain numerous wetlands. The NPs has jurisdiction over                Atwood, W.W., 1940, The physiographic provinces of North America: Bos-
                  wetlands in the Apostle Island National Lakeshore, St. Croix Na-                      ton, Ginn and Company, 536 p.
                  tional Scenic Riverway, and Ice Age National Scientific Reserve'                Bushnell, Kent, 1989, Geology of Pennsylvania Wetlands, in Majumdar,
                  which is administered by the Department of Natural Resources                          S.K., and others, eds., Wetlands ecology and conservation - Empha-
                                                                                                        sis in Pennsylvania: Easton, The Pennsylvania Academy of Science,
                  Apostle Island National Lakeshore is made up of 21 islands and 12                     p. 39-46.
                  miles of shoreline that support many coastal wetlands. The St. Croix            Cowardin, L.M., Carter, Virginia, Golet, F.C., and LaRoe, E.T., 1979, Clas-
                  National Scenic Riverway flows through undeveloped parts of north-                    sification of wetlands and deepwater habitats of the United States: U.S.
                  western Wisconsin. The Ice Age National Scientific Reserve is made                    Fish and Wildlife Service Report FWS/OBS - 79/31, 131 p.
                  up of nine units spread across the State. The Rural Economic and
                  Community Development service manages farms that the Federal








                     416      National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: STATE SUMMARIES



                     Dahl,T.E., 1990, Wetlands -Losses in the United States, 1780'sto 1980's:               Novitzki, R.P., 1979, An Introduction to Wisconsin wetlands -Plants, hy-
                           Washington, D.C., U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Report to Congress,                   drology and soils: Wisconsin Geological and Natural History Survey
                           13 p.                                                                                  Educational Information Series 22, 19 p.
                     Devaul, RX, 1975, Probable yields of wells in the sand-and-gravel aqui-                -1982, Hydrology ofWisconsin wetlands: Wisconsin Geological and
                           fer, Wisconsin: Madison, Wisconsin Geological and Natural History                      Natural History Survey Information Circular 40, 22 p.
                           Survey map.                                                                      Wisconsin Department ofNatural Resources, 1992a, Wisconsin water qual-
                     Fenneman, N.M., 1946, Physical divisions of the United States: Washing-                      ity assessment report to Congress 1992: Madison, Wisconsin Depart-
                           ton, D.C., U.S. Geological Survey special map, scale 1:7,000,000.                      ment of Natural Resources, 220 p.
                     Frazier, B.E., and Kiefer, R.W., 1974, Generalized land cover interpreted              _1992b, Wisconsin Wetland Inventory Classification Guide: Madi-
                           from ERTS - I satellite imagery: Madison, University of Wisconsin,                     son, Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources Publication W2-
                           Institute for Environmental Studies, LRAP Map No. 7.                                   W2023, 3 p.
                     Gebert, W.A., 1986 Wisconsin surface-water resources, in U.S. Geological               -undated, Wisconsin wetlands priority plan-An addendum to
                           Survey, National water summary 1985 -Hydrologic events and sur-                        Wisconsin's 1986-91 statewide comprehensive outdoor recreation
                           face-water resources: U.S. Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper                        plan: Madison, Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources, 22 p.
                           2300, p. 485 - 492.                                                              Yanggen, D.A., Johnson, C.D., Lee, G.B., Massie, L.R., Mulcahy, L.F., Ruff,
                     Geis, JW., 1985, Environmental influences on the distribution and com-                       R.L., and Schoenemann, J.A., 1976, Wisconsin wetlands: University
                           position of wetlands in the Great Lakes Basin, in Prince, H.H., and                    of Wisconsin, Extension Publication G2818, 28 p.
                           D'Itri, F.M., eds., Coastal wetlands: Chelsea, Mich., Lewis Publish-
                           ers, Inc., p. 15-27.
                     Keddy, P.A., and Reznicek, A.A., 1985, Vegetation dynamics, buried seeds,              FOR ADDITIONAL INFORMATION: District Chief, U.S. Geological
                           and water level fluctuations on the shorelines of the Great Lakes, in            Survey, 6417 Normandy Lane, Madison, WI 53719; Regional Wetland
                           Prince, H.H., and D'Itri, F.M., eds., Coastal wetlands: Chelsea, Mich.,          Coordinator, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, BHW Building, 1 Federal
                           Lewis Publishers, Inc., p. 33-51.                                                Drive, Fort Snelling, MN 55111
                     Krohelski, J.T., Ellefson, BR., and Rury, K.S., 1990, Wisconsin water sup-
                           ply and use, in U.S. Geological Survey, National water summary
                           1987 -Water supply and use: U.S. Geological Survey Water-Supply                                                  Prepared by
                           Paper 2350, p. 531-538.                                                                           Annette C. Heist and Andrew G. Reif,
                     Mitsch, W.J., and Gosselink, J.G., 1986, Wetlands: New York, Van Nostrand                                        U.S. Geological Survey
                           Reinhold Company, 539 p.
                     Moriarty, M.E., 1992, Partners for Wildlife Program -Region 3 final re-
                           port, fiscal year 1992: Washington D.C., U.S. Fish and Wildlife Ser-
                           vice, 11 p.










































                                                                         U.S. Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper 2425







                                                                                                                    National Water Summary-Wetland Resources 417


                                                                                                                                                               0
                                                                                                                                                  oming
                                                                                                                      Wetland Resources
                  Wetlands cover approximately 1.25 million acres ofWyoming ac-                  ers, 1979). The distribution of wetlands and deepwater habitats in
                  cording to estimates made in the 1980's (Dahl, 1990; University of             Wyoming is shown in figure 2A; only wetlands are discussed herein.
                  Wyoming, 1990). Although wetlands comprise only about 2 percent                     Wetlands can be vegetated or notivegetated and are classified
                  of the State's area (Dahl, 1990), their ecologic and economic value            on the basis of their hydrology, vegetation, and substrate. In this
                  is greater than their surface area might indicate. Wetlands are the            summary, wetlands are classified according to the system proposed
                  most diverse ecosystems in Wyoming's semiarid environment. About               by Cowardin and others (1979), which is used by the U.S. Fish and
                  90 percent of the State's wildlife use wetlands daily (University of           Wildlife Service (Fws) to map and inventory the Nation's wetlands.
                  Wyoming, 1990). Wyoming wetlands support large numbers of                      At the most general level of the classification system, wetlands are
                  breeding birds and many species of spring and fall migrants (fig.              grouped into five ecological systems: Palustrine, Lacustrine, Riv-
                  1). Some waterfowl species, such as Canada geese, mallards, red-               erine, Estuarine, and Marine. The Palustrine System includes only
                  heads, and the interior populations of trumpeter swans, use open               wetlands, whereas the other systems comprise wetlands and
                  water in the wetlands during the winter. Wetlands are the focus of             deepwater habitats. Wetlands of the systems that occur in Wyoming
                  varied recreational and tourist activities such as hunting, fishing,           are described below.
                  bird watching, camping, and hiking. Water and forage for Wyoming's
                  livestock are provided by wetland areas.                                       System                                 Wetland description
                       Wetlands function as water reservoirs, linking surface and
                  ground water, and as modulators of water quality (Odum, 1979).                 Palustrine. ................ . Wetlands in which vegetation is predominantly
                  Their hydrologic functions include flood attenuation, water-qual-                                       trees (forested wetlands); shrubs (scrub-shrub
                  ity improvement, water storage, and aquifer recharge and discharge.                                     wetlands); persistent or nonpersistent emergent,
                                                                                                                          erect, rooted, herbaceous plants (persistent- and
                  In the spring, wetlands usually receive flood waters, thereby attenu-                                   nonpersistent-emergent wetlands); or sub-
                  ating flood peaks and reducing erosion. Wetlands can modulate                                           mersed and (or) floating plants (aquatic beds).
                  water quality (Odum, 1979); water is stored in the wetlands, sedi-                                      Also, intermittently to permanently flooded
                                                                                                                          open-water bodies of less than 20 acres in which
                  ment settles out, and nutrients and heavy metals can be removed                                         water is less than 6.6 feet deep.
                  through biological and chemical processes. Depending on hydro-                 Lacustrine ................. Wetlands within an intermittently to permanently
                  logic conditions, aquifers may be recharged from wetland areas.                                         flooded lake or reservoir. Vegetation, when pres-
                  Some wetlands slowly release water, augmenting strearnflow and                                          ent, is predominantly nonpersistent emergent
                  extending the period of flow later into the summer and fall.                                            plants (nonpersistent-emergent wetlands), or
                                                                                                                          submersed and (or) floating plants (aquatic
                                                                                                                          beds), or both.
                                                                                                 Riverine ..................... Wetlands within a channel. Vegetation, when pres-
                                                                                                                          ent, is same as in the Lacustrine System.

                                                                                                      There is no recent estimate for Wyoming of statewide wetland
                                                                                                 acreage in each of the three ecological systems; however, the Fws
                                                                                                 National Wetlands Inventory Program currently (1993) is mapping
                                                                                                 the State at a 1:24,000 scale. As of April 1993, only Yellowstone
                                                                                                 National Park (about 4 percent of the State) remained unmapped.
                                                                                                 Inventories of wetlands and permanent water areas significant to
                                                                                                 waterfowl were conducted in the 1950's by the Fws (U.S. Fish and
                                                                                                 Wildlife Service, 1955a,b). Those studies found 26 percent of
                                                                                                 Wyoming's wetlands to be palustrine, 35 percent mixed palustrine
                                                                                                 and lacustrine, 9 percent lacustrine, and 30 percent riverine. The
                                                                                                 inventories did not include many shallow plains basins and high
                                                                                                 mountain wetlands (C.R. Elliott, written commun., 1993); thus, it
                                                                                                 is not known if the percentages approximate the overall distribu-
                                                                                                 tion ofWyoming's wetlands.
                                       RjMM0X@,_                                                      Wetlands are distributed throughout Wyoming (U.S. Fish
                                                                                                 and Wildlife Service, 1955a,b). Palustrine wetlands occur through-
                                       Figure 1. American avocet at the Laramie                  out Wyoming and include emergent wetlands such as seasonally
                                       Plain Lakes wetland complex. (Photograph                  flooded basins or flats, fresh marshes, fresh meadows, saline
                                       by LuRae Parker Wyoming Game and Fish                     marshes, and playas; forested wetlands such as swamps; scrub-shrub
                                       Department.)                                              wetlands such as shrub swamps and bogs; unconsolidated shore
                                                                                                 wetlands such as saline flats; and unconsolidated bottom wetlands
                                                                                                 such as small stock ponds. Freshwater wetlands are more concen-
                                                                                                 trated in the mountainous areas, whereas the saline wetlands and
                  TYPES AND DISTRIBUTION                                                         stock ponds occur in greater density in the basins and plains (fig.
                                                                                                 2A). Lacustrine wetlands discussed herein are limited to the shal-
                       Wetlands are lands transitional between terrestrial and deep-             lows of reservoirs and naturally occurring lakes. Riverine wetlands
                  water habitats where the water table usually is at or near the land            associated with high-gradient streams are concentrated in the moun-
                                                                                                                                   WY

































































                  surface or the land is covered by shallow water (Cowardin and oth-             tainous areas, whereas wetlands associated with low-gradient








                      418      National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: STATE SUMMARIES



                      streams and intermittent streams are more prevalent in basins and                           any, studies that examine the influence of those factors on the dis-
                      plains.                                                                                     tribution of wetlands in Wyoming. However, published reports in-
                            Wetlands also are distributed throughout the State in areas not                       dicate that combinations of those factors create conditions that sup-
                      delineated in figure 2A. On a map of the scale of figure 2A, many of                        port wetlands in Wyoming in four settings: mountain ranges, river
                      the smaller wetlands do not appear because of their size. However,                          drainages, closed basins, and areas of human activity.
                      these small wetlands are ecologically significant because they some-                             Wetlands exist in all the major mountain ranges in Wyoming.
                      times are the only source of water and specialized habitat in a large                       The Wyoming Basin separates the Middle Rocky Mountains from
                      area. Ratti and Kadlec (1992) noted that wetlands, as all resources,                        the Southern Rocky Mountains, which reach into southeastern
                      gain value from scarcity. The presence of wetlands allows much                              Wyoming, and the Great Plains extend to the east (fig. 2C). The
                      broader use of the upland areas in and or semiarid climates. Ratti                          mountain ranges force air masses to rise to higher altitudes, where
                      and Kadlec (1992) stated that wetlands in and and semiarid areas                            cooling causes increased precipitation (fig. 2D). The average an-
                      are used far more extensively than wetlands in humid regions, where                         nual precipitation ranges from more than 60 inches in mountain-
                      wetlands are more abundant. An example of the distribution of these                         ous areas to less than 6 inches in the Wyoming Basin (Martner,
                      small wetlands is shown in figure 2B, an area near Ocean Lake.                              1986). High precipitation and runoff in the mountains, coupled with
                                                                                                                  low evaporation, create a net moisture surplus that allows wetlands
                      HYDROLOGIC SETTING                                                                          to form. Ground-water storage at higher altitude, due to such factors
                                                                                                                  as frequent storms, bedrock depressions, and shallow soils, keeps
                            Wetlands form where there is a water supply at or near the land                       the water table close to land surface and enhances the development
                      surface. The location and persistence of the supply is a function of                        of the mountain wetlands (Skinner, 1986).
                      interdependent climatic, physiographic, and hydrologic factors in-                               Sernipermanently and permanently flooded palustrine and riv-
                      cluding precipitation and runoff patterns, evaporation potential,                           erine wetlands are associated with river drainages throughout Wyo-
                      topography, and ground-water discharge. There have been few, if                             ming. Many of these wetlands exist because water storage in moun-

                                           A                        110.                                108-                              106*                               104'
                                                                                                                               rid




                                                         7



                                              44-









                                                                                                                                                                             r
                                                                                  Q                                                                                              1.

                                                                                                                                                         Nor






                                            42-


                                                       r                                         'Chain LJA I WE

                                                                                        sp gs
                                                                                                                                                    ile
                                                                                                                                                     d COMP


                                                                                                                                                                         yean


                                                0       25       50 MILES                                          WETLANDS AND DEEPWATER HABITATS
                                                i      I I I     J                                                 Distribution of wetlands and cleepwater habitats-
                                                0    25   50 KILOMETERS                                               This map shows the approximate distribution of large
                                                                                                                      wetlands in the State. Because of limitations of scale
                                                                                                                      and source material, some wetlands are not shown
                                                                                                                   0       Predominantly wetland
                                                                                                                   71      Predominantly deepwater habitat
                                                                                                                   EM      Area typified by a high density of small wetlands

                                         Figure 2. Wetland distribution in Wyoming and physical and climatic factors that influence wetland distrib-
                                         ution in the State. A, Distribution of wetlands and cleepwater habitats. (Sources: A, TE Dahl, U.S. Fish and
                                          Wildlife Service, unpub. data, 1991.)








                                                                                               National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: WYOMING                419



                tainous areas, reservoirs, or aquifers extends the season of flow           on local factors such as the hydrology and soils. Examples of sa-
                beyond the spring snowmelt period. In mountainous areas, water is           line playa wetlands can be found in the Chain Lakes of the Wyo-
                stored in snowpack, lakes, bogs, riparian areas, and aquifers and           ming Basin. The Chain Lakes contain saline, shallow, palustrine
                then is gradually released from spring through fall. Runoff is higher       emergent wetlands; palustrine and lacustrine unconsolidated shore
                in the mountains than in the basin and plains areas (fig. 2E). Sev-         wetlands; and seasonally flooded depressions. These wetlands lie
                eral large reservoirs on the North Platte River, the Wind -Bighorn          within a salt-desert shrub- and sagebrush-covered basin that is one
                River system, and the Green River control streamflow by storing             of the driest areas in Wyoming. Owing to the high evapotranspira-
                spring runoff and, later in the year, releasing the water to down-          tion potential, the area has a net average annual water deficit of from
                stream users. The extended strearnflow provides water to the asso-          10 to 17 inches per year. The Chain Lakes wetlands are maintained
                ciated wetlands over a longer period of time, but it limits overbank        by ground-water discharge where the land surface intersects with
                flooding, thus reducing spring flood moisture to riparian wetlands.         the water table, but their water level changes in response to precipi-
                Ground-water discharge supplies much of the base flow to rivers             tation and runoff (Charles Reed, Bureau of Land Management, oral
                and wetlands on the plains of Wyoming. This base flow comes ei-             commun., 1993). One attribute of such wetlands is their attenua-
                ther from water stored in alluvial aquifers or discharged from deeper,      tion of the variability in the hydrologic cycle. In the and and semi-
                bedrock aquifers. These different types of water storage provide the        and West, variability rather than stability may actually be the norm
                moisture necessary for the existence of wetlands along Wyoming's            in the hydrologic cycle (Ratti and Kadlec, 1992). The cycle of wet
                major drainages.                                                            and dry years causes constant fluctuations of water levels in lakes
                     Playa wetlands exist in closed basins of various sizes through-        and streams. Playas that are dry in drought years take on special
                out Wyoming. These wetlands may be saline or fresh, depending               importance in wet years because many other wetlands are deeply

                                    104'40'                                104'39'
                  B                                   134
                              N                 I                                                             Northern Rocky Mountains
                                                                                                       C


                                                                                                                  X
                             Ditch o                                                                           MtAS r.,,aky Mountains
                                                                                                                                             Great Plains



                    43'12'





                                                                                                                      WVorning Basin


                                                 40

                                                                                                                                           Southern Rocky Mountains
                         0          0.5         1.0 MILES            WETILAND SYSTEMS                                   PHYSIOGRAPHIC DIVISIONS
                         I      I       .                                Palustrine
                         0     0.5     1.0 KILOMETERS                    Lacustrine
                                                                         Riverine





                                                                                                       E                                  20


                                                                                                                                       or
                   20                                                                                        10

                           30

                                           f2



                                                     70

                                                                                                                                 0.6
                                           7                        Q@l                                    to                           2

                                        PRECIPITATION                                                                            RUNOFF

                                       -20- Line of equal annual precipitation-                                                -10- Line of equal annual runoff-
                                                Interval, in inches, is variable                                                        Interval, in inches, is variable


                Figure2. Continued Wetland distribution in Wyoming and physical and climatic factors that influence wetland distribution in the State.
                8, Detail of wetlands west of Ocean Lake in the Wind River Basin. CPhysiography. D, Average annual precipitation. EAverageannual
                runoff. (Sources: 6, Modified from U.S. Fish and VVildlife Service, 1987. C, Phy@iographic divisions from Fenneman, 1946; Jandforms data
                from EROS Data Center D and E, Schuetz and others, 1986.








                   420      National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: STATE SUMMARIES



                   flooded and their submersed vegetation is less available and pro-             effects of human activities and natural wetlands associated with a
                   ductive. Ecologically, the fluctuation of water levels has interactive        stream is the Bear River wetland, the most productive and diverse
                   effects with the vegetation's germination, establishment, and com-            bird habitat in Wyoming. The area contains 23,000 acres of con-
                   petition, adding to the diversity or productivity of these sites (Ratti       tinuous wetlands; 97 percent are palustrine and 3 percent are river-
                   and Kadlec, 1992). Osterkamp and Wood (1987) found that water                 ine (D.C. Lockman and Leonard Serdiuk, Wyoming Game and Fish
                   fluctuation also may aid in the development and enlargement of these          Department, written commun., 1984). These wetlands were en-
                   playas through carbonate-rock dissolution, piping, and weathering.            hanced by agricultural diversion of water during the spring high
                         The Laramie Plain Lakes wetland complex (fig. 3) consists of            flows into the low-gradient flood-plain areas adjacent to the Bear
                   5,500 acres of riverine, palustrine, and lacustrine wetlands associ-          River. The original purpose of the diversions was to flush salts and
                   ated with the Laramie River and small, closed basins (University              increase hay-meadow production. The complex hydrology of the
                   ofWyoming, 1990). Many of the closed basins containing playa lakes            Bear River system resulted in lengthening the wetland production
                   in this complex are the result of blowouts (Kolm, 1982) caused by             period from the original spring runoff period of late May to mid-
                   high winds funneled across the more than 7,000-foot-high plain                June to an extended period of late April to early July (D.C. Lockman
                   between mountain ranges. Some lakes are fresh and others are sa-              and Leonard Serdiuk, written commun., 1984). The low gradient
                   line. In addition to being significant habitat for many bird species          of the Bear River and the existence of old oxbows allowed a mosaic
                   (fig. 1), this complex of wetlands provides habitat for the Wyoming           of marshes, other wet areas, and dry nesting areas to develop.
                   toad, an endangered species (fig. 3). When the glaciers retreated                 Wetlands have developed in stock ponds and in pits and depres-
                   about 17,000 years ago, a population of Wyoming toad was stranded             sions resulting from mining. Stock ponds generally receive only
                   in the basin, where it adapted to a grassier, less forested environ-          surface-water runoff and are concentrated in and and semiarid
                   ment (Johnson, 1985).                                                         basins. The wetlands associated with mining are scattered through-
                         Some small wetlands result from human activities. Irrigation            out the State and generally are the result of intersecting the water
                   of farm lands, mining, and stock ponds associated with ranching               table during the excavation of the pit, although the wetlands can also
                   have changed or created wetlands. An example of the interactive

                               110,              106*
                                           . ... . ... . ..


                        44'
                                                                                                                                 N


                                  WYC MING


                        42-

                                            Laram a
                                                         C eyenne
                                           ... . .... . ..
                                                                                                                                                    __so,



                                                                                                                                 A LO






                   A






















                   Figure 3. Laramie Plain Lakes wetland complex and the resident endangered Wyoming toad. A, Laramie Plain Lakes wetland complex.
                   8, Wyoming toad. (Sources: A, Compiled by CA. Eshelman, U.S. Geological Survey. B, Photograph by LuRae Parker, Wyoming Game
                   and Fish Department.)








                                                                                                                                       National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: WYOMING                                         421



                      receive surface-water runoff. Wetlands created during reclamation                                           Table 1. Selected wetland-related activities of government
                      of bentonite-mine pits in northeastern Wyoming were designed to                                             agencies and private organizations in Wyoming, 1993
                      reduce water turbidity from colloids by settlement of sediment and                                          [Source: Classification of activities is generalized from information provided
                      establishment of vegetation (P.R. Ogle, Mariah Associates, oral                                                  by agencies and organizations. 9, agency or organization participate$ in
                      commun., 1993). Some studies have compared strip-mine and stock-                                                 wetiand-related activity;          agency or organization does not participate in
                                                                                                                                       wetland-related activity. MAN, management; REG, regulation; R&C, res-
                      pond wetlands. Olson (1979) found that the concentration of chemi-                                               toration and creation; LAN, land acquisition; R&D, research and data col-
                      cal constituents in the water was inversely related to water levels                                              lection; D&I, delineation and inventory]
                      and that strip-mine ponds had different chemical concentrations than
                      stock ponds. Wangsness (1977) discovered that dissolved-oxygen
                      concentrations were smaller, major-ion concentrations were larger,                                          Agency or organization                                               @01 40$
                      biological communities were less diverse, and chemical fluctuations                                         FEDERAL
                      were more pronounced in strip-mine ponds than in natural ponds                                              Department of Agriculture
                      in northwestern Wyoming near Sheridan.                                                                        Consolidated Farm Service Agency           ........................... ...    ... ...    ... ...
                                                                                                                                    Forest Service                 .................................................................0e00
                                                                                                                                    Natural Resources Conservation Service             ................ ...
                      TRENDS                                                                                                      Department of Commerce
                                                                                                                                    National Oceanic and
                              Trends in the acreage and types of wetlands in Wyoming are                                            Atmospheric Administration            ........................................ ... ... ...
                      the subject of controversy. Dahl (1990) estimated that between the                                          Department of Defense
                      1780's and 1980's Wyoming lost 38 percent (by area) of its wetlands.                                          Army Corps of Engineers        ..............................................0
                      Skinner (1986), in an examination of historic journals of Lewis and                                           Military reservations          .....................................................0... ... ... ... ...
                      Clark, Captain John C. Fremont, and Osborne Russell, cites obser-                                           Department of the Interior
                                                                                                                                    Bureau of Land Management             ......................................0
                      vations of changing hydrologic and riparian conditions over the                                               Bureau of Reclamation          ................................................. ... ...
                      1804-1986 period that indicate a change in the type of wetlands                                               Fish and Wildlife Service      ..............................................ae    o     *        o
                      along some major streams but do not necessarily support reports                                               Geological Survey              .......................................................... ... ... ... ...0
                      of large losses in wetland acreage.                                                                           National Biological Service           ......................................... ... ... ... ...0
                              Palustrine wetlands, particularly those created and maintained                                        National Park Service          ...................................................00 0   0
                                                                                                                                  Environmental Protection Agency         .................................. ...
                      by seasonal flooding, have decreased in area, owing to agricultural                                         NORTHERN ARAPAHO AND EASTERN
                      and urban activities, although the loss has not been quantified (U.S.                                       SHOSHONE TRIBES                  ...........................................................
                      Fish and Wildlife Service, 1990). Knight (1991) reported that, in                                           STATE
                      the Bighom River flood plain between 1938 and 1986, woodlands                                               Department of Agriculture        ............................................... ... ...
                      decreased, shrublands increased, the area of meadow and marshes                                             Department of Commerce
                      fluctuated before 1961 but stabilized since that time, and salt ce-                                           Economic and Community Development               ...................
                                                                                                                                  Department of Environmental Quality
                      dar increased. Knight (1991) suggests that some of these changes                                              Abandoned Mine Land Division          ..................................
                      might have been related to the construction of dams on the Bighorn                                            Industrial Siting              ............................................................... ...*
                      River.                                                                                                        Land Quality Division          ..................................................... ...0
                              Approximately 230,000 acres of deepwater reservoir habitat                                            Solid and Hazardous Waste             ......................................... ...0
                      have been created in Wyoming. The operation of reservoirs for ir-                                             Water Quality Division         ................................................... ...0
                                                                                                                                  Department of Transportation            .........................................9
                      rigation and power production can cause downstream water-level                                              Game and Fish Department         ..............................................0
                      fluctuations that are unfavorable to the regeneration of riparian and                                       Geological Survey                .............................................................. ... ... ... ...
                      other wetland vegetation (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 1990).                                            Oil and Gas Commission           ................................................... ...0
                      Conversely, flood-irrigation systems have created wetlands as a                                             State Engineer's Office          ...................................................... ...0
                      result of canal and dam seepage. Urban development, especially in                                           State Land and Farm Loan Board          ...................................9    . ... ...           ...
                                                                                                                                  University of Wyoming            ......................................................0
                      the Jackson area, has resulted in both direct wetland loss and de-                                          Water Development Commission            ....................................0
                      cline in wetland quality (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 1990).                                            COUNTY AND LOCAL                 .........................................................0
                      Shallow pond acreage, primarily stock ponds, has increased sub-                                             PRIVATE ORGANIZATIONS
                      stantially in Wyoming.                                                                                      Ducks Unlimited                  .................................... .............................a
                                                                                                                                  Powder River Resource Council           ..................................... ... ... ...
                                                                                                                                  The National Audubon Society            .......................................0
                      CONSERVATION                                                                                                The Nature Conservancy           ..................................................0
                                                                                                                                  Pheasants Forever                .............................................................0
                              Many government agencies and private organizations partici-                                         Trout Unlimited                  ....................................................................0
                      pate in wetland conservation in Wyoming. The most active agen-                                              Wyoming Association of Conservation Districts                     9
                      cies and organizations and some of their activities are listed in table                                     Wyoming Riparian Association            ....................................... ... ... ... ...0
                                                                                                                                  Wyoming Stockgrowers Association             ............................ ... ... ... ...  0
                      1.      Federal wetland activities. -Development activities inWyo-                                          Wyoming Wildlife Federation             .......................................... ... ...
                      ming wetlands are regulated by several Federal statutory prohibi-
                      tions and incentives that are intended to slow wetland losses. Some                                         permits regulating the discharge of dredged or fill material into
                      of the more important of these are contained in the 1899 Rivers and                                         wetlands. Permits are subject to review and possible veto by the U.S.
                      Harbors Act; the 1972 Clean Water Act and amendments; the 1985                                              Environmental Protection Agency, and the Fws has review and ad-
                      Food Security Act; the 1990 Food, Agriculture, Conservation, and                                            visory roles. Section 401 of the Clean Water Act grants to States
                      Trade Act; and the 1986 Emergency Wetlands Resources Act.                                                   and eligible Indian Tribes the authority to approve, apply conditions
                              Section 10 of the Rivers and Harbors Act gives the U.S. Army                                        to, or deny section 404 permit applications on the basis of a pro-
                      Corps of Engineers (Corps) authority to regulate certain activities                                         posed activity's probable effects on the water quality of a wetland.
                      in navigable waters. Regulated activities include diking, deepening,                                               Most farming, ranching, and silviculture activities are not sub-
                      filling, excavating, and placing of structures. The related section 404                                     ject to section 404 regulation. However, the "Swampbuster" provi-
                      of the Clean Water Act is the most often-used Federal legislation                                           sion of the 1985 Food Security Act and amendments in the 1990
                      protecting wetlands. Under section 404 provisions, the Corps issues                                         Food, Agriculture, Conservation, and Trade Act discourage-(through








                     422     National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: STATE SUMMARIES


                     financial disincentives) the draining, filling, or other alteration of           Knight, Dennis, 199 1, Riparian vegetation dynamics, in Proceedings of the
                     wetlands for agricultural use. The law allows exemptions from pen-                     Riparian Workshop, August 20-22, 1991: Laramie, University of
                     alties in some cases, especially if the farmer agrees to restore the                   Wyoming, p. 24-32.
                     altered wetland or other wetlands that have been converted to agri-              Kolm, K.E., 1982, Predicting the surface wind characteristics of southern
                     cultural use. The Wetlands Reserve Program of the 1990 Food,                           Wyoming from remote sensing and eolian geornorpbology, in Marrs,
                                                                                                            R.W., and Kolm, K.E., eds., Interpretation of windflow characteris-
                     Agriculture, Conservation, and Trade Act authorizes the Federal                        tics from eolian landforms: Geological Society of America Special
                     Government to purchase conservation easements from landowners                          Paper 192, p. 25-53.
                     who agree to protect or restore wetlands. The Consolidated Farm                  Mariner, B.E., 1986, Wyoming climate atlas: Lincoln, University of Ne-
                     Service Agency (formerly the Agricultural Stabilization and Con-                       braska Press, 432 p.
                     servation Service) administers the Swampbuster provisions andWet-                Odum, E.P., 1979, The value of wetlands-A hierarchical approach, in
                     lands Reserve Program. The Natural Resources Conservation                              Greeson, RE., and others, eds., Wetland functions and values -The
                     Service (formerly the Soil Conservation Service) determines com-                       state of our understanding -Proceedings of the National Symposium
                     pliance with Swampbuster provisions and assists farmers in the iden-                   on Wetlands, November 1978, Minneapolis, Minn.: American Water
                     tification of wetlands and in the development of wetland protection,                   Resources Association, p. 16- 25.
                                                                                                      Olson, R.A., 1979, Ecology of wetland vegetation on selected strip mine
                     restoration, or creation plans.                                                        ponds and stockdams in the northern Great Plains: Fargo, North Da-
                           The 1986 Emergency Wetlands Resources Act encourages wet-                        kota State University, Ph.D. thesis, 476 p.
                     land protection through funding incentives. The act requires States              Osterkamp, W.R., and Wood, W.W., 1987, Playa-lake basins on the south-
                     to address wetland protection in their Statewide Comprehensive                         em High Plains of Texas and New Mexico-Part 1, Hydrologic, geo-
                     Outdoor Recreation Plans to qualify for Federal funding for State                      morphic, and geologic evidence for their development: Geological
                     recreational land; the National Park Service provides guidance to                      Society ofAmerica Bulletin, v. 99, p. 215 -223.
                     States in developing the wetland component of their plans.                       Ratti, J.T., and Kadlec, J.A., 1992, Concept plan for the preservation of
                           State wetland activities. -The Wyoming Wetlands Act is the                       wetland habitat of the intermountain West, North American waterfowl
                     basis for wetland program development by the State. The act desig-                     management plan: U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Region 1, Portland,
                                                                                                            Oreg., 146 p.
                     nates the Wyoming Department of Environmental Quality's Water                    Schuetz, JR., Trefren, D.A., and Lowham, H.W., 1986, Wyoming surface-
                     Quality Division as the lead agency for developing guidance for the                    water resources, in U.S. Geological Survey, National water summary
                     evaluation of wetland ecological functions and values and for es-                      1985 -Hydrologic events and surface-water resources: U.S. Geologi-
                     tablishment ofa statewide wetland-mitigation bank. Section 35- 11 -                    cal Survey Water-Supply Paper 2300, p. 493 -498.
                     309(d) of Wyoming Statutes and the Legislative Policy and Intent                 Skinner, Q.D., 1986, Riparian zones then and now, in Proceedings of the
                     of the Wyoming Wetlands Act differentiates between naturally oc-                       Wyoming Water 1986 and Strearnside Zone Conference, Casper, April
                     curring wetlands and wetlands resulting from human activities. As                      28-30, 1986: Casper, Wyoming Water Research Center and Univer-
                     part of the Wyoming Wetlands Act, the State is considering the use                     sity of Wyoming Agricultural Extension Service, p. 8 - 22.
                     of a wetland bank for tracking and mitigation of welland disturbance             U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 1955a, Wetlands inventory of Wyoming:
                                                                                                            Billings, Mont., U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 33 p.
                     and for creation management. Use of water, an essential pan of any               _1955b, Permanent water inventory -Wyoming: Billings, Mont.,
                     wetland, also is regulated by State laws, seven interstate compacts,                   U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 9 p.
                     and various U.S. Supreme Court decrees (Wolfe, 1986).                                    1987, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service National Wetlands Inventory
                           County and local wetland activities. -Wetland activities at                      map-Pavillion, Wyo., quadrangle: St. Petersburg, Fla., U.S. Fish and
                     county and local government levels differ throughout the State.                        Wildlife Service, scale 1:24,000.
                     Wetland considerations commonly are addressed as part of the                     -1990, Regional wetlands concept plan-Emergency Wetlands Re-
                     county zoning or land-use plans in Wyoming's 23 counties. Con-                         sources Act: Lakewood, Colo., U,S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Moun-
                     servation Districts often are active in implementing wetland projects.                 tain-Prairie Region, 90 p.
                           Private wetland activities. -Ducks Unlimited and The Nature                University ofWyoming, 1990, Wyoming State comprehensive outdoor rec-
                                                                                                            reation plan: Cheyenne, Wyo., Department of Commerce, 274 p.
                     Conservancy are active in the acquisition and management of wet-                 Wangsness, D.J., 1977, Physical, chemical, and biological relations of four
                     land areas. Other organizations participating in wetland-protection                    ponds in the Hidden Water Creek strip-mine area, Powder River Ba-
                     activities in Wyoming include Trout Unlimited, the National                            sin, Wyoming: U.S. Geological Survey Water-Resources Investigations
                     Audubon Society, the Powder River Resource Council, the Wyoming                        Report 77-72, 48 p.
                     Wildlife Federation, the Wyoming Stockgrowers Association, the                   Wolfe, L.J., 1986, Federal/State water laws, in Proceedings of the Wyoming
                     Wyoming Riparian Association, and the Sierra Club.                                     Water 1986 and Strearnside Zone Conference, Casper, April 28-30,
                                                                                                            1986: Casper, Wyoming Water Research Center and University of
                     References Cited                                                                       Wyoming Agricultural Extension Service, p. 24-32.
                     Cowardin, L.M., Carter, Virginia, Golet, F.C., and LaRoe, E.T., 1979, Clas-      FOR ADDITIONAL INFORMATION: District Chief, U.S. Geological
                           sification ofwetlands and deepwater habitats oftheUnited States: U.S.      Survey, 2617 East Lincolnway, Suite B, Cheyenne, WY 82001; Regional
                           Fish and Wildlife Service Report FWS/OBS -79/31, 131 p.                    Weiland Coordinator, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Fish and Wildljfe
                     Dahl, T.E., 1990, Wetlands -Losses in the United States, 1780's to 1980's:       Enhancement, RO. Box 25486, Denver Federal Center, Denver, CO 80225
                           Washington, D.C., U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Report to Congress,
                           13 p.
                     Fermeman, N.M., 1946, Physical divisions of the United States: Washing-                                        Prepared by
                           ton, D.C., U.S. Geological Survey special map, scale 1:7,000,000.                                    Kathy Muller Ogle,
                     Johnson, Kevin, 1985, More time for the Wyoming toad: Wyoming Wild-                                      U.S. Geological Survey
                           life, v. IL, no. 5, p. 28-33.












                                            Conversion TaHe and Glossary





                                                                                                                 V














                                 Sunset on the San Joaquin Delta near Stockton, California. (Photograph by Steve Van Denburgh,
                                                                                                        U.S. Geological Survey.)








                  424     National Water Surnmary-Wetland Resources: EQUIVALENTS/CONVERSION FACTORS


                                                 Conversion Factors

                                                     The following list provides the necessary factors for converting U.S. Customary (inch-pound) units
                                                 used in this National Water Summary to International System (metric) and other commonly used U.S. Cus-
                                                 tomary units. Units, which are written in abbreviated form below, are spelled out in parentheses the first
                                                 time that they appear. Most of the quantities listed are rounded to five significant figures. However, quan-
                                                 fities shown in italics are exact equivalents-no rounding was necessary. To convert the unit in the left-
                                                 hand column to that in the right, multiply by the number in the right-hand column, except for temperature.
                                                 For temperature, use the equation provided.
                                                     The data in this list were adapted largely from information found in the following publications:
                                                 Chisholm, L.J., 1967, Units of weight and measure-International (Metric) and U.S. Customary:
                                                    U.S. National Bureau of Standards Miscellaneous Publication 286, 251 p.
                                                 U.S. Geological Survey, 1919, Hydraulic conversion tables and convenient equivalents (2d ed.): U.S.
                                                    Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper 425-C, p. C71-C94.


                                                            U.S. CUSTOMARY                              U.S. CUSTOMARY (INCH-POUND) OR
                                                            (INCH-POUND)                                INTERNATIONAL SYSTEM (METRIC)
                                                                                          LENGTH
                                                            I in (inch)                                     25.4 mm (millimeters)
                                                            1 ft (foot)                                       0.3048 m (meter)
                                                            1 mi (mile)                                 5,280. ft
                                                                                                        1,609.344 m
                                                                                                              1.609344 km (kilometers)
                                                                                           AREA
                                                            1 ft2 (sq u are foot)                             0.09290304 m2 (square meter)
                                                            I acre                                      43,560. ft2 (square feet)
                                                                                                              0.0015625 Mi2 (square mile)
                                                                                                              0.40469 ha (hectare)
                                                                                                        4,046.9 m2
                                                            1 Mi2                                         640. acres
                                                                                                          259.00 ha
                                                                                                              2.5900 km  2 (square kilometers)
                                                                                VOLUME OR CAPACITY
                                                                                      (liquid measure)
                                                            1 gal (gallon, U.S.)                          231. in  3(cubic inches)
                                                                                                              0.13368 ft3 (cubic foot)
                                                                                                              3.7854 L (liter)
                                                                                                              0.0037854 m3 (cubic meter)
                                                            I Mgal (million gallons)                          3.0689 acre-ft (acre-feet)
                                                            1 ft3                                       1,728. in  3
                                                                                                              7.4805 gal
                                                                                                           28.317 L
                                                                                                              0.028317 m   3
                                                            1 acre-ft*                                  43,560. ft3
                                                                                                              0.32585 Mgal
                                                                                                        1,233.5 m3
                                                                                           SPEED
                                                            1 mi/hr (mile per hour)                           1.4667 ft/s (feet per second)
                                                                                                              0.44704 m/s (meter per second)
                                                                             VOLUME PER UNIT OF TIME
                                                            1 ft3/S (cubic foot per second)               448.83 gal/min
                                                                                                              0.64632 Mgal/d
                                                                                                              1.9835 acre-ft/d (acre-feet per day)
                                                                                                            28.317 L/s (liters per second)
                                                                                      TEMPERATURE
                                                                   [OF (degrees, Fahrenheit) to IC (degrees, Celsius)]
                                                                             (OF - 32) x 5/9 = OC

                                                                 Volume of water 1 foot deep covering an area of 1 acre.

                                                                               U.S. Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper 2425








                                                                              National Water Surnmary-Wetland Resources: SUPPLEMENTAL INFORMATION                     425

                  Glossary

                  Absorption-the process by which substances in gas-               slowed or turned back by an obstruction such as
                     eous, liquid, or solid form are assimilated or taken          a bridge or dam, an opposing current, or the move-
                     up by other substances.                                       ment of the tide.
                  Acid-pH of water less than 5.5; pH modifier used             Bacteria-single-celled microscopic organisms.
                     in the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service wetland clas-       Bank storage-the change in the amount of water
                     sification system.                                            stored in an aquifer resulting from a change in
                  Acidic-has a pH of less than 7.                                  stage of an adjacent surface-water body.
                  Acidic deposition-the transfer of acidic or acidify-         Barrier bar-an elongate offshore ridge submerged
                     ing substances from the atmosphere to the surface             at least at high tide, built up by the action of waves
                     of the Earth or to objects on its surface. Transfer           or currents.
                     can be either by wet-deposition processes (rain,          Barrier beach-a narrow, elongate sandy ridge ris-
                     snow, dew, fog, frost, hail) or by dry deposition             ing slightly above the high-tide level and extend-
                     (gases, aerosols, or fine to coarse particles).               ing generally parallel with the mainland shore, but
                  Acre-foot (acre-ft)-the volume of water needed to                separated from it by a lagoon.
                     cover an acre of land to a depth of one foot;             Base flow-the sustained low flow of a stream, usu-
                     equivalent to 43,560 cubic feet or 325,851 gal-               ally ground-water inflow to the stream channel.
                     lons.                                                     Basic-the opposite of acidic; has a pH of greater
                  Adsorption-the adherence of gas molecules, ions,                 than 7.
                     or molecules in solution to the surface of solids.        Bed material-sediment composing the streambed.
                  Aerate-to supply air to water, soil, or other media.         Bedrock-a general term used for solid rock that un-
                  Aerobic-pertaining to or caused by the presence of               derlies soils or other unconsolidated material.
                     oxygen.                                                   Benthic organism-a form of aquatic life that lives
                  Algal bloom-the rapid proliferation of passively                 on the bottom or near the bottom of streams, lakes,
                     floating, simple plant life, such as blue-green al-           or oceans.
                     gae, in and on a body of water.                           Bind-to exert a strong chemical attraction.
                  Alkaline-has a pH greater than 7; pH modifier in the         Biochernical-oxygen demand (BOD)-the amount of
                     U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service wetland classifi-              oxygen, in milligrams per liter, that is removed
                     cation system; in common usage, a pH of water                 from aquatic environments by the life processes
                     greater than 7.4.                                             of micro-organisms.
                  Alluvium- general term for sediments of gravel,              Biochemical process-a process characterized by,
                     sand, silt, clay, or other particulate rock material          produced by, or involving chemical reactions in
                     deposited by flowing water, usually in the beds of            living organisms.
                     rivers and streams, on a flood plain, on a delta, or      Biomass-the amount of living matter, in the form
                     at the base of a mountain.                                    of organisms, present in a particular habitat, usu-
                  Alpine snow glade-a marshy clearing between                      ally expressed as weight-per-unit area.
                     slopes above the timberline in mountains.                 Biota-all living organisms of an area.
                  Anadromous fish-migratory species that are born              Blowout-a small saucer or trough-shaped hollow or
                     in freshwater, live mostly in estuaries and ocean             depression formed by wind erosion on a pre-
                     water, and return to freshwater to spawn.                     existing dune or other sand deposit.
                  Anaerobic- pertaining to or caused by the absence            Bog-a nutrient-poor, acidic wetlarid dominated by
                     of oxygen.                                                    a waterlogged spongy mat of sphagurn moss that
                  Anthropogenic-having to do with or caused by hu-                 ultimately forms a thick layer of acidic peat; gen-
                     mans.                                                         erally has no inflow or outflow; fed primarily by
                  Anticline-a fold in the Earth's crust, convex upward,            rain water.
                     whose core contains stratigraphically older rocks.        Bolson-an extensive, flat, saucer-shaped, alluvium-
                  Aquatic-living or growing in or on water.                        floored basin or depression, almost or completely
                  Aquaculture-the science of farming organisms that                surrounded by mountains and from which drain-
                     live in water, such as fish, shellfish, and algae.            age has no surface outlet; a term used in the desert
                  Aquifer- a geologic formation, group of formations,              regions of the Southwestern United States.
                     or part of a formation that contains sufficient satu-     Boreal-a climatic zone having a definite winter with
                     rated permeable material to yield significant quan-           snow and a short summer that is generally hot, and
                     tities of water to springs and wells.                         which is characterized by a large annual range of
                  Arroyo-a small, deep, flat-floored channel or gully              temperature.
                     of an ephemeral or intermittent stream, usually           Bosque-a dense growth of trees and underbrush.
                     with nearly vertical banks cut into unconsolidated        Bottom land-See flood plain.
                     material-term commonly used in the and and                Bottom-land fore st-low -lying forested wetland
                     semiarid regions of the Southwestern United                   found along streams and rivers, usually on allu-
                     States.                                                       vial flood plains.
                  Atmospheric pressure-the pressure exerted by the             Brackish water-water with a salinity intermediate
                     atmosphere on any surface beneath or within it;               between seawater and freshwater (containing from
                     equal to 14.7 pounds per square inch at sea level.            1,000 to 10,000 milligrams per liter of dissolved
                  Backwater-a body of water in which the flow is                   solids).








                  426      National Water Surnmary-Wetland Resources: GLOSSARY




                                                   Braided river-a river that divides into or follows an       Degraded-condition of the quality of water that has
                                                      interlacing or tangled network of several small              been made unfit for some specified purpose.
                                                      branching and reuniting shallow channels.                Delta-the low, nearly flat tract of land at or near the
                                                   Brine-water that contains more than 35,000 milli-               mouth of a river, resulting from the accumulation
                                                      grams per liter of dissolved solids.                         of sediment supplied by the river in such quanti-
                                                   Calcareous-formed of calcium carbonate or mag-                  ties that it is not removed by tides, waves, or cur-
                                                      nesium carbonate by biological deposition or in-             rents. Commonly a triangular or fan-shaped plain.
                                                      organic precipitation in sufficient quantities to ef-    Direct runoff-the runoff entering stream channels
                                                      fervesce when treated with cold hydrochloric acid.           promptly after rainfall or snowmelt.
                                                   Caldera-a large, more or less circular, basin-shaped        Discharge-the volume of fluid passing a point per
                                                      volcanic depression whose diameter is many times             unit of time, commonly expressed in cubic feet per
                                                      greater than the volcanic vent.                              second, million gallons per day, gallons per
                                                   Channel scour-erosion by flowing water and sedi-                minute, or seconds per minute per day.
                                                      ment on a stream channel; results in removal of          Discharge area (ground water)-area where subsur-
                                                      mud, silt, and sand on the outside curve of a stream         face water is discharged to the land surface, to
                                                      bend and the bed material of a stream channel.               surface water, or to the atmosphere.
                                                   Channelization-the straightening and deepening of           Dissolved oxygen-oxygen dissolved in water; one
                                                      a stream channel to permit the water to move faster          of the most important indicators of the condition
                                                      or to drain a wet area for farming.                          of a water body. Dissolved oxygen is necessary
                                                   Cienaga-a marshy area where the ground is wet due               for the life of fish and most other aquatic organ-
                                                      to the presence of seepage or springs.                       isms.
                                                   Circurnneutral-pH of water between 5.5 and 7.4; pH          Dissolved solids-miinerals and organic matter dis-
                                                      modifier used in the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Ser-             solved in water.
                                                      vice wetland classification system.                      Dolomite-a sedimentary rock consisting chiefly of
                                                   Cirque-a deep, steep-walled half-bowllike recess or             magnesium carbonate.
                                                      hollow situated high on the side of a mountain and       Dominant plant-the plant species controlling the
                                                      commonly at the head of a glacial valley and pro-            environment.
                                                      duced by the erosive activity of mountain glaciers.      Drainage basin-the land area drained by a river or
                                                   Concentration- the ratio of the quantity of any sub-            stream.
                                                      stance present in a sample of a given volume or a        Drought-a prolonged period of less-than-normal
                                                      given weight compared to the volume or weight                precipitation such that the lack of water causes a
                                                      of the sample.                                               serious hydrologic imbalance.
                                                   Confining layer-a body of impermeable or distinctly         Ecosystem-a community of organisms considered
                                                      less pen-neable material stratigraphically adjacent          together with the nonliving factors of its environ-
                                                      to one or more aquifers that restricts the movement          ment.
                                                      of water into and out of the aquifers.                   Emergent plants-erect, rooted, herbaceous plants
                                                   Conglomerate-a coarse-grained sedimentary rock                  that may be temporarily to permanently flooded
                                                      composed of fragments larger than 2 millimeters              at the base but do not tolerate prolonged inunda-
                                                      in diameter.                                                 tion of the entire plant.
                                                   Contact recreation-recreational activities where            Endangered species-a. species that is in imminent
                                                      there is prolonged or intimate contact with water            danger of becoming extinct.
                                                      and in which there is a likelihood of ingesting          Environment-the sum of all conditions and influ-
                                                      water.                                                       ences affecting the life of organisms.
                                                   Contributing area-the area in a drainage basin that         Ephemeral stream-a stream or part of a stream that
                                                      contributes water to strearnflow or recharge to an           flows only in direct response to precipitation; it
                                                      aquifer.                                                     receives little or no water from springs, melting
                                                   Coral reef-a ridge of limestone, composed chiefly               snow, or other sources; its channel is at all times
                                                      of coral, coral sands, and solid limestone result-           above the water table.
                                                      ing from organic secretion of calcium carbonate;         Erosion-the process whereby materials of the
                                                      occur along continents and islands where the tem-            Earth's crust are loosened, dissolved, or worn
                                                      perature is generally above 18* C.                           away and simultaneously moved from one place
                                                   Core sample-a. sample of rock, soil, or other ma-               to another.
                                                      terial obtained by driving a hollow tube into the        Estuarine wetlands-tidal wetlands in low-wave-en-
                                                      undisturbed medium and withdrawing it with its               ergy environments where the salinity of the water
                                                      contained sample.                                            is greater than 0.5 part per thousand and is vari-
                                                   Cypress dome-small, isolated, circular, depression-             able owing to evaporation and the mixing of sea-
                                                      al, forested wetlands, in which cypress predomi-             water and freshwater; tidal wetlands of coastal riv-
                                                      nates, that have convex silhouettes when viewed              ers and embayments, salty tidal marshes, man-
                                                      from a distance.                                             grove swamps, and tidal flats.
                                                   Deciduous shedding foliage at the end of the grow-          Estuary-area where the current of a stream meets
                                                      ing season.                                                  the ocean and where tidal effects are evident; an
                                                   Deepwater habitat-permanently flooded lands lying               arm of the ocean at the lower end of a river.
                                                      below the deepwater boundary of wetlands.                Eutrophication-the process by which water be-








                                                                              National Water Surnmary-Wetland Resources: SUPPLEMENTAL INFORMATION                     427




                      comes enriched with plant nutrients, most com-            Ground water-in the broadest sense, all subsurface
                      monly phosphorus and nitrogen.                               water; more commonly that part of the subsurface
                  Evaporation-the process by which water is changed                water in the saturated zone.
                      to gas or vapor; occurs directly from water sur-          Ground-water flow system-the underground path-
                      faces and from the soil.                                     way by which ground water moves from areas of
                  Evaporites-    a class of sedimentary rocks composed             recharge to areas of discharge.
                      primarily of minerals precipitated from a saline          Growing season-the frost-free period of the year.
                      solution as a result of extensive or total evapora-       Habitat-the par    t of the physical environment in
                      tion of water.                                               which a plant or animal lives.
                  Evapotranspiration-a term that includes water dis-            Hardpan-a relatively hard, impervious, and usually
                      charged to the atmosphere as a result of evapora-            clayey layer of soil lying at or just below land
                      tion from the soil and surface-water bodies and by           surface-produced as a result of cementation by
                      plant transpiration.                                         precipitation of insoluble minerals.
                  Exotic species-plants or animals not native to the            Herbaceous-with characteristics of an herb; a plant
                      area.                                                        with no persistent woody stem above ground.
                  Fall line-imaginary line marking the boundary be-             Herbicide-a type of pesticide designed to kill plants.
                      tween the ancient, resistant crystalline rocks ofthe      Hydraulic head-the height of the free surface of a
                      Piedmont province of the Appalachian Mountains,              body of water above a given point beneath the
                      and the younger, softer sediments of the Atlantic            surface.
                      Coastal Plain province in the Eastern United              Hydraulic gradient-the change of hydraulic head per
                      States. Along rivers, this line commonly is re-              unit of distance in a given direction.
                      flected by waterfalls.                                    Hydric soil-soil that is wet long enough to periodi-
                  Fallow-cropland, tilled or untilled, allowed to lie              cally produce anaerobic conditions, thereby influ-
                      idle during the whole or greater part of the grow-           encing the growth of plants.
                      ing season.                                               Hydrologic cycle-the circulation of water from the
                  Fen-peat-accumulating wetland that generally re-                 sea, through the atmosphere, to the land, and
                      ceives water from surface runoff and (or) seepage            thence back to the sea by overland and subterra-
                      from mineral soils in addition to direct precipita-          nean routes.
                      tion; generally alkaline; or slightly acid.               Hydrology-the science that deals with water as it
                  Filtrate-hquid that has been passed through a filter.            occurs in the atmosphere, on the surface of the
                  Flood-any relatively high strearnflow that overflows             ground, and underground.
                      the natural or artificial banks of a stream.              Hydrophyte-any plant growing in water or on a sub -
                  Flood attenuation-a weakening or reduction in the                strate that is at least periodically deficient in oxy-
                      force or intensity of a flood.                               gen as a result of excessive water content.
                  Flood plain-a strip of relatively flat land bordering         Hydrostatic pressure-the pressure exerted by the
                      a stream channel that is overflowed at times of              water at any given point in a body of water at rest.
                      high water.                                               Hydrologic regime-the characteristic behavior and
                  Fluvial-pertaining to a river or stream.                         total quantity of water involved in a drainage ba-
                  Flyway-a specific air route taken by birds during                sin.
                      migration.                                                Igneous rocks-rocks that have solidified from mol-
                  Freshwater-water with less than 1,000 milligrams                 ten or partly molten material.
                      per liter of dissolved solids.                            Immobilize-to hold by a strong chemical attraction.
                  Friable-descriptive of a rock or mineral that                 Impaired-condition of the quality of water that has
                      crumbles naturally or is easily broken, pulverized,          been adversely affected for a specific use by con-
                      or reduced to powder.                                        tamination or pollution.
                  Geornorphic-pertaining to the form of the Earth or            Indurated-cemented, hardened, or a rocklike con-
                      of its surface features.                                     dition.
                  Geomorphology-the science that treats the general             Infiltration-the downward movement of water from
                      configuration of the Earth's surface; the descrip-           the atmosphere into soil or porous rock.
                      tion of landforms.                                        Inorganic-containing no carbon; matter other than
                  Glacial-of or relating to the presence and activities            plant or animal.
                      of ice or glaciers.                                       Inorganic soil-soil with less than 20 percent organic
                  Glacial drift-a general term for rock material trans -           matter in the upper 16 inches.
                      ported by glaciers or icebergs and deposited di-          Integrated drainage-drainage developed during
                      rectly on land or in the sea.                                maturity in an and region, characterized by coa-
                  Glacial lake-a lake that derives its water, or much              lescence ofdrainage basins as a result ofheadward
                      of its water, from the melting of glacial ice; also          erosion in the lower basins or spilling over from
                      a lake that occupies a basin produced by glacial             the upper basins.
                      erosion.                                                  Interface-in hydrology, the contact zone between
                  Glacial outwash-stratified detritus (chiefly sand and            two fluids of different chemical or physical
                      gravel) "washed out" from a glacier by meltwa-               makeup.
                      ter streams and deposited in front of or beyond the       Intermittent stream-a stream that flows only when
                      end moraine or the margin of an active glacier.              it receives water from rainfall runoff or springs,








                  428      National Water Surnmary-Wetland Resources: GLOSSARY




                                                        or from some surface source such as melting                    a specified time period, such as tons per year.
                                                        snow.                                                     Loess-a widespread, homogeneous, commonly
                                                    Intermontane-situated between or surrounded by                     nonstratified, porous, friable, slightly coherent,
                                                        mountains, mountain ranges, or mountainous re-                 fine-grained blanket deposit of wind-blown and
                                                        gions.                                                         wind-deposited silt and fine sand.
                                                    Internal drainage-surface drainage whereby the                Main stem-the principal trunk of a river or a stream.
                                                        water does not reach the ocean, such as drainage          Marine wetland-wetlands that are exposed to waves
                                                        toward the lowermost or central part of an inte-               and currents of the open ocean and to water hav-
                                                        rior basin.                                                    ing a salinity greater than 30 parts per thousand;
                                                    Inte.rtidal-alteTnately flooded and exposed by tides.              present along the coastlines of the open ocean.
                                                    lon-a positively or negatively charged atom or group          Marsh-a water-saturated, poorly drained area, inter-
                                                        of atoms.                                                      mittently or permanently water covered, having
                                                    Irrigation-controlled application of water to arable               aquatic and grasslike vegetation.
                                                        land to supply requirements of crops not satisfied        Maturity-a stage in the evolutionary erosion of land
                                                        by rainfall.                                                   areas where the flat uplands have been widely
                                                    Karst-a type of topography that results from disso-                dissected by deep river valleys.
                                                        lution and collapse of carbonate rocks such as            Maturity (stream)-the stage in the development of
                                                        limestone, dolomite, and gypsum, and that is char-             a stream at which it has reached its maximum
                                                        acterized by closed depressions or sinkholes,                  efficiency, when velocity is just sufficient to carry
                                                        caves, and underground drainage.                               the sediment delivered to it by tributaries; char-
                                                    Kettle-a steep-sided hole or depression, commonly                  acterized by a broad, open, flat-floored valley
                                                        without surface drainage, formed by the melting                having a moderate gradient and gentle slope.
                                                        of a large detached block of stagnant ice that had        Mean low tide-the average altitude of all low tides
                                                        been buried in the glacial drift.                              recorded at a given place over a 19-year period.
                                                    Kettle lake-a body of water occupying a kettle, as            Mean high tide-the average altitude of all high tides
                                                        in a pitted outwash plain or in a kettle moraine.              recorded at a given place over a 19-year period.
                                                    Lacustrine-pertaining to, produced by, or formed in           Mesophyte-any plant growing where moisture and
                                                        a lake.                                                        aeration conditions lie between the extremes of
                                                    Lacustrine wetlands-wetlands within a take or res-                 11 wet" and "dry."
                                                        ervoir greater than 20 acres or within a lake or          Metamorphic rocks-rocks derived from preexisting
                                                        reservoir less than 20 acres if the water is greater           rocks by mineralogical, chemical, or structural
                                                        than 2 meters deep in the deepest part of the ba-              changes (essentially in a solid state) in response
                                                        sin; ocean-derived salinity is less than 0.5 part per          to marked changes in temperature, pressure,
                                                        thousand.                                                      shearing stress, and chemical environment at
                                                    Lagoon-a shallow stretch of seawater (or lakewater)                depth in the Earth's crust.
                                                        near or communicating with the sea (or lake) and          Mineral soil-soil composed predominantly of min-
                                                        partly or completely separated from it by a low,               eral rather than organic materials; less than 20
                                                        narrow, elongate strip of land.                                percent organic material.
                                                    Latent heat-the amount of heat given up or absorbed           Mitigation-actions taken to avoid, reduce, or com-
                                                        when a substance changes from one state to an-                 pensate for the effects of human-induced environ-
                                                        other, such as from a liquid to a solid.                       mental damage.
                                                    Lateral moraine-a low ridgelike moraine carried on,           Montane-of, pertaining to, or inhabiting cool upland
                                                        or deposited near, the side margin of a mountain               slopes below the timber line; characterized by the
                                                        glacier.                                                       dominance of evergreen trees.
                                                    Leachate-a liquid that has percolated through soil            Moraine-a mound, ridge, or other distinct accumu-
                                                        containing soluble substances and that contains                lation of unsorted, unstratified glacial drift, pre-
                                                        certain amounts of these substances in solution.               dominantly till, deposited chiefly by direct action
                                                    Life zone-major area of plant atid animal life; re-                of glacier ice.
                                                        gion characterized by particular plants and ani-          Muck-dark, finely divided, well- decomposed, or-
                                                        mals and distinguished by temperature differ-                  ganic matter forming a surface deposit in some
                                                        ences.                                                         poorly drained areas.
                                                    Limestone-a sedimentary rock consisting chiefly of            Muskeg-large expanses of peatlands or bogs that
                                                        calcium carbonate, primarily in the form of the                occur in subarctic zones.
                                                        mineral calcite.                                          National Geodetic Vertical Datum of 1929-geodetic
                                                    Limnetic-the deepwater zone (greater than 2 meters                 datum derived from a general adjustment of first-
                                                        deep); a subsystem of the Lacustrine System of                 order level nets of the United States and Canad a-
                                                        the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service wetland clas-               formerly called "Sea Level Datum of 1929."
                                                        sification system.                                        Natural levee-a long, broad, low ridge built by a
                                                    Littoral-the shallow-water zone (less than 2 meters                stream on its flood plain along one or both banks
                                                        deep); a subsystem of the Lacustrine System of                 of its channel in time of flood.
                                                        the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service wetland clas-          Navigable water-in the context of the Clean Water
                                                        sification system.                                             Act, all surface water.
                                                    Load-material that is moved or carried by streams,            Noncontact water recreation-recreational activities,
                                                        reported as weight of material transported during              such as fishing or boating, that do not include di-








                                                                           National Water Summary-Wetiand Resources: SUPPLEMENTAL INFORMATION                   429




                     rect contact with the water.                               forms differ significantly from those of adjacent
                 Nonpersistent emergent plants-emergent plants                  regions.
                     whose leaves and stems break down at the end of        Physiography-a description of the surface features
                     the growing season from decay or by the physi-             of the Earth, with an emphasis on the mode or
                     cal forces of waves and ice; at certain seasons,           origin.
                     there are no visible traces of the plants above the    Pioneer plant-herbaceous annual and perennial
                     surface of the water.                                      seedling plants that colonize bare areas as a first
                 Nonpoint source-a source (of any water-carried                 stage in secondary succession.
                     material) from a broad area, rather than from dis-     Piping-erosion by percolating water in a layer of
                     crete points.                                              subsoil, resulting in caving and in the formation
                 Nuisance species-undesirable plants and animals,               of narrow conduits, tunnels, or "pipes" through
                     commonly exotic species.                                   which soluble or granular soil material is re-
                 Nutrient-any inorganic or organic compound                     moved.
                     needed to sustain plant life.                          Placer-a surficial mineral deposit formed by me-
                 Organic-containing carbon, but possibly also con-              chanical concentration of mineral particles from
                     taining hydrogen, oxygen, chlorine, nitrogen, and          weathered debris.
                     other elements.                                        Playa-a dry, flat area at the lowest part of an
                 Organic soil-soil that contains more than 20 percent           undrained desert basin in which water accumu-
                     organic matter in the upper 16 inches.                     lates and is quickly evaporated; underlain by
                 Orographic-pertaining to mountains, in regard to               stratified clay, silt, or sand and commonly by
                     their location and distribution; said of the precipi-      soluble salts; term used in Southwestern United
                     tation caused by the lifting of moisture-laden air         States.
                     over mountains.                                        Playa lake-a shallow, temporary lake in an and or
                 Overland flow-the flow of rainwater or snowmelt                semiarid region, covering or occupying a playa in
                     over the land surface toward stream channels.              the wet season but drying up in summer; tempo-
                 Oxbow-a bow-shaped lake formed in an abandoned                 rary lake that upon evaporation leaves or forms a
                     meander of a river.                                        playa.
                 Palustrine wetlands-freshwater wetlands including          Pocosin-a local term along the Atlantic coastal
                     open water bodies of less than 20 acres in which           plain, from Virginia south, for a shrub -scrub wet-
                     water is less than 2 meters deep; includes marshes,        land located on a relatively flat terrain, often be-
                     wet meadows, fens, playas, potholes, pocosins,             tween streams.
                     bogs, swamps, and shallow ponds; most wetlands         Point source-originating at any discrete source.
                     are in the Palustrine system.                          Population-a collection of individuals of one spe-
                 Pathogen-any living organism that causes disease.              cies or mixed species making up the residents of
                 Peat-a highly organic soil, composed of partially              a prescribed area.
                     decomposed vegetable matter.                           Porosity-the ratio of the volume of voids in a rock
                 Perched ground water-unconfined ground water                   or soil to the total volume.
                     separated from an underlying main body of              Potential evapotranspiration-the amount of mois-
                     ground water by an unsaturated zone.                       ture which, if available, would be removed from
                 Percolation-die movement, under hydrostatic pres-              a given land area by evapotranspiration, expressed
                     sure, of water through interstices of a rock or soil       in units of water depth.
                     (except the movement through large openings            Prairie pothole-a shallow depression, generally
                     such as caves).                                            containing wetlands, occurring in an outwash
                 Periphyton-micro-organisms that coat rocks, plants,            plain, a recessional moraine, or a till plain; usu-
                     and other surfaces on lake bottoms.                        ally the result of melted blocks of covered glacial
                 Perennial stream-a stream that normally has water              ice; occur most commonly in the North-Central
                     in its channel at all times.                               United States and in States west of the Great Lakes
                 Permafrost-any frozen soil, subsoil, surficial de-             from Wisconsin to eastern Montana.
                     posit, or bedrock in arctic or subarctic regions       Precipitation-any or all forms of water particles that
                     where below-freezing temperatures have existed             fall from the atmosphere, such as rain, snow, hail,
                     continuously from two to tens of thousands of              and sleet. The act or process of producing a solid
                     years.                                                     phase within a liquid medium.
                 Permeability-the capacity of a rock for transmitting       Pristine-the earliest condition of the quality of a
                     a fluid; a measure of the relative ease with which         water body; unaffected by human activities.
                     a porous medium can transmit a liquid.                 Rain shadow-a dry region on the lee side of a topo-
                 Pesticide-any substance used to kill plant or animal           graphic obstacle, usually a mountain range, where
                     pests; major categories of pesticides include her-         rainfall is noticeably less than on the windward
                     bicides and insecticides.                                  side.
                 pH-a measure of the acidity (less than 7) or alka-         Reach-a continuous part of a stream between two
                     linity (greater than 7) of a solution; a pH of 7 is        specified points.
                     considered neutral.                                    Reaeration-the replenishment of oxygen in water
                 Photosynthesis-the synthesis of compounds with                 from which oxygen has been removed.
                     the aid of light.                                      Recessional moraine-an end moraine built during
                 Physiographic province-a region in which the land-             a temporary but significant pause in the final re-







                    430      National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: GLOSSARY




                                                          treat of a glacier.                                              composed of abundant fragments of sand that are
                                                      Recharge (ground water)-the process involved in the                  more or less firmly united by a cementing mate-
                                                          absorption and addition of water to the zone of                  rial'
                                                          saturation; also, the amount of water added.                 Saturated zone-generally the zone within sediment
                                                      Recharge area (ground water)-an area in which                        and rock formations where all voids are filled with
                                                          water infiltrates the ground and reaches the zone                water under pressure greater than atmospheric.
                                                          of saturation.                                               Savanna-a plain characterized by coarse grasses and
                                                      Recurrence interval-the average interval of time                     scattered tree growth.
                                                          within which the magnitude of a given event, such            Scrub-shrub wetland-wetlands dominated by
                                                          as a storm or flood, will be equaled or exceeded                 woody vegetation less than 6 meters tall,
                                                          once.                                                        Sea level-the long-term average position of the sea
                                                      Regolith-the layer or mantle of fragmented and un-                   surface; in this volume, it refers to the National
                                                          consolidated rock material, residual or trans-                   Geodetic Vertical Datum of 1929.
                                                          ported, that nearly everywhere forms the surface             Secondary succession-an association of plants that
                                                          of the land and overlies or covers the bedrock.                  develops after the destruction of A or part of the
                                                      Regulation (of a stream)-artificial manipulation of                  original plant community.
                                                          the flow of a stream.                                        Sediment-particles derived from rocks or biologi-
                                                      Return flow-that part of irrigation water that is not                cal materials that have been transported by, sus-
                                                          consumed by evapotranspiration and that returns                  pended in, or deposited by air, water, or ice or that
                                                          to its source or another body of water.                          are accumulated by other natural agents, such as
                                                      Riparian-pertaining to or situated on the bank of a                  chemical precipitation from solution or secretion
                                                          natural body of flowing water.                                   by organisms.
                                                      Riverine wetlands-wetlands within river and stream               Sedimentary rocks-rocks resulting from the consoli-
                                                          channels; ocean-derived salinity is less than 0.5                dation of loose sediment that has accumulated in
                                                          part per thousand.                                               layers.
                                                      Runoff-that part of precipitation or snowmelt that               Sedimentation-the act or process of forniing or ac-
                                                          appears in streams or surface-water bodies.                      cumulating sediment in layers; the process of
                                                      Salina-an area where deposits of crystalline salt are                deposition of sediment.
                                                          formed, such as a salt flat; a body of saline water,         Seep-a small area where water percolates slowly to
                                                          such as a saline playa or salt marsh.                            the land surface.
                                                      Saline water-water that is considered generally un-              Seiche-a sudden oscillation of the water in a mod-
                                                          suitable for human consumption or for irrigation                 erate-size body of water, caused by wind.
                                                          because of its high content of dissolved solids;             Shale-a fine-grained sedimentary rock formed by
                                                          generally expressed as milligrams per liter (mg/L)               the consolidation of clay, silt, or mud.
                                                          of dissolved solids; seawater is generally consid-           Shallows-a term applied to a shallow place or area
                                                          ered to contain more than 35,000 mg/L of dis-                    in a body of water; a shoal.
                                                          solved solids. A general salinity scale is-                  Shoal-a relatively shallow place in a stream, lake,
                                                                                               Dissolved solids,           or sea.
                                                          Description                    in milligrams per liter       Shrubland-land covered predominantly with shrubs.
                                                            Slightly ...................................  1,000-3,000  Siltation-the deposition or accumulation of silt ( or
                                                                                                                           small-grained material) in a body of water.
                                                            Moderately    ...........................  3,000-10,000    Siltstone-an indurated silt having the texture and
                                                            Very  ....................................  10,000-35,000      composition of shale but lacking its fine lamina-
                                                            Brine  ............................. More than 35,000          tion.
                                                                                                                       Silviculture-the cultivation of forest trees.
                                                          In the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service wetland clas-          Sinkhole-a depression in an area underlain by lime-
                                                          sification system, a general term for waters con-                stone. Its drainage is subterranean.
                                                          taining various dissolved salts; applied specifi-            Slough-a small marshy tract lying in a swale or
                                                          cally to inland waters where the ratio of salts of-              other local shallow undrained depression; a slug-
                                                          ten vary; the term haline is applied to coastal wa-              gish creek or channel in a wetland.
                                                          ters where the salts are roughly in the same pro-            Soil horizon-a layer of soil that is distinguishable
                                                          portion as found in sea water.                                   from adjacent layers by characteristic physical and
                                                      Salinity-the concentration of dissolved salts in a                   chemical properties.
                                                          body of water; commonly expressed as parts per               Soil moisture-water occurring in the pore spaces be-
                                                          thousand.                                                        tween the soil particles in the unsaturated zone
                                                      Salt flat-the level, salt-encrusted bottom of a dried                from which water is discharged by the transpira-
                                                          up lake or pond.                                                 tion of plants or by evaporation from the soil.
                                                      Salt meadow-a meadow subject to overflow by salt                 Spit-a small point or low tongue or narrow embank-
                                                          water.                                                           ment of land having one end attached to the main-
                                                      Saltwater-water with a high concentration of salt;                   land and the other terminating in open water.
                                                          sometimes used synonymously with seawater or                 Specific conductance-a measure of the ability of a
                                                          saline water.                                                    substance to conduct an electrical current.
                                                      Sandstone-a medium-grained sedimentary rock                      Spoil-overburden or other waste material removed







                                                                           National Water Surnmary-Wetland Resources: SUPPLEMENTAL INFORMATION                  431




                     in mining, quarrying, dredging, or excavating.             sand, gravel, and boulders.
                 Spring-area where there is a concentrated discharge         Tinaja-a pocket of water developed below a water-
                     of ground water that flows at the ground surface.          fall; a term used in the Southwestern United
                 Stage-height of the water surface above an estab-              States; used loosely to mean a temporary pool.
                     lished datum plane, such as in a river above a pre-     Topography-the general configuration of a land sur-
                     determined point that may (or may not) be near             face or any part of the Earth's surface, including
                     the channel floor.                                         its relief and the position of its natural and man-
                 Storm surge-an abnormal and sudden rise of the sea             made features.
                     along a shore as a result of the winds of a storm.      Trace element-a chemical element that occurs in
                 Streamflow-the discharge of water in a natural                 minute quantities in a substance.
                     channel.                                                Trade winds-a system of easterly winds that domi-
                 Submersed plant-a plant which lies entirely beneath            nate most of the tropics. A major component of
                     the water surface, except for flowering parts in           the general circulation of the atmosphere.
                     some species.                                           Transpiration-the process by which water passes
                 Subsidence-the gradual downward settling or sink-              through living organisms, primarily plants, into
                     ing of the Earth's surface with little or no hori-         the atmosphere.
                     zontal motion.                                          Tandra-a vast, nearly level, treeless plain of the
                 Substrate-the surface beneath a wetland in which               arctic and subarctic regions. It usually has a
                     organisms grow or to which organisms are at-               marshy surface which supports mosses, lichens,
                     tached.                                                    and low shrubs, underlain by mucky soils and
                 Subtidal-continuously submerged; an area affected              permafrost.
                     by ocean tides.                                         Turbidity-the state, condition, or quality of opaque-
                 Surface runoff-runoff which travels over the land              ness or reduced clarity of a fluid due to the pres-
                     surface to the nearest stream channel.                     ence of suspended matter.
                 Surface water-an open body of water such as a lake,         Unconfined aquifer-an aquifer whose upper surface
                     river, or stream.                                          is a water table free to fluctuate under atmospheric
                 Suspended sediment-sediment that is transported in             pressure.
                     suspension by a stream.                                 Understory-a foliage layer lying beneath and shaded
                 Swale-a slight depression, sometimes filled with               by the main canopy of a forest.
                     water, in the midst of generally level land.            Unsaturated zone-a subsurface zone above the wa-
                 Swamp-an area inter mittently or permanently cov-              ter table where the pore spaces may contain a
                     ered with water, and having trees and shrubs.              combination of air and water.
                 Tarn-a. relatively small and deep, steep-sided lake         Upland-a general term for nonwetland; elevated
                     or pool occupying an ice-gouged basin amid gla-            land above low areas along streams or between
                     ciated mountains.                                          hills; any elevated region from which rivers gather
                 Tectonic activity-movement of the Earth's crust re-            drainage.
                     sulting in the formation of ocean basins, conti-        Vascular plant-a plant composed of or provided with
                     nents, plateaus, and mountain ranges.                      vessels or ducts that convey water or sap. A fern
                 Terrestrial-pertaining to, consisting of, or represent-        is an example of this type of plant.
                     ing the Earth.                                          Vernal pool-a small lake or pond that is filled with
                 Terminal moraine-the end moraine extending                     water for only a short time during the spring.
                     across a glacial plain or valley as an arcuate or       Water budget-an accounting of the inflow to, out-
                     crescent ridge that marks the farthest advance or          flow from, and storage changes of water in a hy-
                     maximum extent of a glacier.                               drologic unit.
                 Terrain-physical features of a tract of land.               Water column-an imaginary column extending
                 Terrane-area or surface over which a particular rock           through a water body from its floor to its surface.
                     type or group of rock types is prevalent.               Water gap--a deep, narrow pass in a mountain ridge,
                 Thermokarst-an irregular land surface formed in a              through which a stream flows.
                     permafrost region by melting ground ice and a           Watershed-same as drainage basin.
                     subsequent settling of the ground.                      Water table-the top water surface of an unconfined
                 Tidal flat-an extensive, nearly horizontal, tract of           aquifer at atmospheric pressure.
                     land that is alternately covered and uncovered by       Weathering-process whereby earthy or rocky ma-
                     the tide and consists of unconsolidated sediment.          terials are changed in color, texture, composition,
                 Tide-the rhythmic, alternate rise and fall of the sur-         or form (with little or no transportation) by expo-
                     face (or water level) of the ocean, and connected          sure to atmospheric agents.
                     bodies of water, occurring twice a day over most        Wetland function-a process or series of processes
                     of the Earth, resulting from the gravitational at-         that take place within a wetland that are benefi-
                     traction of the Moon, and to a lesser degree, the          cial to the wetland itself, the surrounding ecosys-
                     Sun.                                                       tems, and people.
                 Till-predominantly unsorted and unstratified drift,         Willow carr-a pool, or wetland dominated by wil-
                     deposited directly by and underneath a glacier             low trees or shrubs.
                     without subsequent reworking by meltwater, and          Xerophyte-a plant adapted for growth under dry
                     consisting of a heterogeneous mixture of clay, silt,       conditions.

                                                 U.S. Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper 2425

























































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                                                  ISBN 0-607-85696-3


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                                                  3 6668 14101 3013