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NATiONAL WATER SUMMARY 9.,-N WETLAND RES.OURCES United States Geological Survey IA later-Supply Paper 2425 GB 624 .N37 1996 National Water Summary Series 1983-Hydrologic Events and Issues (U.S. Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper 2250) 1984- Hydrologic Events, Selected Water-Quality Trends, and Ground Water Resources (U.S. Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper 2275) 1985-Hydrologic Events and Surface-Water Resources (U.S. Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper 2300) 1986-Hydrologic Events and Ground-Water Quality (U.S. Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper 2325) 1987- Hydrologic Events and Water Supply and Use (U.S. Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper 2350) 1988-89- Hydrologic Events and Floods and Droughts (U.S. Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper 2375) 1990-91- Hydrologic Events and Stream Water Quality (U.S. Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper 2400) Suggestions and comments on this or any other U.S. Geological Survey publication are most welcome. Remarks should be addressed to: Chief Hydrologist, U.S. Geologocal Survey, 409 National Center, Reston VA 22092 Front Cover. Wetlands along the Homosassa River, at Homosassa, Florida. (Photograph byludy D. Fretwell, U.S. Geological Survey.) NATiONAL WATER SUMMARY all ON WETLAND RESOURCES -D 7 2, in 81, 6A By U.S. Geological Survey Judy D. Fretwell, John S. Williams, and Phillip J. Redman, Compilers United States Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper 2425 U.S. DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR BRUCE BABBITT, Secretary U.S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY :3 Gordon P Eaton, Director CH 3 UNITED STATES GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: 1996 For sale by the U.S. Government Printing Office Superintendent of Documents, M.S. SSOP, Washington, D.C. 20402-9328 United States Geological Survey National Water Summary ISBN 0-607-85696-3 Foreword National Water Summary on Wetland Resources is the eighth in a series of reports that describes the condi- tions, trends, availability, quality, and use of the water resources of the United States. This volume describes an often-overlooked water resource-wetlands. It gives a broad overview of wetland resources and includes discus- sions of the scientific basis for understanding wetland functions and values; legislation that regulates the uses of wetlands; wetland research, inventory, and evaluation; and issues related to the restoration, creation, and recovery of wetlands. In addition, it presents more-specific information-types and distribution, hydrologic setting, trends, and conservation-on the wetland resources of each State, the District of Columbia, Puerto Rico, the U.S. Virgin Islands, and several Pacific islands over which the United States has jurisdiction. Wetlands serve as a transitional environment between water bodies and dry land and represent a significant part of the Natiotfs natural resources. They contain economically important timber, fuel, and food sources; provide esthetic and recreational opportunities; and influence the quantity, quality, and ecological status of water bodies, which include rivers, aquifers, lakes, reservoirs, and estuaries. Wetlands owe their existence, in part, to precipitation, streams, lakes, ground water, and oceans and, in return, perform important functions that affect the quantity and quality of these water resources. Although wetlands are best known for their function as habitat for birds, fish, and other wildlife, their less well known hydrologic and water-quality functions provide such benefits as reducing the severity of flooding and erosion by modifying the flow of water or improving water quality by filtering out contaminants. Public and scientific views of wetlands have changed greatly over time. Only a few decades ago, wetlands were generally considered to be of little or no value. Those who eliminated wetlands through draining or filling were thought of as performing a public service. The role of the wetlands as a breeding ground for disease (prima- rily malaria) and their inability to be exploited for agricultural production caused them to be viewed as an eco- nomic "bad" rather than as a public "good," as they are viewed today. Because of new scientific knowledge, as well as a change in values (as manifested in our Natioifs environmental laws), efforts to eliminate wetlands are viewed in a negative light by many. In fact, government and private citizens are making investments in the preservation, remediation, or creation of wetlands. Although we now understand some of the benefits of wetlands and government agencies have established programs to protect them, wetland-protection policies remain a controversial public issue. In keeping with its mis- sion, the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) has prepared this report with the intent of informing public officials, scientists, and the general public about wetlands. Our purpose is to increase and help improve the understanding of this valuable resource and to provide the scientific information base upon which wise decisions regarding the clas- sification, use, modification, or restoration of wetlands can be made. The hydrologic, biological, and economic consequences of these decisions are substantial and often politically contentious. The USGS takes no position on these issues but hopes to make a positive contribution to the process whereby these decisions are made. The USGS is an earth science information agency. It collects, manages, and disseminates data; conducts inter- pretive scientific studies and research; and publishes the results of these efforts in many forms. The work of the USGS is organized into four thematic areas-resources, hazards, environment, and information management. Wetlands are addressed in each of these areas. For example, some wetlands play an integral role in water-resource availability because they are major discharge areas for some aquifers. Some wetlands relate to the hazards theme through their role in the mitigation of floods. Wetlands are affected by environmental changes, such as changes in the source or distribution of water, and, in turn, cause changes in the environment, such as shifts in vegetation or in habitat for birds, fish, and other animals; studies of these changes tie into the environmental theme. And, finally, with respect to the information management theme, the process of classifying, monitoring, and understanding wetlands is dependent upon the hydrologic, geologic, and topographic data collected by the USGS. The USGS has taken this opportunity to draw on the expertise of the many agencies and organizations that have missions directly or indirectly related to wetlands to provide a broad background for government officials, water-resource managers, and the general public. You will note that many of the chapters of this volume have authors from other agencies with key roles in research, classification, or management of wetlands. Production of this volume was a team effort, just as management of wetlands is a team effort. We thank our colleagues in the many other agencies that helped make this report possible. I would like to pay special tribute to the late Dr. Edward T. LaRoc of the National Biological Service, coauthor of the chapter on research. He was a leading wetland re- searcher and played a pivotal role in the evolution of all biological research in the U.S. Department of the Interior. Though this volume merely touches on the many and varied aspects of wetlands, it provides a starting place for further study and a base upon which to begin to understand the values of wetlands to the Nation. We hope it is useful, and we welcome your comments on this volume, as well as on our other products. DIRECTOR 'J4 Hidden River near Hornosassa Springs, Florida. (Photograph byjudy D. Fretwell, U.S. Geological Survey.) There has been a lot said about the sacredness of our land which is our body, and the values of our culture which is our soul. But water is the blood of our tribes, and if its life-giving flow is stopped, or it is polluted, all else will die and the many thousands of years of our communal existence will come to an end. Frank Tenorio, Governor, San Felipe Pueblo, 1978 IV National Water Summary -Wetland Resources: CONTENTS V Contents Foreword .................................................................................................... Executive Summary, State Summary Highlights, and Introduction ............... I Executive summary ............................................................................................. 3 State summary highlights ..................................................................................... 7 Introduction ........................................................................................................ 15 Overview of Wetland Resources ................................................................. 17 Technical aspects of wetlands- History of wetlands in the conterminous United States Thomas E. Dahl and Gregory]. Allord ......................................... 19 Wetland definitions and classifications in the United States Ralph W. Tiner ............................................................................ 27 Wetland hydrology, water quality, and associated functions Virginia Carter ............................................................................. 35 Wetlands as bird habitat Robert E. Stewart, Jr . .................................................................... 49 Wetland management and research- Wetland protection legislation Todd H. Votteler and Thomas A. Muir ........................................ 57 Wetland research by Federal agencies Richard E. Coleman, Edward T. LaRoe, and Russell F. Theriot ..... 65 Wetland mapping and inventory Bill 0. Wilen, Virginia Carter, and]. RonaldJones ...................... 73 Wetland functions, values, and assessment Richard P. Novitzki, R. Daniel Smith, and Judy D. Fretwell ......... 79 Restoration, creation, and recovery of wetlands- Wetland restoration and creation Mary E. Kentula ........................................................................... 87 Effects of Hurricane Andrew (1992) on wetlands in southern Florida and Louisiana John K. Lovelace and Benjamin J. McPherson ............................. 93 Effects of the Great Midwest Flood of 1993 on wetlands James R. Kolva ............................................................................ 97 State Summaries of Wetland Resources ....................................................... 99 Alabama ......................... 101 Maine ............................. 213 Oklahoma ....................... 315 Alaska ............................. 107 Maryland and District Oregon ........................... 321 Arizona ........................... 115 of Columbia ................. 219 Pennsylvania ................... 327 Arkansas ......................... 121 Massachusetts ................. 225 Puerto Rico ..................... 333 California ........................ 127 Michigan ........................ 231 Rhodelsland ................... 339 Colorado ......................... 135 Minnesota ....................... 237 South Carolina ................ 345 Connecticut .................... 141 Mississippi ...................... 243 South Dakota .................. 351 Delaware ............... ........ 147 Missouri .......................... 249 Tennessee ....................... 357 Florida ............................ 153 Montana ......................... 255 Texas .............................. 363 Georgia ........................... 161 Nebraska ........................ 261 U.S. Virgin Islands .......... 369 Hawaii ............................ 167 Nevada ........................... 267 Utah ............................... 375 Idaho .............................. 173 New Hampshire .............. 273 Vermont .......................... 381 Illinois ............................. 179 New Jersey ...................... 279 Virginia ........................... 387 Indiana ........................... 185 New Mexico ................... 285 Washington .................... 393 Iowa ............................... 191 New York ....................... 291 West Virginia .................. 399 Kansas ............................ 195 North Carolina ................ 297 Western Pacific Islands ... 405 Kentucky ......................... 201 North Dakota .................. 303 Wisconsin ....................... 411 Louisiana ........................ 207 Ohio ............................... 309 Wyoming ........................ 417 V1 National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: CONTENTS Supplemental Information ........................................................................... 423 Conversion factors ............................................................................................... 424 Glossary .............................................................................................................. 425 Figures 1-13. Maps showing- I . Distribution of wetlands and cleepwater habitats in the United States ......................................................................... 5 2. States with notable wetland loss, I 780's to mid-1 980's ............. 19 3. Extent of wetlands in Washington County, N. C., circa 1780 and 1900 .............................................................. 20 4. States with notable wetland loss, early I 600's to 1800 .............. 20 5. Major United States land acquisitions between 1800 and 1860 21 6. States with notable wetland loss, 1800 to 1860 ....... ................ 21 7. Confederate States of America with wetlands depicted for strategic rather than natural resources value ........................... 22 8. Location, estimated original acreage, and drainage of Ohio's historic wetlands .................................................................... 22 9. Wetlands of the Central Valley of California, circa 1850 and 1990 ....................................................................................... 23 10. States with notable wetland loss, 1860 to 1900 ........................ 23 11. States with notable wetland loss, 1900 to 1950 ........................ 24 12. States with notable wetland loss, 1950 to 1990 ........................ 24 13. Evolution of Horicon Marsh, Wis., from original marsh, to lake, to swamp, to wildlife refuge ....................................... 25 14. Cross sections of selected wetland landscapes showing typical positions of wetlands relative to topographic features .......................................... 27-28 15. Diagram showing classification hierarchy of wetlands and cleepwater habitats showing systems, subsystems, and classes ............................... 30 16. Photographs of some wetlands in the United States and chart showing examples of their classification ............................................ ................ 33 17. Map showing major wetland areas in the United States ........................... 35 18. Diagram showing components of the wetland water budget .................... 36 19. Diagram of water budgets for selected wetlands in the United States and Canada ..................................................................... 37 20. Cross section showing percentage of transpiration and evaporation from various wetland components ........................................................ 38 21. Graph showing monthly streannflow from two wetlands in northern Minnesota ............................................................................................. 39 22. Cross section showing ground-water flow systems ................................... 39 23. Diagrams showing seasonal changes in storage capacity and evapotranspiration (ET) in wetlands ...................................................... 40 24. Cross sections showing principal hydrogeologic settings for wetlands 42 25. Map showing continuous, discontinuous, and sporadic permafrost areas of Alaska .................... .......................................................................... 43 26. Simplified diagram of the nitrogen cycle in a wetland ............................. 45 27. Diagram showing movement of the freshwater-saltwater interface in an estuary during periods of high flow and low flow ............................. 46 28-33. Photographs showing- 28. A wetland that is habitat for migrating snow geese .................... 49 National Water Summary - Wetland Resources: CONTENTS VIII Figures-Continued 29. A petroglyph and a clay pot ...................................................... 49 30. A baby heron in a wetland environment ................................... 50 31. Raccoons .................................................................................. 50 32. An American alligator ............................................................... 50 33. An American bittern hidden in vegetation ................................. 50 34. Map showing major flyway corridors for migrating birds in the Western Hemisphere ............................................................................ 51 35. Photograph showing a prothonotary warbler feeding on insects .............. 54 36. Graph showing the relation of pond density increase to number of ducks ................................................................................................ 54 37. Photograph showing duck stamps ........................................................... 55 38. Map showing the location of National Fish and Wildlife Refuge System reserves and Ramsar sites in the United States ........................... 56 39. Schematic diagram showing a typical U.S. Army Corps of Engineers review process for Section 404 dredge-and-fill permit request .............. 60 40-41. Graphs showing- 40. Status of 40 wetland mitigation projects in south Florida ........... 63 41. Cost of Federal agency wetland research, per State, during fiscal year 1992 ...................................................................... 65 42-43. Graphs and charts showing- 42. Summary of Federal agency wetland research expenditures by research category during 1992 ............................................... 66 43. Summary of Federal agency wetland research expenditures by wetland type during 1992 ...................................................... 67 44-46. Maps showing- 44. Areas of the United States that have been mapped by the National Wetlands Inventory program, and status of those maps, 1996 ............................................................................ 73 45. Areas of the conterminous United States and Hawaii where wetland data have been digitized by the National Wetlands Inventory program, 1996 ........................................................ 74 46. Wetlands depicted by unbounded symbols ............................... 75 47. Aerial photograph and map showing wetland features ............................ 76 48. Photographs and chart detailing the sequence of steps in producing National Wetlands Inventory maps ....................................................... 77 49. Photograph showing flooding in the Upper Mississippi River Basin, summer 1993 ........................................................................................ 79 50-51. Diagrams showing- 50. Wetland functions relative to the location of the wetland within a watershed ............ .................................................... 80 51. Wetland functions and internal and external values .................. 81 52. Photograph showing a view of a restored salt marsh in the Salmon River Estuary on the Oregon coast ................................................................. 87 53. Diagram showing the relative position of a basin substrate, the water table, and differences in vegetation resulting from the degree of basin slope ..................................................................................................... 88 54. Photograph of a scientist checking to see if a soi I sample has the unique coloration typical of wetland (hydric) soils ................................ 89 55. Graph showing a typical performance curve illustrating the comparison of groups of natural wetlands and restored wetlands of the same type and similar size in the same land-use setting ................................. 90 Vill National Water Sum mary-Wetland Resources: CONTENTS Figures-Continued 56. Photograph of a restored wetland in Portland, Oreg . ............................... 91 57-58. Maps showing- 57. Storm path and areal extent of tropical-storm- and hurricane- force winds produced by Hurricane Andrew, August 1992 ..... 93 58. Storm-surge elevations at selected points along the coast of Florida ................................................................................ 94 59. Map and graphs showing storm-surge elevations at selected points along the coast of Louisiana ........................................................................... 94 60-61. Photographs showing- 60. Hammock and pine forests in Everglades National Park, Fla., after Hurricane Andrew, September 1992 ............................... 95 61. Dead fish in the Atchafalaya River Basin, La., September 2, 1992 ...................................................................................... 96 62. Map showing areal extent of flooding in the Upper Mississippi River Basin during the Great Midwest Flood of 1993 ..................................... 97 In "State Summaries of Wetland Resources"- Each State summary has photographs and maps showing- 1. A well-known wetland in the State. 2. Wetland distribution and physiography. Some State summaries have other maps, diagrams, or photographs showing related wetland resources information. Tables 1. Acreage granted to the States under the authority of the Swamp Land Acts of 1849, 1850, and 1860 .............................................................. 21 2. Examples of wetland definitions used by Federal and State agencies in the United States ................................................................................... 29 3. Classes and subclasses of wetlands and deepwater habitats as defined by Cowardin and others (1979) ................................................................. 31 4. Water regime modifiers as defined by Cowardin and others (1979) ......... 32 5. Wetland-dependent breeding birds of the conterminous United States including federally endangered or threatened species and subspecies ... 52-53 6. Federal programs that have significant effects on wetlands in the United States ......................................................................................... 58-59 7. Methods of altering wetlands ................................................................... 61 In "State Summaries of Wetland Resources"- Each State summary has a table that lists the wetland-related activities of Federal, State, and local government agencies and private organizations in the State, Executive Summary, State Highlights and Introduction Wetland in Bridgeport Valley, California; Sierra Nevada Mountains in the background. (Photograph by Steve Van Denburgh, U.S. Geological Survey.) IIIE J 7%, A" J" This wetland is part of a local park near Madison, Wisconsin. (Photograph by Patricia S. Greene.) 2 National Water Surnmary-Wetland Resources: EXECUTIVE SUMMARY 3 Executive Summary This National Water Summary on Wetland Resources documents wetland resources in the United States. It presents an overview of the status of our knowledge of wetlands at the present time-what they are, where they are found, why they are important, and the controversies surrounding them, with an emphasis on their hydrology. The "State Summaries of Wetland Resources" part of this National Water Summary describes wedand resources in each State, the District of Columbia (combined with Maryland), Puerto Rico, the U.S. Virgin Islands, and the Western Pacific Islands. The following discussion is a summary of the two parts of this book-"Overview of Wetland Resources" and "State Summaries of Wetland Resources." OVERVIEW OF WETLAND RESOURCES The Overview of Wetland Resources part of this National Water Summary consists of three sections- "Technical Aspects of Wetlands," "Wetland Management and Research," and "Restoration, Creation, and Recovery of Wetlands"-that contain 11 articles providing information on many technical and societal as- pects of wetland resources. The following text summarizes the many facts about wetland resources that these articles report. Technical Aspects Of Wetland Resources Wetlands began disappearing soon after permanent European colonization of the United States. More than one-half of the 221 million acres of wetlands that existed at that time have disappeared; only 103 mil- lion acres remain today. Early in this Natiorfs history, it was believed that wetlands presented obstacles to development and that wetlands should be eliminated. Federal laws provided incentives for "reclaiming" wet- lands. Only recently people have begun to recognize wetland values and attempted to find ways to preserve them, including changing Federal laws. These attempts have slowed the rate of wetland loss, but losses con- tinue today. The history of wetland losses in the conterminous United States from the time of the first perma- nent European settlement and changes in societal attitudes toward wetlands are documented in "History of Wetlands in the Conterminous United States." Although there is controversy over the precise, legal definition of a wetland, wetlands are scientifically defined by their hydrology, vegetation, and soils. The many different types of wetlands, found in many dif- ferent geographic settings, have different functions. Wetlands can be grouped according to these differences using a nationally consistent terminology (Cowardin and others, 1979) to identify mapping units for Federal and State wetland inventories and to determine wetland status and trends that can aid in planning and man- agement of the resource. The different types of wetlands and the classification systems describing them are presented in "Wetland Definitions and Classifications in the United States." An understanding of the basic hydrologic processes that control the formation, persistence, size, and functions of wetlands is necessary for determining appropriate protective measures for particular wetlands and for determining the success of those measures. The source and distribution of water is a major factor in the differences in wetland types and distribution across the country. Both a favorable geologic setting and an adequate and persistent supply of water are necessary for the existence of a wetland. Different wetlands re- ceive water from different sources; ground water, streams, lakes, tides, snow, and rain. The source of water largely determines its quality, which in turn is largely responsible for wetland vegetation. The wetland veg- etation affects the value of the wetland to animals and people. Wetlands provide many beneficial water-re- lated functions. Some wetlands provide flood control, some provide water for aquifers, others feed streams, some modify climate, others improve water quality, some help maintain the salt balance necessary for estua- rine life, and still others control erosion. "Wetland Hydrology, Water Quality, and Associated Functions" describes the different water-related factors that determine what types of wetlands will be established and what functions each will perform. One of the best known functions of wetlands is as habitat for birds. About one-third of the North Ameri- can bird species use wetlands for water, food, shelter, or breeding. About 138 of the 1,900 bird species in the conterminous United States are wetland dependent. For wetland- dependent birds, habitat loss or degrada- tion usually translates to population loss. Some international treaties-The Migratory Bird Treaty and the Ramsar Convention-are partly responsible for much of the formal wetland protection in this country. "Wet- lands as Bird Habitat" discusses the relation of birds and wetlands and the effects of wetland losses on birds, and describes some efforts to reduce wetland loss. Wetland Management And Research Many of the benefits that wetlands provide accrue primarily to the general public instead of the private landowners. Landowners usually have few incentives to conserve wetlands that fulfill the needs of the gen- eral public. The Government, therefore, provides incentives and regulates and manages some wetland re- sources to protect the resources from degradation and destruction. Despite current recognition of wetland benefits, potentially conflicting interests still exist, and disagreement on how to protect wetlands has led to differences in local, State, and Federal guidelines. Current wetland-protection regulation commonly require's that wetland loss to development be offset by replacing wetlands by means of mitigation. Section 404 of the Clean Water Act and the "Swampbuster" program are two major Federal vehicles of wetland proteefion. Coastal 4 National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: EXECUTIVE SUMMARY wetlands are provided some protection by the Coastal Zone Management Act and the Coastal Barriers Re- sources Act. Major Federal legislation and initiatives that affect wetlands are discussed in "Wetland Protec- tion Legislation." The recent understanding of wetland values and the benefits that they provide has been broadened by the research efforts. In 1992, wetland research was being done by 19 Federal agencies-12 of which had expen- ditures of $1 million or more-as part of their mission or responsibilities defined by Congress. In 1992, Fed- eral wetland research expenditures totaled about $63 million. Ecological processes and functions differ with wetland type; therefore, research needs and techniques also differ. Types of Federal wetland research fall into one of the following broad categories: wetland processes, wetland functions, human-induced stresses, delineation and identification, and management. Research needs also differ among agencies; nevertheless, efforts are coordinated to share information and to avoid duplication. Disappearing coastal and bottom-land hardwood wetlands are among the major areas of research. These and other areas of research are discussed in "Wetland Research by Federal Agencies." Wetland mapping is a prerequisite for wetland inventory, regulation, management, protection, and res- toration. Maps are used to analyze wetland trends and the effects of projecfs, policies, and activities on wet- lands. The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service has a major responsibility for the mapping and inventory of the Nation's wetlands as mandated by legislation enacted in the past 40 years. This responsibility is satisfied through the agency's National Wetlands Inventory program by producing maps, establishing a wetland data base, publishing and distributing reports on the status and trends of wetlands in this country, and by provid- ing other products related to the identification, mapping, and inventory of wetlands. To date, the National Wetlands Inventory has produced more than 43,300 maps, covering more than 83 percent of the contermi- nous United States, 28 percent of Alaska, and all of Hawaii and the U.S. Territories. Other Federal agencies with wetland mapping and inventory activities, specific to their missions, are the Natural Resources Conser- vation Service (formerly known as the Soil Conservation Service)-freshwater wetlands with the potential for agricultural conversion; the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration-coastal wetlands asso- ciated with marine resources; and the U.S. Geological Survey-geographically significant wetlands. More information can be found in "Wetland Mapping and Inventory." Placing a value on wetlands facilitates decisions on which sites should be developed to ensure that the most valuable wetlands are preserved. The value of a wetland lies in the benefits that its habitat, water-qual- ity, and hydrologic functions provide to the environment or to people. Economic value can be placed on some wetland products, but true value goes beyond money. Some wetland values extend beyond the perimeter of the wetland and provide benefits on a local, regional, or global scale. Several systems of wetland evaluation have been or are being developed to assign numerical values to wetland functions in order to allow for the comparison of the worth of one wetland to another. The article "Wetland Functions, Values, and Assessment" discusses three different wetland evaluation methods-the Federal Highway Administratiorfs "Weiland Evaluation Technique," the U. S. Environmental Protection Agency's "Environmental Monitoring Assessment Program-Wetlands," and the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers@ "Hydrogeomorphic Approach." Restoration, Creation, And Recovery For the past few centuries wetlands have been drained or altered to accommodate human needs. This continues to happen, although at a slower rate than in the past. As people have begun to recognize what is lost when wetlands are destroyed, efforts have been made to restore lost wetlands or to create new ones. Restoration and creation of wetlands can help maintain the quality of wetlands and their surrounding eco- systems, and at the same time accommodate the human need for development. Although indications are that some replacement can be successful, full functional replacement has not yet been demonstrated. This is, in part, because ofthe youth ofmost restoration and creation projects and, in part, because ofthe lack offollowup on most projects. Scientific knowledge about wetland restoration and creation differs by wetland type, func- tion, and location. We know most about intertidal salt marshes and know much less about replacing forested wetlands because of the time needed for woody vegetation to mature. The more complex the hydrology and ecology of a system, the more difficult it is to restore the system; complete restoration might be impossible in some systems. The ecosystems least likely to be replaced are bogs and fens that have developed over thou- sands of years. "Wetland Restoration and Creation" discusses what is involved in restoring and creating wetlands and chances of being successful. In August 1992, Hurricane Andrew caused massive destruction in southern Florida and in Louisiana- two States with some of the largest wetland acreages in the country The storm passed directly over the Florida Everglades-the largest wetland complex in the United States and the Atchafalaya River Basin, La., which contains the largest hardwood swamp in the United States. Although there were some immediate detrimen- tal effects on plants and animals, the long-term effects seem to have been minimal in Florida. In Louisiana, the hurricane may have hastened the coastal erosion and wetland deterioration processes that were already at work. "Effects of Hurricane Andrew (1992) on Wetlands in Southern Florida And Louisiana" describes the effects of this major hurricane on these wetlands. The Great Midwest Flood of 1993, in the Mississippi and Missouri River Basins, was the most devastat- ing flood in United States'history. The areal extent, intensity, and long duration makes this flood unique in the 20th century. Effects of the flood were both detrimental and beneficial to wetlands. Trees were uprooted, islands were eroded, many wetland plants were destroyed, and several bird species fledged few young. Massive sedimentation buried mussels; marnmals displaced from the flood plain suffered higher than normal mor- National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: EXECUTIVE SUMMARY 5 talities on highways and railroads; the floodwaters transported large amounts of contaminants and nutrients into and down streams; nuisance plants replaced native vegetation; and turbidity made it difficult for some fish to feed. Nevertheless, some fish spawn and feed on inundated flood plains when temperature rise accompanies flooding-which was the case in this flooding. Also, some fish habitat was improved by the creation of deep scour holes and massive underwater debris piles that provide cover. Effects of the flooding are discussed in "Effects of the Great Midwest Flood of 1993 on Wetlands." STATE SUMMARIES OF WETLAND RESOURCES State Summaries of Wetland Resources in this National Water Summary provides an overview of the wetland resources of the 50 States, the District of Columbia (combined with Maryland), Puerto Rico, the U.S. Virgin Islands, and several Pacific islands over whose wetlands the United States has some form of jurisdiction. (The term "State" is used in the following discussion for all these geographic areas.) The State summaries contain the following sections: Types and Distribution Wetlands in the United States are of many types. Some of the more familiar names for different kinds of wetlands are swamp, marsh, bog, playa, tideflat, prairie pothole, and pond. Examples of lesser known, local names for different wetland types are cienega, pocosin, muskeg, wet pine flatwoods, and willow carrs. The "Types and Distribution" section of each State summary contains a brief discussion of the wetland types in the State and relates the common, locally known wetland names to the classification system used by Federal agencies to identify and delineate wetlands (see the article "Wetland Definitions and Classifications in the United States" in this volume for an extensive discussion of wetland types and classification). "'A - V r W A J J np le ALASKA 0 200 MILES 0 200 KILOMETERS HAWAII WETLANDS AND DEEPWATER HABITATS Distribution of wetlands and deepwater habitats- This map shows the approximate distribution of large wetlands in the Nation. Because of limitations of scale 0 250 500 MILES and source material, some wetlands are not shown i I I Predominantly wetland 0 250 500 KILOMETERS 0 100 MILES M 0 100 KILOMETERS Predominantly deepwater habitat F01 Area typified by a high density of small wetlands 6 National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: EXECUTIVE SUMMARY The -1@pes and Distribution" section of each State summary also contains a brief discussion of wetland distribution in the State and a map that shows the general distribution of major wetlands. The State maps were derived from a national map that was compiled by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (fig. 1). Because the data used to compile the map differ in reliability from State to State, the distribution of wetlands shown should be considered approximate. Also, because small areas physically cannot be represented at the scale at which the map was compiled, only relatively large wetlands are shown. Hydrologic Setting Example of table I used in each State summary (in this case Wetlands can form almost anywhere that water remains on Maryland and the District of Columbia) showing selected wetland- related activities of government agencies and private organiza- or near the land surface for an extended period. Some wetlands tions within the State. are ephemeral, containing water for only a few weeks in spring, [Source: Classification of activities is generalized from information provide I by whereas others are permanently inundated. In and regions, agencies and organizations. o, agency or organization participates in Wcet- some wetlands are wet only in years when rainfall is much land-related activity; ... , agency or organization does not participate in wet- above normal. land-related activity. MAN, management; REG, regulation; R&C, restoration and The factors that determine where and when wetlands form creation; LAN, land acquisition; R&D, research and data collection; D&I, delin- include precipitation amount and timing, evaporation and tran- eation and inventory] spiration rates, topography, and geologic characteristics (see @> "Wetland Hydrology, Water Quality@ and Associated Functions" Agency or organization le 0 0 4, 0, in this volume for a discussion of wetland hydrology). The "Hy- FEDERAL drologic Setting" section of the State summaries provides an Department of Agriculture Consolidated Farm Service Agency ........................... ...0 overview of the factors that determine wetland hydrology in Natural Resources Conservation Service ................. ...e each State. Department of Commerce National Oceanic and Trends Atmospheric Administration ........................................00 Department of Defense The area of wetlands in the conterminous United States has Army Corps of Engineers ..............................................0* decreased by about one-half since the founding of the Nation Department of the Interior in the late 1700's (Dahl, 1990), and the decline is continuing. Fish and Wildlife Service ............ ....................... .........#0 o0 0 Geological Survey .......................................................... ... ... ... ...0The "Trends" section of each State summary contains a brief National Biological Service .......... ...................... ....... ... ... ... ...0 accounting of wetland losses and gains and lists the major National Park Service ....................................................00 000 causes of wetland loss. (For a national perspective of wetland Environmental Protection Agency... ............................... ...a trends, see "History and Trends of Wetlands in the Contermi- STATE nous United States" in this volume.) Department of the Environment Water Management Administration ...........................e*o Department of Natural Resources Conservation Chesapeake Bay and Watershed Programs ............* 0 Natural Heritage Program .............................. .............* Wetland-conservation efforts are carried out by Federal, Program Open Space .................................................... State, and local government agencies; many private organiza- Office of State Planning .................................................... ... ... ... ... ...0tions also work to conserve wetlands. The "Conservation" see- State Highway Administration ......................................... ..._0 ..._ ... tion of each State summary provides an account of the University of Maryland ....................................... .............. ... ... ... ... wetland-conservation activities on each of those levels. In- DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA Department of Consumer and cluded are primary Federal, State, and local regulations affect- Regulatory Affairs .............................................................. ...0 ing wetlands, as well as a discussion of other aspects of wetland Department of Public Works ....................... .............* conservation, such as management, land acquisition, planning, Metropolitan Council of Governments ........................... ...o mitigation, research, restoration and creation, delineation, in- Soil and Water Conservation District ............................e0o ventory, education, and many more. (For a discussion of regu- SOME COUNTY AND LOCAL GOVERNMENTS e o o PRIVATE ORGANIZATIONS latory legislation pertaining to wetlands, see "Wettand Chesapeake Bay Foundation ........................................... ...0. ... ... Protection Legislation" in this volume.) Environmental Concern, Inc . ............................................ ... ... Each State summary contains a table (such as the accom- Maryland Land Trust Alliance ..................... .................... panying table for Maryland and the District of Columbia) that The Nature Conservancy ................ ....................... lists selected wetland-related activities of Federal, State, and local government agencies and private organizations in the State. The information contained in the table and in the "Con- serva6on" section was compiled in 1993; because of the often dynamic nature of government bureaucracies and agency responsibilities, the names of agencies and the activities listed for them can be considered reli- able as of that date and no later. References Cited Cowardin, L.M., Carter, Virginia, Golet, F.C., and LaRoe, E.T., 1979, Classification of wetlands and deepwater habitats of the United States: U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Report FWSIOBS-79131, 131 p. Dahl, T.E., 1990, Wetlands-Losses in the United States, 1780's to 1980's: Washington, D.C., U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 13 p. U.S. Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper 2425 National Water Surnmary-Wetland Resources: HIGHLIGHTS 7 State Summary Highlights Following are a few notable facts about the wetlands of the 50 States, the District of Columbia, Puerto Rico, the Virgin Islands, and several islands of the Pacific Ocean, as reported in the State summaries: Alabama Wetlands cover about 10 percent of Alabama and range in size from small areas of less than an acre to the 100,000-acre forested tract in the Mobile-Tensaw River Delta. Most of the State's forested wetlands are bottom-land forests in alluvial flood plains. Coastal waters support extensive salt marshes. Wetland acreage in the area that is now Alabama has been reduced by about one-half in the last two centuries. Major causes of wetland loss or alteration have been agricultural and silvicultural conversions in the interior; dredging on the coast; industrial, commercial, and residential development; erosion; subsidence; and natural succession of vegetation. Alaska Alaska has more area covered by wetlands-about 170 million acres-than the other 49 States combined. More than 70,000 swans, I million geese, 12 million ducks, and 100 million shorebirds depend on Alaskan wetlands for resting, feeding, or nesting. Freshwater Alaskan wetlands include bogs, fens, tundra, marshes, and meadows; brackish and saltwater wetlands include flats, beaches, rocky shores, and salt marshes. Most of the Stat&s freshwater wetlands are peatlands (wetlands that have organic soils), and cover as many as 110 million acres. Alaska's coastal wetlands are cooperatively protected and managed by local governments, rural regions, and the State. Arizona Less than 1 percent ofArizona's landscape has wetlands. Since the late 1800's, streams and wetlands through- out Arizona have been modified or drained, resulting in the loss of more than one-third of the State7s original wetlands. The most extensive Arizona wetlands are in riparian zones and include oxbow lakes, marshes, cienegas, and bosques. Nonriparian wetlands include tinajas, playas, and caldera lakes. Extreme aridity and seasonally varying precipitation are the climatic characteristics that most significantly influence wetland formation and distribution in Arizona. Recreational use of wetlands provides economic benefits to the State. Arkansas About 8 percent of Arkansas is wetland. The most extensive areas are forested wetlands (swamps and bottom-land forests) along major rivers. Arkansas wetlands, especially those in the Mississippi River Valley, are a critical component of the series of wetlands along the Mississippi Flyway. Wetlands in the Cache-Lower White River system have been designated as one of nine "Wetlands of Inter national Importance" in the United States. Arkansas has lost more wetland acres than any other inland State; most of the loss has been due to conversion to farmland. Arkansas has adopted a program that applies an antidegradation policy to substan- tial alteration of water bodies, including adjacent wetlands. California California's wetlands have significant economic and environmental value, providing benefits such as water- quality maintenance, flood and erosion attenuation, prevention of saltwater intrusion, and wildlife habitat. The Sacramento-San Joaquin Delta regularly harbors as much as 15 percent of the waterfowl on the Pacific Flyway. California has lost as much as 91 percent of its original wetlands, primarily because of conversion to agriculture. Flooded rice fields, which are converted wetlands, covered about 658,600 acres in the mid- 1980's. Rice farmers, State and university researchers, and private organizations are cooperatively studying the feasibility of managing rice fields for migratory waterfowl habitat. Wetland protection is identified as a goal of The California Environmental Quality Act of 1970. Colorado Wetlands cover about I million acres of Colorado-1.5 percent of the State's area. Wetlands occur in all life and climatic zones, from the high mountains to the and plains and plateaus. Wetland types in Colorado include forested wetlands, willow carrs, fens, marshes, alpine snow glades, and wet and salt meadows. Wet- lands are vital to wildlife in the State, particularly in the and regions. Colorado's wetland area has decreased by about one-half in the last two centuries, and losses are continuing due to a variety of land- development pressures; however, irrigation and changes in land-use practices have resulted in new wetlands, principally in the San Luis Valley and near Boulder. 8 National Water Surnmary-Wetland Resources: HIGHLIGHTS Connecticut Wetlands cover about 173,000 acres of Connecticut-5 percent of the States land surface. Connecticut has lost an estimated one-third to three-fourths of its original wetlands over the 200-year period between the 1780's and 1980's. Forested wetlands, primarily red maple swamps, are the predominant wetland type, con- stituting 54 percent of the State's wetlands. Salt marshes, tidal flats, and beaches are the primary coastal wetlands. Wetland protection in Connecticut is carried out at the Federal, State, and (or) local government level, depending on the type and location of the wetland resource. Delaware Wetlands cover about 17 percent of Delaware. Wetlands in Delaware are diverse. Extensive estuarine wet- lands line Delaware Bay and the Atlantic Ocean. Delmarva bays, which are seasonally flooded depressions in the Coastal Plain, contain marsh, shrub, and forest vegetation. More than one-half of Delaware's wetlands have been converted to nonwetland uses or otherwise altered since the 1780's. The State Wetlands Act con- trols development in tidal wetlands, and a proposed statute would establish a State-run nontidal-wetlands regulatory program. Delaware has established its own wetland classification, which has five categories that are based on a wetland's functions and values. District of Columbia The District of Columbia has about 250 acres of wetlands; all are palustrine or riverine. Most occur along the tidal reaches of the Potomac and Anacostia Rivers. About 87 percent of the District's wetlands have been drained or filled since the District was established in the 1790's. The National Park Service owns and main- tains most wetlands in the District of Columbia. To alter wetlands, permits must be obtained from the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers and the Department of Consumer and Regulatory Affairs. Weiland conservation is accomplished on Federal and local levels and through the activities of private organizations. Florida Florida has about 11 million acres of wetlands, more than any of the other 47 conterminous States. The abun- dance of wetlands in Florida is due primarily to the low, flat terrain and plentiful rainfall. Most of Florida's wetlands are forested freshwater habitats on stream flood plains, in small depressions and ponds, and cover- ing wet flatwoods. The Everglades, in southern Florida, is a large freshwater marsh that once received surface- and ground-water flows from the Kissimmee River-Lake Okeechobee Basin but which now depends on water releases from canals and water-retention areas. Florida has lost nearly one-half of its wetlands, primarily to agricultural drainage. The State protects wetlands by regulating development in wetland areas, acquiring wetlands and land adjacent to wetlands, and requiring local governments to produce long-range plans for wetland protection. Georgia Georgia has more than 7.7 million acres of wetlands. Georgia's wetlands are diverse, ranging from mountain seepage areas to estuarine tidal flats. This diversity is primarily due to the wide variety of landforms present, each of which can have different geologic and hydrologic characteristics. The greatest acreages of wetlands are in the coastal plain, where flood-plain wetlands are most extensive and tidal freshwater swamps and estuarine marshes meet. Most of Georgia's wetlands are forested freshwater habitats associated with streams. The Okefenokee Swamp in Georgia, one of the largest freshwater wetlands in the United States, is a mosaic of emergent marshes, aquatic beds, forested and scrub-shrub wetlands, and forested uplands. Hawaii Wetlands constitute less than 3 percent of the State, but they have had a major economic effect on Hawaiian society both before and after European contact. Wetlands are habitats for several species of birds and plants endemic to the Hawaiian Islands. Wetland formation in Hawaii is influenced by climate, topography, and geology; wetlands form where local hydrologic conditions favor water retention near the land surface. Although rainfall is high in many areas of the islands, steep topography and the high permeability of the volcanic rock that forms the islands result in rapid discharge of storm runoff to the ocean as surface-water and ground-water flow. Coastal wetland losses have been greatest on Oahu, where wetlands have been drained and filled for resort, industrial, and residential development. Idaho Most of Idahds 386,000 acres of wetlands are in flood plains and riparian areas along streams and other water bodies. Since about 1860, when mining and farming began in the State, wetland acreage has decreased by 56 percent. The Idaho State Water Plan states that, insofar as is possible, the State should assume respon- sibility for wetland management and protection. Policy plans made by the Idaho Department ofFish and Game for 1991 to 2005 focus land-acquisition efforts on wetland areas where habitat protection is critical. Many private organizations and groups have participated in projects involving wetland acquisition and restoration. National Water Surnmary-Wetland Resources: HIGHLIGHTS 9 Illinois Wetlands cover about 3.5 percent of Illinois. The largest acreage of wetlands is in the bottom-land forests and swamps along the State's major rivers. Northeastern Illinois also has a large concentration of wetlands. Illinois has lost as much as 90 percent of its original wetlands over the last 200 years; most of the losses have been due to drainage for conversion to agricultural and other uses. The primary State law governing wetlands is the Interagency Wetland Policy Act of 1989, which sets a goal of no net loss of wetlands due to projects funded by the State. Wetlands can be owned and protected by the public as County Forest Preserve Districts. Indiana About 85 percent of Indiana's wetlands have been lost since the 1780's, primarily because of conversion to agricultural land. The current rate of wetland loss is about I to 3 percent of the remaining wetlands per year. Most of the wetlands remaining in Indiana, about 813,000 acres, are in the northeastern part of the State, including extensive wetlands in and near the Indiana Dunes National Lakeshore. The Department of Natural Resources is developing a State wetland conservation plan under a grant from the U.S. Environmental Pro- tection Agency. Several River Basin Commissions are encouraging or pursuing wetland restoration as a flood- control measure with an added benefit of recreation potential. Iowa Iowa has diverse wetlands that include prairie-pothole marshes, swamps, sloughs, bogs, fens, and ponds. Wetlands cover about 1.2 percent of Iowa, but about 200 years ago more than 11 percent of the States area was wetland. Conversion of wetlands to agricultural lands, largely in the prairie-pothole region, has been the primary cause of wetland loss. Wetland acreage has been slowly increasing since 1987 as a result of the Prai- rie Pothole Joint Venture, a cooperative Federal, State, county, and private-organization program. The Wet- land Reserve Program of the 1990 Food, Agriculture, Conservation, and Trade Act has the potential to add a substantial number of additional acres. Kansas Kansas has about 435,000 acres of wetlands, which include sandhill pools along the Arkansas River, playa lakes in western Kansas, freshwater marshes such as those in Cheyenne Bottoms, and salt marshes such as those in Quivira National Wildlife Refuge. Kansas wetlands are important to migrating waterfowl and shore- birds, which depend on the few remaining wetlands in the Central Flyway. Kansas has lost about one-half its wetlands during the last 200 years, mostly due to conversion to cropland and depletion of surface and ground water due to irrigation withdrawals. Wetland preservation and restoration are being accomplished through cooperation among Federal and State agencies and private organizations. Kentucky Wetlands compose less than 2.5 percent of Kentucky's land area, but they have considerable environmental, socioeconomic, and esthetic value. Most Kentucky wetlands lie shoreward of rivers, lakes, and reservoirs and include cypress swamps, bottom-land hardwood forests, marshes, and ponds. More than one-half of Kentucky's original wetlands have been lost, primarily as a conversion to cropland and pastureland; most conversions have been in western Kentucky. The State fosters protection of wetlands through a system of registry and dedication agreements with private entities. Most of Kentucky's wetlands are privately owned. Louisiana Wetlands are a major source of income for the people of Louisiana, providing revenues from harvesting of fish and shellfish, trapping, and recreation. Most of the State's wetlands are freshwater swamps, but the area of coastal marsh is substantial: Louisiana's coastal marshes represent as much as 40 percent of the coastal marshes in the United States. Wetlands once covered more than one-half of the area that is now Louisiana, but wetland acreage has declined to less than one-third of the Stat&s land surface over the last 200 years. The Louisiana Coastal Wetlands Conservation and Restoration Program implements specific projects to conserve, enhance, restore, and create coastal wetlands. Maine Maine!s wetlands are diverse, ranging from inland swamps and peatlands to coastal salt marshes and mud flats. One-fourth of the State is wetland, and most wetlands are owned by individuals, timber companies, or other private landowners. Land-use changes have led to wetland losses. Early in Maine's history, expansion of fishing and farming communities along the coast resulted in the filling of many coastal wetlands. Wet- lands along inland waterways were converted to agricultural use. Recent losses have been due to urbaniza- tion and other development. Wetland conservation in Maine is a combined effort by Federal, State, and local governments and private organizations and landowners. 10 National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: HIGHLIGHTS Maryland Maryland has about 59 1,000 acres of wetlands, one-half of which are tidal and one-half nontidal. Extensive estuarine wetlands exist on both sides of the Chesapeake Bay. The Delmarva Peninsula has many wetlands in Delmarva bays, topographic depressions whose wetness is controlled by the water table. About 64 percent of Maryland's wetlands have been converted to nonwetland uses since the 1780's. To obtain permits for altering wetlands in Maryland, a single State-Federal application is submitted to the Maryland Department of the Environment. Wetland conservation in Maryland is accomplished on the Federal, State, and local level and through the activities of private organizations. Massachusetts Wetlands cover about 590,000 acres of Massachusetts, about 12 percent of the Stat&s area. Massachusetts has lost about 28 percent of its original wetlands since the 1780's. Agricultural and urban expansion have caused most of the losses. Forested wetlands, primarily red maple swamps, comprise more than one-half of the State's wetlands; estuarine and marine wetlands account for about one-fifth. Regulatory functions of wetland conservation in Massachusetts are performed at the Federal, State, and local government level, and private organizations are active in land acquisition and management, research, education, and policy review and planning. Michigan Wetlands cover about 15 percent of Michigan. They provide many benefits, including flood and erosion attenuation, water-quality maintenance, recreation, and wildlife habitat. Michigarfs wetlands are largely associated with surface features that are the result of glaciation. Most Michigan wetlands are vegetated by forest or shrubs, but fresh marsh is abundant in coastal and inland areas. About one-half of the State's wet- lands have been converted to other uses, primarily agriculture. The Goemaere-Anderson Wetland Protection Act of 1980 (Public Law 203) and other State statutes are the basis for Michigarfs wetland-conservation program. The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency has oversight of the State program. Minnesota Minnesota has about 9.5 million acres of wetlands, about one-half the wetland acreage present in predevelopment times. Most wetland losses have been due to drainage for agriculture. Minnesota's wetlands are diverse, ranging from extensive northern peatlands to small prairie potholes. Minnesota has about 150,000 to 200,000 acres of wild rice beds. The centerpiece of Minnesota's efforts to protect wetlands is the Wetland Conservation Act of 1991, which sets a goal of no net wetland loss. The law fills the gap in wetland protec- tion between larger, deepwater habitats that are already protected by Minnesota statute and agricultural wet- lands that are addressed by the Federal "Swampbuster" provisions. Mississippi Wetlands occupy more than 13 percent of Mississippi. Bottom-land forests, swamps and freshwater marshes account for most of Mississippi's wetland acreage; coastal marshes also are extensive. Wetlands in Missis- sippi are a key part of the Lower Mississippi Valley Joint Venture program for the restoration of Mississippi Flyway waterfowl populations. Nearly three-fifths of the State's wetlands have been converted to nonwetland uses, primarily agriculture. Mississippi wetlands have been and continue to be a source of timber, and the cleared, fertile lands have become productive farmland. The Natural Heritage Program identifies and inven- tories priority wetlands. Missouri Missouri's wetlands occupy 643,000 acres, about 1.4 percent of the State's area. Swamps and other forested wetlands, marshes and fens, and shrub swamps constitute most of the wetland acreage. Missouri's location on the Mississippi Flyway makes the State a favored wintering area for hundreds of thousands of waterfowl and other birds, including bald eagles. Missouri has lost as much as 4.2 million acres (87 percent) of its original wetlands. Most wetland loss has been due to agricultural conversions, urban development, and flood-control measures. The State has developed a wetland-management plan to guide its efforts in the restoration and management of wetlands until the year 2000. Montana Wetlands cover only a small part of Montana, but their ecological and economic importance far outweighs their relative size. About 27 percent of the wetlands present before 1800 have been converted to other land uses, primarily cropland. Losses to cropland have been particularly great in north-central and eastern Mon- tana, an area that is part of the Natiotfs most valuable waterfowl production area, the prairie pothole region of the northern Great Plains. Montana has no comprehensive wetland-protection program; however, the Water Quality Bureau of the Montana Department of Health and Environmental Sciences is developing enforce- able water-quality and biological standards specific to Montana wetlands. National Water Surnmary-Wetland Resources: HIGHLIGHTS Nebraska Nebraska has three wetland complexes recognized as being of international importance as migrational and breeding habitat for waterfowl and nongame birds: the Rainwater Basin wetlands in south-central and south- eastern Nebraska, the Big Bend reach of the Platte River (directly north of the Rainwater Basin), and the Sandbills wetlands in north-central and northwestem Nebraska. Nebraska has lost about 1 million acres of wetlands in the last 200 years-about 35 percent of the State's original wedand acreage. Conversion to agricultural use was the primary cause for most of the losses, but urbanization, reservoir construction, high- way construction, and other activities also contributed. Nevada Wetlands cover less than I percent of Nevada but are some of the most economically and ecologically valu- able lands in the State. Benefits of wetlands include flood attenuation, bank stabilization, water-quality improvement, and fish and wildlife habitat. Desert wetlands include marshes in playa lakes, Donvegetated playas, and riparian wetlands; mountain wetlands include fens and other wetlands that form in small glacial lakes. More than one-half of Nevada's original wetlands have been lost, primarily due to conversion of wet- lands to cropland and diversion of water for agricultural and urban use; many others have been seriously degraded by human activities. Some wetlands have been created by rnine dewatering and sewage treatment. New Hampshire Wetlands occupy as much as 10 percent of New Hampshire and are an integral part of its natural resources. Swamps and peatlands comprise most of the State's wetlands. Many wetlands have been converted to nonwetland uses such as crop or pastureland. Others have been altered or degraded by urbanization, peat mining, timber harvesting, road building, all-terrain vehicle use, and other causes. New Hampshire regulates wetlands primarily through State law and the rules of the Wetlands Board; local conservation commissions have an advisory role in local wetland protection. During 1987 to 1993, the State acquired diverse wetlands by purchase and donation or protected wetlands through conservation easements. New Jersey New Jersey has about 916,000 acres of wetlands, most of which are in the coastal plain. Forested wetlands are the most common and widely distributed wetlands in the Stat 'e. Salt marshes are the most common wet- lands in coastal areas. Wetlands are ecologically and economically valuable to the State. Cranberry growing is a significant industry in New Jersey; more than 3,000 acres of cranberry bog wetlands were under private management in 1992. Between the 1780's and 1980's, New Jersey lost about 39 percent of its wetlands. Wet- lands have been drained primarily for crop production and pasturage and filled for housing, transportation, industrialization, and landfills. New Mexico Wetlands cover about 482,000 acres (0.6 percent) of New Mexico; most are in the eastern and northern areas of the State. New Mexico's wetlands include forested wetlands, bottom-land shrublands, marshes, fens, alpine snow glades, wet and salt meadows, shallow ponds, and playa lakes. Riparian wetlands and playa lakes are especially valuable to migratory waterfowl and wading birds. New Mexico has lost about one-third of its wetlands, mostly due to agricultural conversion, diversion of water to irrigation, overgrazing, and urbanization. Other causes of loss or degradation have been mining, clear cutting, road construction, strearnflow regulation, and invasion by normative plants. New York New York has about 2.4 million acres of wetlands. One-half of the 160 species identified as endangered or threatened by the Department of Environmental Conservation are wetland dependent. Counties in the Adirondack Mountains and those south and east of Lake Ontario have the largest percentages of wetland area; counties that make up New York City and Long Island, along the border with Pennsylvania, and in the Catskills have the smallest percentages. From the 1780's to 1980's, about 60 percent of New York's wetland area was lost, primarily because of conversion to agriculture and other land uses. Counties may facilitate wetland acquisition through the funding of bond acts. North Carolina About 5.7 million acres of North Carolina-17 percent of the State-is wetland. The Coastal Plain contains 95 percent of the State7s wetlands. Before colonization by Europeans, North Carolina had about I I million acres of wetlands. Nearly one-third of the wetland alterations in the Coastal Plain have occurred since the 1950's; most have resulted from conversion to managed forests and agriculture. The Roanoke River flood plain has one of the largest intact and least disturbed bottom-land hardwood forests in the mid-Atlantic region. About 70 percent of the rare and endangered plants and animals in the State are wetland dependent. 12 National Water Surnmary-Wetland Resources: HIGHLIGHTS North Dakota Wetlands once covered about 4.9 million acres of North Dakota- 11 percent of the State. By the 1980's, the acreage had decreased to about 2.7 million acres, a loss of about 45 percent. Most of the losses have been caused by drainage for agricultural development. The rate of agricultural conversions in the future will likely depend on crop prices and other economic factors. Most of North Dakota's wetlands are prairie potholes, which provide nesting and feeding habitat for migratory waterfowl and wading birds. About one-half the Nations duck population originates in the Prairie Pothole Region of North Dakota and other prairie States. Ohio Ohio's wetlands cover about 1.8 percent of the State. Swamps, wet prairies, coastal and embayment marshes, peatlands, and wetlands along stream margins and backwaters are the most common Ohio wetlands. Wet- land area in Ohio has declined by 90 percent during the last 200 years, from about 5,000,000 acres to about 483,000 acres. Drainage of wetlands for agriculture has been the primary cause of wetland loss, but recre- ational use, fluctuating water levels, urban development, mining, logging, and fire also have contributed. Ohio designates all wetlands as State Resource Waters. As such, wetland water quality is protected from degradation that may interfere with designated uses. Oklahoma Wetlands cover about 950,000 acres (2 percent) of Oklahoma. Wetlands in Oklahoma include bottom-land hardwood forests and swamps; marshes and wet meadows; aquatic-bed wetlands characterized by submersed or floating plants in ponds, lakes, rivers, and sloughs; and sparsely vegetated wetlands such as intermittently flooded playa lakes. Most forested wetlands are in eastern Oklahoma, where precipitation is highest and evaporation lowest. Riparian wetlands and playa lakes in drier western Oklahoma are especially valuable to wildlife. Nearly two-thirds of Oklahoma's original wetlands have been lost as a result of agricultural conver- sions, channelization, impoundment, strearnflow regulation, and other causes. Oregon Wetlands are economically and ecologically valuable to Oregon and can be found statewide. Oregon had nearly 1.4 million acres of wetlands as of the mid-1980's, a decline of more than one-third over the previous 200 years. Most of the losses were due to conversion to agricultural uses, primarily in the Willamette River Valley and Upper Klamath Basin. To improve the effectiveness and efficiency of Oregolys efforts to con- serve, restore, and protect wetlands, the State has developed the Wetland Conservation Strategy. The strat- egy is based on the recommendations of advisory committees representing Federal, State, and local agencies and interest groups. Pennsylvania About 1.4 percent (404,000 acres) of Pennsylvania is covered by wetlands. Deciduous and forested wetlands are the most common types, followed by open water, marshes, shrub wetlands, and others. Wetlands are most densely distributed in the glaciated northwestern and northeastern parts of the State. Wetland area in Penn- sylvania has decreased by more than one-half in the last 200 years. The primary causes of wetland loss or degradation have been conversion to cropland, channelization, forestry, mining, urban development, and the construction of ponds and impoundments. About 50 private conservancy organizations in the State work to protect and preserve natural lands, including wetlands, on a local level. Puerto Rico Wetlands in Puerto Rico are diverse, ranging from interior montane wetlands of the rain forest to intertidal mangrove swamps along the coast. Puerto Ricds wetlands are valuable natural resources that provide habitat for wildlife and a water supply for several large cities. Nearly all of Puerto Ricds wetlands have been modified by man-historically for sugar cane agriculture and more recently for housing development, transportation, tourist facilities, and other types of development. Wetland restoration efforts are underway at several locations throughout Puerto Rico; an example is the freshwater wetlands of Laguna Cartagena, once one of the most important waterfowl habitats on the island. Rhode Island Wetlands cover about 65,000 acres of Rhode Island, about 10 percent of the State's area. Forested wetlands, primarily red maple swamps, are the most abundant wetland type and account for nearly three-quarters of the Statds wetlands. Once more common in Rhode Island, Atlantic white cedar wetlands are now found mostly in the southwestern part of the State. Wetlands are regulated primarily at the State-government level in Rhode Island; different agencies regulate coastal and freshwater wetlands. Local land-use controls are an additional wetland-protection measure. Many of Rhode Island's natural resources have been acquired and protected through cooperative efforts of private and public entities. National Water Surnmary-Wetland Resources: HIGHLIGHTS 13 South Carolina Nearly one-quarter of South Carolina is wetland-about 4.6 million acres. South Carolina's wetlands provide flood attenuation, erosion control, water-quality maintenance, recreational opportunities, and fish and wildlife habitat. South Carolina wetlands are important wintering areas for migratory waterfowl on the Atlantic Flyway. Wetlands in the State include wet pine flatwoods, pocosins, Carolina bays, beaver ponds, bottom-land forests, swamps, fresh and salt marshes, and tidal flats. About 80 percent of the wetlands are freshwater and forested. Welland acreage in South Carolina has declined by more than one-quarter since the late 1700's, primarily as a result of human activities. South Dakota Wetlands occupy about 1.8 million acres (3.6 percent) of South Dakota. These wetlands are of great economic and esthetic value because they provide important habitat for wildlife (especially migratory waterfowl), hydrologic benefits that include water retention and flood attenuation, and numerous recreational opportunities. By far the most common wetland type in South Dakota is the prairie pothole, which occurs in glaciated eastern South Dakota. Wetland area in South Dakota has decreased by about 35 percent during the last 200 years- from about 2.7 million to about 1.8 million acres. Agricultural conversions, notably in the prairie pothole region, have accounted for most wetland losses. Tennessee Estimates of Tennessee's wetland area range from 640,000 to 1,400,000 acres. Although wetlands constitute a small percentage of Tennessee, they are ecologically and economically valuable to the State. Bottom-land forests are the most common Tennessee wetlands; they are most abundant in the flood plains of rivers in the western part of the State. Nearly three-fifths of Rnnessee's original wetlands have been lost; major causes of loss or degradation in Rnnessee have included agricultural conversions, logging, reservoir construction, channelization, sedimentation, and urbanization. The Tennessee Wetlands Acquisition Act of 1986 autho- rizes the acquisition of wetlands by use of real estate transfer taxes. Texas Wetlands cover about 7.6 million acres of T@xas, 4.4 percent of the State's area. The most extensive wetlands are the bottom-land hardwood forests and swamps of East Texas; the marshes, swamps, and tidal flats of the coast; and the playa lakes of the High Plains. Wetlands provide flood attenuation, bank stabilization, water- quality maintenance, fish and wildlife habitat, and opportunities for hunting, fishing, and other recreational activities. Commercial fisheries benefit directly from coastal wetlands. Texas has lost about one-half of its original wetlands as a result of agricultural conversions, overgrazing, urbanization, channelization, water- table declines, construction of navigation canals, and other causes. Utah Wetlands cover only a small part of Utah but provide critical aquatic habitat in an and environment as well as economic and other benefits. Utah wetlands include the shallows of small lakes, reservoirs, ponds, and streams; riparian wetlands; marshes and wet meadows; mud and salt flats; and playas. The largest wetlands in the State surround Great Salt Lake. Because of the importance of Great Salt Lake and its associated wet- lands to migratory waterfowl and shorebirds, in 1991 the lake was designated a Hemispheric Reserve in the Western Hemisphere Shorebird Reserve Network. Streamflow regulation and agricultural, residential, industrial, and ski-area development have resulted in widespread wetland losses. Vermont Estimates of the area covered by wetlands in Vermont range from 4 to 6 percent of the State's total area. The largest wetlands are in the valleys of the northeast and in river flood plains and deltas in the Lake Champlain Valley. Vermont's wetlands provide flood and erosion control, water-quality maintenance, timber, and recreational opportunities. As much as 35 percent of Vermont's wetlands have been lost; major causes have been conversion to agriculture and residential and recreational development. The State is undertaking the Vermont Wetlands Conservation Strategy, a comprehensive review of current wetland conservation programs that will recommend actions to improve wetland conservation in Vermont. U.S. Virgin Islands Wetlands in the U.S. Virgin Islands comprise about 3 percent of the land surface. Wetlands are habitat for fish, shellfish, and birds, including endangered species such as the peregrine falcon and brown pelican. Fresh- water is scarce in the islands, and wetlands there are mainly estuarine and marine types such as salt ponds, mangrove forests, sea grass beds, and coral reefs. Shoreline wetlands are vulnerable to destruction from construction of tourist facilities and water-dependent developments like marinas and to degradation by sedi- mentation and septic tank leachate. The Territorial Legislature adopted the Indigenous and Endangered Spe- cies Act of 1990, which establishes a policy of "no net loss of wetlands" to the maximum extent possible. 14 National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: HIGHLIGHTS Virginia Virginia has about 1 million acres of wetlands; one-quarter are tidal and three-quarters are nontidal. Forested wetlands (swamps) are the most common wetlands in the State. Both shores of the Chesapeake Bay have extensive estuarine wetlands. Conversion to nonwetland uses (agricultural, urban, industrial, and recreational), channelization and ditching, and other causes have resulted in the loss of about 42 percent of Virginia's wetlands since the 1780's. Development in wetlands is regulated in part by means of the Virginia Water Protection Permit. Local governments may adopt prescribed zoning ordinances and form citizen wetland boards to regulate their own tidal wetlands; the State retains an oversight and appellate role. Washington Wetlands cover only about 2 percent (939,000 acres) of Washington, but they benefit the State both ecologi- cally and economically. Wetlands are nursery and feeding areas for anadromous fish such as salmon and steelhead trout. About 75 percent of the Statels wetlands contain freshwater and include forested and shrub swamps, bogs, fens, marshes, wet prairies and meadows, vernal pools, and playas. About 25 percent are estuarine or marine and include marshes, tidal flats, beaches, and rocky shores. Estimates of wetland loss in Washington range from 20 to 50 percent; causes of loss or degradation include agricultural conversion, urban expansion, siting of ports and industries, logging, and invasion of normative plants and animals. West Virginia Wetlands constitute less than 1 percent ofWest Virginia's surface area but contribute significantly to the State!s economic development and ecological diversity. Common West Virginia wetlands include swamps, peat bogs, marl wetlands, marshes, wet meadows, and ponds. The Canaan Valley and Meadow River wetlands together contain about 14 percent of the State's wetlands. The Canaan Valley wetland complex is the largest in the central Appalachian Mountains. West Virginia has lost about one-fourth of its original wetlands; primary causes have been agricultural conversions, channelization, pond and reservoir construction, and urbaniza- tion. Some wetlands have been created as a result of beaver activity. Western Pacific Islands Most of the wetlands in the Mariana, Samoan, Caroline, and Marshall Islands (referred to as the Western Pacific Islands in this report) are in coastal areas. Wetlands on the islands include mangrove swamps, marshes, and coral reefs. Wetlands are of economic importance on many islands because the staple food, taro, is grown in converted or constructed wetlands. On the larger islands, wetlands are important wildlife habitat. Avail- able trend information indicates that on many islands there has been wetland loss or degradation due to agricultural conversion, urban expansion, or firewood cutting. Wetland activities on islands under United States jurisdiction are subject to Federal regulation. Wisconsin Wetlands cover more than 5 million acres (15 percent) of Wisconsin. Common wetlands include swamps and marshes in southern Wisconsin and peatlands in northern Wisconsin. Wetlands are most numerous in glaciated parts of the State; the unglaciated. "driftless" section of southwestern Wisconsin has few wetlands, except in stream valleys filled with unconsolidated outwash and alluvium. Wetland acreage has decreased by nearly one-half over the last 200 years, primarily owing to agricultural development. In 1991 the State became the first to adopt water-quality standards for wetlands; the standards allow the State to control wet- land development under section 401 of the Clean Water Act. Wyoming Wetlands cover about 1.25 million acres (2 percent) of Wyoming and are the most diverse ecosystems in the State's semiarid environment. The Laramie Plain Lakes wetland complex is home to the Wyoming toad, an endangered species. Trend information indicates that wetland acreage in Wyoming has decreased over time, primarily due to agricultural and urban development. However, agricultural diversions, whose original pur- pose was to flush salts and increase hay-meadow production, have enhanced wetlands along the Bear River; the Bear River wetland is one of the most productive and diverse bird habitats in Wyoming. The Wyoming Wetlands Act is the basis for wetland program development by the State. U.S. Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper 2425 National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: INTRODUCTION 15 Introduction This volume, National Water Summary on Wetland Resources, is ofganized into two parts, a somewhat different format than the seven previous volumes (see inside front cover for previous volumes) in the National Water Summary series. (The "Hydrologic Conditions and Water-Related Events" included in the previous volumes are published sepaxately, as U.S. Geological Survey Open- File Reports Numbers 96-107 and 96-145.) This volume is the result of a coordinated effort to compile the most up-to-date information available on wetland resources. Although much has been written about the biological aspects of wetlands, much less has been written about the hydrology and the non-habitat functions of wetlands. This volume presents an overview of wetland resources from many different perspectives. The first part of this volume, "Overview of Wetland Resources," discusses wetland resources from a national perspective and provides background information for the State summaries section. This section contains articles on the technical, management and research, and restoration, creation, and recovery aspects of wetland resources. These articles relate the history of wetlands in the United States; the definition of wetlands and a description of the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Classification System (Cowardin and others, 1979); hydrologic and water-quality factors that affect the distribution of wetlands and related functions commonly attributed to wetlands; the role of wetlands as habitat for birds; the roles of Federal agencies in wetland protection legislation and research; progress in inventory and mapping of wetlands; techniques for evaluating wetlarids; human attempts to restore damaged wetlands and create new ones; and the recovery of wetlands following natural disasters. The second part, "State Summaries of Wetland Resources," describes wetlands of each State, the District of Columbia (combined with Maryland), Puerto Rico, the U.S. Virgin Islands, and the Western Pacific Islands. Each State summary discusses wetlands in terms of value, types and distribution, hydrologic setting, and trends in acreage from predevelopment to modem times. Each State summary also provides an overview of public- and private-sector wetland-conservation efforts in that State and a table showing the wetland-related responsibilities of principal government agencies and private organizations within the State. Illustrations include a map depicting the areal distribution of principal wetlands and selected related features such as ecoregions, physiography, precipitation, runoff, evaporation, or other physical or climatic features that influence the presence or distribution of wetlands in that State. Some of the State summaries include a map or cross section depicting the hydrologic setting of wetlands and (or) a map showing predevelopment wetland distribution. To supplement the information provided in this X, volume, bibliographic references are listed at the end of each article and State summary. An extensive list of suggested references for more information about topics d iscussed in the "Overview of Wetland Resources" is available in U.S. Geological Survey Open-File Report "X 96-169. This report also is available online at http:ll h2o.usgs.govlpubliclnwsunVbibl'bib.htmL Most technical terms are defined in the glossary at the end of this Horicon Marsh, Wisconsin, provides volume, and a conversion table of water measurements recreational opportunities. (Photograph by precedes the glossary. Phillipj. Redman, U.S. Geological Survey.) 16 National Water Summary---Wetiand Resources: INTRODUCTION Acknowledgments Preparation of the National Water Summary requires compiling information from many individuals within the U.S. Geological Survey and various Federal and State agencies. The National Water Summary on Wetland Resources is the eighth in this series of U.S. Geological Survey Water-Supply Papers and it was prepared under the direction of Robert M. Hirsch, Chief Hydrologist, The report compilers gratefully acknowledge the assistance of water-resources agencies in each State in preparing and reviewing the State summaries of wetland resources. In addition, the following Federal agencies and other organizations contributed articles for this report: � ManTech Environmental Technology, Incorporated � U.S. Department Of Defense Army Corps Of Engineers � U.S. Department Of the Interior Fish And Wildlife Service National Biological Service � U.S. Environmental Protection Agency � University OfTexas In addition, the following Federal agencies and other organizations provided materials for this report: � American Indian Resources Institute � National Aeronautics and Space Administration � U.S. Department of Commerce National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration � U.S. Department of the Interior National Park Service Although individual acknowledgment of all reviewers, managers, illustrators, and typists who partici- pated in the preparation of this report is not feasible, their cooperation and many contributions made this report possible. The following persons, however, deserve special mention: The authors of the individual articles and the State summaries, who adhered to strict guidelines and whose names appear on the articles; David W. Moody and Richard W. Paulson, who had the vision for this report, made the contacts, and got it started; Virginia Carter, who provided technical guidance and reviewed every article; Katherine Walton-Day, Martha A. Hayes, Helen M. Light, Melanie R. Darst, and Benjamin F. McPherson, who prepared prototype State summaries, and D. Briane Adams, and Marcus C. Waldron, who helped coordinate the effort; Kenneth J. Lanfear, who provided managerial assistance; Jo Ann Macy, who provided managerial assistance and editorial review; Jack H. Green and Chester Zenone, who provided tech- nical editorial review; Edith B. Chase, Elizabeth A. Ciganovich, and Mary A. Kidd, who provided editorial review and editorial assistance; Hyla Strickland, who provided editorial review and editorial assistance in the preparation of the State summaries; John M. Watson, who provided editorial review of the State summa- ries; and Susan Tufts-Moore, who provided editorial review for several Overview articles; Patricia S. Greene, Robert J. Olmstead, and Gregory J. Allord, who assisted with the design, coordination, and layout of the report and its illustrations; James 0. Whitmer, Gina P. Barker, Timothy D. Covington, John M. Watermolen, Joel J. Skalet, and Alan M. Duran, who assisted with the graphics;'Jamaica Pettit, who did typesetting and layout for the State summaries; Kimberley L. Fry, who provided general assistance with review and prepa- ration of articles in the front part (Introduction and Overview sections) of the book; Helen R lpsaro, and vol- unteer Judy G. Fry, who proofread the front-part articles; volunteers Katie Green, Joyce lpsaro, and Uma Rao, who helped keep us organized. References Cited Cowardin, L.M., Carter, Virginia, Golet, F.C., and LaRoe, E.T., 1979, Classification of wetlands and deepwater habitats of the United States: U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Report FGWS/OBS-79/31, 131 p. Fry, K.L., comp., 1996, Supplemental reference list for the National Water Summary on Wetland Resources: U.S. Geological Survey Open-File Report, No. 96-169, 39 p. McCabe, G.J., Crowe, Michael, Brown, W.O., and Fretwell, J.D., 1996, Hydrologic conditions and water-related events- Water Year 1992: U.S. Geological Survey Open-File Report No. 96-107, 1 sheet. McCabe, G.J., Crowe, Michael, Brown, W.O., Fretwell, J.D., and Fry, K.L., 1996, Hydrologic conditions and water-related events-Water Year 1993: U.S. Geological Survey Open-File Report, No. 96-145, 1 sheet. U.S. Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper 2425 Overview of Wetland Resources A restored wetland near Blackfoot River, Montana. (Photograph by Kenneth Lanfear, U.S. Geological Survey.) 17 Overview of Wetland Resources Technical aspects of wetlands- History of wetlands in the conterminous United States Thomas E. Dahl and Gregory]. Allord ......................................... 19 Wetland definitions and classifications in the United States Ralph W Tiner ............................................................................ 27 Wetland hydrology, water quality, and associated functions Virginia Carter ............................................................................. 35 Wetlands as bird habitat ,Robert E Stewart, Jr . .................................................................... 49 Wetland management and research- Wetland protection legislation Todd H. Votteler and Thomas A. Muir ........................................ 57 Wetland research by Federal agencies Richard E, Coleman, Edward T. LaRoe, and Russell F. Theriot ..... 65 Wetland mapping and inventory Bill 0. Wilen, Virginia Carter, andj. RonaldJones ...................... 73 Wetland functions, values, and assessment Richard P. Novitzki, R, Daniel Smith, andludy D. Fretwell ......... 79 Restoration, creation, and recovery of wetlands- Wetland restoration and creation Mary E Kentula ........................................................................... 87 Effects of Hurricane Andrew (1992) on wetlands in southern Florida and Louisiana John K. Lovelace and Benjamin J. McPherson ............................. 93 Effects of the Great Midwest Flood of 1993 on wetlands James R. Kolva ............................................................................ 97 18 National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: TECHNICAL ASPECTS 19 Technical Aspects of Wetlands History of Wetlands in the Conterminous United States By Thomas E. Dahl' and Gregory J. Allord' At the time of European settlement in the early EARLY 1600'S TO 1800--COLONIAL 1600's, the area that was to become the conterminous SETTLEMENT United States had approximately 221 million acres of Wetlands. About 103 mi flion acres remained as of the Wetland drainage began with permanent settle- mid-1980's (Dahl and Johnson, 1991). Six States lost ment of Colonial America. Throughout the 1600's and 85 percent or more of their original wetland acreage- 1700's, colonization was encouraged by European twenty-two lost 50 percent or more (Dahl, 1990) (fig. monarchs to establish footholds in North America. 2). Even today, all of the effects of these losses might The effects of this colonization on the landscape be- Interest in the not be fully realized. came obvious in the early to mid-1700's. preservation of Historical events, technological innovations, and Much of our knowledge of early wetlands comes wetlands has values of society sometimes had destructive effects from maps and other documents that survived over . on wetlands. By examining the historical backdrop of time. The origins of settlers influenced both where increased as the why things happened, when they happened, and the people settled and how they mapped and used natu- value of wetlands consequences of what happened, society can better ral resources. Few records exist because the original appreciate the importance of wetlands in water-re- English, French, and Spanish settlements were estab- has become more source issues. Society's views about wetlands have lished before the land was surveyed. Settlements in fully understood. changed considerably-especially in the last half the North tended to be clustered, whereas communi- century. Interest in the preservation of wetlands has ties in the South were more widely scattered because increased as the value of wetlands to society has be- of the predominance of agriculture. Many different come more fully understood. From a cultural stand- land surveying systems resulted in an incomplete point, it is interesting to understand how changes in patchwork of ownership that ultimately caused many opinions and values came about, and what effects legal problems due to boundary errors and overlap- these changes had on wetland resources. From an eco- ping claims (Garrett, 1988). It was not until 1785 that logical perspective, it is important to understand how the Land Ordinance Act established the United States the loss of wetlands affects fish, wildlife, and the Public Land Survey, which required surveying and environment as a whole. partitioning of land prior to settlement. Although not Washi gton RED LAKE Montana PERIO V, S at e North akota ERIE CANAL Oregon . . . ...... 1_. ve mo I innes a co Ne Idaho W sco si L -@Alli .,amp@hire sou .6- assai its y R e York hN.Island orning M H Michigan C;Cticut Iowa nsylvani New Nevada Nebraska e 'ey diana Ohio aware Utah ado Ilinoi @V@s@ 'I d EXPLANATION Kansas irgini Percent of wetlands California n uc y irginia lost, 1780's to mid-1 980's = Less than 50 North ssee Carolina 50 -85 (16 States) Arizona a orn Arkan So h More than 85 (6 states) N w Mexi Car ' a Mississip Georgia laba a OKEFENOKEE Texas isl SWAMP Florida 0 500 MILES I I I I I I I I I I I J' THE 0 500 KILOMETERS EVERGLADES Figure 2. States with notable wetland loss, I 780's to mid-1 980's. (Source: Modified from Dahl, 1990.) 1 U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 2 U.S. Geological Survey. 20 National Water Surnmary-Wetland Resources: OVERVIEW OF WETILAND RESOURCES The original extent of wetland acreage and the effect of widespread drainage is evident in Washington County, N.C. Originally, wetlands covered over 186,000 acres or about 85 percent of the land area of Washington County@ Large-scale drainage began as early as 1788 VIRGINIA Great with the construction of a canal 6 miles long and 20 feet wide to drain the wetlands north and Chowan Ri r Dismal east of Phelps Lake (Washington County Historical Society, 1979). A system of cross ditches Swamp I ead i n g i nto the ma i n cana I was des i gned to d ra i n up to 100, 000 acres of wed a nd s so th at ri ce NORTH Albemarle and corn could be grown Jant, 1981). Today, about 34 percent of Washington County's CAROLINA Sound original wetland acreage remains in scattered tracts. Washington County Lake les U nd _. Berfle 'n Id SOUTH Mattamuskeel Bertie Albernor Albemcirie So CAROL" \@ County County Cacaw Swamp 100 MILES W 'Ington Washingtorf 0 100 KILOMETERS C;ounty mell C8unly- TY r/- Tyrrell Martin '"I County Martin County h County plp@ Lake County 1_!i@ k. Pungo Beaufort Hyde EXPLANATION Beaufort Hyde County County County County Wetlands Figure 3. Extent of wetlands in Washington County, N. C., circa 1780 (left) and 1990 (right). (Source: U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Status and Trends, unpub. data, 1994.) established to provide information on natural re- lina were surveyed in 1763 so that land could be re- sources, surveys do provide some information about claimed for water transportation routes. Farming on the distribution and location of wetlands. large plantations was common practice in the South During the 1700's, wetlands were regarded as and necessitated some drainage or manipulation of swampy lands that bred diseases, restricted overland wetlands. Technical advances travel, impeded the production of food and fiber, and By the 1780's, immigrants had settled along the facilitated wetland generally were not useful for frontier survival. Set- fertile river valleys of the Northeast and as far south ders, commercial interests, and governments agreed as present-day Georgia. Wetlands in these river val- conversion. that wetlands presented obstacles to development, and leys suffered losses with this settlement (fig. 4). Small that wetlands should be eliminated and the land re- towns and farms were established in the valleys along claimed for other purposes. Most pioneers viewed the rivers of Massachusetts, Connecticut, New York, natural resources from wetlands as things to be used and Pennsylvania. Settlement extended to the valleys without limit (Tebeau, 1980). The most productive beyond the Appalachian Mountains in Virginia and tracts of land in fertile river valleys in parts of Vir- followed the major rivers inland through the Caroli- ginia had been claimed and occupied before 1700. nas by 1800. The resulting shortage of choice land stimulated colo- nists to move south to the rich bottom lands along the Chowan River and Albemarle Sound of North Carolina on the flat Atlan- . ......... tic coastal plain. Initially, settlements con- sisted primarily of shelters and subsistence farms on small tracts of land. To extend the productive value of available land, wetlands on these small tracts were drained by small hand-dug ditches. During the mid- to late 1700's, as the population grew, land clear- ing and farming for profit began to affect larger tracts of land; many coastal plain wet- Figure 4. States with notable wetland loss, lands were converted to farmland (fig. 3). early 1600's to 1800. Once drained, these areas provided produc- VIR "NA tive agricultural lands for growing cash 1800 TO 1860-WESTWARD 6 C,owan Rve r art. d G D S W r S a m a a' a m p NR@ Alba 0 C AR'I- Su. Was, Count, SoT UH Me @_--k.., I L" A R C._w Swamp 11. K",.".s Oil-powered dredge digging a crops. EXPANSION 30-foot-wide ditch to drain Widespread wetland drainage was most wetlands near Carroll, Iowa. prevalent in the southern colonies. In 1754, The period between 1800 and 1860 was a time (Photograph courtesy of National South Carolina authorized the drainage of of growth in the United States. During these decades, Archives, 8-D-2214-2570.) Cacaw Swamp for agricultural use (Beau- numerous land acquisitions-the Louisiana Purchase champ, 1987). Similarly, areas of the Great (1803); Florida and eastern Louisiana ceded by Spain Dismal Swamp in Virginia and North Caro- (1819); annexation ofTexas (1845); the Oregon Corn- National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: TECHNICAL ASPECTS 21 Red River Basin Claimed area- in the Midwest (Ross, 1956). These inno- became part of (1818) State of Maine vations ultimately took a toll on wetlands Oregon (1842) as more land was drained, cleared, and Compromise (1846) - plowed for fartriing. Wetland drainage continued. In the Louisiana Midwest, the drainage of the Lake Erie Mexican Purchase marshes of Michigan and Ohio probably Cession (1803) started about 1836. Cotton and tobacco (1848) States and farming continued to flourish in the South- Territories ern States and precipitated the additional J 1800) drainage of thousands of acres of wetlands Texas Florida for conversion to cropland. Gadsden Annexation Cession Purchase (1845) (18 Wetlands also were being modified in (1853) Claimed area- 19) other ways. The Horicon Marsh in Wiscon- became part of sin was dammed and flooded in 1846 for a State of Louisiana transportation route and to provide com- (1812) mercial fishing. Toward the middle of the Figure 5. Major United States land acquisitions between 1800 century, lumbering was an important in- and 1860. (Source: U.S. Geological Survey, 1970.) dustry in the Midwest, supplying wood for construction and fuel for stoves and fire- promise (1846); and lands ceded from Mexico places. Much of the Nations timber came from the (I 848)-greatly expanded the land area of the United swamp forests of Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois, which States (Garrett, 1988) (fig. 5). With this land expan- typically contained a mix of birch, ash, elm, oak, cot- sion, the population grew from 7.2 million in 1810 tonwood, poplar, maple, basswood, and hickory. to 12.8 million in 1830 (U.S. Bureau of the Census, In 1849, Congress passed the first of the Swamp 1832). Land speculation increased with this rapid Land Acts, which granted all swamp and overflow growth and marked a period when land and resources lands in Louisiana to the State for reclamation. In seemed to be available for the taking. It was a time of 1850, the Act was made applicable to 12 other States, rapid inland movement of settlers westward into the and in 1860, it was extended to include lands in two Table 1. Acreage granted to wetland-rich areas of the Ohio and Mississippi River additional States (Shaw and Fredine, 1956) (table 1). the States under the Valleys (fig. 2). Large-scale conversion of wetlands Although most States did not begin immediate large- authority of the Swamp to farmlands started to have a real effect on the dis- scale reclamation projects, this legislation clearly set Land Acts of 1849, 1850, tribution and abundance of wetlands in the United the tone that the Federal Government promoted wet- and 1860 States. Areas where notable wetland loss occurred be- land drainage and reclamation for settlement and de- YEAR STATE I ACRES tween 1800 and 1860 are shown in figure 6. velopment. This tone pervaded policy and land-use 1849 Louisiana 9,493,456 trends for the next century. Alabama 441,289 Arkansas 7,686,575 1860 TO 1900-AGRICULTURE MOVES California 2,192,875 WEST Florida 20,325,013 Illinois 1,460,164 The American Civil War (1861-65) affected wet- 1850 Indiana 1,259,231 lands because traversing swamps and marshes with Iowa 1,196,392 heavy equipment presented major logistical problems Michigan 5,680,310 for both armies. The design, engineering, and con- Mississippi 3,347,860 struction of transportation and communication net- Missouri 3,432,481 works were stimulated. Attention became focused on Ohio 26,372 the development of routes around, through, or over Wisconsin 3,360,786 Figure 6. States with notable wetland loss, water bodies and wetlands, and on production of ac- Minnesota 4,706,503 1800 to 1860. curate maps (fig. 7). These maps provided an early 1860 Oregon 286,108 Technical advances throughout the 1 800's greatly glimpse of some of the Nation7s wetlands. facilitated wetland conversions. The opening of the After the war, the Natiorfs attention focused on TOTAL 64,895A15 Erie Canal in 1825 provided settlers with an alterna- westward expansion and settlement. Railroads were tive mode and route of travel from New York to the important in the initial development of transportation Great Lakes States, increasing migration of farmers routes. The railroads not only opened new lands, in- to the Midwest. The canal also provided low-cost cluding wetlands, to development, but the railroad in- transportation of timber and agricultural products dustry also was a direct consumer of wetland forest from the Natiorfs interior to eastern markets and sea- products. In the 1860's, more than 30,000 miles of ports (McNall, 195 2). Another innovation, the steam- railroad track existed in the United States (Stover, powered dredge, allowed the channelizing or clear- 1961). The railroads of Ohio consumed I million ing of small waterways at the expense of adjacent wet- cords of wood annually just for fuel (Gordon, 1969). lands. Between 1810 and 1840, new agricultural The additional quantity of wood used for ties is not implements-plows, rakes, and cultivators--enabled known. From 1859 to 1885, intense timber cutting settlers to break ground previously not considered for and land clearing eliminated many of Ohio7s wetlands, farming (McManis, 1964). Mechanical reapers intro- including the Black Swamp (fig. 8). duced in the 1830's stimulated competition in, and The Black Swamp was in the northwestern cor- furthered refinements of, farm equipment marketed ner of Ohio and was a barrier to travel and settlement. 22 National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: OVERVIEW OF WETLAND RESOURCES As new kinds of machinery increased the ability to till more land, the conversion of wetlands to farm- lands increased rapidly. Huge wheat farms, or "Bo- nanza Farms," were operating in the Dakota Territory (present-day North and South Dakota) by 1875. New mechanical seeders, harrowers, binders, and thresh- ers, designed specifically for wheat production, were used to cultivate large tracts of land for these farms (Knue, 1988). Many wetlands were lost as a result of these operations. Improvements in drainage technology greatly affected wetland losses in the East and the Midwest. As the use of steam power expanded, replacing hand labor for digging ditches and manufacturing drainage tiles, the production and installation of drainage tiles increased rapidly. By 1880, 1,140 factories located mainly in Illinois, Indiana, and Ohio manufactured drainage tiles that were used to drain wetlands for farming (Pavelis, 1987). By 1882, more than 30,000 miles of tile drains were operating in Indiana alone. By 1884, Ohio had 20,000 miles of public ditches de- Figure 7. Confederate States of America map of Southeastern United States with signed to drain I I million acres of land (Wooten and wetlands depicted for strategic rather than natural resources value. (Source: Jones, 1955). National Archives, Record Group 94, Civil War Atlas, Plate CXLIV) Wetland conversion in the Central Valley of Cali- fornia began in the mid- I 800's, when farmers began diking and draining the flood-plain areas of the val- This forested wetland was estimated to have been 120 ley for cultivation (fig. 9). Other States had notable miles long and 40 miles wide, covering an area nearly losses of wetlands between 1860 and 1900 (fig, 10). equal in size to Connecticut (Gordon, 1969; Ohio De- partment of Natural Resources, 1988). The swamp, 1900 TO 1950-CHANGING which was an elm-ash forested wetland typical of the TECHNOLOGY region, contained a variety of commercially valuable trees (Eyre, 1980). Nothing was left of the Black The first half of the twentieth century was a time Swamp by the end of the nineteenth century. of ambitious engineering and drainage operations. During the mid- to late 1880's, agriculture ex- Two World Wars, a rapidly growing population, and panded rapidly westward along the major river sys- industrial growth fueled the demand for land as in- tems. Several regions of abundant wetlands lay di- dustry and agriculture propelled the United States to rectly in the path of this expansion (Wooten and Jones, the status of a world leader. Technology was increas- 1955), including: ingly important in manipulation of the Nation's - The prairie pothole wetlands of western Minne- water resources. Two of the most notable projects that sota, northern Iowa, and North and South Dakota affected wetlands were California's Central Valley - The bottom lands of Missouri and Arkansas in the Project and the lock and dam system on the Missis- lower Mississippi River alluvial plain sippi River. - The delta wetlands of Mississippi and Louisiana Although draining had begun one-half century - The gulf plains of Texas earlier, wetland modification in the Central Valley By the 1860's, settlers started to farm and drain accelerated early in the 20th century. By the 1920's, the prairie pothole region. At first, only a modest about 70 percent of the original wetland acreage had number ofpotholes were drained. By the late 1800's, been modified by levees, drainage, and water-diver- however, the numbers had increased significantly. Sion projects (Frayer and others, 1989). In the 1930's, ICHIGAN Lake Erie I Marshe AREA DATE IN ACRES DRAINED HISTORIC WETLANDS SOURCE k M @ 1 7 Black Swamp 3,072,000 1859-1885 Ohio Dept. Nat. Res., 1988 -1-, @` aIT- LINOIS '1@j_ Pickaway Plains 4,800 1821 Gordon, 1969 marms ff6 Scioto Marsh 16,000 1859,1883 Gordon,1969 KENTUCKY rdiii U@_.. Other marshes, Hardin County 9,000 1860's Howe, 1900 0 200 MILES Hog Creek Marsh 8,DOD 1868-1874 Gorclon,1969 0 200 KILOMETERS D u . an,s Cranberry Marsh 1,000 Unknown Gordon, 1969 ine Lake Erie Marshes 300,000 1936-1974 Bednarik, 1984 Pick ,@a PZR Dougan's Prairie Unknown 1827 Middleton, 1917 L TOTAL 3A10,800 0 50 MILES i L Figure 8. Location, estimated original acreage, and drainage date of Ohio's 0 50 KILOMETERS historic wetlands. National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: TECHNICAL ASPECTS 23 AREA OF INTEREST C) 1990 AREA OF INTEREST CENTRAL Originally the Central Valley of California different than it is now. Tulare 1820 VALLEY was very Lake held water in a basin with a surface CENTRAL Lake proximately four times the surface area ap Tahoe VALLEY area of Lake Tahoe. Buena Vista and Kern Lake Lakes also held water as runoff accumulated Tahoe from the Sierra Nevada. The rivers and streams that flowed into the Central Valley were lined with bottom-land forests com- posed of willow, sycamore, oak, elder, poplar, and alder; lush stands of wet- ulare land grasses and tules dominated La bed Tulare Buena the valley floors and prairies V, a Kern Lake La eb"ed Lake (Hundley, 1992). Prior to Buena the mid-l 800's, about 4 million Vista Kern Lake Lake of the 13 m i I I ion acres that EXPLANATION made up California's Central Wetlands _ul Valley were estimated to be 0 200 MILEI wetland. 0 200 KILOMETERS Figure 9. Wetlands of the Central Valley of California, circa 1820 (left) and 1990 (right). (Source: U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Status and Trends, unpub. data, 1994.) large-scale flood-control projects, diversion dams, exchanged for another. Although some pools of the and water-control structures were being built on the Upper Mississippi River have problems with silt depo- tributary rivers entering the valley. sition and restricted water circulation, these "created" Wetland modification also continued farther east. wetland areas provide habitat for fur-bearing animals, Before the installation of the lock and dam system in waterfowl, and fish. 1924, the bottom lands of the Mississippi River cor- In other parts of the country, this era was marked ridor were primarily wooded islands separated by by urban and agricultural expansion projects that deep sloughs (Green, 1984). Hundreds of small lakes drained both large and small wetlands. Some of the and ponds were scattered throughout extensive most ambitious projects were attempts to drain and wooded areas. The river channel was subject to shift- cultivate Horicon Marsh in Wisconsin in 1904; com- ing sands and shallows, and changed constantly. Lake mercial timber harvesting in southern Georgia, which and dam structures were built to create a permanent began in 1908 as a precursor to attempts to drain the navigable waterway. The water depth increased be- Okefenokee Swamp (Trowell, 1988); and in 1914, the ,:' 77 hind each dam to create a pool that extended upstream draining of North Carolina's largest natural lake, Lake 7, to the next dam. The first pool was filled in 1935 and Mattamuskeet, to create farmland (U.S. Fish and id the system was completed when the last pool was Wildlife Service, undated). Early in the century, land filled in 1959. The resulting changes to the river sys- developers dug drainage ditches in an attempt to drain tem eliminated large water-level fluctuations and a huge area for development in the vast peatlands helped stabilize water depth and flooding. Bottom north of Red Lake, Minn. (Glaser, 1987). On July 29, lands no longer dried out in summer, and former hay 1917, the Minneapolis Sunday Tribune ran a full page meadows and wooded areas were converted to marsh- advertisement to attract homesteaders to the Red Lake lands surrounding the pools. One type of wetland was area-"perhaps the last of the unsettled, uncut tim- berland in the middle of the country" (Wright, 1984). By 1930, nearly all of the prairie wetlands in Iowa, PRAIRIE POTHOLE WETLANDS the southern counties of Minnesota, and the Red River Valley in North Dakota and Minnesota were drained (Schrader, 1955). Attempts were underway to drain and farm large parts of The Everglades (a huge expanse of wetlands Drainage tile operation, in southern Florida). By the 1930's, more than 400 circa 1940's. Tiles provide miles of drainage canals were already in place (Lord, a conduit for moving water 1993). (See article "Wetland Resources of Florida" from a wetland. (Photo- graph courtesy of U.S. in the State Summaries section of this volume.) With Department of Agriculture.) Ilk -Ir the passage of the Sugar Act of 1934, additional wet- q DELTA lands in southern Florida were drained and put into WETLANDS sugarcane production. Sugarcane yields more than Figure 10. States with notable wetland loss, doubled from 4 10,000 to 873,000 tons between 1931 1860 to 1900. and 1941 (Clarke, 1977), largely at the expense of 24 National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: OVERVIEW OF WETLAND RESOURCES wetland acreage. Severe flooding in southern Florida wetland losses averaging 550,000 acres each year in the 1920's and again in the 1940's prompted the from the mid-1950's to the mid-1 970's (Office of'kch- U.S. Army Corps of Engineers to build the Central nology Assessment, 1984). Agriculture was respon- and Southern Florida Project for flood control. This sible for more than 80 percent of these losses (Frayer massive undertaking, which required levees, water- and others, 1983). Figure 12 shows States with no- storage areas, channel improvements, and large table wetland losses between 1950 and 1990. pumps, caused additional large modification to The The Migratory Bird Everglades7 environment (Light and Dineen, 1994). Mechanized farm tractors had replaced horses Hunting Stamp Act and mules for farm labor during this half century The was one of the first tractors could be used more effectively than animals pieces of legislation for drainage operations, and the old pasture land then became available for improvement and production of to initiate the additional crops. In the Midwest and the North-cen- process of tral States, the use of tractors probably contributed to the loss of millions of acres of small wetlands and acquiring and prairie potholes. restoring America,@ In the 1930's, the U.S. Government, in essence, wetlands. provided free engineering services to farmers to drain Figure 12. States with notable wetland loss, wetlands; and by the 1940's, the Government shared 1950 to 1990. the cost of drainage projects (Burwell and Sugden, 1964). Organized drainage districts throughout the Since the 1970's, there has been increasing country coordinated efforts to reniove surface water awareness that wetlands are valuable areas that pro- from wetlands (Wooten and Jones, 1955). Figure 11 vide important environmental functions. Public shows areas of notable wetland losses between 1900 awareness of, and education about, wetlands has in- and 1950. creased dramatically since the early 1950's. Federal policies, such as the "Swampbuster," have eliminated incentives and other mechanisms that have made the destruction of wetlands technically and economically feasible. New laws, such as the Emergency Wetland Resources Act of 1986, also curtail wetland losses. (See article "Wetland Protection Legislation" in this volume for information on legislation affecting wet- lands.) Some of the more ambitious drainage projects of earlier years have been abandoned. Now, places like Lake Mattamuskeet, Horicon Marsh, and the Okefenokee Swamp, which once were targeted for drainage, have become National Wildlife Refuges that Figure 11. States with notable wetland loss, provide wetland habitat for a variety of plants and ani- 1900 to 1950. mals. The effects of the Federal policy reversal on the In 1934, in stark contrast to these drainage ac- rate of wetland loss are not clear. Estimates indicate tivities, Congress passed the Migratory Bird Hunt- that wetland losses in the conterminous United States ing Stamp Act. This Act was one of the first pieces of from the mid4970's to the mid-1980's were about legislation to initiate the process of acquiring and re- 290,000 acres per year (Dahl and Johnson, 1991). storing America's wetlands. This is about one-half of the losses that occurred each year in the 1950's and '60's. The preceding numbers 1950 TO PRESENT-CHANGING do not include degraded or modified wetlands. Al- PRIORITIES AND VALUES though the estimate above reflects a declining rate of loss, land development continues to destroy wetlands. By the 1960's, most political, financial, and in- From about 1987 to the present, Federal efforts stitutional incentives to drain or destroy wetlands to restore wetlands have increased. Although there is were in place. The Federal Government encouraged no precise number for all of the wetland acres re- land drainage and wetland destruction through a stored, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (1991) es- variety of legislative and policy instruments. For timated that between 1987 and 1990 about 90,000 example, the Watershed Protection and Flood Pre- acres were added to the Natiorfs wetland inventory. vention Act (1954) directly and indirectly increased Attempts are underway now to restore some of the drainage of wetlands near flood-control projects The Everglades. The remaining Everglades comprise (Erickson and others, 1979). The Federal Government about 2,300 square miles, three-fifths of which is directly subsidized or facilitated wetland losses impounded in managed water-conservation areas through its many public-works projects, technical (Lord, 1993). This wetland system currently is expe- practices, and cost-shared drainage programs admin- riencing mercury contamination and other water- istered by the U.S. Department of Agriculture quality problems, water-supply and diversion contro- (Erickson, 1979). Tile and open-ditch drainage were versies, declining wildlife populations, increasing considered conservation practices under the Agricul- pressure from tourism, urban and agricultural expan- ture Conservation Program-whose policies caused sion, and influx of nuisance plants. National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: TECHNICAL A0ECTS 25 The magnitude of environmental alter- ations in Florida, with numerous conflict- Horicon Marsh 1846 Horicon Lake 1853 1 ; , , . , .' 4, @'!! ing interests, exemplifies the dilemma of managing water resources and wetlands. What initially seemed to be a matter of water removal turned into an extremely V complex and costly issue involving water- use objectives at all levels of government (Tebeau, 1980). Today there are more than 100 dams within the California Central Valley drain- age basins and thousands of miles of xi water-delivery canals. Water is diverted for irrigation, hydroelectric power, and munici- oil pal and industrial water supplies. Only 14 percent of the original wetland acreage re- mains. The Tulare Lake Basin has been -.4 virtually drained, leaving only remnant ',,jtJt L II KU 7 wetland areas and a dry lakebed, and Buena Vista and Kern Lakes rarely contain water (fig. 9). Horicon Swamp 1881 Horicon Wildlife Refuge 1984 Currently (1994), manipulation of water levels in wetlands rather than the H1 T E complete removal of water as in the past, is a trend that affects wetlands. Partial drainage or lowering of the water levels to allow for certain uses is becoming preva- lent in some parts of the country. Effects of this type of management are uncertain. 'dd OR EXAMPLE OF CHANGING T_ ATTITUDES-HORICON MARSH The history of the Horicon Marsh in Wisconsin is an example of how people's at- titudes toward wetlands have changed through time (fig. 13). Horicon Marsh was dammed, flooded, and renamed Lake Figure 13. Horicon Marsh, Wis., evolved from original marsh 0 846), to lake (1853), to Horicon in 1846. At that time, it was the swamp (11881), to wildlife refuge (11984). (Source: Sequence is left to right, top to bottom, largest manmade lake in the world (about Historical Society of Wisconsin negative number WHi (X3) 50111, WHi (X3) 50212, WHI 4 miles wide by 14 miles long) (Wisconsin @X3) 50113; U.S. Geological Survey, 1984.) Department of Natural Resources, 1990). Lake Horicon was used for commercial transportation and for commercial fishing. In 1869, Estimates indicate that today slightly more than the dam was removed and the land returned to marsh. 100 million acres of wetlands remain in the conter- In 1883, two sportsmeifs clubs, which leased the minous United States. Although the rate of wetland marsh area, reported that 500,000 ducks hatched an- conversion has slowed in recent years, wetland losses nually in the marsh. They also reported that 30,000 continue to outdistance wetland gains. muskrats and mink were trapped in the southern half of the marsh. Huge flocks of geese also were reported (Freeman, 1948). In 1904, attempts were made to References Cited drain the marsh and sell the reclaimed land for truck Beauchamp, K.H., 1987, A history of drainage and drain- farms. Lawsuits resulting from inadequate drainage age methods, in Pavelis, G.A., ed., Farm drainage in halted the reclamation effort. the United States-History, status, and prospects: In 1921, local conservationists began efforts to Washington, D.C., Economic Research Service, U.S. protect Horicon Marsh as a game refuge, and the State Department of Agriculture, Miscellaneous Publication of Wisconsin created the Horicon Marsh Wildlife Ref- no.1455,p.13-29. uge in July 1927. Later, to avoid legal confrontations Bednarik@ K.E., 1984, Saga of the Lake Erie marshes, in with the local farmers, the State bought property and Hawkins, A.S., Hanson, R.C., Nelson, H.K., and (or) water rights to the southern half of the refuge and Reeves, H.M., eds., Flyways-Pioneering waterfowl management in North America: Washington, D.C., U.S. the Federal Government purchased rights to the Fish and Wildlife Service, p. 423-430. northern half. In 1990, Horicon Marsh was added to Burwell, R.W., and Sugden, L.G., 1964, Potholes-Going, the sites recognized by the Convention on Wetlands going..., in Linduska, J.P., ed., Waterfowl tomorrow: of International Importance especially as Waterfowl Washington, D.C., U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Habitat. p.369-380. 26 National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: OVERVIEW OF WETLAND RESOURCES Clarke, M.J., 1977, An economic and environmental assess- Valley, 1790-1860: Philadelphia, Pa., University of ment ofthe Florida Everglades sugarcane industry: Bal- Pennsylvania Press, 276 p. timore, Md., Johns Hopkins University, 140 p. Middleton, E.P., 1917, History of Champaign County, Ohio, Dahl, T.E., 1990, Wetlands-Losses in the United States, its people, industries and institutions: Indianapolis, 1780's to 1980's: Washington, D.C., U.S. Fish and Ind., B.E. Bowen and Co., Inc., 116 p. Wildlife Service Report to Congress, 13 p. Office of Technology Assessment, 1984, Wetlands-Their Dahl, T.E., and Johnson, C.E., 1991, Wetlands-Status and use and regulation: Washington, D.C., U.S. Congress, trends in the conterminous United States, mid-1970's OTA-0-206, 208 p. to mid4980's: Washington, D.C., U.S. Fish and Wild- Ohio Department of Natural Resources, 1988, Ohio wet- life Service, 22 p. lands priority conservation plan-An addendum to the Erickson, R.E., 1979, Federal programs influencing wet- 1986 Ohio statewide comprehensive outdoor recreation lands, Seventh Annual Michigan Landuse Policy Con- plan: Office of Outdoor Recreation Services, 67 p. ference: East Lansing, Mich., Michigan State Univer- Pavelis, G.A., ed., 1987, Farm drainage in the United sity, 246 p. States-History, status, and prospects: Economic Erickson, R.E., Linder, R.L., and Harmon, K.W., 1979, Research Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Stream channelization (p.l. 83-566) increased wetland Miscellaneous Pub. No. 1455, 170 p. losses in the Dakotas: Wildlife Society Bulletin, v. 7, Ross, E.D., 1956, Retardation in farm technology before the no. 2, p. 71-78. power age: Agricultural History 30, p. 11-18. Eyre, RH., 1980, Forest cover types of the United States and Schrader, T.A., 1955, Waterfowl and the potholes of the Canada: Washington, D.C., Society of American For- north central states, in The yearbook of agriculture esters, 148 p. 1955: Washington, D.C., U.S. Department ofAgricul- Frayer, W.E., Monahan, T.J., Bowden, D.C., and Graybill, ture, 84th Congress, I st Session, House Document no. F.A., 1983, Status and trends ofwetlands anddeepwater 32, p. 596-604. habitats in the conterminous United States, 1950's to Shaw, S.P., and Fredine, C.G., 1956, Wetlands of the United 1970's: Fort Collins, Colo., Colorado State University, States-Their extent and their value to waterfowl and 31 p. other wildlife: Washington, D.C., U.S. Fish and Wild- Frayer, W.E., Peters, D.D., and Pywell, H.R., 1989, Wetlands life Service Circular 39, 67 p. of the California Central Valley-Status and Trends- Stover, J.F., 1961, American railroads: Chicago, Ill., Uni- 1939 to mid 1980's: Portland, Oreg., U.S. Fish and versity of Chicago Press, 3 10 p. Wildlife Service, 28 p. Tant, P.L., 198 1, Soil survey of Washington County, North Freeman, A.E., and Bussewitz, W.R., 1948, History of Carolina: Washington, D.C., U.S. Soil Conservation Horicon: Horicon, Wis., undated, 126 p. Service, 99 p. Garrett, W.E., ed., 1988, Historical atlas ofthe United States: 'kbeau, C.W., 1980, Ahistory ofFlorida: Coral Gables, Fla., Washington, D.C., National Geographic Society, 289 p. University of Miami Press, 527 p. Glaser, P.H., 1987, The ecology of patterned boreal 'Rowell, C.T., 1988, Exploring the Okefenokee-Roland M. peatlands of northern Minnesota-A community pro- Harper in the Okefenokee Swamp, 1902 and 1919: file: U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Report 85 (7.14), Douglas, Ga., North Georgia College, Research Paper 98 p. no. 2, 89 p. Gordon, R.B., 1969, The natural vegetation of Ohio in pio- U.S. Bureau of the Census, 1832, Return of the whole num- neer days: Columbus, Ohio, Bulletin of the Ohio Biologi- ber of persons within the several districts of the U.S., cal Survey, v. 111, no. 2, Ohio State University, 113 p. 1830: Washington, D.C. Green, W.E., 1984, The great river refuge, in Hawkins, A.S., U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 1991, United States Depart- Hanson, R.C., Nelson, H.K., and Reeves, H.M., eds., ment of the Interior budget justification-Fiscal year Flyways-Pioneering waterfowl management in North 1992: Washington, D.C., 121 p. America: Washington, D.C., U.S. Fish and Wildlife _Undated, Mattamuskeet National Wildlife Refuge: Service, p. 431-439. Swan Quarter, N.C., (Brochure). Howe, Henry, 1900, Historical collections of Ohio: Cincin- U.S. Geological Survey, 1984, Wisconsin State base map: nati, Ohio, Ohio centennial edition, Published by the U.S. Geological Survey, scale 1:500,000. State of Ohio, v. 1, p. 8 8 1. Washington County Historical Society, 1979, Historic Wash- Hundley, Norris, Jr., 1992, The great thirst-Californians ington County: Plymouth, N.C., 31 p. and water, 1700's-1990's: Berkeley, Calif., University Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources, 1990, Wet- of California Press, 551 p. lands/wonderlands-Wisconsin natural resources: Knue, Joseph, 1988, Of time and prairie-100 years of Madison, Wis., Wisconsin Department of Natural people and wildlife in North Dakota-Observations in Resources, 16 p. change: Bismarck, N. Dak., North Dakota State Game Wooten, H.H., and Jones, L.A., 1955, The history of our and Fish Department, 106 p. drainage enterprises, in The yearbook of agriculture, Light, S.S., and Dineen, J.W., 1994, Water control in The 1955: Washington, D.C., U.S. Department of Agricul- Everglades-A historical perspective, in Davis, S.M., ture, 84th Congress, I st Session, House Document no. and Ogden, J.C., eds., Everglades-The ecosystem and 32,p.478-498. its restoration: Delray Beach, Fla., St. Lucie Press, Wright, H.E., Jr., 1984, Red Lake peatland-Its past and p.47-84. patterns: Minneapolis, Minn., University of Minnesota, Lord, L.A., 1993, Guide to Florida environmental issues and James Ford Bell Museum of Natural History, v. 1, 7 p. information: Winter Park, Fla., Florida Conservation Foundation, 364 p. McManis, D.R., 1964, The initial evaluation and utilization FOR ADDITIONAL INFORMATION: Thomas E. Dahl, of the Illinois prairies, 1815-1840: Chicago, Ill., Uni- National Wetlands Inventory, 9720 Executive Center Drive, versity of Chicago, Department of Geography Research Suite 101 - Monroe Building, St. Petersburg, FL 33702; Paper no. 94, 109 p. Gregory J. Allord, U.S. Geological Survey, 505 Science McNall, N.A., 1952, An agricultural history of the Genesee Drive, Madison, WI 53711 U.S. Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper 2425 National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: TECHNICAL ASPECTS 27 Technical Aspects of Wetlands Wetland Definitions and r ACALM @_Mpl Classifications in the United States 'V By Ralph W. Tinerl "Welland" is a generic term for all the different kinds of wet habitats- implying that it is land that is wet for some period of time, but not necessarily permanently wet. Wetlands have numerous definitions and classifications in the United States as a result of their diversity, the need for their inventory, and Isolated depressions the regulation of their uses. This article provides an overview of wetland defi- nitions and classification systems of major wetland types in the United States. It also introduces the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (FWS) classification sys- tem (Cowardin and others, 1979) that is used throughout this volume. Wetlands typically occur in topographic settings where surface water collects and (or) ground water discharges, making the area wet for extended periods of time. Examples of some of these topographic settings, and some common names for wetland types associated with them are: � Depressions (swales, sloughs, prairie potholes, Carolina bays, playas, ver- nal pools, oxbows, and glacial kettles) � Relatively flat depositional areas that are subject to flooding (intertidal flats and marshes, coastal lowlands, sheltered embayments, shorelines, deltas, Oceank and flood plains) ...... ...... � Broad, flat areas that lack drainage outlets (interstream divides and per- 7 mafrost muskegs) � Sloping terrain associated with springs, seeps, and drainageways; and rela- Sheltered embayments tively flat or sloping areas adjacent to bogs and subject to expansion by accumulation of peat � Open water bodies (floating mats and submersed beds) Cross sections of some typical wetland landscapes and the position of the wet- land relative to specific topographic features are shown in figure 14. All areas considered to be wetlands must have enough water at some time .NW during the year to stress plants and animals that are not adapted to life in wa- ter or saturated soils. A variety of wetland plant communities and soil types have developed in the United States because of regional differences in hydro- ir logic regimes, climate, soil-forming processes, and geologic settings. Conse- V @_amp quently, many terms, such as "marsh," "bog," fen,' swamp," "pocosin," pothole," "playa," "Salina," "vernal pool," "bottom-land hardwood swamp," river bottom," "lowland," and others are applied to different types of wet- lands across the country. WETLAND DEFINITIONS Flood plains Wetlands have been defined for specific purposes, such as research stud- ies, general habitat classification, natural resource inventories, and environ- mental regulations. Before the beginning of wetland-protection laws in the 1960's, wetlands were broadly defined by scientists working in specialized fields (Lefor and Kennard, 1977). A botanisfs definition would emphasize plants; a soil scientist would focus on soil properties; and a hydrologist's defi- nition would emphasize fluctuations of the water table. Nonregulatory Definition The FWS developed a nonregulatory, technical definition that could have several uses, ranging from wetland protection to scientific investigations. This definition emphasizes three important attributes of wetlands: (1) hydrology- 11 ty the degree of flooding or soil saturation; (2) vegetation-plants adapted to grow in water or in a soil or substrate that is occasionally oxygen deficient due to Relatively flat interstrearn divides (including pocosins) saturation (hydrophytes); and (3) soils-those saturated long enough during the growing season to produce oxygen- deficient conditions in the upper part Figure 14. Cross sections of selected wetland of the soil, which commonly includes the major part of the root zone of plants landscapes showing typical positions of (hydric soils) (Cowardin and others, 1979; Tiner, 1991). To supplement this wetlands relative to topographic features. I U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 28 National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: OVERVIEW OF WETLAND RESOURCES definition and to help identify wetlands in the United States, the FWS pre- pared a list of wetland plants (Reed, 198 8). In addition, the Soil Conserva- tion Service' (SCS) developed a list of hydric soils (U.S. Soil Conservation Service, 1991). On the basis of plant and soil conditions, wetlands typically fall into one ... of three categories: (1) areas with hydrophytes and hydric soils (marshes, swamps, and bogs); (2) areas without soils but with hydrophytes (aquatic beds and seaweed-covered rocky shores); and (3) areas without soil and without hydrophytes (gravel beaches and tidal flats) that are periodically flooded. The FWS definition generally does not include permanent deep- water areas as wetlands. However, permanent shallow waters that commonly support aquatic beds and emergent plants (erect, rooted, nonwoody plants Seepage areas and springs that are mostly above water) are classified as wetlands. Regulatory Definitions as Compared to Nonregulatory Definitions In the 1960's and 1970's, State and Federal environtriental laws gave some protection to wetlands. On the basis of different interests to be protected, however, each governing body developed a different definition of wetlands. Examples of some of these definitions are given in table 2. Only wet soils vegetated with hydrophytes are considered as wetlands by the three Federal Nll%%@ agencies involved with regulation-the SCS, the U.S. Environmental Pro- '"A tection Agency (EPA), and the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (Corps). The FWS uses a nonregulatory definition that is broader and includes aquatic beds in shallow freshwater and naturally nonvegetated areas. In the context of veg elated wetlands, all four agency definitions are conceptually the same in that they include hydrology, vegetation, and soils. Basins with streams Most States have developed regulatory definitions to protect certain wet- lands from exploitation. Therefore, State definitions are much broader than any of the Federal definitions. The State definitions tend to emphasize the presence of certain plants for identification purposes (table 2). However, the A& States did not produce a comprehensive list of "wetland plant species," making it difficult to use vegetation consistently to identify the limits of wet- lands (Tiner, 1989 and 1993a). WETLAND CLASSIFICATION "Wetland classification," as used in this article, refers to the designa- tion of different wetland types on the basis of hydrology, vegetation, and soils. The Federal Government's early attempts to classify wetlands were motivated largely by agricultural interests that sought to convert wetlands to cropland. The first classification systems put wetlands into a few general categories on the basis of location-river swamps, lake swamps, and upland swamps Blanket bogs in boreal and arctic regions (Wright, 1907). Other classification systems were related to the degree of inundation-permanent swamps, wet grazing land, periodically overflowed land, and periodically swampy land (Dachnowski@ 1920). Later wetland classifications developed from a need to differentiate wet- lands from other land-cover types for regional and national planning purposes, A@ A --tmog or because of ecological interest. Martin and others (195 3) developed a " Clas- sification of Wetlands in the United States " to serve as a framework for the 1954 national inventory to assess the amount and types of wetland water- 11!U ,JP, fowl habitat. Although this system is still in use, the inadequate definition of wetland types has led to inconsistencies in application across the country (Cowardin and others, 1979). When the FWS began a review of existing wetland inventories in 1974, ks .00M they found more than 50 classification schemes (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Ser- vice, 1976). The only one of these that was nationally based was that of Martin a d others (1953). Subsequently, the FWS worked with several prominent n weLland scientists and mapping experts to identify necessary elements for a Open water bodies with floating mats and new classification system based on the concept of ecosystems (Sather, 1976). submersed beds Four key objectives were established: - Identify ecologically similar habitat units - Classify these units systematically to facilitate resource-management Figure 14. Cross sections of selected wetland decisions landscapes showing typical positions of - Identify units for inventory and mapping purposes wetlands relative to topographic features. - Provide uniformity in concept and terminology throughout the country -Continued. 'The SCS became the Natural Resources Conservation Service in 1994. National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: TECHNICAL ASPECTS 29 Table 2. Examples of wetland definitions used by Federal and State agencies in the United States Organization (reference) Wetland definition FEDERAL U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service "Wetlands are lands transitional between terrestrial and aquatic systems where the water table is usually at or (Cowardin and others, 1979) near the surface or the land is covered by shallow water. For the purposes of this classification wetlands must have one or more of the following three attributes: (1) at least periodically, the land supports predominantly hydrophytes; (2) the substrate is predominantly undrained hydric soil; and (3@ the substrate is nonsoil and is saturated with water or covered by shallow water at some time during the growing season of each year." U.S. Army Corps of Engineers "Wetlands are those areas that are inundated or saturated by surface or groundwater at a frequency and duration (33 CFR 328-3) sufficient to support, and that under normal circumstances do support, a prevalance of vegetation typically U.S. Environmental Protection Agency adapted for life in saturated soil conditions. Wetlands generally include swamps, marshes, bogs, and similar (40 CFR 230.3) areas.' U.S. Soil Conservation Service "Wetlands are defined as areas that have 9 predominance of hydric soils and that are inundated or saturated by (National Food Security Act Manual 1988) surface or ground water at a frequency and duration sufficient to support, and under normal circumstances do (The Act is commonly known as support, a prevalence of hydrophytic vegetation typically adapted for life in saturated soil conditions, except the 'Swampbuster") lands in Alaska identified as having high potential for agricultural development and a predominance of permafrost soils." STATE Connecticut "Wetlands mean land, including submerged land which consists of any of the soil types designated as poorly (CT General Statutes, Sections 22a-36 to 45, drained, very poorly drained, alluvial, and floodplain by the National Cooperative Soils Survey, as may be inclusive, 1972, 1987) amended from time to time, by the Soil Conservation Service of the United States Department of Agriculture. Watercourses are defined as rivers, streams, brooks, waterways, lakes, ponds, marshes, swamps, bogs, and all other bodies of water, natural or artificial, public or private." Connecticut "Wetlands are those areas which border on or lie beneath tidal waters, such as, but not limited to banks, bogs, (CT General Statutes, salt marshes, swamps, meadows, flats or other low lands subject to tidal action, including those areas now or Sections 22a-28 to 35, formerly connected to tidal waters, and whose surface is at or below an elevation of one foot above local extreme inclusive 1969) high water." (Also includes a list of plants capable of growing in tidal wetlands.) Rhode Island "Coastal wetlands include salt marshes and freshwater or brackish wetlands contiguous to salt marshes. Areas of Coastal Resources Management Council open water within coastal wetlands are considered a part of the wetland. Salt marshes are areas regularly (RI Coastal Resources Management inundated by salt water through either natural or artificial water courses and where one or more of the following Program species predominate:" (8 indicator plants listed). "Contiguous and associated freshwater or brackish marshes are as amended June 28, 1983) those where one or more of the following species predominate:" (9 indicator plants listed). Rhode Island Fresh water wetlands are defined to include, "but not be limited to marshes; swamps; bogs; ponds; river and Department of Environmental stream flood plains and banks; areas subject to flooding or storm flowage; emergent and submergent plant Management A General Law, communities in any body of fresh water including rivers and streams and that area of land within fifty feet (501 of Sections 2-1-18 et seq.) the edge of any bog, marsh, swamp, or pond." Various wetland types are further defined on the basis of hydrology and indicator plants, including bog (15 types of indicator plants), marsh (21 types of indicator plants), and swamp (24 types of indicator plants plus marsh plants). New Jersey "Wetlands are those lands which are inundated or saturated by water at a magnitude, duration and frequency (Pinelands Protection Act, sufficient to support the growth of hydrophytes. Wetlands include lands with poorly drained or very poorly N.J. STAT. ANN. drained soils as designated by the National Cooperative Soils Survey of the Soil Conservation Service of the Section 13:18-1 to 13:29.) United States Department of Agriculture. Wetlands include coastal wetlands and inland wetlands, including submerged lands." "Coastal wetlands are banks, low-lying marshes, meadows, flats, and other lowlands subject to tidal inundation which support or are capable of supporting one or more of the following plants:' (29 plants are listed), "Inland wetlands" are defined as including, but not limited to, Atlantic white cedar swamps (15 plants listed), hardwood swamps (19 plants specified), pitch pine lowlands (10 plants listed), bogs (12 plants identified), inland marshes (6 groups of plants listed), lakes and ponds, and rivers and streams. New Jersey "Coastal wetlands" are "any bank, marsh, swamp, meadow, flat or other low land subject to tidal action in the (Coastal Wetland Protection Act - Delaware Bay and Delaware River, Raritan Bay, Sandy Hook Bay, Shrewsbury River including Navesink River, N.J. STAT. ANN. Shark River, and the coastal inland waterways extending southerly from Manasquan Inlet to Cape May Harbor, or Section 13:18-1 to 13:9A-10) at any inlet, estuary, or those areas now or formerly connected to tidal areas whose surface is at or below an elevation of 1 foot above local extreme high water, and upon which may grow or is capable of growing some, but not necessarily all, of the following:" (19 plants are listed.) Coastal wetlands exclude "any land or real property subject to the jurisdiction of the Hackensack Meadowlands Development Commission ...... Massachusetts "The term 'freshwater wetlands' shall mean wet meadows, marshes, swamps, bogs, areas where groundwater, (MA General Law flowing or standing surface water or ice provides a significant part of the supporting substrate for a plant Chapter 131, Section 40) community for at least five months of the year; emergent and submergent plant communities in inland waters; that portion of any bank which touches any inland waters." Various wetland types are further defined on the basis of hydrology and indicator plants and include bogs (19 types of indicator plants), swamps (22 types of plants), wet meadows (12 types of plants), and marshes (22 types of indicator plantsI. 30 National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: OVERVIEW OF WETLAND RESOURCES System Subsystem Class On the basis of these objectives, the FWS devel - oped a new wetland classification system. The sys- Rock bottom tem was extensively field tested and reviewed by pub- Unconsolidated bottom lic and private sectors before being published as Subtidal - Aquatic bed "Classification of Wetlands and Deepwater Habitats Marine Reef of the United States" (Cowardin and others, 1979). Aquatic bed Since its publication, the system has become the na- Reef tional and international standard for identifying and Elntertidal- Rocky shore classifying wetlands (Mader, 199 1; Gopal and others, Unconsolidated shore 1982). Rock bottom -Subtidal Unconsolidated bottom THE U.S. FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE Aquatic bed WETLAND CLASSIFICATION SYSTEM Reef A synopsis of the FWS wetland classification -Estuarine- Aquatic bed system is presented here. Each of the State summa- Reef fies in this volume gives a general summary of the Streambed Interticlal Rocky shore system, and a more comprehensive discussion can be Unconsolidated shore foundinCowardin andothers (1979).The systemde- Emergent wetland scribed here proceeds from general to specific, as Scrub-shrub wetland shown in figure 15. Forested wetland System- Each system represents "a complex of rn wetlands and deepwater habitats, that share the influ- F- Rock bottom ence of similar hydrologic, geomorphologic, chemi- < Unconsolidated bottom cal, or biological factors" (Cowardin and others, 1979, ca Aquatic bed Tidal Streambed p. 4). Five systems are defined: Rocky shore - Marine-open ocean and its associated coastline cc Unconsolidated shore - Estuarine-tidal waters of coastal rivers and Lu Emergent wetland empayments, salty tidal marshes, mangrove Rock bottom swamps, and tidal flats Unconsolidated bottom - Riverine-rivers and streams Lu Lower Perennial Aquatic bed - Lacustrine-lakes, reservoirs, and large ponds Lu Rocky shore - Palustrine-marshes, wet meadows, fens, playas, -Riverine Unconsolidated shore Emergent wetland potholes, pocosins, bogs, swamps, and small Z shallow ponds Rock bottom The overwhelming majority of the Nation's wet- Unconsolidated bottom Upper Perennial Aquatic bed lands fall within the Palustrine System; most of the Z Rocky shore remaining wetlands are in the Estuarine System. < Unconsolidated shore Subsystem.-Each system, except the Palustrine, Intermittent - Streambed is divided into subsystems (fig. 15). The Marine and LU Estuarine Systems have two subsystems that are de- -Limnetic- Rock bottom fined by tidal water levels: subtidal-contin uou sly (deepwater habitat Unconsolidated bottom submersed areas; and intertidal-alternately flooded Lacustrine only) Aquatic bed and exposed to air. The Lacustrine System has two subsystems that are defined by water depth: littoral- Rock bottom the shallow-water zone where wetlands extend from Uncon oliclated bottom Littoral Aquatisc bed the lakeshore to a depth of 6.6 feet below low water Rocky shore or to the extent of noripersistent emergent plants such Unconsolidated shore as arrowheads, pickerelweed, wild rice, or bulrush, if Emergent wetland they grow beyond that depth; and limnetic-the deepwater zone where low water is deeper than 6.6 Rock bottom feet (deepwater habitat). The Riverine System has Unconsolidated bottom four subsystems that represent different reaches of a Aquatic bed flowing freshwater system: tidal-water levels sub- -Palustrine Unconsolidated shore (wetlands only) Moss-lichen wetland Ject to tidal fluctuations; lower perennial-perma- Emergent wetland nent, slow-flowing waters having a well-developed Scrub-shrub wetland flood plain; upper perennial-permanent, fast-flow- Forested wetland ing waters having very little or no flood plain; and in- termittent-strearnbeds with flowing water for only Figure 15. Classification hierarchy of wetlands and deepwater habitats part of the year. showing systems, subsystems, and classes. (Source: Cowardin and Classes.-Each subsystem is divided into others, 1979). classes, which describe the general appearance of the wetland or deepwater habitat in terms of the domi- nant vegetative form, or composition of the substrate (table 3). For areas where vegetation covers 30 per- cent or more of the surface, five vegetative classes are National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: TECHNICAL ASPECTS 31 Table 3. Classes and subclasses of wetlands and deepwater habitats as defined by Cowardin and others (11979) Class Brief description Subclasses Rock bottom Generally permanently flooded areaswith bottom sub- Bedrock; rubble strates consisting of at least 75 percent stones and boulders and less than 30 percent vegetative cover. Unconsolidated bottom Generally permanently flooded areaswith bottom sub- Cobble-gravel; sand; strates consisting of at least 25 percent particles smaller mud; organic than stones and less than 30 percent vegetative cover. Aquatic bed Generally permanently flooded areas that are veg- Algal; aquatic; rooted etated by plants growing principally on or below the vascular; floating vascular water surface. Reef Characterized by elevations above the surrounding Coral; mollusk; worm substrate and interference with normal waveflow;they are primarily subticlal. Streambed Channel whose bottom is completely dewatered at low Bedrock; rubble; cobble-gravel; water periods. sand; mud; organic; vegetated Rocky shore Wetlands characterized by bedrock stones or boulder Bedrock; rubble with areal coverage of 75 percent or more and with less than 30 percent coverage by vegetation. Unconsolidated shore Wetlands having unconsolidated substrates with less Cobble-gravel; sand; mud; than 75 percent coverage by stones, boulders, and bed- organic; vegetated rock and less than 30 percent native vegetative cover. Moss-lichen wetland Wetlands dominated by mosses or lichens where other Moss; lichen plants have less than 30 percent coverage. Emergent wetland Wetlands dominated by erect, rooted, herbaceous hy- Persistent; nonpersistent drophytes. Scrub-shrub wetland Wetlands dominated by woody vegetation less than 20 Deciduous; evergreen; feet (6 meters) tall. dead woody plants Forested wetland Wetlands dominated by woody vegetation 20 feet (6 Deciduous; evergreen; meters) or taller. dead woody plants used-aquatic bed, moss-lichen wetland, emergent (red maple forested wetland and pin oak forested wet- wetland, scrub-shrub wetland, and forested wetland. land, or a tussock-sedge-dominated emergent wetland Aquatic beds may be either wetlands or deepwater and cattail- dominated emergent wetland). In this way, habitats, depending on water depth. individual wetlands can be grouped in ecologically Six other classes are used where vegetation gen- similar units. erally is absent and where substrate and degree of Modifiers.-The classification system also uses flooding are distinguishing features-rock bottom, modifiers to describe hydrologic, chemical, and soil The FWS unconsolidated bottom, reef, streambed, rocky shore, characteristics, and the effects of humans on the wet- and unconsolidated shore. Areas that are nonvegetated lands. The four specific modifiers used are-water re- classification system and permanently flooded are classed as either rock gime, water chemistry, soil, and special. These modi- has become the bottom or unconsolidated bottom. Areas that are pe- fiers can be applied to classes, subclasses, and domi- riodically flooded are classed as streambed, rocky nance types. national and shore, or unconsolidated shore. Reefs are found in The water-regime modifiers describe flooding or international both permanently flooded (deepwater habitats) and soil saturation and are divided into two main standard for periodically flooded tidal areas (wetlands). groups-tidal and nontidal. Tidal modifiers can be Subclass.-Each class is divided further into subdivided into two general categories-salt- and identifying and subclasses (table 3) to define the substrate in non-veg- brackish-water and freshwater. The nomidal modi- classifying wetlands. etated areas or the dominant vegetation in vegetated fier-inland freshwater and saline-defines condi- areas. In vegetated areas, the subclasses are-persis- tions where runoff, ground-water discharge or re- tent or nonpersistent emergents, mosses and lichens, charge, evapotranspiration, wind, and lake seiches or broad-leaved deciduous, needle-leaved deciduous, (oscillation of the water) cause water-level changes. broad-leaved evergreen, needle-leaved evergreen, and Both tidal and nontidal modifiers are briefly defined dead woody plants. In nonvegetated areas the sub- in table 4. classes are-bedrock, rubble, cobble-gravel, mud, Water-chemistry modifiers are divided into two sand, and organic. categories: salinity and pH. The salinity modifiers Dominance Type.-Below the subclass, domi- have been further divided into two groups: haline for nance type can be applied to specify the dominant estuarine and marine tidal areas dominated by sodium plant or animal in the wetland. This level allows one chloride and saline for nontidal areas dominated by to distinguish between distinct plant communities salts other than sodium chloride. The salinity and 32 National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: OVERVIEW OF WETLAND RESOURCES Table 4. Water regime modifiers as defined by Cowardin and others (1979) Group Water type Water regime and definition - Subtidal - Permanently flooded tidal waters Salt- and Irregularly exposed - Exposed less often than daily by tides brackish- water areas Regularly flooded - Daily tidal flooding and exposure to air - Irregularly flooded - Flooded less often than daily and typically exposed to air Tidal - Permanently flooded - Permanently flooded by tides and river overflow but with tidal fluctuation in water levels Semipermanently flooded - Flooded most of the growing season L Freshwater by river overflow but with tidal fluctuation in water levels Regularly flooded - Daily tidal flooding and exposure to air Seasonally flooded - Flooded irregularly by tides and river overflow - Temporarily flooded - Flooded irregularly by tides and for brief periods during growing season by river overflow Permanently flooded - Flooded throughout the year in all years Intermittently exposed - Flooded year-round except during extreme droughts Semipermanently flooded - Flooded throughout the growing season in most years Seasonally flooded - Flooded for extended periods in the growing Inland fresh- season, but surface water is usually absent by the end Nontidal water and of the growing season saline areas Saturated - Surface water is seldom present, but the substrate is saturated to the surface for most of the growing season Temporarily flooded - Flooded for only brief periods during the growing season, with the water table usually well below the soil surface for most of the season Intermittently flooded - The substrate is usually exposed and only flooded for variable periods without detectable seasonal periodicity (may be upland in some situations) - Artificially flooded - Duration and amount of flooding is controlled by pumps or siphons in combination with dikes or dams fluctuations in salinity of water in a wetland and the Mtsch and Gosselink (1986), Niering (1984), Tiner type ofsalt causing the salinity determines whatplant (1984, 1987, 1993b), and Wilen and Tiner (1993). and animal species the wetland can support. The pH modifiers identify waters that are acid (pH less than CONCLUSIONS 5.5), circurnneutral (pH 5.5-7.4), and alkaline (pH greater than 7.4). The FWS wetland classification system places The FWS wetland Soil modifiers are divided into two categories ecologically similar habitats into a hierarchal system classification system organic and mineral. In general, if a soil has 20 per- that permits wetland classification down to domi- cent or more organic matter by weight in the upper nance types, which are based on dominant plants or has provided a 16 inches, it is considered an organic soil. If it has substrates. The system can be used to identify units uniformity of less than this amount, it is a mineral soil. for inventory and mapping for Federal and State wet- Special modifiers are used to describe human or land inventories. It also has provided a uniformity of wetiand terminology. beaver activities. These modifiers are: excavated, im- wetland terminology. The FWS uses this classifica- -infor- pounded (obstruct outflow of water), diked (obstruct tion to determine wetland status and trends inflow of water), partly drained, farmed, and artifi- mation useful to resource managers and planners at cial (materials deposited by humans to create or all levels of government. modify a wetland). Since the 1954 inventory by the FWS, wetlands Although an extensive treatment of wetlands is have changed because of natural and human-related beyond the scope of this article, it would be incom- activities. Wetland characteristics and values have plete without examples of the classification of some become better defined, more widely known, and of the different wedand types. In figure 16, some of more appreciated. As a result, Federal and State leg- the major wetland types are listed by their common islation has been passed to protect wetlands, and names and then classified by the FWS system. The some States have completed wetland surveys variety of wetlands and their locations also are illus- (Cowardin and others, 1979) to aid in protecting and trated. For further information on wetland types, see managing this resource. National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: TECHNICAL ASF@ECTS 33 X P PW7' z -:7, r 12 13 J EXPLANATION Number General welland type Location System Subsystem Class Subclass Water regime 1 Willow swamp Alaska Range east of Paxon, Alaska Palustrine - Scrub-shrub Broad-leaved deciduous Seasonally flooded 2 Cattail marsh Near Brainerd, Minn. Palustrine - Emergent Persistent Seasonally flooded 3 Inland lakeshore marsh Lake Durant, N.Y. Lacustrine Littoral Emergent Nonpersistent Permanently flooded 4 Floating bog Adironclacks, N.Y. Palustrine - Scrub-shrub Broad-leaved evergreen Saturated 5 Salt marsh Nantucket, Mass. Estuarine Interticlal Emergent Persistent Tidal, Irregularly flooded 6 Maple-ash swamp Sussex County, N.J. Palustrine - Forested Broad-leaved deciduous Seasonally flooded 7 Brackish marsh Cedar Key, Fla. Estuarine Interticlal Emergent Persistent Tidal, Irregularly flooded 8 Cypress-gum swamp Francis Marion National Forest, S.C. Palustrine - Forested Needle/broad-leaved deciduous Semipermanently flooded 9 Pocosin Francis Marion National Forest, S.C. Palustrine - Scrub-shrub Broad-leaved evergreen Saturated 10 Cottonwood riparian forest Near Reno, Nev. Palustrine - Forested Broad-leaved deciduous Temporarily flooded 11 Wet meadow Nisqually, Wash. Palustrine - Emergent Persistent Seasonally flooded 12 Black spruce bog Juneau, Alaska Palustrine - Forested Needle-leaved evergreen Saturated 13 Prairie pothole Devil's Lake area, N. Dak. Palustrine - Emergent Nonpersistent Sernipermanently flooded Figure 16. Examples of the classification for major wetland types in the United States, following Cowardin and others (1979). (Note that there are no subsystems for the Palustrine System. Photograph I by David Dahl; 4 by Bill Zinni; 12 byJon Hall; all others by Ralph W. Tiner. All photographers are with the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service.) 34 National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: OVERVIEW OF WETLAND RESOURCES References Cited _1987,Afield guidetocoastal wetlandplants of the northeastern United States: Amherst, Mass., University Cowardin, L.M., Carter, Virginia, Golet, F.C., and LaRoe, of Massachusetts Press, 285 p. E.T., 1979, Classification of wetlands and deepwater -1989, Wetland boundary delineation, in Majumdar, habitats of the United States: U.S. Fish and Wildlife S.K., Brooks, R.P., Brenner, F.J., and Tiner, R.W., Jr., Service Report FWS/OBS-79/31, 131 p. eds., Wetlands ecology and conservation-Emphasis in Dachnowski, A.P., 1920, Peat deposits in the United States Pennsylvania: Easton, Pa., Pennsylvania Academy of and their classification: Soil Science, v. 10, no. 6, p. Sciences, p. 231-248. 453-456. -1991, The concept of a hydrophyte for wetland iden- Gopal, Brij, Turner, R.E., Wetzel, R.G., and Whigham, D.F., tification: BioScience, v. 41, no. 4, p. 236-247. 1982, Wetlands-Ecology and management, in P-- _1993a, Using plants as indicators of wetland: Phila- ceedings of the First International Wetlands Confer- delphia, Pa., Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadel- ence, September 10-17,1980, New Delhi, India: Jaipur, phia, Proceedings, v. 144, p. 240-253. India, National Institute of Ecology and International -1 993b, Field guide to coastal wetland plants of the Scientific Publications, 514 p. southeastern United States: Amherst, Mass., University Lefor, M.W., and Kennard, W.C., 1977, Inland wetland defi- of Massachusetts Press, 328 p. nitions: Storrs, Conn., University of Connecticut., In- U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 1976, Existing state and stitute of Resources, Report 28, 63 p. local wetland surveys (1965-1975), v. H, Narrative: Mader, S.F., 1991, Forested wetlands classification and Washington, D.C., U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, mapping-A literature review: New York, N.Y., Na- Office of Biological Services Report, 453 p. tional Council of the Paper Industry forAir and Stream U.S. Soil Conservation Service, 1991, Hydric soils of the Improvement, Inc., Technical Bulletin no. 606, 99 p. United States: Washington. D.C., in cooperation with Martin, A.C., Hotchkiss, Neil, Uhler, EM., and Bourn, W.S., the National Technical Committee for Hydric Soils, 1953, Classification of wetlands of the United States: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Miscellaneous publi- Washington D.C., U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Spe- cation 1491. cial Scientific Report, Vvrildlife, no. 20, 14 p. Wilen, B.O., and Tiner, R.W., 1993, Wetlands of the United Mitsch, W.J., and Gosselink, J.G., 1986, Wetlands: New States, in Whigham, D.F., DykyjovA, Dagmar, and York, N.Y., Van Nostrand Reinhold Co., Inc., 539 p. Hejny, Slavomil, eds., Wetlands of the world 1: Niering, W.A., 1984, Wetlands: New York, N.Y., Alfred A. Dordfecht, Netherlands, Kluwer Academic Publishers, Knopf, Inc., 638 p. p. 515-636. Reed, P.B., Jr., 1988, National list of plant species that oc- Wright, J.O., 1907, Swamp and overflowed lands in the cur in wetlands-National summary: Washington, United States: Washington, D.C., U.S. Department of D.C., U.S. Fish andWildlife Service Biological Report, Agriculture, Office of Experiment Stations, Circular v. 88, no. 24, 244 p. 76, 23 p. Sather, J.H., ed., 1976, National wetland classification and inventory workshop, July 20-23, 1975, College Park, Md., University of Maryland, Proceedings: Washington, D.C., U.S. Fish and Arildlife Service Report, 358 p. Tiner, R.W., 1984, Wetlands of the United States-Current FOR ADDITIONAL INFORMATION: Ralph W. Tiner, status and recent trends: Washington, D.C., U.S. Fish U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 300 Westgate Center Drive, and Wildlife Service Report, 59 p. Hadley, MA 01035 U.S. Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper 2425 National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: TECHNICAL ASPECTS 35 Technical Aspects of Wetlands Wetland Hydrology, Water Quality, and Associated Functions By Virginia Carter' The formation, persistence, size, and function of wet- mountain valleys where rain and snowmelt are the primary lands are controlled by hydrologic processes. Distribution sources of water. Marine wetlands (those beaches and and differences in wetland type, vegetative composition, rocky shores that fringe the open ocean) are found in all and soil type are caused primarily by geology, topogra- coastal States. Estuarine wetlands (where tidal saltwater phy, and climate. Differences also are the product of the and inland freshwater meet and mix) are most plentiful in movement of water through or within the wetland, water Alaska and along the southeastern Atlantic coast and the quality, and the degree of natural or human-induced dis- gulf coast. Alaska has the largest acreage of estuarine turbance. In turn, the wetland soils and vegetation alter wetlands in the United States, followed by Florida and water velocities, flow paths, and chemistry. The hydrologic Louisiana. and water-quality functions of wetlands, that is, the roles Inland (nontidal) wetlands are found in all States. wetlands play in changing the quantity or quality of wa- Some States, such as West Virginia, have few large wet- ter moving through them, are related to the wetland's physi- lands, but contain many small wetlands associated with cal setting. streams. Other States, such as Nebraska, the Dakotas, and Wetlands are distributed unevenly throughout the Texas, contain many small isolated wetlands-the lakes of United States because of differences in geology, climate, the Nebraska Sandhills, the prairie potholes, and the playa and source of water (fig. 17). They occur in widely diverse lakes, respectively. Northern States such as Minnesota and settings ranging from coastal margins, where tides and Maine contain numerous wetlands with organic soils river discharge are the primary sources of water, to high (peatiands), similar in origin and hydrologic and veg- A A., 4 4@ ',A '7 r_`@ - V EXPLANATION- Approximate distribution 9 of large wetlands and N r:- cleepwater habitats Predominantly 1 'Z@ .4@ -Ke M welland A 2, Predominantly deepwater habitat _7- J@ 2 High density of 5 6 F71 small wetlands Selected locations 7,` Great Dismal Swamp Albemarle-Pamlico Sound 4 ALASKA 4) The Everglades Barataria Basin 4 New Madrid 3 Reelfoot Lake Glacial Lake Agassiz V 10 HAWAII Peatland 0 200 MILES Nebraska Sandhills i Great Salt Lake 0 250 500 MILES 0 100MILES 0 200 KILOMETERS @ Copper River Delta A, 0 250 500 KILOMETERS 0 100 KILOMETERS Sleetm ute Figure 17. Major wetland areas in the United States and location of sites mentioned in the text. (Source: Data from T E. Dahl, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, unpub. data, 199 1.) I U.S. Geological Survey. 36 National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: OVERVIEW OF WETLAND RESOURCES etative characteristics to the classic bog and fen peat lands of northern Europe. However, peatlands are by no means limited to Northern States-they occur in the Southeastern and Midwestern United States wber- ever the hydrology and chemical environment are conducive to the accumulation of organic material. Wetlands occur on flood plains-for example, the broad bottom-land hardwood forests and river swamps (forested wetlands) of southern rivers and many of the narrow riparian zones along streams in the Western United States. Wetlands are commonly associated with lakes or can occur as isolated features of the land- scape. They can form large complexes of open water and vegetation such as The Everglades of Florida, the V Okefenokee Swamp of Georgia and Florida, the Copper River Delta of Alaska, and the Glacial Lake Typical prairie pothole wetland in North Dakota. (Photo- Agassiz peatland of Minnesota. graph by Virginia Carter U.S. Geological Survey.) HYDROLOGIC PROCESSES IN WETLANDS Hydrologic processes occurring in wetlands are the same processes that occur outside of wetlands and collectively are referred to as the hydrologic cycle. Major components of the hydrologic cycle are pre- cipitation, surface-water flow, ground-water flow, and evapotranspiration (ET). Wetlands and uplands con- tinually receive or lose water through exchange with the atmosphere, streams, and ground water. Both a fa- vorable geologic setting and an adequate and persis- tent supply of water are necessary for the existence of wetlands. The wetland water budget is the total of inflows and outflows of water from a wetland. The compo- nents of a budget are shown in the equation in figures Glacial Lake Agassiz peatland, Minnesota. (Photograph by 18 and 19. The relative importance of each compo- Virginia Carter U.S. Geological Survey.) nent in maintaining wetlands varies both spatially and ET H' h wate table AS Low water table Figure 18. Components of the wetland water budget. (P + SWI + GWI ET + SWO + GWO + AS, where P is precipitation, SWI is surface-water inflow, SWO is surface-water outflow, GWI is ground- water inflow, GWO is ground-water outflow, ET is evapotranspiration, and AS is change in storage.) National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: TECHNICAL ASPECTS 37 8 23 22 Ir. @7- 4 Es@> 92 70 71 N 89 7 6 F-As I o Fzsl 1 Nevin Wetland, Wisconsin Heron Pond, Alluvial Cypress Swamp, Illinois (Photograph by Richard P. Novitzki, (Photograph by William J. Mitsch, ManTech Environmental Technology, Inc.) Ohio State University) 100 67 76 55 -.7 30 23 E@>43 3 2 Okefenokee Swamp, Georgia - 0 Fzs -1 AS-1 Zlk Upland Swamp (Photograph by John M. Hefner, (Photograph by Virginia Carter, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service) U.S. Geological Survey) 22 27 t CA N DA 12 52 40 53E@@ IP. -0 35 26 @:G::W:1> 36 @:'50 >32 FAS@ <3 Arctic Fen, west of Baker Lake, Northwest Territories, Canada Hidden Valley Marsh, Ontario, Canada (Photograph by Nigel T. Roulet, (Photograph by Jim Gehrels, McGill University, Montreal) Ontario Ministry of Environmental Energy) Figure 19. Water budgets for selected wetlands in the United States and Canada. (P + SWI + GWI = ET + SWO + GWO + AS, where P is precipitation, SWI is surface-water inflow, SWO is surface-water outflow, GWI is ground-water inflow, GWO is ground-water outflow, ET is evapotranspiration, and AS is change in storage. Components are expressed in percentages. Abbreviations used: < = less than; > = greater than.) (Sources from left to right and top to bottom: NoviLzki, 1978; Roulet and Woo, 7986,- Rykief, 1984,- Rykiel, 1984; Mit5ch and Gosselink, 1993; and Gehrels and Mulamoottil, 199D.) 38 National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: OVERVIEW OF WETLAND RESOURCES temporally, but all these components interact to cre- water flow to wetlands during spring snowmelt. ate the hydrology of an individual wetland. Snowmelt may also recharge ground water, sustain- The relative importance of each of the compo- ing ground-water discharge to wetlands during sum- nents of the hydrologic cycle differs from wetland to mer, fall, and winter. wetland (fig. 19). Isolated basin wetlands, typified by The distribution of precipitation across the prairie potholes and playa lakes, receive direct pre- United States is affected by major climatic patterns. cipitation and some runoff from surrounding uplands, In North America, maximum rainfall is found on the and sometimes receive ground-water inflow. They western slopes of mountain ranges in the West, along lose water to ET; some lose water that seeps to ground the east coast, and in Hawaii. Tropical areas such as water, and some overflow during periods of excessive Florida and Puerto Rico also receive large quantities precipitation and runoff. These wetlands range from of precipitation. By contrast, precipitation is minimal very wet to dry depending on seasonal and long-term in the continental interior where the atmosphere is climatic cycles. Wetlands on lake or river flood plains dry; the driest part of North America is the southwest- also receive direct precipitation and runoff and com- ern desert. Wetlands are most abundant in areas with monly receive ground-water inflow. In addition, they ample precipitation. can be flooded when lakes or rivers are high. Water drains back to the lake or river as floodwaters recede. Evapotranspiration Wet and dry cycles in these wetlands commonly are closely related to lake and river water-level fluctua- The loss of water to the atmosphere is an impor- tions. Coastal wetlands, while also receiving direct tant component of the wetland water budget. Water precipitation, runoff, and ground-water inflow, are is removed by evaporation from soil or surfaces of strongly influenced by tidal cycles. Peatlands with water bodies and by transpiration by plants (fig. 20). raised centers may receive only direct precipitation The combined loss of water by evaporation and tran- or may be affected by ground-water inflow also. spiration is termed evapotranspiration (ET). Solar Surface-water inflows affect only the edges of these radiation, windspeed and turbulence, relative humid- wetlands. ity, available soil moisture, and vegetation type and Detennining water budgets for wetlands is impre- density affect the rate of ET. Evaporation can be mea- c e because as the climate varies from year to year sured fairly easily, but ET measurements, which is does the water balance. The accuracy of individual require measuring how much water is being tran- Water budgets c"omponents depends on how well they can be mea_ spired by plants on a daily, weekly, seasonal, or yearly provide a basis for sured and the magnitude of the associated errors basis,.are much more difficult to make. For this rea- (Winter, 198 1; Carter, 1986). However, water budgets, son scientists use a variety of formulas to estimate ET understanding in conjunction with information on the local geology and there is some controversy regarding the best for- hydrologic provide a basis for understanding the hydrologic pro' mula and the accuracy of these estimates (Gehrels and cesses and water chemistry of a wetland, understand- Mulamoottil, 1990; Carter, 1986; Dolan and others, processes of a ing its functions, and predicting the effects of natu- 1984-1 Idso, 1981). wetland- ral or human-induced hydrologic alterations. Each of Evapotranspiration is highly variable both sea- the components is discussed below. sonally and daily (Dolan and others, 1984). ET losses from wetlands vary with plant species, plant density, and plant status (whether the plants are actively grow- Precipitation ing or are dormant). Seasonal changes in ET also Precipitation is any form of water, such as rain, relate to the water-table position (Ingram, 1983) snow, sleet, hail, or mist, that falls from the atmo- (more water evaporates from the soil or is transpired sphere and reaches the ground. Precipitation provides by plants when the water table is closer to land sur- water for wetlands directly and indirectly. Water is face) and also to temperature changes (more water provided for a wetland directly when precipitation evaporates or is transpired in hot weather than in falls on the wetland or indirectly when precipitation cold). Daily ET rates are controlled chiefly by the falls outside the wetland and is transported to the wet- energy available to evaporate water-there is gener- land by surface- or ground-water flow. For example, ally less at night and on cool, cloudy days. snow that falls on wetland basins provides surface- Surface Water 95 Surface water may be permanently, seasonally, or temporarily present in a wetland. Surface water is 5 T supplied to wetlands through normal streamflow, flooding from lakes and rivers, overland flow, ground- 100 50 50 E water discharge, and tides. Ground water discharged into wetlands also becomes surface water. Surface- @T water outflow from wetlands is greatest during the wet season and especially during flooding, Surface water may flow in channels or across the surface of a wet- water tabie land. Flow paths and velocity of water over the sur- face of a wetland are affected by the topography and vegetation within the wetland. Strearnflow from wetlands that have a large com- Figure 20. Percentage of transpiration and evaporation from various ponent of ground-water discharge tends to be more wetland components. (E, evaporation; T, transpiration.) evenly distributed throughout the year than stream- National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: TECHNICAL ASPECTS 39 flow from wetlands fed primarily by precipitation 70 (fig. 21).This is because ground-water discharge A. Perched bog tends to be relatively constant in quantity compared 60 with precipitation and snowmelt. R: In coastal areas, tides provide a regular and pre- 50 dictable source of surface water for wetlands, affect- L< 40 U ing erosion, deposition, and water chemistry. The X I'_ magnitude of daily high and low tides is affected by 30 the relative position of the sun and the moon-high- est and lowest tides usually occur during full or new Z 20 Z moons. Where tidal circulation is impeded by bar- < 0 10 rier islands (for example, in the Albemarle-Pamlico UJ Sound in North Carolina, where tides are primarily g l- wind-driven) or dikes and levees, tidal circulation Z J F M A M J J A S 0 N D may be small or highly modified. Strong winds an 0U 20 d C LU 0. Ground-water fen storms can cause extreme changes in sea level, flood- (L 10 ing both wetlands and uplands. 0 J F M A M J J A S 0 N D Ground Water Ground water originates as precipitation or as Figure 21. Monthly strearnflow from two wetlands in seepage from surface-water bodies. Precipitation northern Minnesota; A, a perched bog whose inflow component is primarily precipitation, and 0, a fen moves slowly downward through unsaturated soils whose inflow component is primarily ground water. and rocks until it reaches the saturated zone. Water (Source: Modified from Boelter and Verry, 1977.) also seeps from lakes, rivers, and wetlands into the saturated zone. This process is known as ground- water recharge and the top of the saturated zone is ers of the wetland; the source of water (precipitation, known as the water table. Ground water in the satu- surface water, or ground water) controls the water rated zone flows through aquifers or aquifer systems chemistry and determines what nutrients are avail- composed of permeable rocks or other earth materi- able for plant growth. Ground-water flow in exten- The hydrology of a als in response to hydraulic heads (pressure). Ground sive peatlands such as the Glacial Lake Agassiz wetiand is largely water can flow in shallow local aquifer systems where peatland in Minnesota may be controlled by the de- water is near the land surface or in deeper interme- velopment of ground-water mounds (elevated water responsible for the diate and regional aquifer systems (fig. 22). Differ- tables fed by precipitation) in raised bogs where vegetation of the ences in hydraulic head cause ground water to move ground water moves downward through mineral soils back to the land surface or into surface-water bod- before discharging into adjacent fens (Siegel, 1983; wetland. ies; this process is called ground-water discharge. In Siegel and Glaser, 1987). Movement of the ground wetlands that are common discharge areas for differ- water through mineral soils increases the nutrient ent flow systems, waters from different sources can content of the water. mix. Ground-water discharge occurs through wells, Coastal wetlands and shallow embayments repre- seepage or springs, and directly through ET where the sent the lowest point in regional and local ground- water table is near the land surface or plant roots reach water flow systems; ground water discharges into these the water table. Ground-water discharge will influ- areas, sometimes in quantities large enough to affect ence the water chemistry of the receiving wetland the chemistry of estuaries (Valiela and Costa, 1988; whereas ground-water recharge will influence the chemistry of water in the adjacent aquifer. Wetlands most commonly are ground-water dis- LOCALAND REGIONAL charge areas; however, ground-water recharge also LOCAL AND RECHARGE occurs. Ground-water recharge or discharge in wet- INTERMEDIATE RECHARGE lands is affected by topographic position, hydro- LOCAL LOCAL geology, sediment and soil characteristics, season, ET, LOCAL RECHARGE LOCAL DISCHARGE and climate and might not occur uniformly through- RECHARGE LOCALAND DISCHARGE out a wetland. Recharge rates in wetlands can be much LOCAL AND INTERMEDIATE REGIONAL DISCHARGE slower than those in adjacent uplands if the upland soils DISCHARGE are more permeable than the slightly permeable clays E Locakilo", or peat that usually underlie wetlands. The accumulation and composition of peat in L... wetlands are important factors influencing hydrology iloN and vegetation. It was long assumed that the dis- Local fiOIN tntermedlatO charge of ground water through thick layers of well- RagiOOat decomposed peat was negligible because of its low permeability, but recent studies have shown that these Figure 22. Ground-water flow systems. Local ground-water flow systems are layers can transmit ground water more rapidly than recharged at topographic highs and discharged at immediately adjacent lows. previously thought (Chason and Siegel, 1986). Regional ground-water flow systems are recharged at the major regional topographic Peatland type (fen or bog) and plant communities are highs and discharged at the major regional topographic lows. Intermediate flow affected by the chemistry ofwater in the surface lay- systems fie between the other two systems. (Source: Modified from Winter 1976.) 40 National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: OVERVIEW OF WETLAND RESOURCES SOME EFFECTS OF HYDROLOGY ON WETLAND VEGETATION Winter water table The hydrology of a wetland is largely responsible for the vegetation of the wetland, which in turn affects o Low evapotranspiration 6", the value of the wetland to animals and people. The .@A 0 Storage capacity limited to duration and seasonality of flooding and (or) soil e j surface water saturation, ground-water level, soil type, and drainage t 0 Plants, except evergreens, characteristics exert a strong influence on the number, have no leaves type, and distribution of plants and plant communities in wetlands. Although much is known about flooding tolerance in plants, the effect of soil saturation in the root zone is less well understood. Golet and Lowry (1987) showed that surface flooding and duration of saturation within the root zone, while not the only factors influencing plant growth, accounted for as Spring water table Summer water table much as 50 percent of the variation in growth of some lants. Plant distribution is also closely related to p al High evapotranspiration A- wetland water chemistry; the water may be fresh or a Storage capacity increases saline, acidic or basic, depending on the source(s). g', (surface and subsurface) 0 Plants are actively growing HYDROGEOLOGIC SETTINGS The source and movement of water are very im- portant for assessing wetland function and predicting how changes in wetlands will affect the associated basin. Linkages between wetlands, uplands, and Fall water table deepwater habitats provide a framework for protec- tion and management of wetland resources. Water e Low evapotranspiration moving into wetlands has chemical and physical char- V a Storage capacity decreases acteristics that reflect its source. Older ground water generally contains chemicals associated with the 0 Plants lose leaves and become dormant rocks through which it has moved; younger ground water has fewer minerals because it has had less time in contact with the rocks. Which processes can and will occur within the wetland are determined by the Figure 23. Seasonal changes in storage capacity characteristics of the water entering and the charac- and evapotranspiration (ET) in wetlands. teristics of the wetland itself-its size, shape, soils, plants, and position in the basin. Because wetlands occur in a variety of geologic and physiographic settings, attempts have been made to group or classify them in such a way as to identify Valiela and others, 1990). The quantity of ground water similarities in hydrology. For example, Novitzki discharged varies throughout the tidal cycle, affecting (1979, 1982) developed a hydrologic classification for the water chemistry of the wetland soils (Harvey and Wisconsin wetlands based on topographic position Odum, 1990; Valiela and others, 1990). and surface water-ground water interaction; Gosse- link and 1brner (1978) grouped freshwater wetlands Storage according to hydrodynamic energy gradients; and Brinson (1993) developed a hydrogeomorphic clas- Storage in a wetland consists of surface water, sification for use in evaluating wetland function. (See soil moisture, and ground water. Storage capacity the articles "Wetland Definitions and Classifications The vegetation refers to the space available for water storage-the in the United States" and "Wetland Functions, Values, higher the water table, the less the storage capacity and Assessment" in this volume.) Wetlands, like lakes, affects the of a wetland. Some wetlands have continuously high are associated with features where water tends to col- value of the wet- water tables, but generally, the water table fluctuates lect. They are commonly found in topographic depres- seasonally in response to rainfall and ET. Storage sions, at slope breaks, in areas of stratigraphic change, landto animals capacity of wetlands is lowest when the water table and in permafrost areas (fig. 24) (Winter and Woo, and people. is near or at the surface---during the dormant season 1990). when plants are not transpiring, following snowmelt, and (or) during the wet season (fig. 23). Storage Topographic Depressions capacity increases during the growing season as water tables decline and ET increases. When storage Most wetlands occur in or originate in topo- capacity is high, infiltration may occur and the wet- graphic depressions-these include lakes, wetland land may be effective in retarding runoff. When water basins, and river valleys (fig. 24A). Depressions may tables are high and storage capacity is low, any addi- be formed by movement of glaciers and water; action tional water that enters the wetland runs off the wet- of wind, waves, and tides; and (or) by processes as- land rapidly. sociated with tectonics, subsidence, or collapse. National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: TECHNICAL ASPECTS 41 Glacial movement.-Glaciers shaped the land- scape of many of the Northern States and caused t wetlands to form in mountainous areas such as the Rocky Mountains and the northern Appalachians. As the glaciers advanced over the Northern United States they gouged and scoured the land surface, making numerous depressions, depositing unsorted glacial materials, and burying large ice masses. As the cli mate warmed, the glaciers retreated, leaving behind AA the depressions and the large masses of buried ice. As the temperatures continued to warm, the ice masses infrared color photograph of melted to form kettle holes. In many cases, water oxbow lakes in the drainage filled the depressions and kettle holes, forming lakes. area of Hoholitna River near d Sleetmute, Alaska. As the lakes filled with sediments, they were replace by wetlands. (Photograph courtesy of Water movement.-Wetlands also are formed by National Aeronautics and the movement of water as it flows from upland areas All, Space Administration.) toward the coast. The flow characteristics of water are partly determined by the slope of the streambed. On steeply sloping land, water generally flows rapidly through relatively deep, well-defined channels. As the slope decreases, the water spreads out over a wider area and channels usually become shallower and less defined. Shallow channels tend to meander or move back and forth across the flood plain. The changes in flow path sometimes result in oxbow lakes and flood- plain wetlands. When the river floods, the isolated oxbow lakes begin to fill with sediment, providing an excellent place for more wetlands to form. Obstruc- tion to the normal flow of water also can cause the Lotus in Reelfoot Lake, water to change course and leave gouges in front Of Tennessee. or channels around the obstruction, or can cause water (Photograph by Virginia to be impounded behind the obstruction. Many lakes Carter, U.S. Geological and wetlands are formed behind dams made by ey) humans or beavers. Wind, wave, and tidal action.-Wetlands are com- mon in areas of sand dunes caused by wind, waves, or tides. Wetlands formed in the depressions between sand dunes are found in the Nebraska Sandhills, along the shoreline of the Great Lakes, and on barrier islands and the seaward margins of coastal States. In coastal States, tides, waves, and wind cause the move- ment of sand barriers and the closing of inlets, which often result in the formation of shallow lagoons with abundant associated emergent wetlands. Tectonic activities. -Rctonic activity is respon- Coastal marsh along San sible for depression wetlands such as Reelfoot Lake Francisco Bay, California. on the Mississippi River flood plain in Tennessee (Photograph by Virginia caused by the 1812 New Madrid earthquake. Earth- Carter U.S. Geological quakes result when two parts of the Earth's crust move Survey.) relative to each other, causing displacement of land. When this occurs, depressions may result along the lines of displacement or the flow paths of rivers may be changed, leaving isolated bodies of water. When a source of water coincides with these depressions, wetlands can form. Subsidence and collapsefeatures.-Land subsi- dence and collapse also can form depressions in which wetlands and lakes occur. In some areas, es- pecially in the Southwest, pumping of ground water Ott 41, has caused the land above an aquifer to sink, form- This recently collapsed ing depressions where water collects and wetlands sinkhole, in central develop. In karst topography (landscapes resulting Florida, provides an ideal. from the solution of carbonate rocks such as lime- spot for a wetland to form. (Photograph by stone), such as is found in Florida, wetlands form in Terry H. Thompson, sinkholes. Collapse of volcanic craters produces U.S. Geological Survey.) 42 National Water Surnmary-Wetland Resources: OVERVIEW OF WETLAND RESOURCES A. Depressions and slope breaks bottom of an ancient beach ridge that runs along the Slope break western edge (Carter and others, 1994). 11 2 Slope break Areas of Stratigraphic Change ression Where stratigraphic changes occur near land sur- face, the layering of permeable and less-permeable Dep rocks or soils affects the movement of ground water. Surficial sand aquifer When water flowing through the more permeable rock encounters the less permeable rock, it is diverted along the surface of the less permeable rock to the land sur- face. The continual seepage that occurs at the surface provides the necessary moisture for a wetland (fig. B. Areas of stwatigraphic change 24B). Fens in Iowa form on valley-wall slopes where a thin permeable horizontal layer of rock is sand- Glacial till wiched between two less permeable layers and con- tinual seepage from the permeable layer causes the Sand and gravel formation of peat (Thompson and others, 1992). Glacial oil Permafrost Areas Sand and gravel Permafrost is defined as soil material with a temperature continuously below 32'F (Fahrenheit) for more than I year (Brown, 1974); both arctic and subarctic wetlands in Alaska are affected by perma- C Permafrost areas frost (figs. 24 C and 25). Permafrost has low perme- ability and infiltration rates. As a result, recharge through permafrost is extremely slow (Ford and Bedford, 1987). In areas covered by peat, organic silt, or dense vegetation, permafrost is commonly close to the surface. In areas covered by lakes, streams, and Permafrost ponds, permafrost can be absent or at great depth below the surface-water body. The surface or active Permafrost Soil material layer of permafrost thaws during the growing season. In areas where permafrost is continuous, there is vir- tually no hydraulic connection between ground water EXPLANATION in the surface layer and ground water below the per- mafrost zone. The imperviousness of the frozen soil General dlirection of Emergent vegetation slows drainage and causes water to stand in surface ground-water flow Peat depressions, forming wetlands and shallow lakes. Average water table Glacial till In discontinuous permafrost areas (fig. 25), un- (low permeability) frozen zones on south-facing slopes (in the northern Forest vegetation Sand and gravel hemisphere) and under lakes, wetlands, and large riv- (high permeability) ers provide hydraulic connections between the surface Scrub-shrub vegetation and the ground water below the permafrost zone. Ground-water discharge to wetlands from deeper Figure 24. Cross sections showing principal hydrogeologic settings for aquifers can occur through the unfrozen zone (Will- wetlands; A, slope break and depression, B, area of stratigraphic change, iams and Waller, 1966; Kane and Slaughter, 1973). and C, permafrost area. In discontinuous permafrost regions, whether a slope faces away from or toward the sun can determine the presence or absence of permafrost and thus influence calderas that fill with water and sediment and con- the location and distribution of wetlands (Dingman tain takes or wetlands. and Koutz, 1974). Permafrost is sensitive to factors that upset the thermal equilibrium. Thermokarst fea- Slope Breaks tures (depressions in the land surface caused by thaw- ing and subsequent settling of the land) may be caused The water table sometimes intersects the land by regional climatic change or human activities. These surface in areas where the land is sloping. Where there depressions formed by local thawing of permafrost is an upward break or change in slope, ground water are usually filled with wetlands. moves toward the water table in the flatter landscape (fig. 24A) (Roulet, 1990; Winter and Woo, 1990). WATER QUALITY IN WETLANDS Where ground water discharges to the land surface, wetlands form on the lower parts of the slope. Con- The water chemistry of wetlands is primarily a stant ground-water seepage maintains soil saturation result of geologic setting, water balance (relative pro- and wetland plant communities. The Great Dismal portions of inflow, outflow, and storage), quality of ,a P-1m.f' Swamp of Virginia and North Carolina is maintained inflowing water, type of soils and vegetation, and by seepage of ground water at the slope break at the human activity within or near the wetland. Wetlands National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: TECHNICAL ASPECTS 43 EXPLANATION Generally underlain by ALASKA continuous permatrost Underlain by discon- tinuous permafrost Underlain br isolated masses o permafrost Generally free from permafrost Undefined 0 500 MILES i 1 11 11 1 11 1 _j 0 500 KILOMETERS Figure 25. Continuous, discontinuous, and sporadic permafrost areas of Alaska. (Source: Modified from Ford and Bedford, 1987.) dominated by surface-water inflow and outflow re- - Type of soil flect the chemistry of the associated rivers or lakes. - The relative amounts of water flowing in and Those wetlands that receive surface-water or ground- water flowing out of the wetland water inflow, have limited outflow, and lose water - Local climate primarily to ET have a high concentration of chemi- - The hydrogeologic framework cals and contain brackish or saline (salty) water. Ex- - The geochernistry of surface and ground water amples of such wetlands are the saline playas, wet- Although broad generalizations regarding wetland lands associated with the Great Salt Lake in Utah, and functions can be made, effectiveness and magnitude the permanent and semipermanent prairie potholes. of functions differ from wetland to wetland. In contrast, wetlands that receive water primarily Natural functions of wetlands can be altered or from precipitation and lose water by way of surface- impaired by human activity. Although slow incremen- water outflows and (or) seepage to ground water tend tal changes in the natural landscape can lead to small to have lower concentrations of chemicals. Wetlands changes in wetlands, the accumulation of these small ------ --- influenced strongly by ground-water discharge have changes can permanently alter the wetland function The effectiveness water chemistries similar to ground water. In most (Brinson, 1988). Some of the major hydrologic and cases, wetlands receive water from more than one water-quality functions of wetlands-(1) floodstor- and magnitude of source, so the resultant water chemistry is a composite age and storinflow modification, (2) ground-water a function varies chemistry of the various sources. recharge and discharge, (3) alterations of precipita- from wetland to Plants can serve as indicators of wetland chem- tion and evaporation, (4) maintenance of water qual- istry. In tidal wetlands, the distribution of salty ity, (5) maintenance of estuarine water balance, and Wetiand. water influences plant communities and species (6) erosion reduction-are discussed below. diversity. In freshwater wetlands, pH (a measure of acidity or alkalinity) and mineral and nutrient con- Flood Storage and Stormflow Modification tent influence plant abundance and species diversity. Wetlands associated with lakes and streams store HYDROLOGIC AND WATER-QUALITY floodwaters by spreading water out over a large flat FUNCTIONS OF WETLANDS area. This temporary storage of water decreases run- off velocity, reduces flood peaks, and distributes Wetland hydrologic and water-quality functions stormflows over longer time periods, causing tribu- are the roles that wetlands play in modifying or con- tary and main channels to peak at different times. trolling the quantity or quality of water moving Wetlands with available storage capacity or those through a wetland. An understanding of wedand func- located in depressions with narrow outlets may store tions and the underlying chemical, physical, and bio- and release water over an extended period of time. In logical processes supporting these functions facili- drainage basins with flat terrain that contains many tates the management and protection of wetlands and depressions (for example, the prairie potholes and their associated basins. playa lake regions), lakes and wetlands store large The hydrologic and water-quality functions of volumes of snowmelt and (or) runoff. These wetlands wetlands are controlled by the following: have no natural outlets, and therefore this water is � Landscape position (elevation in the drainage ba- retained and does not contribute to local or regional sin relative to other wetlands, lakes, and streams) flooding. � Topographic location (depressions, flood plains, A strong correlation exists between the size of slopes) flood peaks and basin storage (percentage of basin � Presence or absence of vegetation area occupied by lakes and wetlands) in many drain- � Type of vegetation age basins throughout the United States (Tice, 1968; 44 National Water Surnmary-Wetland Resources: OVERVIEW OF WETLAND RESOURCES Hains, 1973; Novitzki, 1979, 1989; Leibowitz and ing on nontidal freshwater wetlands on barrier islands others, 1992). Novitzki (1979, 1989) found that ba- may recharge the shallow freshwater aquifer overly- sins with 30 percent or more areal coverage by lakes ing the deeper salty water. and wetlands have flood peaks that are 60 to 80 per- cent lower than the peaks in basins with no lake or Alterations of Precipitation and wetland area. Wetlands can provide cost-effective Evaporation flood control, and in some instances their protection has been recognized as less costly than flood-control Wetlands can influence local or regional weather measures such as reservoirs or dikes (Carter and oth- and climate in several ways. Wetlands tend to moder- ers, 1979). Loss of wetlands can result in severe and ate seasonal temperature fluctuations. During the sum- costly flood damage in low-lying areas of a basin. mer, wetlands maintain lower temperatures because ET Not all wetlands are able to store floodwaters or from the wetland converts latent heat and releases modify storniflow; some, in fact, add to runoff. Down- water vapor to the atmosphere. In the winter, the stream wetlands, such as those along the middle and warmer water of the wetland prevents rapid cooling at Wetlands can lower reaches of the Mississippi River and its tribu- night; warm breezes from the wetland surface may influence taries, are more effective at reducing downstream prevent freezing in nearby uplands. Wetlands also flooding than are headwater wetlands, largely as a modify local atmospheric circulation and thus affect weather and result of larger storage capacities (Ogawa and Male, moisture convection, cloud formation, thunderstorms, CliMate. 1986). Runoff from wetlands is strongly influenced and precipitation patterns. Therefore, when wetlands by season, available storage capacity, and soil perme- are drained or replaced by impermeable materials, sig- ability. Wetlands in basin headwaters are commonly nificant changes in weather systems can occur. sources of runoff because they are ground-water dis- charge areas. Wetlands in Alaska that are underlain by Maintenance of Water Quality permafrost have little or no available storage capac- ity; runoff is rapid and flood peaks are often very high. Ground water and surface water transport sedi- ments, nutrients, trace metals, and organic materials. Ground-Water Recharge and Discharge Wetlands can trap, precipitate, transform, recycle, and export many of these waterborne constituents, and Ground-water recharge and discharge are hydro- water leaving the wetland can differ markedly from logic processes that occur throughout the landscape that entering (Mitsch and Gosselink, 1993; Elder, and are not unique functions of wetlands. Recharge 1987). Wetlands can maintain good quality water and and discharge in wetlands are strongly influenced by improve degraded water. local hydrogeology, topographic position, ET, wet] and Water-quality modification can affect an entire soils, season, and climate. Ground-water discharge drainage basin or it may affect only an individual provides water necessary to the survival of the wet- wetland. Water chemistry in basins that contain a land and also can provide water that leaves the wet- large proportion of wetlands is usually different from land as strearnflow. Most wetlands are primarily dis- that in basins with fewer wetlands. Basins with more charge areas; in these wetlands, however, small wetlands tend to have water with lower specific con- amounts of recharge can occur seasonally. ductance and lower concentrations of chloride, lead, Recharge to aquifers can be especially important inorganic nitrogen, suspended solids, and total and in areas where ground water is withdrawn for agri- dissolved phosphorus than basins with fewer wet- cultural, industrial, and municipal purposes. Wetlands lands. Generally, wetlands are more effective at re- can provide either substantial or limited recharge to moving suspended solids, total phosphorus, and aquifers. Much of the recharge to the Ogallala aqui- ammonia during high-flow periods and more effec- fer in West Texas and New Mexico is from the 20,000 five at removing nitrates at low-flow periods (John- to 30,000 playa lakes rather than from areas between ston and others, 1990). Novitzki (1979) reported that lakes, ephemeral streams, and areas of sand dunes streams in a Wisconsin basin, which contained 40 per- (Wood and Osterkamp, 1984; Wood and Sanford, cent wetland and lake area, had sediment loads that 1994). Recharge takes place through the bottoms of were 90 percent lower than in a comparable basin with some streams, especially in karst topography and in no wetlands. Wetlands may change water chemistry the and West. Some recharge also takes place when sequentially; that is, upstream wetlands may serve as floodwater moves across the flood plain and seeps the source of materials that are transformed in down- down into the water-table aquifer. Cypress domes in stream wetlands. Estuaries and tidal rivers depend on Florida and prairie potholes in the Dakotas also are the flow of freshwater, sediments, nutrients, and other thought to contribute to ground-water recharge constituents from upstream. (Carter and others, 1979). Ground-water recharge Wetlands filter out or transform natural and an- from a wetland can be induced when aquifer water thropogenic constituents through a variety of biologi- levels have been drawn down by nearby pumping. cal and chemical processes. Wetlands act as sinks Most estuarine wetlands are discharge areas (where material is trapped and held) for some mate- rather than recharge areas, primarily because they are rials and sources (from which material is removed) on the low topographic end of local and regional of others. For example, wetlands are a major sink for ground-water flow systems. As the tide rises, water heavy metals and for sulfur, which combines with is temporarily stored on the surface of the wetland and metals to form relatively insoluble compounds. Some in the wetland soils, where it inixes with the discharg- wetland mineral deposits (bog iron, manganese) are ing freshwater. The water moves back into the estu- or have been important metal reserves in the past. Or- ary or tidal river as the tide ebbs. Precipitation fall- ganic carbon in the form of plant tissues and peat National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: TECHNICAL ASPECTS 45 ,..Gaseous Nitrogen EXPLANATION Bacteria change gaseous nitrogen (N2) to ammonia (NI-13). Bacteria change ammonia Living plant (NH3) to nitrate Moil (another form of nitrogen that the plant can use). Decaying El Plant roots absorb ammonia 11 plant material an processes Band 6 and Detritus d (or) nitrate formed in incorporate nitrogen into 0 Surface- Z Surface- the plant proteins and water water nucleic acids that nourish inflow -0- outflow the plant. (N H,) (N H,) Nitrogen compounds of decaying plants are broken down by bacteria and release ammonia that can be recycled Ground- Ground- through steps 10 and El. A water water 4 0 Bacteria change nitrate to inflow (NO;-) outflow gaseous nitrogen. (N H,) - - - - - - - - (N H,) Figure 26. Simplified diagram of the nitrogen cycle in a wetland. accumulates in wetlands creating a source of water- them into plant tissue, which may later be recycled borne dissolved and particulate organic materials. in the wetland through decomposition, stored as peat, Some materials, for example nutrients, are changed or transported from the wetland as particulate mat- from one form to another as they pass through the ter (Boyt and others, 1977; Tilton and Kadlec, 1979; wetland (fig. 26). Most stored materials in wetlands Hammer, 1992). are immobilized as a result of prevailing water chem- Microbes.-The microbial community, which istry and hydrology, but any disturbance can result includes bacteria, algae, fungi, and protozoa, is re- in release of those materials. sponsible for most of the chemical transformations The water purification functions of wetlands are that occur in wetlands. In order to meet their meta- dependent upon four principal components of the wet- bolic needs, microbes use up oxygen; transform nu- land-substrate, water, vegetation, and microbial popu- trients, manganese, and iron; and generate methane, lations (Hammer, 1992; Hemond and others, 1987). hydrogen sulfide gas, and carbon dioxide. Subs tra tes. -Wetland substrates provide a reac- Wetlands serve as short-term or long-term sedi- tive surface for biogeochemical reactions and habi- ment sinks. Floodwater spreading out across a wet- tat for microbes. Wetland soils are the medium in land decreases in velocity, and sediments settle out which many of the wetland chemical transformations and are trapped within the wetland. Some of this sedi- occur and the primary storage area of available ment may be transported out of the wetland during chemicals for most plants (Mitsch and Gosselink, future flooding. Sediment deposition in estuarine 1993). Organic or peat soils differ from niineral soils wetlands provides a constant input that is of special in their biogeochernical properties, including their importance for maintenance of wetlands acreage dur- ability to hold water and bind or immobilize mineral ing periods of sea-level rise (Bricker-Urso and oth- constituents. ers, 1989). Water.-Ground and surface waters transport The ability of wetlands to filter and transform solid materials and gases to the microbial and plant nutrients and other constituents has resulted in the communities, remove the by-products of chemical and construction and use of artificial wetlands in the biological reactions from the wetlands, and maint ain United States and other countries to treat wastewater the environment in which the essential biochemical and acid mine drainage (Hammer, 1989, 1992; processes of wetlands occur. Flooding or soil satura- Wieder, 1989). However, individual wetlands have a tion causes oxygen- deficient conditions that markedly limited capacity to absorb nutrients and differ in their influence many biological transformations. ability to do so (Tiner, 1985). A wetland's effective- Vegetation.-Wetland vegetation reduces the flow ness in improving water quality depends on hydro- and decreases velocities of water, causing the depo- logic patterns, amount and type of vegetation, time sition of mineral and organic particles and constitu- of year, and the constituent of concern (Zedler and ents attached to them, such as phosphorus or trace others, 1985). metals. Plants introduce oxygen to the generally oxy- gen-deficient soil environment through their roots ' Estuarine Water Balance creating an oxidized root zone where bacteria] trans- formations of nitrogenous and other compounds can Estuaries receive freshwater from precipitation, occur (Good and Patrick, 1987). Plants also provide ground-water discharge, strearnflow, and overland a surface for microbial colonization. Wetland plants flow. Ground water discharges through shallow- remove small quantities of nutrients, trace metals, and water sediments of the estuary or through marsh soils other compounds from the soil water and incorporate and can affect the nutrient balance and salinity of the 46 National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: OVERVIEW OF WETLAND RESOURCES and shallow vegetated wetlands protect shorelines in moderate and small storms if the water does not carry High flow Low flow excessive amounts of abrasive floating debris. Wet- land vegetation decreases water velocities through friction and causes sedimentation in shallow water areas and flood-plain wetlands, thus decreasing the erosive power of the water and building up natural levees. Trees are excellent riverbank stabilizers and 151h- have been planted to reduce erosion along United States shorelines. Other wetland plants such as bul- Alit rushes, reeds, cattails, cordgrass, and mangroves can also successfully withstand wave and current action. When vegetation is removed, streambanks col- lapse and channels widen and (or) deepen; removal @Ijt lg of wetland vegetation can turn a sediment sink into a Estuary sediment source. The dissipation of erosive forces by Estuaiy vegetation differs from wetland to wetland and de- pends upon vegetative composition and root structure, EXPLANATION sediment type, and the frequency and intensity of General direction of Freshwater water contact with the bank. surface-water flow Freshwaterilbrackish-water Brackish water interface Saltwater SUMMARY Brackish-w ter/saltweter interfaces Wetlands are complex ecosystems in which ground water and surface water interact, but because Figure 27. Movement of the freshwater-saltwater interface in an estuary during ground water cannot be directly observed, its role in periods of high flow and during periods of low flow. the hydrology of wetlands is sometimes more diffi- cult to understand than that of surface water. Many wetlands owe their existence not only to poor drain- receiving waters (Valiela and others, 1978; Harvey age at the site but also to the discharge of ground water and Odum, 1990). Estuarine salinity decreases dur- at the site. The hydrology of a wetland determines ing periods of high streamflow as the freshwater- salt- what functions it will perform. Each wetland is water interface moves down the estuary from the unique, but those with similar hydrologic settings stream toward the sea (fig. 27). Estuarine salinity in- generally perform similar functions. creases as streamflow decreases and the interface moves up the estuary. Estuarine plants and animals are well adjusted to these normal seasonal fluctua- References Cited tions in salinity. Water temporarily stored in flood- plain wetlands upstream from the estuary deposits Boelter, D.H., and Verry, E.S.. 1977, Peatland and water in sediment and nutrients, and water leaving these wet- the northern Lake States: U.S. Department ofAgricul- lands exports decomposition products and organic de- ture Forest Service General Technical Report NC-31, tritus to the estuary. This temporary storage of water 22 p@ and the concurrent decrease in flow velocity aid in Boyt, F.L., Bayley, S.E., and Zoltek, John, Jr., 1977, Removal controlling the timing and size of the freshwater in- of nutrients from treated municipal wastewater by wet- flux to the estuary. For example, the freshwater wet- land vegetation: Journal of Water Pollution Control Federation, v. 49, no. 5, p. 789-799. lands of the Barataria Basin in Louisiana serve as a Bricker-Urso, Suzanne, Nixon, S.W., Cochran, J.K., Wetlands major freshwater reservoir for maintenance of favor- Hirschberg, D.J., and Hunt, C.D., 1989, Accretion rates reduce the able salinities in the brackish zone, and the major and sediment accumulation in Rhode Island salt erosive pul .se of materials to the estuary coincides with the marshes: Estuaries, v. 12, no. 4, p. 300-317. arrival of migrant fish for growth and spawning. Brinson, M.M., 1988, Strategies for assessing the cumula- forces of wind Leaves that fall in flood-plain wetlands are broken tive effects of wetland alteration on water quality: En- andWaVes. down and enriched by microbial action and produce vironmental Management, v. 12, no. 5, p. 655-662. high-quality food for detrital based food chains in the -1993, A hydrogeomorphic classification for wet- lands: U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Technical estuary. Alterations in the timing and quality of Report WRP-DE-4, 79 p@ streamflow and associated suspended particulate and Brown, R. J. E., 1974, Distribution and environmental re- dissolved material, caused by dams or artificial drain- lationships of permafrost: Canada National Commit- age, can alter the chemistry of coastal waters and tee for the Hydrologic Decade, p. t-5. affect the organisms that inhabit them. Carter, Virginia, 1986, An overview of the hydrologic con- cerns related to wetlands in the United States: Cana- dian Journal of Botany, v. 64, no. 2, p. 364-374. Erosion Reduction Carter, Virginia, Bedinger, M.S., Novitzki, R.P., and Wilen, Wetlands reduce shoreline erosion by stabilizing W.O., 1979, Water resources and wetlands, in Greeson, P.E., Clark, J.R. and Clark, J.E., eds., Wetland func- sediments and absorbing and dissipating wave energy tions and values-The state of our understanding: Min- (Hammer, 1992). The ability of wetlands to stabilize neapolis, Minnesota, Water Resources Association, and protect shorelines depends on their capacity to p. 344-376. reduce the erosive forces of wind and waves. Beaches Carter, Virginia, Gammon, P.T., and Garrett, M.K.,1994, National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: TECHNICAL ASPECTS 47 Ecotone dynamics and boundary determination in the Hughes, L.E., Iris, J.T., 1992, A synoptic approach to Great Dismal Swamp, Virginia and North Carolina: cumulative impact assessment-A proposed method- Ecological Applications, v. 4, no. 1, p. 189-203. ology, in McCannell, S.G., and Hairston, A.R., eds.: Chason, D.B., and Siegel, D.I., 1986, Hydraulic conductiv- U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, EPA/600/R- ity and related physical properties of peat, Lost River 92-167, 127 p. Peatland, Northern Minnesota: Soil Science, v. 142, Mitsch, W.J., and Gosselink, J.G., 1993, Wetlands: New no. 2, p. 91-99. York, Van Nostrand Reinhold, 722 p. Dingman, S.L., and Koutz, F.R., 1974, Relations among veg- Novitzki, R.P., 1978, Hydrology of the Nevin Wetland near etation, permafrost, and potential insolation in Central Madison, Wisconsin: U.S. Geological Survey Water- Alaska: Arctic and Alpine Research, v. 6, Resources Investigations 78-48, 25 p. no.l,p.37-42. -1979, Hydrologic characteristics ofWsconsirfs wet- Dolan, T.J., Hermann, A.J., Bayley, Suzanne, and Zoltek, lands and their influence on floods, stream flow, and John, 1984, Evapotranspiration of a Florida, U.S.A., sediment, in Greeson, P.E., and Clark, J.R., eds., Wet- freshwater wetland: Journal of Hydrology, v. 74, land functions and values-The state of our under- p.355-371. standing: Minneapolis, Minn., American Water Re- Elder, IT., 1987, Factors affecting wetland retention of sources Association, 674 p. nutrients, metals, and organic materials, in Kusler, J.A., -1982, Hydrology of Wisconsin wetlands: Wisconsin and Brooks, Gail, eds., Weiland hydrology: National Geological Natural History Survey, Information Circu- Wetland Symposium, 1987, Proceedings, p. 178-184. lar 40, 22 p. Ford, Jesse, and Bedford, B.L., 1987, The hydrology of ------ 1989, Wetland hydrology, in Majumdar, S.K., Alaskan wetlands, USA-A review: Arctic and Alpine Brooks, R.P., Brenner, F.J., and Tiner, R.W., Jr., eds., Research, v. 19, no. 3, p. 209-229. Chapter Five, Wetlands ecology and conservation- Gehrels, Jim, and Mulamoottil, George, 1990, Hydrologic Emphasis in Pennsylvania: The Pennsylvania Academy processes in a southern Ontario wetland: Hydro- of Science, p. 47-64. biologia, v. 208, p. 221-234. Ogawa, Hisashi, and Male, J.W., 1986, Simulating of flood Golet, F.C. and Lowry, D.J., 1987, Water regimes and tree mitigation role of wetlands: Journal of Water Resources growth in Rhode Island Atlantic white cedar swamps, Planning and Management, v. 112, no. 1, p. 114-127. in Laderman, A.D, ed., Atlantic white cedar wetlands: Roulet, N.T., 1990, Hydrology of a headwater basin wet- Boulder, Colo., Westview Press, p. 91-110. land-Groundwater discharge and wetland mainte- Good, B.J., and Patrick, W.H., Jr., 1987, Root-water-sedi- nance: Hydrological Processes, v. 4, p. 387-400. ment interface processes, in Reddy, K.R., and Smith, Roulet, N.T., and Woo, Ming-ko, 1986, Hydrology of a W.H., eds., Aquatic plants for water treatment and re- wetland in the continuous permafrost region: Journal source recovery: Orlando, Fla., Magnolia Publishing of Hydrology, v. 89, p. 73-9 1. Company, p. 359-371. Rykiel, E. J., 1984, General hydrology and mineral budgets Gosselink, J.G., and lbrner, R.E., 1978, The role of hydrol- for Okefenokee Swamp-Ecological significance, in ogy in freshwater wetland ecosystems, in Good, R.E., Cohen, A.D., Casagrande, D.J., Andrejko, M.J., and Whigham, D.F., and Simpson, R.L., eds., Freshwater Best, G.R., eds., The Okefenokee Swamp-Its natural wetlands-Ecological processes and management po- history, geology, and geochemistry: Los Alamos, N. tential: New York, Academic Press, p. 63-78. Mex., Wetland Surveys, p. 212-228. Hains, C.F., 1973, Floods in Alabama-Magnitude and fre- Siegel, D.I., 1983, Ground water and the evolution of pat- quency, based on data through September 30, 1971: terned mires, glacial lake Agassiz peatlands, northern U.S. Geological Survey and Alabama Highway Dept., Minnesota: Journal of Ecology, v. 71, p. 913-921. 38 p. -1992, Groundwater hydrology, in Wright, H.E., Jr., Hammer, D.A., 1999, Constructed wetlands for waste water Coffin, B.A., and Asseng, N.E., eds., The patterned treatment: Chelsea, Mich., Lewis Publishers, Inc., 831 peatlands ofMinnesota: Minnesota, University ofMin- P. nesota Press, p. 163-172. -1992, Creating freshwater wetlands: Chelsea, Mich., Siegel, D.I., and Glaser, P.H., 1987, Groundwater flow in a Lewis Publishers, 298 p. bog-fen complex, Lost River peatland, Northern Min- Harvey, J.W., and Odum, W.E., 1990, The influence of tidal nesota: Journal of Ecology, v. 75, p. 743-754. marshes on upland groundwater discharge to estuaries: Thompson, C.A., Bettis, E.A., 111, and Baker, R.G., 1992, Biogeochemistry, v. 10, p. 217-236. Geology of Iowa Fens: Journal of Iowa Academy of Hemond, H.F., Army, T.P., Nuttle, W.K., and Chen, D.G., Science, v. 99, no. 2-3, p. 53-59. 1987, Element cycling in wetlands-Interactions with Tice, R. H., 1968, Magnitude and frequency of floods in the physical mass transport, in Hites, R.A., and Eisenreich, United States: U.S. Geological Survey Water-Supply S.J., eds., Sources and fates of aquatic pollutants: Wash- Paper 1672, 13 p. ington, D.C., American Chemical Society, Advances in Tilton, D. L., and Kadlec, R. H., 1979, The utilization of a Chemistry Series 216, p. 519-537. fresh-water wetland for nutrient removal from second- Tdso, S.B., 1981, Relative rates of evaporative water losses arily treated waste water effluent: Journal of Environ- from open and vegetation covered water bodies: Ameri- mental Quality, v. 8, no. 3, p. 328-334. can Water Resources Bulletin, v. 17, no. 1, p. 46-48. Tiner, RX, Jr., 1985, Wetlands of New Jersey: Newton Ingram, H.A.P., 1983, Hydrology, in Gore, A.J.P., ed., Eco- Corner, Mass., U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, National systems of the world, 4A, Mores-Swamp, bog, fen and Wetlands Inventory, 117 p. moor: New York, Elsevier Scientific Publishing Com- Valiela, Ivan, and Costa, J.E., 1988, Eutrophication of But- pany, p. 67-158. termilk Bay, a Cape Cod coastal embayment--Concen- Johnston, C.A., Detenbeck, N.E., and Niemi, G.J., 1990, trations of nutrients and watershed nutrients and wa- The cumulative effect of wetlands on stream water tershed nutrient budgets: Environmental Management, quality and quantity-A landscape approach: Bio- v. 12, no. 4, p. 539-553. geochemistry, v. 10, p. 105-141. Valiela, Ivan, Costa, J.E., Foreman, Kenneth, Teal, J.M., Kane, D.L., and Slaughter, C.W., 1973, Recharge of a cen- Howes, Brian, and Aubrey, David, 1990, Transport of tral Alaska lake by subpermafrost groundwater: Sec- groundwater-borne nutrients from watersheds and their ond International Conference on Permafrost, Siberia, effects on coastal waters: Biogeochemistry, v. 10, 1973, Proceedings, p. 458-468. p.177-197. Leibowitz, S.G., Abbruzzese, Brooks, Adamus, P.R., Valiela, Ivan, Teal, J.M., Volkmann, Susanne, Shafer, 48 National Water Surnmary-Wetland Resources: OVERVIEW OF WETLAND RESOURCES Deborah, and Carpenter, E.J., 1978, Nutrient and par- Ogallala aquifer from Playa Lake Basins on the ticulate fluxes in a salt marsh ecosystem-Tidal ex- Llano Estacado: Wetstone, G.A., ed., Ogallala Aquifer changes and inputs by precipitation and groundwater: Symposium IL Lubbock,'1xas, 1984, Proceedings, p. Limnology and Oceanography, v. 23, no. 4, p. 708-812. 337-349. Wieder, R.K., 1989, A survey of constructed wetlands for Wood, W.W., and Sanford, W.E., 1994, Recharge to the acid coal mine drainage treatment in the eastern United Ogallala: 60 years after CX Theis'analysis, in Urban, States: Wetlands, v. 9, no. 2, p. 299-315. LX, and Wyatt, A.W., eds., Playa Basin Symposium: Williams, J.R., and Waller, R.M., 1966, Ground water oc- Texas Tech University, Lubbock, Rxas, 1994, 324 p. currence in permafrost regions of Alaska: National Zedler, J.B., Huffman, Terry, Josselyn, Michael, eds., 1985, Research Council, p. 159-164. Pacific Regional Wetland Functions: Proceedings of a Winter, T.C., 1976, Numerical simulation analysis of the workshop held at Mill Valley, Calif., April 14-16,1985, interaction of lakes and ground water: U.S. Geologi- Amherst, Mass., The Environmental Institute, Univer- cal Survey Professional Paper 1001, 45 p. sity of Massachusetts, Publication no. 90-3, 162 p. 198 1, Uncertainties in estimating the water balance of lakes; Water Resources Bulletin, v. 17, no. 1, p. 82-115. Winter, T.C., and Woo, MiDg-Ko, 1990, Hydrology of lakes and wetlands: Surface Water Hydrology: The Geologi- cal Society of America, v. 0-1, p. 159-187. FOR ADDITIONAL INFORMATION: Virginia Carter, U.S. Wood, W.W., and Osterkamp, W.R., 1984, Recharge to the Geological Survey, 430 National Center, Reston, VA 22092 U.S. Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper 2425 National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: TECHNICAL ASPECTS 49 Technical Aspects of Wetlands Wetlands as Bird Habitat By Robert E. Stewart, Jr.' M, The value of a wet- land to a specific bird species is affected by the ce of surface presen water and the duration and timing of flooding. S, 7., Figure 28. This wetland in California is habitat for migrating snow geese. (Photograph by James R. Nelson, California Department of Fish and Game.) One of the best known functions of wetlands is pintail or the American widgeon, use wetlands only to provide a habitat for birds (fig. 28). Humans have during some parts of their lives. known of the link between birds and wetlands for Wetlands occupy only a small part of the land- thousands of years. Prehistoric people drew pictures scape that is now the conterminous United States- of birds and wetlands on cave walls, scratched them 11 percent in 1780 and just 5 percent in 1980 (Dahl onto rocks, and used them in the design of artifacts and others, 1991). Nonetheless, they are important to (fig. 29); and Native American lore provides accounts birds. During the past 20 years, policies and programs of bird hunts in wetlands. Wetlands are important bird that encourage altering, draining, or filling of wet- habitats, and birds use them for breeding, nesting, and lands have decreased, and policies that encourage rearing young (fig. 30). Birds also use wetlands as a wetland conservation and restoration have increased. source of drinking water and for feeding, resting, (See article "Wedand Protection Legislation" in this shelter, and social interactions. Some waterfowl, such volume.) Among the wettand attributes society seeks as grebes, have adapted to wetlands to such an extent to protect and conserve are those that benefit wildlife, that their survival as individual species depends on the particularly migratory birds. This article discusses the availability of certain types of wetlands within their benefits that wetlands provide for birds and the effects geographic range. Other species, such as the northern of wetland losses on birds. Figure 29. The importance of Mq 0.1! wetland birds to ancient people is ;4g@ portrayed in these two artifacts. The petroglyph at the left, created between A.D. 1300 and 1650, is :% located at Petroglyph National Monument near Albuquerque, N. Mex. The clay "duck pot" at the right, fired between 200 B.C. and A.D. 500, was unearthed at Hopewell Culture National Historical Park, Chillicothe, Ohio. (Photographs courtesy of the National Park Service.) ME Z National Biological Service. 50 National Water Surnmary-Wetland Resources: OVERVIEW OF WETLAND RESOURCES WETLAND FACTORS THAT AFFECT BIRDS The relation between wetlands and birds is . . . .. ....... ... shaped by many factors. These include the availabil- The geographic ity, depth, and quality of water; the availability of location of a wet- food and shelter; and the presence or absence of predators. Birds that use wetlands for breeding de- land may determine pend on the physical and biological attributes of the how and when birds wetland. Birds have daily and seasonal dependencies will use it. on wetlands for food and other life-support systems. The value of a wetland to a specific bird species is affected by the presence of surface water or moist Figure 30. This baby heron will be raised in a soils and the duration and timing of flooding. Water wetland environment. (Photograph courtesy might be present during the entire year, during only of Nationa Biological Service.) one or more seasons, during tidal inundation, or only temporarily during and after rainfall or snowmelt. At times water might not be present at the land surface, but might be close enough to the land surface to main- tain the vegetation and foods that are needed by birds. Birds may use wetlands located in depressions in an otherwise dry landscape, along streams, or in tidally influenced areas near shorelines. The availability or influence of water is a very important wetland feature to birds. It is not, however, the only feature that determines if birds will be present, how birds use the wetland, or how many kinds or numbers of birds may use the wetland. Other determining physical or biological factors include water depth and temperature, presence or absence of Figure 31. The raccoon is a wetland predator vegetation, patchiness or openness of vegetation, type that eats eggs and preys on birds. (Photo- of vegetation, foods, water chemistry, type of soils, graph courtesy of National Biological and geographic or topographic location. Any varia- Service.) tions in any of these wetland features will cause subtle, but distinct, differences in bird use. Wetlands provide food for birds in the form of plants, vertebrates, and invertebrates. Some feeders forage for food in the wetland soils, some find food in the water column, and some feed on the vertebrates and invertebrates that live on submersed and emer- gent plants. Vegetarian birds eat the fruits, tubers, and leaves of wetlaDd plants. Water temperatures influ- ence food production. Invertebrate production in the water column may ultimately depend on water tem- perature and the ability of a wetland to produce al- gae. Cold water might not be a hospitable environ- ment for small animals and plants that some wetland Figure 32. The American alligator is an effective and birds eat. However, water that is too warm also might voracious predator of wetland birds in the South. (Photo- not produce foods that some birds prefer. graph courtesy of National Biological Service.) Wetland vegetation provides shelter from preda- tors and from the weather. The presence or absence of shelter may influence whether birds will inhabit a wetland or a nearby upland area. Predators are likely to abound where birds concentrate, breed, or raise their young. Wetlands form an important buffer or barrier to land-based predators and reduce the risk of predation to nesting or young birds. However, some _zt predators, such as the raccoon (fig. 31), are well adapted to both wetland and upland environments, and take large numbers of both young and nesting birds. Mink forage for nesting or sleeping birds along the edges and interiors of wetlands. Other animals, such as the snapping turtle, the alligator (fig. 32), or the large-mouthed bass, are effective water-based Figure 33. This American bittern, with its protective predators of young birds, particularly young water- coloration, is well hidden in the vegetation. (Photograph fowl. Snakes take their toll as well. Many bird spe- by James Leopold, National Biological Service.) cies that are highly adapted to feeding in a wetland National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: TECHNICAL ASPECTS 51 0 I% % %% At lantic NOR TH AMERICA Mississippi C entral Pacific I PACIFIC OCEAN t 11 ATLANTIC OCEAN CENT AMERICA SOUTH AMERICA Figure34. Major flyway corridors for migrating birds in the Western Hemisphere. (Source: From U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service files.) environment also have genetic adaptations that lower - Water-level fluctuations throughout the year, in re- their risk of becoming prey. One such example is the sponse to rainfall and snowmelt, that maintain bittern (fig. 33), which has excellent protective col- wetland zones such as wet meadows and marshes oration. The same vegetation that hides birds from - Short-term (years) and long-term (decades) cli- predators also provides some shelter from severe matic trends that cycle wetlands between a wet weather. In spring, during cold and stormy weather, and dry state waterfowl such as canvasback ducks protect their - Interaction of surface and ground water young in the shelter of a marsh that is almost impen- - Interaction of ground water with rocks and soils etrable to wind. that influence salinity and other wetland water The geographic location of a wetland may deter- chemistry mine how and when birds will use it or use adjacent habitat. In the northern latitudes or at high altitudes, THE IMPORTANCE OF WETLANDS TO some wetlands are covered with ice in the winter and BIRDS are temporarily "out of service" for birds adapted to a water environment, but emergent vegetation might Because of the great variety of wetlands, bird still offer shelter and food for some species. Birds that adaptation to and use of wetland environments dif- eat fish, aquatic invertebrates, or submersed vegeta- fers greatly from species to species. Birds' use of tion cannot forage for food because of the ice cover. wetlands during breeding cycles ranges widely. Some Some wetlands are on the migration path of water- birds depend on wetlands almost totally for breeding, fowl and other migratory birds and provide stopover nesting, feeding, or shelter during their breeding locations for traveling birds (fig. 34). These birds cycles. Birds that need functional access to a wetland might feed in agricultural fields during the day and or wetland products during their life cycle, especially return to the shelter of wetlands during the night. during the breeding season, can be called "wetland The "prairie potholes" are a special type of wet- dependent" (table 5). Other birds use wetlands only land, found in the north-central part of the United for some of their needs, or they might use both wet- States. These potholes are an example of a wetland land and upland habitats. Of the more than 1,900 bird type that is important to migrating waterfowl. Here species that breed in North America, about 138 spe- the timing and duration of inundation and the salin- cies in the conterminous United States are wedand ity of the water are important factors in the produc- dependent (American Ornithologists'Union, 1983). tion of plants and invertebrates used by birds. These, Many bird species use forested wetlands as well and many other wetland characteristics, are influ- as forested uplands, feeding on the abundant insects enced by a number of things: associated with trees (fig. 35). These birds are not de- 52 National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: OVERVIEW OF WETLAND RESOURCES Table 5. Wetland-dependent breeding birds of the conterminous United States, including federally endangered or threatened species and subspecies',' [Source: Data from American Ornithologists' Union, 1983; Niering, 1988; Ehrlich and others, 19921 -VA ,_7 Green-backed heron. (Photograph by This brown pelican is an endangered Thomas A. Muir, National Biological species. (Photograph by Thomas A. Service.) Muir, National Biological Service.) Cranes and their allies Loons Yellow rail Common loon Black rail Owls 4@' 3 California black rail Short-eared owl Clapper rail Perching birds 4 Light-footed clapper rail Flycatchers 4 California clapper rail Alder flycatcher 4 Yuma clapper rail Willow flycatcher King rail Gray flycatcher Roseate spoonbill at a Virginia rail Swallows nesting rookery. (Photo- Sora rail Tree swallow graph by Ronald F Paille, Purple gallinule Northern rough-winged swallow U.S. Fish and Wildlife Common moorhen Bank swallow Service.) American coot Wrens Limpkin Sedge wren Sandhill crane (facultative) Marsh wren 4 Mississippi sandhill crane Dippers 4Whooping crane American dipper Cuckoos Vireos Mangrove cuckoo Black-whiskered vireo V: Grebes Warblers 4 Least grebe Bachman's warbler @40 Pied-billed grebe Prothonotary warbler Horned grebe Swainson's warbler Red-necked grebe Northern waterthrush Eared grebe Louisiana waterthrush Western grebe Connecticut warbler Herons and their allies Common yellowthroat American bittern Sparrows Least bittern Savannah sparrow Great blue heron 3 Belding's savannah sparrow 4 Florida great white heron LeConte's sparrow iF 0 Great egret Sharp-tailed sparrow Snowy egret Seaside sparrow Little blue heron 5 Dusky seaside sparrow Tricolored heron 4 Cape sable sparrow Reddish egret Lincoln's sparrow Snowy egret on the nest. Cattle egret Swamp sparrow (Photograph by David Ha /1, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Green-backed heron Blackbirds Service.) Black-crowned night heron Red-winged blackbird Yellow-crowned night heron Tricolored blackbird White ibis Yellow-headed blackbird Glossy ibis Great-tailed grackle White-faced ibis Boat-tailed grackle Roseate spoonbill Pelicans and their allies 4 Wood stork American white pelican Kingfishers Brown pelican Belted kingfisher 4California brown pelican National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: TECHNICAL ASPECTS 53 The American avocet. (Photograph Colony of sandwich terns on the courtesy of National Biologica I Service.) Chandeleur Islands, La. (Photograph courtesy of National Biological Service.) Double-crested cormorant Vultures, Hawks, and Falcons Olivaceous cormorant Osprey Anhinga American swallow-tailed kite Shorebirds, Gulls, and Alcids 4 Everglacle snail kite Plovers, surfbirds, and turnstones 4 Bald eagle Snowy plover Northern harrier A Wilson's plover Peregrine falcon 4 Piping plover 4American peregrine falcon Killdeer (facultative) Waterfowl Oystercatchers Swans These American wigeons American oystercatcher Trumpeter swan will spend part of their lives in a American black oystereatcher Geese wetland habitat and part Avocets and stilts Canada goose in an upland environment. Black-necked stilt Tree ducks (Photograph courtesy of National Biological Service.) American avocet Fulvous whistling duck Sandpipers and allies Black-bellied whistling duck Willet Surface feeding ducks Spotted sandpiper Wood duck Marbled godwit Green-winged teal Common snipe American black duck American woodcock Mottled duck 4Eskimo curlew Mallard Phalarope Northern pintail Wilson's phalarope Blue-winged teal Gulls and terns Cinnamon teal Laughing gull Northern shoveler .r Franklin's gull Gadwall Little gull American wigeon Heerman's gull (facultative) Bay ducks Ring-billed gull Canvasback California gull Redhead Herring gull Ring-necked duck 11 Male wood ducks. (Photo- Western gull Greater scaup graph by Thomas A. Muir Great black-backed gull Lesser scaup National Biological Service.) Gull-billed tern Sea ducks Caspian tern Harlequin duck Royal tern White-winged scoter Elegant tern Common goldeneye Sandwich tern Barrow's goldeneye Table arranged by group, species, and 4Roseate tern Bufflehead subspecies. To facilitate the use ofthis Common tern Mergansers table, order of presentation differs from that normally used. Forster's tern Hooded merganser 2 Does not include oceanic or pelagic Leasttern Common merganser birds. 4California leasttern Red-breasted merganser I Candidate for placement on endan- Sooty tern Stiff-tailed ducks gered species list. Black tern Ruddy duck I Federally endangered or threatened wetland-dependent bird species or Skimmers subspecies. iz @"AeZt4 Black skimmer Became extinct in 1987. 54 National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: OVERVIEW OF WETLAND RESOURCES pendent on wetlands because they use both habitats graphic areas, and nest at different times. The rela- equally well. Some birds, such as wood ducks, are tion of many other species of birds to wetlands are found primarily in forested wetlands and are depen undoubtedly just as complex. dent on this wetland type. many migratory birds are wetland dependent, EFFECTS OF WETLAND LOSS AND etlands during their migration and breeding using W seasons. Migratory birds may spend the winter in wet- DEGRADATION ON BIRDS lands in the Southern United States, or farther south About one-third of North American bird species (fig. 34). Throughout winter, these birds use south- use wetlands for food, shelter, and (or) breeding em wetlands for food and nutrients to sustain them (Kroodsma, 1979). Thus, widespread draining and al- for their return trip north and the breeding season. tering of wetlands has affected bird populations. Be- Not all wetlands are of equal value to waterfowl cause most of the wetland drainage and alteration oc- and other birds. An inventory in the conterminous curred between the 1930's and 1950, before scientific Figure 35. Prothonotary United States during the early 1950's showed that of estimates of bird populations began, most estimates warblers feed on insects of 74.4 million acres of wetlands, 8.8 million acres had of population declines are inferred. Before the pas- forested wetlands and a high value for waterfowl, 13.6 million acres were sage of the Migratory Bird Treaty Act in 1918, the uplands alike. (Photo- of moderate value, 24.1 million acres were of low graph courtesy of National value, and 27.9 million acres were of negligible value reduction in waterfowl populations was blamed Biological Service.) (Shaw and Fredine, 1956, p. 17). These categories largely on excessive hunting and wetland drainage were (Day, 1959). However, since 1930 most of the reduc- were identified on a State-by-State basis and tion has been attributed to the loss or degradation of ranked according to use by waterfowl, with "high" wetlands (Bellrose and Trudeau, 1988) and the loss being most used. The primary focus of this inventory of suitable upland habitats that surround wetlands. was waterfowl; thus these rankings might not reflect For most wetland-dependent birds, habitat loss wetland values for other birds. Also, the inventory in breeding areas translates directly into population was for only natural wetlands that had been little al- losses. As wetlands are destroyed, some birds may tered by human activities. The three areas of highest move to other less suitable habitats, but reproduction value are the Mississippi River corridor southward tends to be lower and mortality tends to be higher. from Cairo, Ill., and westward along the Texas gulf Hence, the birds that breed in these poorer quality coast; the entire east coast from Maine southward habitats will not contribute to a sustainable popula- through most of Florida; and the northern Midwest. tion through the years (Pulliam and Danielson, 1991). Widespread About one-half of the 188 animals that are fed- draining and THE INFLUENCE OF WETLANDS ON erally designated as endangered or threatened are WATERFOWL POPULATIONS wetland dependent (Niering, 1988). Of these, 17 axe altering of wet- Considerable research has increased the under- bird species or subspecies (table 5). These birds are lands has affected standing of wetlands' influence on the numbers of categorized as endangered or threatened because their waterfowl that breed and their breeding success populations are so low that the risk of their extinc- bird populations. * tion is real and immediate. The circumstances that However, the relation between wetlands and the cause each species or subspecies to be endangered population and propagation of various waterfowl differ greatly. species is not well understood. This relation depends Wetland loss due to draining, filling, or altering on: (1) the number of wetlands in the area; (2) the of surface-water and ground-water flow is a concern wetlands' size and water depth; (3) whether the wet- to many people. Wetland degradation also has a sub- lands hold open water in the early spring or through stantial effect on birds. Although wetland degradation late August; (4) the climate; and (5) the species of bird . and the bird's adaptations to wetlands. is a serious problem, it is one that is more subtle and In the prairie pothole region in the late 1970's, less understood than wetland losses. Degradation can for example, as the number of wetlands in an area in- take many forms: creased, populations of dabbling ducks increased, but - Amounts and periodicity of water supplies can be at a ratio of less than 1: 1 (fig. 36). In the past 20 years, altered the duck-pothole ratio has decreased, possibly due to - The quality of water flowing into and through a decreases in upland cover and wetland can be modified 110 increases in predation. Bellrose - The flows of sediments or freshwater to coastal LU 100 - (1977) also found waterfowl marshes can be reduced 90 - densities and propagation to be - Water levels can be stabilized in wetlands that oth- LU 80 - erwise would undergo beneficial drawdowns or X related to the number of wet- 70 - lands per square mile; gener- water-table fluctuations 0 60 - Wetland vegetation may be altered by harvesting 0 ally, waterfowl densities and Cc 50 - - Pralre pothole region - propagation increased as the or by introducing exotic species, making it of LU - 0. 40 - - ParkJands - number of wetlands increased. little or no value to wetland-dependent birds P'.'.e pothole '.g P-rw-nds Mixed prairie - 30 However, he found that mallard An example of wetland degradation is found in 20 - @E Shortgrass prairie - - production decreased when the the Chesapeake Bay region. Nutrients and sediments 10 - - number of wetlands exceeded entering the bay from agricultural, urban, and indus- 0 @ L L L L J I 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 12 per square mile. trial areas have caused increased algal blooms, de- PONDS PER SQUARE MILE Different waterfowl spe- creased invertebrate production, and lowered oxygen Figure 36. The relation of pond density increase to cies adapt to different wetland levels. This degradation has reduced the acreage of number of ducks. (5ource: After Bellrose, 1977.) types, inhabit different geo- seagrasses that form an important link in the food National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: TECHNICAL ASPECTS 55 chain for invertebrates, fish, and wetland- dependent birds. The decline in the canvasback duck population &U.S. DEPARTMENT OF THE "00 in this area is thought to be directly related to the de- Cline in seagrasses. Chemicals and sediments that move from agil- cultural areas into wetlands are two of the most per- vasive sources of degradation. The shift in human populations from inland areas to coastal areas of the United States has caused problems in coastal wet- lands through overloaded sewage treatment systems. The large and growing volume of industrial wastes that enter ground- and surface-water supplies ah threatens to degrade wetlands. These threats, com- -Vi F14,51 bined with habitat destruction, have a net negative ef- T -T-vvvwvvw-V.T1T 1 7 v v V T v% fect on the population of wetland birds. Thus, if the amount and quality of wetland habitat is substantially 7, .......................... reduced, populations of wetland-dependent birds in the area also can be expected to decrease. SOME EFFORTS TO PRESERVE WETLAND rn BIRD HABITATS Many people believe that ownership or manage- ment of wetlands by public conservation agencies, such as the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, and by Red-hwasrod'. ni private organizations, such as the Nature Conser- vancy or the National Audubon Society, offers the best assurance that the highest value wetlands will be MIGRATORY HUNTING AND CONSERVATION STWID maintained for future generations. (A discussion of the agencies and organizations that participate in Figure 37. The purchase of duck stamps provides management and conservation of wetlands in each funds for the acquisition or protection of wetlands State can be found in the State Summaries section of important to waterfowl. (Source: U.S. Fish and this report.) Wildlife Service.) A few early concerns for wetlands important to waterfowl are reflected in the creation of the first national wildlife refuge and in the establishment of Importance especially as Waterfowl Habitat, more the Federal Duck Stamp program. The first national commonly known as the "Ramsar Convention" is an wildlife refuge was created in 1903, by President intergovernmental treaty for international cooperation Theodore Roosevelt, to protect a wetland-Pelican for the conservation of wetland habitats. The U.S. Fish Island, Florida (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, and Wildlife Service is responsible for implementa- [19951). Concern for the loss of waterfowl led to the tion of the convention in the United States. A "List of Federal Duck Stamp program that began in 1934 Wetlands of International Importance" has been de- (Mitsch and Gosselink, 1993) and continues today. veloped by the convention. Sites on this list are known About one-half of Duck stamps are sold to waterfowl hunters to pro- as "Rainsar Sites" and are wetlands that convention the 188 animals vide money for the purchase or preservation of wet- members have a special obligation to preserve. There lands (fig. 37). are 15 Ramsar sites in this country (fig. 38). that are federally Several international treaties are partly respon- designated as sible for much of the formal wetland protection in this SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS endangered or country-the Migratory Bird Treaty and the Conven- tion on Wetlands of International Importance espe- Human activities have caused shifts in wetland- threatened are cially as Waterfowl Habitat. "In 1918, the U[nited] dependent bird populations since European settle- wetland dependent. S[tates] passed into law the Migratory Bird Treaty ment of the United States, especially since the be- Act, ratifying a treaty with Great Britain, on behalf ginning of the 20th century. Many acres of wetlands Of Canada, that recognized the conservation respon- were drained between the 1930's and 1950, well be- sibilities for more than 800 species of migratory birds fore any of the national bird surveys were begun. As shared by the two countries" (U.S. Fish and Wildlife a result, it is not possible to accurately determine the Service, [19951). Subsequent to that act, the United effects of habitat destruction on long-term wetland States developed the National Wildlife Refuge Sys- bird populations. tem consisting of 500 reserves-many of which are It is apparent that there have been many changes , ji wetlands important to birds- comprising more than in the distribution and numbers of wetland birds. 90 million acres (fig. 38). The system has the high- Wetlands on breeding, migratory, or wintering areas est ratio of wetlands to dry land in public ownership. are all important to sustain bird populations. As the The National Park Service manages the Everglades wetland habitats in these areas are drained or altered, National Park and several preserves that also have the ability of these areas to sustain bird populations high ratios of wetlands to dry lands. decreases. Each species of wetland-dependent bird The Convention on Wetlands of International has a unique and complex set of needs for wetland 56 National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: OVERVIEW OF WETLAND RESOURCES EXPLANATION 00 (g 0 0 0 .1 0 8 Ramsar site 0 0 05) 0 Wildlife refuge 0 0 0 0 Izembek Lagoon National Wildlife 0 0 0 0 Refuge and State Game Area, Alaska co Forsythe National Wildlife Refuge, 0 (9 0 New Jersey Okefenokee National Wildlife Refuge, 0 0 Georgia and Florida 0 0 Ash meadows National Wildlife Refuge, HAWAII Nevada &) 1 0 0 0 Everglades National Park, 0 0 Florida 0 100 MILES9.b 0 Chesapeake Bay Estuarine Complex, 0 0 0 0 0 Maryland and Virginia 0 100-KILOMFTERSD- 0 0 0 Cheyenne Bottoms State Game Area, (9 0 0 Kansas 00 0 0 @3 Cache-Lower White Rivers Joint 0 0 Venture Area, Arkansas 0 Horicon Marsh, 0 Wisconsin 0 Catahoula Lake, ALASKA Louisiana Delaware Bay Estuary, Delaware, PUERTO RICO New Jersey, and Pennsylvania 0 500 MILES 0 ILES Pelican Island, i 11 @ @ 0 i 11 11 11 1 J Florida 0 500 KILOMETERS 0 500 KILOMETERS Texas Z=7 M Caddo Lake, 0 50 MILES M Cache River and Cypress Creek, Illino's 0 50 KILOMETERS 13 Connecticut River Complex, Connecticut Figure 38. Location of National Fish and Wildlife Refuge System reserves and Ramsar sites in the United States. (Source: U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 1993, [19951.) habitats that makes it difficult to generalize about how Ehrlich, P.R., Dobkin, D.S., and Wheye, Darryl, 1992, Birds loss or degradation of wetlands affects bird popula- in jeopardy: Stanford, Califor nia, Stanford University tions. It seems reasonable to expect, however, that as Press, 260 p. the numbers of wetlands in a region decline, so too Kroodsma, D. E., 1979, Habitat values for nongame wet- will the numbers of wetland-dependent birds. land birds, in Greeson, P.E., Clark, JR., and Clark, J.E. eds., 1979, Wetland functions and values-The state In some parts of the United States, extensive of our understanding: Minneapolis, Minn., American wetland losses have displaced birds from targe areas. Water Resources Association, p. 32(@-343. Continued watland losses probably will cause con- Mitsch, W.J., and Gosselink, J.G., 1993, Wetlands: New tinued losses of wetland birds. However, recent rec- York, Van Nostrand Reinhold, 722 p. ognition of the wetland values, and the effects of their Niering, W.A., 1988, Endangered, threatened and rare wet- losses, have provided incentives to maintain and re- land plants and animals of the continental United States, store wetlands. in Hook, D.D., McKee, W.H., Jr., Smith, H.K., and oth- ers, 1988, The ecology and management of wetlands- Volume I-The ecology of wetlands: Portland, Oreg., References Cited Timber Press, 592 p. Pulliam, H.R., and Danielson, B.J., 1991, Sources, sinks and American Ornithologists' Union, 1983, Check-list ofNorth habitat selection-A landscape perspective on popu- American Birds: Lawrence, Kans., Allen Press, Inc., lation dynamics: The American Naturalist, v. 137, 6th edition, 877 p. p. 850-866. Bellrose, F.C., 1977, Species distribution, habitats, and Shaw, S.P., and Fredine, C.G., 1956, Wetlands of the United characteristics of breeding dabbling ducks in North States-Their extent and their value to waterfowl and America, in Bookhout, T.A., 1977, Waterfowl and wet- other wildlife: U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Circu- lands-An integrated review: Proceedings of a sym- lar 39, 67 p. posium hold at the 39th Midwest Fish and Wildlife U.S. Fish andWildlife Service, 1993,Amual reportof lands Conference, Madison, Wis., La Crosse Printing Co., under control of the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service as Inc, 152 p. of September 30, 1993: Division of Realty, 43 p. Bellrose, R C., and'Rudeau, N.M., 1988, Wetlands and their U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, [1995], Wetlands of Inter- relationship to migrating and winter populations ofwa- national Importance-United States Participation in terfowl, v. 1: Portland, Oreg., Timber Press, p. 183-194. the "Rarnsar" Convention, Ramsar, Iran, 1971, It p. Dahl, T.E., and Johnson, C.E., 1991, Wetlands-Status and trends in the conterminous United States, mid-1970's to mid4980's: Washington, D.C., U.S. Fish and Wild- life Service, 22 p. FOR ADDITIONAL INFORMATION: Robert E. Stewart, Day, A.M., 1959, North American waterfowl: Harrisburg, Jr., National Biological Service, Southern Science Center, Pa., Stackpole Co., 363 p. 700 Cajundome Boulevard, Lafayette, LA 70506 U.S. Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper 2425 National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: MANAGEMENT AND RESEARCH 57 Wetland Management and Research Wetland Protection Legislation By Todd H. Vottelerl and Thomas A. Muir' The people of the United States have begun to the general public and between developers and con- recognize that wetlands have numerous and widespread servationists. Belated recognition of wetland benefits benefits. However, many of the goods and services and disagreement on how to protect them has led to wetlands provide have little or no market value. Be- discrepancies in local, State, and Federal guidelines. cause of this, the benefits produced by wetlands accrue Discrepancies in Federal programs are apparent in primarily to the general public. Therefore, the Govern- table 6, which shows programs that encourage con- ment provides incentives and regulates and manages version of wetlands and those that discourage conver- wetland resources to protect the resources from deg- sion of wetlands. Conflicting interests are the source radation and destruction. Other mechanisms for wet- of much tension and controversy in current wetland If the public land protection include acquisition, planning, mitiga7 protection policy. Although attempts are being made tion, disincentives for conversion of wetlands to other to reconcile some of these differences, many policies does not recog- land uses, technical assistance, education, and research. will have to be modified to achieve consistency. nize the benefits Although many States have their own wetland Despite all the government legislation, policies, of wetiand regulations, the Federal Government bears a major re- and programs, wetlands will not be protected if the sponsibility for regulating wetlands. The five Federal regulations are not enforced. Perhaps the best way to preservation, agencies that share the primary responsibility for pro- protect wetlands is to educate the public of their ben- wetlands will not tecting wetlands include the Department of Defense, efits. If the public does not recognize the benefits of U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (Corps); the U.S. En- wetland preservation, wetlands will not be preserved. be preserved. vironmental Protection Agency (EPA); the Depart- Protection can be accomplished only through the co- ment of the Interior, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service operative efforts of citizens. (FWS); the Department of Commerce, National Oce- anic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA); and FEDERAL WETLAND PROTECTION the Department of Agriculture, Natural Resources PROGRAMS AND POLICIES Conservation Service (NRCS) (formerly the Soil Con- servation Service). Each of these agencies has a dif- The Federal Government protects wetlands di- ferent mission that is reflected in the implementation rectly and indirectly through regulation, by acquisi- of the agency's authority for wetland protection. The tion, or through incentives and disincentives as de- Corps' duties are related to navigation and water sup- scribed in table 6. Section 404 of the Clean Water Act ply. The EPA:s authorities are related to protecting is the primary vehicle for Federal regulation of some wetlands primarily for their contributions to the of the activities that occur in wetlands. Other pro- chemical, physical, and biological integrity of the grams, such as the "Swampbuster" program and the Nation's waters. The FWS's authorities are related to Coastal Management and Coastal Barriers Resources managing fish and wildlife-game species and threat- Acts, provide additional protection. Coastal wetlands ened and endangered species. Wetland authority of generally benefit most from the current network of NOAA hes in its charge to manage the Nation's coastal statutes and regulations. Inland wetlands are more resources. The NRCS focuses on wetlands affected by vulnerable than coastal wetlands to degradation or loss agricultural activities. because current statutes and policies provide them less States are becoming more active in wetland pro- comprehensive protection. Several of the major Fed- tection. As of 1993, 29 States had some type of wet- eral policies and programs affecting wetlands are dis- land law (Want, 1993). Many of these States have cussed in the following few pages. Also discussed are adopted programs to protect wetlands beyond those some of the States' roles in Federal wetland policies. programs enacted by the Federal Government. As more responsibility is delegated from the Federal The Clean Water Act Government to the States, State wetland programs are gaining in importance. Thus far, States have devoted The Federal Government regulates, through Sec- more attention to regulating coastal wetlands than in- tion 404 of the Clean Water Act, some of the activi- land wetlands. The most comprehensive State pro- ties that occur in wetlands. The Section 404 program grams include those of Connecticut, Rhode Island, originated in 1972, when Congress substantially New York, Massachusetts, Florida, New Jersey, and amended the Federal Water Pollution Control Act and Minnesota (Mitsch and Gosselink, 1993). Many of created a Federal regulatory plan to control the dis- these States regulate those activities affecting wetlands charge of dredged or fill materials into wetlands and that are exempt from the Clean Water Act, Section 404 other waters of the United States. Discharges are com- program. (For more information on specific State wet- monly associated with projects such as channel con- land protection programs, see the State Summary sec- struction and maintenance, port development, fills to tion of this volume.) create dry land for development sites near the water, Despite the current recognition of wetland ben- and water-control projects such as dams and levees. efits, many potentially conflicting interests still exist, Other kinds of activities, such as the straightening of such as that between the interests of landowners and river channels to speed the flow of water downstream University of Texas. National Biological Service. 58 National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: OVERVIEW OF WETLAND RESOURCES Table 6. Federal programs that have significant effects on wetlands in the United States. A, Regulations encouraging wetland conversion. 0, Regulations discouraging or preventing wetland conversion. C, Acquisitions discouraging or preventing wetland conversion. 0, Other policies and programs preventing or discouraging wetland conversion. [Abbrevations: AFA, All Federal Agencies; ASCS, Agricultural Stabilization and Conservation Service; BLM, Bureau of Land Management; Corps, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers; CWS,Canadian Wildlife Service; DOD, Department of Defense; DOE, Department of Energy; DOI, Department ofthe Interior; DOT, Department of Transportation; A, ENCOURAGING WETLAND CONVERSION Program or Act Implementing Effect of program agency Executive Order 12630, Constitutional Takings AFA Provides a review process for agencies to protect against unintentional 'takings" of private property. Federal-Aid Highway Act of 1968 DOT Highway construction can affect wetlands at every stage. Wetlands are often prime sites for highways. Federal Crop Insurance USDA !ndirectly encourages farmers to place frequently inundated areas, including wetlands, into production. Federal Livestock Grazing USFS, BLm Overgrazing promotes the loss of riparian habitat. Flood Control Act of 1944 Corps Authorized various flood-control projects resulting in wetland destruction. (P.L. 78-534) National Flood Insurance Program FEMA Encourages development in flood plains, which contain wetlands, by providing low-cost Federal insurance. Payment-in-Kind (PIK) Program USDA !ndirectly encourages farmers to place previously unfarmed areas, including wetlands, into production. Small Reclamation Projects Acts of 1956 (70 Stat. 1044) DOI Encourages State and local participation in small western reclamation projects, which can destroy riparian habitat. Surface Mining Control and Reclamation Act DOI Establishes a program for regulating surface mining and reclaiming coal-mined lands, (P.L. 95-87), (1977) including wetlands, under the Office of Surface Mining, Reclamation, and Enforcement. Surface Transportation Revenue Act DOT Transportation projects directly and indirectly destroy wetlands. of 1991 (P.L. 102-240) U.S. Tax Code IRS Encourages farmers to drain and clear wetlands through tax deductions and credits for development activities. Water Resources Development Act of 1976, 1986,1988, Corps Water development projects directly and indirectly destroy wetlands. 1990 (P. L.'s 94-587, 99-662, 100-676, 101-640) 8, DISCOURAGING OR PREVENTING WETLAND CONVERSION-Regulations Program or Act Implementing Effect of program agency Comprehensive Environmental Response Compensation AFA Establishes liability ofthe U.S. Government for damages to natural resources over which and Liability Act (Superfund) (P.L. 96-510) (1980) the U.S. has sovereign rights. Requires the President to designate Federal officials to act as trustees for natural resources, and to conduct natural resource damage assessments. � Coastal Barriers Resources Act (P.L. 96-348) 0982) NOAA Designates various undeveloped coastal barrier islands for inclusion in the Coastal Barrier Resources System. Designated areas are ineligible for Federal financial assistance that may aid development. � Coastal Zone Management Act (P.L. 92-583) (1972) NOAA Provides Federal funding for wetlands programs in most coastal States, including the preparation of coastal zone management plans. Estuary Protection Act (P.L. 90-454) (1968) DOI Authorized the study and inventory of estuaries, and the Great Lakes, and provided for management of designated estuaries between DOI and the States. Federal Water Pollution Control (P.L. 92-500) Corps, EPA Regulates many activities that involve the disposal of dredged and fill materials in (Clean Water Act) Section 404 (1972) FWS, NMFS waters of the United States, including many wetlands. Federal Water Project Recreation Act IP.L. 89-72) (1965) DOI, Corps Recreation and fish and wildlife enhancement must be considered by Federal water projects. Authorizes Federal funds for acquiring land for waterfowl refuges. Fish and Wildlife Coordination Act of 1956 DOI Authorizes the development and distribution of fish and wildlife information and the development of policies and procedures relating to fish and wildlife. Migratory Bird Conservation Act (45 Stat. 1222) (1929) FWS Established a commission to approve the acquisition of migratory bird habitat. National Wildlife Refuge Acts (numerous Acts) FWS Numerous statutes establish refuges, many of which contain significant wetland acreage. National Environmental Policy Act of 1969 (P.L. 91-190) AFA Requires the preparation of an environmental impact statement of all major Federal actions significantly affecting the environment. Ramsar Convention (Treaty), adopted 1973, FWS Convention maintains a list of wetlands of international importance and encourages the enforced from 1975 wise use of wetlands. Rivers and Harbors Act of 1938 (52 Stat. 802) Corps Provides that "due regard" be given to wildlife conservation in planning Federal water projects. Rivers and Harbors Appropriation Act of 1899, Corps Prohibits the unauthorized obstruction or alteration of navigable waters. Section 10 of the (30 Stat. 1151) Watershed Protection and Flood Prevention Act FWS, NRCS Authorizes the FWS to investigate wildlife conservation on NRCS small (68 Stat. 66611 (1954) watershed projects. Wild and Scenic Rivers Act, (P.L. 90-542) (1968) DOI, USDA Protects designated river segments from damming and other alterations without a permit. Wilderness Act of 1964 (78 Stat. 890) DOI, USDA Requires review of Federal lands for inclusion in the National Wilderness Preservation System. Discussed in text. National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: MANAGEMENT AND RESEARCH 59 Table 6 -Continued. [Abbrevations-Continued. EPA, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency; FEMA, Federal Emergency Management Agency; FERC, Federal Energy Regulatory Commission; FmHA, Farmer's Home Administration; FWS, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service; GSA, General Services Administration; IRS, Internal Revenue Service; NMFS, National Marine Fisheries Service; NOAA, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration; NPS, National Park Service; NRCS, Natural Resources Conservation Service; USCG, U.S. Coast Guard; USDA, U.S. Department of Agriculture; USFS, U.S. Forest Service] C, DISCOURAGING OR PREVENTING WETLAND CONVERSION-Acquisitions Program or Act Implementing Effect of program agency Coastal Wetland Planning, Protection and Corps, FWS Provides for interagency wetlands restoration and conservation planning and Restoration Act (P.L. 101-646) (1990) EPA, NMFS acquisition in Louisiana, other coastal States, and the Trust Territories. Emergency Wetlands Resources Act of 1986 FWS Pays debts incurred by FWS for wetlands acquisition, and provides additional revenue (P.L. 99-645) sources. Federal Aid in Wildlife Restoration Act (1937) FWS Provides grants to States for acquiring, restoring, and maintaining wildlife areas. (Ch. 899, 50 Stat.917) Fish and Wildlife Conservation Act FWS Identifies land and water in the Western Hemisphere critical for migratory nongame (P.L. 96-366) J1980) birds. Land and Water Conservation Fund Act 0964) FWS, NPS Acquires wildlife areas. (P.L. 88-578) Lea Act( 62 Stat. 238) (1948) FWS Authorizes the acquiring and developing of various waterfowl management areas in California. Migratory Bird Hunting and Conservation Stamps (1934) FWS Acquires wetland easements using revenues from fees paid by hunters for (Ch. 71, 48 Stat. 452) duck stamps. North American Waterfowl Management Plan (1986) FWS, CWS Establishes a plan for managing waterfowl resources by various methods, such as acquiring wetlands. North American Wetlands Conservation Act (1989) FWS Encourages public/private partnerships by providing matching grants to organizations (P.L. 101-233) for protecting, restoring, or enhancing wetlands. Surface Transportation Revenue Act of 1991 DOT Authorizes funding for wetland mitigation banks for State depart ants of (P.L. 102-240) transportation. Transfer of Certain Real Property for GSA, DOI Allows the GSA to transfer property to DOI, or States, for wildlife conservation. Wildlife Conservation Purposes Act (62 Stat. 240) (1948) U.S. Tax Code Tax Reform Act of 1986 IRS Provides deductions for donors of wetlands and to some I P. L. 99-514) nonprofit organizations. Water Bank Act (1970) ASCS Leases wetlands and adjacent uplands from farmers for waterfowl habitat (P.L. 91-559) for 10-year periods. Wetlands Loan Act (1961) FWS Provides interest-free loans for wetland acquisition and (P.L. 87-383) easements. 0, DISCOURAGING OR PREVENTING WETLAND CONVERSION-Other Policies and Programs Program or Act Implementing Effect of program agency ------ Endangered Species Act of 1973 FWS Provides for the designation and protection of wildlife, fish, and plant species (P.L. 93-205) that are in danger of extinction. Executive Order 11990, AFA Requires Federal agencies to minimize impacts of Federal Protection of Wetlands (19771 activities on wetlands. * Executive Order 11988, AFA Requires Federal agencies to minimize impacts of Federal activities Protection of Floodplains (1977) on flood plains. Executive Order 12580, DOI Directs DOI to develop rules for assessing damages under CERCLA (Comprehensive Superfund Implementation (1987) Environmental Response Compensation and Liabilities Act) as a natural resource trustee. Federal Noxious Weed Act DOI, USDA Authorizes controlling the spread of noxious weeds (P.L. 93-629) (1975) DOE, DOD on Federal lands. Federal Power Act FERC FERC will cooperate with other Federal agencies in assessing proposed power projects, (41 Stat. 1063) (1920) such as dams. FERC must consider protection of fish and wildlife resources. Fish and Wildlife Coordination Act (1965) FWS Requires Federal agencies to consult with FWS before issuing permits for most (P.L. 89-721 water-resource projects. Food, Agriculture, Conservation, and Trade Act of 1990 NFICS Wetland Reserve Program purchases perpetual nondevelopment easements on (P.L. 101-624) farmed wetlands. Subsidizes restoration of croplands to wetlands. Food Security Act of 1985 (Swampbuster) ASCS, FWS, "Swampbuster' program suspends agricultural subsidies for farmers who convert wet- (P.L. 99-198) lands to agriculture. FmHA Conservation Easements program allows FmHA to eliminate some farm debts in exchange for long-term easements that protect wetlands and other areas. National Wildlife Refuge System Administration DOI Provides the guidelines for managing National Wildlife Refuges. Act of 1966 (P.L. 89-669) Nonindigenous Aquatic Nuisance Prevention FWS, USCG, Created a Federal program to prevent and control the spread of species that are and Control Act of 1990 (P.L. 101-646) EPA, Corps, aquatic nuisances. NOAA Oil Pollution Act of 1990 DOE, DOI, Enhanced the response to oil spills and required natural resource (P.L. 101-380) NOAA damage assessments. Tax Deductions for Conservation Easements MS Allows taxpayers to take a deduction for a qualified real property interest contributed to a (Section 6 of P.L. 96-541) conservation organization for conservation purposes. U.S. Tax Code Reform Act of 1986 IRS Eliminates incentives for clearing land. Deductible conservation expenditures must be con- (P.L. 99-514) sistent with wetlands protection. Capital gains on converted wetlands treated as income. Water Resources Development Act of 1976, 1986, Corps States that future mitigation plans for Federal water projects should include "in kind' 1988, 1990, (P.L.'s 94-587, 99-662, 100-676, 101-640) mitigation for bottom-land hardwood forests. 60 National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: OVERVIEW OF WETILAND RESOURCES and clearing land, are regulated as Section 404 dis- Wetland mitigation is often required, and if required, charges if they involve discharges of more than inci- the permit applicant will need to develop a specific, dental amounts of soil or other materials into wetlands detailed plan. or other waters. Through a public interest review, the Corps tries The Corps and the EPA share the responsibility to balance the benefits an activity may provide against for implementing the permitting program under Sec- the costs it may incur. The criteria applied in this pro- tion 404 of the Clean Water Act. However, Section cess are the relative extent of the public and private 404(c) of the Clean Water Act gives the EPA authority need for the proposed structure or work and the ex- to veto the permit if discharge materials at the selected tent and permanence of the beneficial or detrimental sites would adversely affect such things as municipal effects on the public and private uses to which the area water supplies, shellfish beds and fishery areas, wild- is suited. Some of the factors considered in the public life, or recreational resources. By 1991, the EPA had interest review are listed in figure 39. Cumulative ef- vetoed I I of several hundred thousand permits since fects of numerous piecemeal changes are considered the Act was passed (Schley and Winter, 1992). in addition to the individual effects of the projects. The review process for a Section 404 permit is The FWS, NOAA, and State fish and wildlife shown in figure 39. After notice and opportunity for a agencies, as the organizations in possession of most public hearing, the Corps' District Engineer may is- of the country's biological data, have important advi- sue or deny the permit. The District Engineer must sory roles in the Section 404 program. The FWS and comply with the EPA!s Section 404(b)(1) Guidelines NOAA (if a coastal area is involved) provide the Corps and must consider the public interest when evaluat- and the EPA with comments about the potential envi- ing a proposed permit. Four questions related to the ronmental effects of pending Section 404 permits. guidelines are considered during a review of an ap- Other government agencies, industry, and the public plication: are invited to participate through public notices of 1. Is the proposed discharge the least damaging prac- permit applications, hearings, or other information- tical alternative? collecting activities. However, the public interest re- 2. Does the proposed discharge comply with other en- view usually does not involve public comment unless vironmental standards or regulations? the permit is likely to generate significant public in- 3. Will the proposed discharge significantly degrade terest or if the potential consequences of the permit wetlands? are expected to be significant. All recommendations 4. Have all the appropriate and practical steps been must be given full consideration by the Corps, but taken to minimize potential harria to the wetlands? there is no requirement that they must be acted upon. APPLICANT APPLICATION PUBLIC NORMAL SUBMITS RECEIVED, NOTICE 30-DAY ENGINEER ACKNOWL- ISSUED COMMENT FORM 4345 EDGED,AND PERIOD TO DISTRICT R CESSED OFFICE J> APPLICATION REVIEW AND APPLICANT APPLICATION REVIEWED BY COMMENT BY REMY SIGNS AND APPROVED U.S. ARMY APPROPRIATE RSISUED RETURNS CORPS OF FEDERAL AND ENGINEERS STATE AGENCiEs (EPA, FWS, AND OTHERS) _Z APPLICATION PUBLIC Figure 39. Overiew of a typical EVALUATED HEARING MAY U.S. Army Corps of Engineers Esthefics - Recreation - BE HELD review process for Section 404 Fish values - Land use - ife value -Economics-/ -Wildl "AA T 1_0 IN PPLIC E dredge-and-fill permit request. APPLICATION - Food production - (Source: Modified from ].A. DENIED Flood-damage preventiom Kusler, Our National Wetland - Safety . conservation Heritage: A Protection Guide- Environmental concerns - Historic value book. Copyright (c) 1983 by the Environmental Law Institute. Reprinted with permission.) National Water Surnmary-Wetland Resources: MANAGEMENT AND RESEARCH 61 If the FWS or NOAA disagree with a permit approved porary sedimentation basins on construction sites; and by a District Engineer, they can request that the per- construction or maintenance of farm roads, forest mit be reviewed at a higher level within the Corps. roads, or temporary roads for moving mining equip- However, the Assistant Secretary of the Army has the ment (Morris, 1991). In addition, the Corps' flood- unilateral right to refuse all requests for higher level control and drainage projects and other Federal reviews. The Assistant Secretary accepted the addi- projects authorized by Congress and planned, fi- tional review of 16 of the 18 requested out of the total nanced, and constructed by a Federal agency also are 105,000 individual permits issued between 1985 and exempt from the Section 404 permitting requirements 1992 (Schley and Winter, 1992). if an adequate environmental impact statement is pre- Because many activities may cause the discharge pared. of dredged and fill materials, and the potential effects Not all methods of altering wetlands are regulated of these activities differ, the Corps has issued general by Section 404. Common methods of altering wetlands regulations to deal with a wide range of activities that are listed in table 7. Unregulated methods include: The Clean Water could require a Section 404 permit. The Corps can wetland drainage, the lowering of ground-water lev- Act regulates forgo individual permit review by issuing general per- els in areas adjacent to wetlands, permanent flooding dredge and fill mits on a State, regional, or nationwide basis. Gen- of existing wetlands, deposition of material that is not eral permits cover specific categories of activities that specifically defined as dredged and fill material by the activities that the Corps determines will have minimal effects on the Clean Water Act, and wedand vegetation removal (Of- would adversely aquatic environment, including wetlands. General fice of Technology Assessment, 1984). permits are designed to allow activities with minimal State authority over the Federal Section 404 pro- affect wetlands. effects to begin with little, if any, delay or paperwork. gram is a goal of the Clean Water Act. Assumption of General permits authorize approximately 75,000 ac- authority from the EPA has been completed only by tivities annually that might otherwise require a per- Michigan and New Jersey. Under this arrangement, the mit (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 199 1); EPA is responsible for approving State assumptions however, most activities in wetlands are not covered and retains oversight of the State Section 404 program, by general permits (Morris, 1991). and the Corps retains the navigable waters permit pro- Not all dredge and fill activities require a Section gram (Mitsch and Gosselink, 1993). States cannot is- 404 permit. Many activities that cause the discharge sue permits over EPA's objection, but EPA has the au- of dredged and fill materials are exempt from Section thority to waive its review for selected categories of 404. The areas specifically exempted from Section 404 permit applications. Few States have chosen to assume include: normal farming, forestry, and ranching activi- the program, in part because few Federal resources are ties; dike, dam, levee, and other navigation and trans- available to assist States and assumption does not in- portation structure maintenance; construction of tem- clude navigable waters (World Wildlife Fund, 1992). Table 7. Methods of altering wetlands [Source: The Conservation Foundation, 1988, p. 151 PHYSICAL Filling adding any material to raise the bottom level of a wetland or to replace the wetland with dry land Draining removing the water from a wetland by ditching, tiling, pumping, and so forth Excavating dredging and removing soil and vegetation from a wetland Diverting water away preventing the flow of water into a wetland by removing water upstream, lowering lake levels, or lowering ground-water tables Clearing removing vegetation by burning, digging, application of herbicide, scraping, mowing, or otherwise cutting Flooding raising water levels, either behind dams, by pumping, or otherwise channeling water into a wetland Diverting or withholding sediment trapping sediment by constructing dams, channels, or other types of projects, thereby inhibiting wetland regeneration in natural deposition areas such as deltas Shading placing pile-supported platforms or bridges over wetlands, causing vegetation to die because of a lack of adequate sunlight Conducting activities in adjacent areas disrupting the interactions between wetlands and adjacent land areas, or incidentally affecting wetlands through activities at adjoining sites CHEMICAL Changing nutrient levels increasing or decreasing nutrient levels within the local water and or soil system, forcing wetland plant community changes Introducing toxics adding toxic compounds to a wetland either intentionally (for example, herbicide treatment to reduce vegetation) or unintentionally, adversely affecting wetland plants and animals BIOLOGICAL Grazing consumption and compaction of vegetation by domestic or wild animals Disrupting natural populations reducing populations of existing species, introducing exotic species, or otherwise disturbing resident organisms 62 National Water Surnmary-Wetland Resources: OVERVIEW OF WETLAND RESOURCES "Swampbuster" agement plans, which can be more stringent than Fed- The program that seeks to remove Federal incen- eral standards (World Wildlife Fund, 1992, p. 87). A State also can require that design changes or mitiga- tives for the agricultural conversion of wetlands is part tion requirements be added to Section 404 permits to of the Food Security Act of 1985 and 1990, and is be consistent with the State coastal zone management known as "Swampbuster." Swampbuster renders farm- plan. The Coastal Zone Management Act has provided ers who drained or otherwise converted wetlands for as much as 80 percent of the matching-funds grants the purpose ofplanting crops after December 23, 1985, to States to develop plans for coastal management that "Swampbuster" ineligible for most Federal farm subsidies. Through emphasize wetland protection (Mitsch and Gosselink, removes Federal Swampbuster, Congress directed the U.S. Department 1993). Some States pass part of the grants on to local ofAgriculture (USDA) to slow wetland conversion by governments. The Act's authorities are limited to wet- incentives for agricultural activities (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, lands within a State's coastal zone boundary, the defi- the agricultural 1992). The government programs that Swampbuster nition of which differs among States. As of 1990, 23 specifically affects are listed in Section 1221 of the States had federally approved plans. conversion of Food Security Act. If a farmer loses eligibility for The 1982 Coastal Barriers Resources Act denies wetlands. USDA programs under Swampbuster, he or she may Federal subsidies for development within undevel- regain eligibility during the next year simply by not oped, unprotected coastal barrier areas, including using wetlands for growing crops. Swampbuster is ad- wetlands, designated as part of the Coastal Barrier ministered by USDA's Consolidated Farm Service Resources System. Congress designates areas for in- Agency. The NRCS and the FWS serve as technical clusion in the Coastal Barriers Resource System on the consultants (World Wildlife Fund, 1992). basis of some of the following criteria (Watzin, 1990): The Swampbuster was amended by the Food, .Size Agriculture, Conservation, and Trade Act of 1990 to - Development status create the Wetland Reserve Program. The Wetland Re- - Composition serve Program provides financial incentives to farm- * Wind, wave, and tidal energies ers to restore and protect wetlands through the use of - Associated aquatic habitat, including adjacent long-term easements (usually 30-year or permanent). wetlands The program provides farmers the opportunity to of- In addition, States, local governments, and con- fer a property easement for purchase by the USDA and servation organizations owning lands that were "oth- to recieve cost-share assistance (from 50 to 75 percent) erwise protected" could have their lands added to this to restore converted wetlands. Landowners make bids system until May 1992. ("Otherwise protected" lands to participate in the program. The bids represent the are areas within undeveloped coastal barriers that were payment they are willing to accept for granting an already under some form of protection.) Once in the easement to the Federal Government. The Consoli- Coastal Barriers Resources System, these areas are dated Farm Service Agency ranks the bids according rendered ineligible for almost all Federal financial to the environmental benefit per dollar. Easements subsidies for programs that might encourage develop- require that farmers implement conservation plans ment. In particular, these lands no longer qualify for approved by the NRCS and the FWS. Enrollment in Federal flood insurance, which discourages develop- the pilot program was authorized for nine States. The ment because coastal lands are frequently subject to program's goal is to enroll I million acres by 1995 flooding and damage from hurricanes and other (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 1992). Funding for storms. The FWS is responsible for mapping these this program is appropriated annually by Congress areas and approves lands to be included in the system. (U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, 1994). Because 74 The purposes of the Coastal Barrier Resources Act are percent of United States'wetlands are on private land, to minimize the loss of human life, to reduce damage programs that provide incentives for private landown- to fish and wildlife habitats and other valuable re- ers to preserve their wetlands, such as the Wetland sources, and to reduce wasteful expenditure of Fed- Reserve Program, are critical for protecting wetlands eral revenues (Watzin, 1990). In the future, eligible (Council of Environmental Quality, 1989). surplus government land will be included if approved by the FWS. About 95 percent of the 788,000 acres The Coastal Coastal Wetlands Protection Programs added to the system in 1990 along the Atlantic and The 1972 Coastal Zone Management Act and the Gulf coasts consists of coastal wetlands and near-shore Zone Manage- 1982 Coastal Barriers Resources Act protect coastal waters (World Wildlife Fund, 1992). ment Program wetlands. The Coastal Zone Management Act encour- ages States (35 States and territories are eligible, in- Flood-Plain and Wetland Protection Provides States cluding the Great Lakes States) to establish voluntary Orders with some coastal zone management plans under NOAA's Coastal Zone Management Program and provides Executive Orders 11988, Floodplain Manage- control over funds for developing and implementing the plans. The ment, and 11990, Protection ofWetlands, were signed wetland NOAA also provides technical assistance to States for by President Carter in 1977. The purpose of these resources. developing and implementing these programs. For Executive Orders was to ensure protection and proper Federal approval, the plans must demonstrate enforce- management of flood plains and wetlands by Federal able standards that provide for the conservation and agencies. The Executive Orders require Federal agen- environmentally sound development of coastal re- cies to consider the direct and indirect adverse effects sources. The program provides States with some con- of their activities on flood plains and wetlands. This trol over wetland resources by requiring that Federal requirement extends to any Federal action within a activities be consistent with State coastal zone man- flood plain or a wetland except for routine mainte- National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: MANAGEMENT AND RESEARCH 63 nance of existing Federal facilities and structures. The ture wetland loss through development. It may be and Clinton administration has proposed revising Execu- usually is located somewhere other than near the site tive Order 11990 to direct Federal agencies to consider to be destroyed and built by someone other than the wetland protection and restoration planning in the developer. The currency of a mitigation bank is the larger scale watershed/ecosystem context. mitigation credit. "Mitigation banks require systems for valuing the compensation credits produced and for determining the type and number of credits needed as WETLAND DELINEATION STANDARDS compensation for any particular project. ***Mitiga- The Corps published, in 1987, the Corps of En- tion bank credit definitions are an attempt to identify "Federal gineers Wetland Delineation Manual, a technical those features [of wetland] which allow reasonable ap- Wetlands policy manual that provides guidance to Federal agencies proximations of replacemenf' (U.S. Army Corps of should be based about how to use wetland field indicators to ide Engineers, 1994, p. 63). Wetland evaluation methods nt'fy have been developed or are being developed to address upon the best and delineate wetland boundaries (U.S. Army Corps the problem of evaluating two different wetlands so of Engineers, 1987). In January of 1989, the EPA, that the degradation of one can be offset by the resto- science Corps, SCS, and FWS adopted a single manual for de- ration, enhancement, or creation of the other and to available. lineating wetlands under the Section 404 and assign either a qualitative or quantitative value to each Swampbuster programs-The Federal Manual for wetland. When buying the credits, developers pay a Identifying and Delineating Jurisdictional Wetlands proportionate cost toward acquiring, restoring, main- (commonly referred to as the "1989 Manual"). The taining, enhancing, and monitoring the mitigation "1989 Manual" establishes a national standard for bank wetland. Banks cover their costs by selling cred- identifying and delineating wetlands by specifying the its to those who develop wetlands, or by receiving a technical criteria used to determine the presence of the taxpayer subsidy. three wetland characteristics: wetland hydrology, wa- Several problems are associated with wetland ter-dependent vegetation, and soils that have devel- . . . oped under anaerobic conditions (U.S. Environmen- nutigation. The concept of wetland compensation may tal Protection Agency, 199 1). actually encourage destruction of natural wetlands if In 1991, the President's Council on Competitive- people believe that wetlands can be easily replaced. A ness proposed revisions to the 1989 Manual because 1990 Florida Department of Environmental Regula- of some concern that nonwetland areas were regularly tion study examined the success of wetland creation being classified as wetlands (Environmental Law Re- projects and found that the success rate of created tidal porter, 1992a). The proposed 1991 Manual was char- wetlands was 45 percent, whereas the success rate for acterized by many wetland scientists as politically created freshwater wetlands was only 12 percent. based rather than scientifically based. In September (Redmond, 1992). Figure 40 shows the relative success of 1992, Congress authorized the National Academy of wetland mitigation projects overall in south Florida. of Science to conduct a $400,000 study of the meth- The apparent factor controlling the lower success rate ods used to identify and delineate wetlands (Environ- for freshwater wetlands was the difficulty in duplicat- mental Law Reporter, 1992b). On August 25, 1993, ing wetland hydrology, that is, water-table fluctua- the Clinton administration's wetland policy, pro- tions 'frequency and seasonality of flooding, and claimed that, "Federal wetlands policy should be ground-water/surface-water interactions. based upon the best science available" (White House A study of wetland mitigation practices in eight Office of Environmental Policy, 1993) and the 1987 States revealed that in most of the States, more wet- 15 Corps Manual is the sole delineation manual for the land acreage was destroyed than was required to be created or restored, resulting in a net loss of acreage U) Federal Government until the National Academy of I.- - when mitigation was included in a wetlands permit 0 Sciences completes its study (White House Office of W (Kentula and others, 1992). Less than 55 percent of ') 10 - Environmental Policy, 1993). 0 the permits included monitoring of the project by site cc CL visit. A limited amount of information exists about the U. MITIGATION number of acres of wetlands affected by mitigation or 0 cc the effectiveness of particular mitigation techniques LU 5 because of the lack of followup. Several studies in Mitigation is the attempt to alleviate some or a of the detrimental effects arising from a given action. Florida reported that as many as 60 percent of the re- Z Wetland mitigation replaces an existing wetland or its quired mitigation projects were never even started functions by creating a new wetland, restoring a (Lewis, 1992). In addition, the mitigation wetland 0 former wetland, or enhancing or preserving an exist- commonly was not the same type of wetland that was EXPLANATION ing wetland. This is done to compensate for the au- destroyed, which resulted in a net loss of some wet- F-1 All goals met thorized destruction of the existing wetland. Mitiga- land types. (See article "Weiland Restoration and Cre- E:3 Some goals met tion commonly is required as a condition for receiv- ation" in this volume.) E:] Few goals met ing a permit to develop a wetland. E Incomplete Weiland mitigation can be conducted directly on RECENT PRESIDENTIAL WETLAND Figure 40. Status of 40 a case-by-case onsite basis, or through a banking sys- PROTECTION INITIATIVES wetland mitigation tem. Onsite mitigation requires that a developer cre- projects in south Florida. ate a wetland as close as possible to the site where a In his 1988 Presidential address and in his 1990 The average age of the Weiland is to be destroyed. This usually involves a one- budget address to Congress, President Bush echoed projects was less than 3 to-one replacement. the recommendations of the National Wetland Policy years. (Source: Modified A mitigation bank is a designated wetland that Forum. The Forum was convened in 1987 by the Con- from Mitsch and is created, restored, or enhanced to compensate for fu- servation Foundation at the request of EPA. The short- Cosselink, 1993.) 64 National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: OVERVIEW OF WETLAND RESOURCES term recommendation of the forum was to decrease Environmental Law Reporter, 1992a, Agencies working to wetland losses and increase wetland restoration and resolve controversy, official says: Washington, D.C., creation -the concept of "no net loss"- as a national Bureau of National Affairs, v. 23, no. 13, p. 924. goal. This implied that when wetland loss was un- - 1992b, Reilly favors return to 1987 manual, cites avoidable, creation and restoration should replace de- emerging consensus on delineation: Washington, D.C., Bureau of National Affairs, v. 23, no. 17, p. 1,260. stroyed wetlands (Mitsch and Gosselink, 1993). Kentula, Mary, Sifneos, Jean, Brooks, Robert, Gwin, On August 25, 1993, President Clinton unveiled Stephanie, Holland, Cindy, and Sherman, Arthur, 1992, his new policy for managing America's wetland re- An approach to decisionmaking in wetland restoration sources. The program was developed by the Inter- and creation: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, agency Working Group on Federal Wetlands Policy, a EPA/600/R-92/150,151 p. "No net loss" of group chaired by the White House Office on Environ- Kusler, J.A., 1983, Our national wetland heritage-A pro- mental Policy with participants from the EPA, the tection guidebook: Washington, D.C., Environmental wetlands is a Corps, the Office of Management and Budget, and the Law Institute, p. 62. nationalg0al. Departments of Agriculture, Commerce, Energy, In- L,ewis, Roy, 1992, Why Florida needs mitigation banking: National Wetlands Newsletter, v. 14, no. 1, p. 7. terior, Justice, and Transportation. The Admin- Mitsch, W.J., and Gosselink, J.G., 1993, Wetlands: NewYork, istration's proposals mix measures that tighten restric- Van Nostrand Reinhold Company, 722 p. tions on activities affecting wetlands in some cases and Morris, Marya, 199 1, Wetland protection-A local govern- relax restrictions in other areas. The Clinton policy en- ment handbook: Chicago, Ill., American Planning As- dorses the goal of "no net loss" of wetlands; however, sociation, 31 p. it clearly refers to "no net loss" of wetland acreage Office of Technology Assessment, 1984, Wetlands-Their rather than "no net loss" of wetland functions. use and regulation: Washington, D.C., OTA-0-206, The President's wetland proposal would expand p. 168-169. Federal authority under the Section 404 program to Redmond, Ann, 1992, How successful is mitigation?: Wash- ington, D.C., National Wetlands Newsletter, v. 14, no. regulate the draining of wetlands in addition to regu- 1, p. 5-6. lating dredging and filling of wetlands. Other proposed Schley, Terry, and Winter, Linda, 1992, New 404(q) MOA- changes to the Federal permitting program include the diluting EPKs role: Washington, D.C., National Wetlands requirement that most Section 404 permit applications Newsletter, Environmental Law Institute, v. 14, no. 6, be approved or disapproved within 90 days, and the p. 8. addition of an appeal process for applicants whose U.S. Army Corps ofEngineers, 1987, Corps ofEngineers wet- permits are denied. The EPA and the Corps are di- lands delineation manual: Vicksburg, Miss., U.S. Army rected to relax regulatory restrictions that cause only Corps of Engineers Technical Report Y-87- 1, p. 1. minor adverse effects to wetlands such as activities - 1994, National wetland mitigation banking study- Wetland mitigation banking: Washington, D.C., Environ- affecting very small areas. mental Law Institute, IWR Report 94-WMB-6, 178 p. The Clinton policy calls for avoiding future wet- U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 199 1, Proposed re- land losses by incorporating4efland protection into visions to the Federal manual for delineating wetlands: State and local government watershed-management Washington, D.C., Office ofWetlands, Oceans, and Wa- planning. This new policy also significantly expands tersheds, p. 1-4. the use of mitigation banks to compensate for feder- U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 1992, Digest of Federal re- ally approved wetland development or loss. source laws ofinterest to the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Ser- Clinton's proposals relaxed some of the current vice: Washington, D.C., U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, restrictions on agricultural effects on wetlands and in- Office of Legislative Services, p. 26. Want, William, 1993, Law of wetlands regulation: Deerfield, creased funding for incentives to preserve and restore Ill., Clark Boardman Callaghan, p. 13-2. wetlands on agricultural lands. The administration Watzin, M.C., 1990, Coastal Barrier Resources System map- policy excluded 53 million acres of "prior converted ping process, in Federal coastal wetland mapping pro- croplands" from regulation as wetlands. Also, author- gram: Washington, D.C., U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service ity over welland programs affecting agriculture was Biological Report 90 (18), p. 21-26. shifted from the FWS to the NRCS and proposed in- White House Office of Environmental Policy, 1993, Protect- creased funding for the Wetlands Reserve Program, ing America's wetlands-A fair, flexible, and effective which pays farmers to preserve and restore wetlands approach: the White House, Office of Environmental on their property. Policy, P. 15. World Wildlife Fund, 1992, Statewide wetlands strategies- A guide to protecting and managing the resource: Wash- References Cited ington, D.C., Island Press, 268 p. Conservation Foundation, 1988, Protecting America's wet- lands-An action agenda: Washington, D.C., The Con- servation Foundation, p. 15. FOR ADDITIONAL INFORMATION: Todd H. Votteler, Council of Environmental Quality, 1989, Environmental 4312 Larchmont Avenue, Dallas, TX 75205; Thomas A. Muir, trends: Washington, D.C., Office ofthe President, Coun- U.S. Geological Survey, 413 National Center, Reston, VA cil of Environmental Quality, p. 152. 22092 U.S. Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper 2425 National Water Surnmary-Wetland Resources: MANAGEMENT AND RESEARCH 65 Wetland Management and Research Wetland Research by Federal Agencies By Richard E. Coleman', Edward T LaRoel, and Russell F. Theriot' Because wetlands were drained and filled for THE REASONS FOR FEDERAL farming and building purposes during the last several INVOLVEMENT IN WETLAND hundred years, more than half of the original wetlands RESEARCH in the United States have been lost (Frayer and oth- ers, 1983). Only during the last quarter century has Scientists from many organizations, including society begun to understand the value of wetlands and those in the private sector, those from colleges and the particular benefits that they provide. (See the ar- universities, and those from public institutions, are ticle "History of Wetlands in the Conterminous Uni_ engaged in wetland research. Typically, each organi- ted States" in this volume.) This understanding has zation has its own reasons for being involved in wet- been broadened by the concerted efforts of many land research. Federal wetlan d research may be done public and private researchers. This article addresses because it is part of an agency's mission, is part of an the research contributions of Federal agencies: which agency's responsibilities as outlined by the Congress, agencies are involved in wetland research, why they or is otherwise in the national interest. are involved, and the nature of their research. When research is mission oriented, it is part of In an effort to develop a strategy for preventing the basic work of an agency. Mission-oriented Fed- the further loss of wetlands, the Committee on Earth eral agency wetland research generally is done for one and Environmental Sciences established a Wetlands of five reasons: Research Subcommittee to determine the status of I .Ownership-The agency owns and is responsible wetland research being conducted by Federal agen- for managing wetlands. The agency is the stew- cies. These efforts resulted in an unpublished report ard of its land. that presented a national inventory and data base of 2. Public trust responsibilities-An agency may be ongoing research and addressed future research needs responsible for ensuring the long-term survival of (Wetlands Research Subcommittee, unpub. data, certain fish and other wildlife resources, which are 1992). Data presented in the following few pages are drawn largely from these findings. During 1992, Federal wetland research expendi- tures were about $63 million. A total Federal invest- ment of more than $250 million is distributed over the lifetime of the existing projects. The amount of Fed- eral research spending per State is depicted in figure 41. Z E3 "IX EXPLANATION 2 Figure 41. Cost of Federal agency wetland research, ,6Z Contributing r arch cc 0 Not directly rlated to wetlandM per State, during fiscal year 1992. (Source: Federal c Wetlands Research inventory and Database, unpub. 02 Focused roser 0 0 @ Directly related to wetlands data, 1992; compiled by the Wetlands Research and Technology Center, U.S. Army Engineer Waterways Experiment Station, Vicksburg, Miss.) U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. National Biological Service. 66 National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: OVERVIEW OF WETLAND RESOURCES held in trust for the public. Wetlands form critical domain of the Federal Government. International habitat and are part of the ecological system on efforts that result from those treaties, such as ef- which many of these species depend. forts between Canada, Mexico, and the United 3. Regulatory responsibilities-Because wetlands States to restore declining wetland-dependent provide so many benefits to society, activities that waterfowl populations, have an essential Federal adversely affect them may be subject to regula- element. (See article "Wetlands as Bird Habitat" tion. Some agencies, therefore, have regulatory in this volume.) authority over wetlands. There is also an intrinsic national interest in wet- 4. Development activities-Federal agencies have land research. Where wetland questions or issues are an obligation to avoid projects or actions that may widespread or shared by jurisdictions, or affect the adversely affect wetlands, to minimize the nega- national health, safety, or welfare, Congress may de- tive effects of their activities on wetlands, and to termine that there is a national interest that justifies mitigate unavoidable wetland losses. These re- Federal agency research. The understanding quirements apply to all Federal agencies, but of wetlands as a those regularly involved in large-scale develop- TYPES OF FEDERAL WETLAND ment projects support specific wetland research RESEARCH valued resource has activities. been broadened by 5. Science-Agencies that have missions directly re- The Federal Wetlands Research Inventory and lated to science may conduct or support research Database reported in 1992 that 18 Federal agencies the concerted on wetlands. were conducting some wetland research (Wetlands efforts of many Although many different levels of government Research Subcommittee, unpub. data, 1992). Two public and private may have mission-oriented research, Federal agency types of research were included in the inventory- wetland research activities relate to congressionally focused and contributing. Focused research is spe- researchers. mandated responsibilities. Most significant among cifically designed to investigate wetlands or some component thereof; contributing research provides these are provisions that relate to: � Interstate commerce-Wetlands are part of the en- some information about wetlands but is not directly tire physical landscape, from river headwaters to related to wetlands. the sea. They form parts of water bodies that pro- Research categories also were identified by the vide shipping, transportation, and navigation. Inventory and Database. These categories were de- Some wetlands are used as routes for trade in in- fined by the subject of the wetland research being terstate commerce, and wetland products are conducted, and were listed in five topical areas: used in interstate trade. What happens to wet- I . Wetland processes-Research to address factors lands in one State can affect wetland activities, that affect the type, location, size, and functions benefits, and uses in another State. of wetlands. � International treaties-The benefits and uses of 2. Wetland functions-Research to determine the wetlands are the subject of international treaties, role wetlands play and the benefits they provide. such as the Ramsar Convention of 1971 and the 3. Human-induced stresses-Research to improve Migratory Bird Treaty, which are the exclusive ways of detecting or quantifying the effects of Delineation and [dent ice ion 5 percent AGENCY RESEARCH CATEGORY HUMAN- DELINEATION INDUCED AND Human- PROCESSES FUNCTIONS STRESSES IDENTIFICATION MANAGEMENT Induced Army Corps of Engineers Corps $1,072,000 $ 438,000 $ 154,000 $ 364,000 $ 4,818,000 Stresses Management Agricultural Research service ARS 814,000 0 65,000 0 909,000 22 percent 34 percent Bureau of Mines BOM 316,000 49,000 a 0 0 Bureau of Reclamation BOR 25,000 25,000 0 0 150,000 Department of Energy DOE 2,698,000 2,126,000 2,195,000 1,279,OOD 2,110,000 Functions Federal Highway Administration FHA 77,000 39,000 29,000 347,000 100,000 12 percent Minerals Management Service MMS 500,000 0 0 0 Processes National Oceanic and NOAA 287,000 2,144,000 523,000 100,000 165,000 27 percent Atmospheric Administration National Park Service NPS 1,046,000 0 194,000 0 531,000 National Science Foundation NSF 269,000 0 0 0 0 Office of Surface mining osm 0 0 0 0 147,000 Smithsonian Institute SMI 847,000 100,000 32,000 88,000 1,000 Soil Conservation Service* SCS 32,000 0 0 0 2,014,000 Tennessee Valley Authority TVA 55,000 167,000 70,000 0 2,674,000 U.S. Environmental Protection Agency EPA 150,000 586,000 1 0 0 2,320,00 U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service FWS 2,366,000 1,027,000 7,039,000 771,000 4,916,000 U.S. Forest Service USFS 213,000 409,000 13,000 0 412,000 U.S. Geological Survey USGS 6,534,000 844,000 3,456,000 118,000 1,567,000 Became the Natural Resources Conservation Service in 1994. Figure 42. Summary of Federal agency wetland research expenditures by research category during 1992. (Source: Federal Wetlands Research Inventory and Database, unpub. data, 1992; compiled by the Wetlands ifi t Research and Technology Center U.S. Army Engineer Waterways Experiment Station, Vicksburg, Miss.) National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: MANAGEMENT AND RESEARCH 67 stress on wetlands, or of determining stress thresh- Department of the Interior olds of wetlands. 4. Wetland delineation and identification-Research Wetland research activities in the Department of on methods and techniques to identify wetlands the Interior relate to its responsibilities as the primary and delineate wetland boundaries. steward ofAmerica's natural resources. The Depart- 5. Management-Research to develop tools and tech- ment of the Interior performs basic scientific research nologies to maintain, restore, and construct wet- on wetland processes and functions and applied fo- lands. cused research on human-induced stresses, delinea- Figure 42 depicts the expenditures on Federal re- tion and identification, and management of wetlands. search in each of these categories in 1992. Individual The Department assumes ownership and management research studies may span several of these categories; responsibilities for wetlands through the U.S. Fish and however, these categories represent a convenient way Wildlife Service (FWS) and the National Park Ser- to describe existing research activities. vice, and scientific research responsibilities through In addition to distinguishing the type of research the activities of the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) it also is useful to distinguish the type of wetlan@ and the National Biological Service (NBS). Research being studied. Because ecological processes and funding for the Department was greater than $30.5 functions differ with the type of wetland, research million in 1992 (figs. 42-43). What happens to needs and techniques also differ. Disappearing coastal U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service: The FWS has and bottom-land hardwood wetlands are among the stewardship responsibilities for fish and other wild- wetlands in one major areas ofresearch. Figure 43 shows Federal ex- life (such as migratory birds, anadromous fish, and State can affect penditures for research on different types of wetlands. endangered species), their habitats, and for wildlife wetland activities, (See article "Weiland Definitions and Classification refuges. As a major Federal landowner, the FWS pro- in the Conterminous United States" for an explana- tects and manages wetlands and associated habitats benefits, and uses tion of wetland types.) on more than 90 million acres of national wildlife in another State. refuges and provides advice about and technical sup- AGENCY ROLES AND port for regulatory activities and trust species to other RESPONSIBILITIES Federal, State, and private landowners. The FWS, through the National Wetlands Inventory program, Federal wetland research is conducted through- provides detailed wetland maps for the Nation, and out the Nation. Twelve agencies listed in the Wetland also reports to Congress every 10 years the status and Research Subcommittee's report and discussed below trends of the Nation Is wetlands. (See article "Weiland have wetland research expenditures of $1 million or Mapping and Inventory" in this volume.) Research fo- more. Although not discussed below, other agencies cuses on improved methods and tools for identifying with less funding that also contribute to wetland re- and delineating different wedand types. search are the Department of the Interior's Bureau of U.S. Geological Survey: The USGS provides geo- Mines, Bureau of Reclamation, Minerals Manage- logic, hydrologic, and topographic information to ment Service, and Office of Surface Mining; the Fed- assist Federal, State, and local governments, the pri- eral Highway Administration's Department of Trans- vate sector, and individual citizens in making man- portation; and the National Science Foundation. agement decisions about the use of land and water Marine 5 percent AGENCY WETLAND TYPES* MARINE ESTUARINE RIVERINE PALUSTRINE LACUSTRINE Army Corps of Engineers Lacustrine Corps $ 0 $1,750,000 $1,529,000 $2,036,000 $ 824,000 15 percent Agricultural Research Service ARS 0 20,000 1,053,000 650,000 65,000 Estuarine Bureau of Mines BOM 0 0 a 0 0 32 percent Bureau of Reclamation BOR 0 0 50,000 50,000 100,000 Department of Energy DOE 153,000 418,000 1,855,000 2,640,000 406,000 Federal Highway Administration FHA 5,000 5,000 2,000 193,000 0 Palustrine Minerals Management Service MMS 250,000 250,000 0 0 0 26 percent Riverine National Oceanic and NOAA 193,000 2,925,000 66,000 35,000 0 22 percent Atmospheric Administration National Park Service NPS 7,000 818,000 428,000 480,000 58,000 National Science Foundation NSF 0 170,000 13,000 86,000 0 Office of Surface mining OSM 0 0 0 64,000 0 Smithsonian Institute SMI 420,000 355,000 267,000 26,000 0 Soil Conservation Service scs 184,000 806,000 323,000 352,000 268,000 Tennessee Valley Authority TVA 0 0 84,000 531,000 2,084,000 U.S. Environmental Protection Agency EPA 150,000 225,000 736,000 1,421,000 270,000 U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service FWS 428,000 2,949,000 5,202,000 4,033,000 3,564,000 U.S. Forest Service USFS 0 0 102,000 945,000 0 U.S. Geological Survey USGS 1,482,000 3,587,000 , 2,606,000 . 2,880,000 1,963,000 Descrepancies in total expenditures occur because some agencies did not include constructed wetlands when reporting these figures. Figure 43. Summary of Federal agency wetland research expenditures by wetland type during 1992. (Sources: Federal Wetlands Research Inventory and Database, unpub. data, 1992; compiled by the Wetlands Research and Technology Center, U.S. Army Engineer Waterways Experiment Station, Vicksburg, Miss.) 68 National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: OVERVIEW OF WETLAND RESOURCES 4k resources. The USGS's wetland research activities are an important part of the agency's activities. Research focuses on the geology, chemistry, hydrology, and bi- ology of wetlands and their interactions. Studies are conducted in selected wetlands to determine the pro- cesses responsible for the formation and evolution of wetlands and to increase understanding of wetland functions. Some specific topics that hydrologic stud- ies address are ground-water/surface-water interac- 1, tions; the role of wetlands in water-quality improve- ment; the relation between flood-plain wetlands, riv- 0 erine and estuarine hydrology, and water quality; and the relation of light and water chemistry to aquatic plant distribution in tidal waters. National Park Service: Wetland research by the Core sample being collected by the U.S. Geological Survey at a National Park Service is primarily issue driven; it is fen in Minn., tells the sediment history of this particular wetland. management-oriented and focuses on protecting re- (Photograph by Nancy Rybicki, U.S. Geological Survey.) sources, mitigating the effects of human actions on wetlands, and restoring natural wetland functions where they have been disturbed by past or ongoing human activities. National Biological Service: TheNBS wasestab- lished in October 1993 and, therefore, was not in- cluded in the report by the Wetland Research Sub- A committee and not included in the graphs in figures 42-43. However, it is a large player in research being done on wetlands and, therefore, is included in this 13S inventories and monitors wet- discussion. The N lands and conducts biological research on many a ects of wetlands; in fact, most activities of the NIBS sp are wetland related. It provides biological information and research support to management agencies within the Federal Government. The National Biological Service collects turtlegrass near Chan- Department of Energy deleur Islands, La., to study the effects of water quality on the The Department of Energy's role in and respon- plant. (Photograph courtesy of The National Biological Service.) sibilities toward wetland research are related to its compliance with environmental regulations. The Department does this by assessing the environmen- Mow," tal effects of its activities on lands, including wet- lands, under its jurisdiction, and by operating and y developing facilities in ways that maintain and en- hance environmental quality while providing efficient energy production, transmission, and use. Research focuses on supporting these activities. Research fund- ing was about $10.3 million in 1992 (figs. 42-43). 17 Department of Defense Wetland research activities of the Department of Defense result primarily from legislation pertaining to the mission of the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (Corps). The Army, through the Corps, is assigned responsibility for much of the Nation's water-re- source development activities, including efforts to protect, conserve, restore, and establish new wet- lands. In performing its development mission, such as keeping waterways open by dredging or building levees to protect cities from flooding, the Corps di- rectly affects wetlands and must consider the effects The National Biological Service collects of its activities. The Corps has established a formal builtongue in a marsh near Lake Salvador, La., Wetlands Research Program to support its wetland- for use in greenhouse experiments in salinity related responsibilities. This program is designed to and flooding tolerance. (Photograph courtesy of include both basic and applied research that empha- The National Biological Service.) size the Corps strengths in engineering design and National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: MANAGEMENT AND RESEARCH 69 construction, stewardship, and management. Re- search funding for the Corps in 1992 was about $6.5 million (figs. 42-43). Department of Agriculture The Department of Agriculture performs wetland research through several of its agencies; the Natural Resources Conservation Service (formerly known as the Soil Conservation Service), the Agricultural Re- search Service, and the U.S. Forest Service. Research k funding for the Department of Agriculture was about -43). $4.5 million in 1992 (figs. 42 Natural Resources Conservation Service: The Natural Resources Conservation Service assists other Federal, State, and local governments in resource conservation activities that include wetland protec- tion. Their authority covers mainly lands with high potential for conversion to agricultural uses. The Natural Resources Conservation Service's The U.S. Army Corps of Engineers collects water-level data at a plant materials centers develop new varieties of plants bottom-land hardwood wetland located along the Cache River, Ark. and the technology for using plants to solve soil and (Photograph courtesy of the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers.) water-conservation problems. They also provide for the commercial production of these plants. Some of the centers conduct investigations on how to reestab- lish marsh vegetation along eroding tidal shores in e th mid-Atlantic States and the Gulf Coast States from Alabama to Mexico. Projects are underway at other centers to develop new varieties of plants and encou r age plant reproduction, to develop techniques for es- tablishing and maintaining restored and created fresh- water wetlands, and to design and construct wetlands that act as biological filters of agricultural runoff. Economic Research Service: Although the Eco- nomic Research Service is not one of the agencies listed in the Wetland Research Subcommittee report, its research is integral to oversight of the Wetland Reserve Program by the Natural Resources Conser- vation Service (see the article "Wetland Protection Legislation" in this volume), and is, therefore, men- tioned in this discussion. The Economic Research Service conducts cost and benefit comparison stud- ies to determine effective economic incentives asso- ciated with wetland conservation or destruction. The U.S. Army Corps of Engineers dewatered this freshwater Because the Wetland Reserve Program is voluntary, wetland at a restoration site at Kenilworth Marsh in Maryland to research focuses on identifying costs that limit farm- facilitate planting. Dewatering was achieved by building temporary dikes made from water-filled tubes designed by the Corps for this ers' participation. purpose. (Photograph courtesy of the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers.) Agricultural Research Service: The Agricultural Research Service's mission includes development of technology needed to ensure maintenance of environ- mental quality and natural resources. Their research est Service also conducts studies of technological supports implementation of Federal agricultural leg- improvements used for reforesting wetland and ripar- islation and development of new agricultural practices ian sites, which involves understanding how tree spe- that produce less off-site contamination. Many pro- cies adapt to flooding. Other areas of study include grams indirectly contribute to national wetland goals establishing understory vegetation, restoring wetland by improving management of basins that drain into hydrology, and rehabilitating fish and other wildlife wetlands. habitat. U.S. Forest Service: The U.S. Forest Service con- ducts research to support improved management of .L Federal, State, and private forests; the research com- Department of Commerce prises efforts to describe ecosystem dynamics and to The Department of Commerce conducts its re- develop improved technology for restoring and reha- search through the National Oceanic and Atmospheric bilitating forested wetlands. Research is conducted on Administration. In 1992, funding for research by the the role of flowing water in sustaining chemical, Department was about $3 million (figs. 42-43). physical, and biological processes integral to the func- National Oceanic andAtmospheric Administra- tioning of wetland and riparian ecosystems. The For- tion: The National Oceanic and Atmospheric 70 National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: OVERVIEW OF WETLAND RESOURCES search has been focused on locating and determin- ing rates of loss of seagrasses, emergent marshes, and adjacent uplands using satellite and aerial photogra- A, 1-w phy. Research is being conducted on the functional L attributes of these habitats and their capability of be- Zilw ing restored. National Marine Fisheries Service: This or- "d ganization is the Federal steward of the Nation's living marine resources, from 200 miles offshore (the sea- ward extent of the Nation's assessment of mineral and energy sources) to the freshwater tributaries used by anadromous species for spawning. National Marine Fisheries Service's scientists conduct basic and ap- plied research to advance understanding of wetland habitat functioning in response to natural and human- induced environmental changes, to develop improved techniques for habitat restoration and assessment, and to support the habitat permit review process. The Na- National Marine Fisheries Service scientists study the effects of oyster- tional Marine Fisheries Service's Restoration Center shell reefs on sedimentation and use by marine organisms in this created wetland at Swansboro Marsh, N.C. (Photograph by David L. Meyer, develops and implements habitat restoration plans National Marine Fisheries Service.) that seek to restore, replace, or acquire the equiva- lent of the resources determined to have been injured by releases of oil or hazardous substances to the en- Administration's (NOAA) mission is to manage our vironment. ocean and coastal resources, describe and predict National Ocean Service: This organization ad- The information changes in the Earth's oceans and atmosphere, and ministers programs that provide support for manag- derived from promote its global stewardship through scientific re- ing marine environments. It manages a national net- search and service. Three of NOANs five organiza- work of marine sanctuaries and estuarine research broad-scope, tions are directly involved in wetland research: the reserves. The estuarine research reserves, throughout individual agency National Marine Fisheries Service, the National the National Estuarine Research Reserves System, are Ocean Service, and the Office of Oceanic and Atmo- established, managed, and maintained with the help resear may spheric Research. NOAA also has a relevant agency- of State authorities to assure their long-term protec- complement that wide program, the Coastal Ocean Program, which tion. Research activities are used to facilitate manage- of other agencies. supports management of the coastal ocean environ- ment of wetlands. Priorities change biennially and ment. have included nonpoint-source pollution (1993-94) The Coastal Ocean Program is intended to pro- and habitat restoration (1994-95). vide scientific products that support coastal ocean Office of Oceanic and Atmospheric Research: management through improved understanding and This organization is responsible for conducting prediction of environmental quality, fishery re- research that improves understanding and prediction sources, and coastal hazards. One of the Coastal of oceanic and atmospheric conditions. This includes Ocean Program's component programs seeks to un- investigating processes that regulate wetland ecosys- derstand and quantify the relation between estuarine tem structure and production, the responses of these habitat and coastal ocean productivity. Initial re- systems to natural and human-induced conditions, and the effects of global climate and other atmospheric conditions on marine resources and ecosystems. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency Research needs within the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) are extensive. The Wetlands Research Program of the EPA is an applied research program that primarily provides technical support to improve the Agency's ability to carry out its regula- 7 tory responsibilities. Three components of the Wet- lands Research Program are the Wetland Function Project, the Characterization and Restoration Project, and the Landscape Function Project. Detailed stud- ies of individual wetlands conducted to understand better the processes within wetlands that contribute to wetland functions and wetland responses to envi- ronmental stressors are carried out through the Wet- land Function Project. Studies of the characteristics National Marine Fisheries Service scientists, using a drop sampler, of groups of wetlands that compare the functions of collect aquatic organisms in a salt marsh on Galveston Island, Tex. This natural, restored, and created wetlands within similar is often done to assess damages following an oil spill. (Photograph by geographic settings are carried out through the Char- Lawrence P Rozas, National Marine Fisheries Service.) acterization and Restoration Project. Research is con- National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: MANAGEMENT AND RESEARCH 71 ducted on the interactions of wetlands with other eco- systems and on the cumulative effects of human ac tivities on wetland functions through the Landsc ape L 4, Function Project. In 1992, EPA!s funding for wetland research was about $3 million (figs. 42-43). IM, '1W Tennessee Valley Authority The Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA) is a re- source management agency created by the Tennessee Alk .1 Valley Authority Act of 1933. Its research focuses on both natural and constructed wetlands. Natural-wet lands research is directed toward protecting and en- hancing aquatic bed, emergent, and riparian forested wetlands and the wildlife populations dependent on them. Constructed-wetlands research is directed to- ward designing and operating constructed wetlands to solve specific waste-management Or environmental Local teachers work in cooperation with U.S. Environmental Protection problems and examining the basic mechanics and Agency scientists to measure elevations and create site maps on this restored physiology of these systems. Wetland research is con- wetland in Portland, Oreg. (Photograph courtesy of the U.S. Environmental ducted in the field, in laboratories, and at a unique 32- Protection Agency.) celled physical model at a constructed-wetland re- search facility in Muscle Shoals, Ala. In 1992, fund- Research and Development, a voluntary group that ing for research was about $3 million (figs. 42-43). meets annually in Washington, D.C., to present the status of agency research programs and discuss areas Smithsonian institution of potential interaction. This Committee developed the Federal agencies first National Summary of Ongoing Wetlands Re- have special Smithsonian research on wetlands is focused on search by Federal Agencies (U.S. Army Engineer the biota, hydrology, and functions of wetlands. Aerial Waterways Experiment Station, 1992). All Federal obligations, as photographs, remote sensing, and Geographic Infor- agencies that perform wetland research are invited to SteWards of public mation Systems are used to extend research results these meetings. Another voluntary adhoc committee, monies, to get the from specific sites to larger regions and to relate the Forested Wetlands Research and Development In- wetlands to their drainage basins. Research support teragency Coordination Committee, formed working most out of comes directly from Congress, from Smithsonian groups and developed a multiyear interagency re- research dollars. trust funds, and from extramural grants and contracts. search proposal for work in forested wetlands in Funding for research in 1992 was about $1 million Southern States. The Corps, the NBS, and the FWS (figs. 42-43). provide funds for this research; and the EPA, Agricul- tural Research Service, and Natural Resources Con- COORDINATION OF RESEARCH servation Service actually do the research. AMONG FEDERAL AGENCIES Federal agencies also use informal scientific re- views of individual projects and entire programs for Federal agencies conduct wetland research to coordination. The purpose of these reviews is to ex- execute their congressionally mandated missions. pose a project or program to external review and com- Generally these research efforts fall within well-de- ment, as well as to provide a forum for exchanging fined limits. By necessity, some agencies conduct views and ideas about each participating agency's research with a broad range of activities. The infor- project or program. The wetland research programs mation derived from broad-scope, individual agency operated by the Corps, FWS, and EPA, and projects research may complement that of other agencies. of the NBSs National Wetland Research Center and Federal agencies have special obligations, as stew- Cooperative Research Units Center regularly receive ards of public monies, to get the most out of research external peer review. Several Federal agencies regu- dollars. Effective coordination is essential to assure larly hold interagency planning meetings to discuss that agencies efficiently budget and use research funds, new wetland research goals and projects, solicit com- to ensure that research is not duplicated by two or more ments, and explore areas for potential partnerships agencies (and money wasted), and to ensure that the and cooperation. "best science" is achieved. Federal agencies involved Agencies with responsibilities for regulating and in wetland research use formal and informal coordi- managing Federal lands, which include wetlands, nation mechanisms to achieve these goals. conduct workshops, seminars, and other informal Informal coordination takes many forms. It in- meetings to facilitate effective interaction and coor- eludes scientists from each agency communicating di- dination of their research. Professional societies, sci- rectly with scientists in other agencies about matters entific literature, agency publications, newsletters, of common interest. It also includes many adhoc com- bulletins, and topical conferences also offer mecha- mittees and working groups organized to accomplish nisms for coordination and information exchange. general coordination as well as specific research ob- More formal coordination is achieved through jectives. Among the adhoc committees is the Federal exchange agreements, in which scientists may be ex- Interagency Coordination Committee on Wetlands changed from one agency to another for specific pe- 72 National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: OVERVIEW OF WETLAND RESOURCES riods to provide needed expertise. As an example, the Mon S. Yee, Natural Resources Conservation Service; Wetlands Classification System developed by the Doug Ryan, U.S. Forest Service; David Correll, FWS was prepared with full-time assistance of sci- Smithsonian Institute; Mary E. Kentula, EPA; David entists from the Corps and the Soil Conservation A. Seyler, USGS; Clive Jorgensen, Department of Service, and the authors of the report defining the Energy; and Joel Wagner, National Park Service. system (Cowardin and others, 1979) included repre- sentatives from the FWS, the USGS, and NOAA. Written agreements such as Memorandums of Agree- References Cited ment or Memorandums of Understanding also are used to facilitate cooperation between agencies that Cowardin, L.M., Carter, Virginia, Golet, F.C., and LaRoe, share mutual objectives. Reimbursable and shared E.T., 1979, Classification of wetlands and deepwater funding may be used to leverage available research habitats of the United States: U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Report FWS/OBS-79/31, 131 p. dollars and take advantage of specific expertise avail- Frayer, W.E., Monahan, T.J., Bowden, D.C., and Graybill, able in some agencies and lacking in others. F.A., 1983, Status and trends of wetlands and deepwater Formal coordination may be required by specific habitats in the conterminous United States, 1950's to legislative or administrative decisions, such as the 1970's: Fort Collins, Colorado State University, p. 32. Clinton administration's decisions relating to imple- U.S. Army Engineer Waterways Experiment Station, 1992, mentation of the Breaux Bill, which requires agen- National summary of ongoing wetlands research by cies to coordinate in assessing damages and imple- Federal agencies: Vicksburg, Miss., Prepared by the menting corrective mechanisms in south Louisiana's Wetlands Research Program, 69 p. coastal wetlands. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS FOR ADDITIONAL INFORMATION: Wetlands Research Representatives of Federal agencies listed herein Program (CEWES-EP-W), U.S. Army Engineer Water- contributed to this report. The authors are particularly ways Experiment Station, 3909 Hall Ferry Rd., Vicksburg, grateful to the following: Robert E. Stewart, Jr., NBS; MS 39180 U.S. Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper 2425 National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: MANAGEMENT AND RESEARCH 73 Wetland Management and Research Wetland Mapping and Inventory By Bill 0. Wilen', Virginia Carter', and J. Ronald Jones' Wetland maps are a prerequisite for wetland in- National Wetlands Inventory. (See the article "Wetland ventory and for wetland development planning, man- Protection Legislation" in this volume for more infor- agement, protection, and restoration. Maps provide mation on this and other wetland legislation.) information on wetland type, location, and size. De- tailed wetland maps are necessary for analysis of the History and Status of the National effect of projects at specific sites and for providing Wetlands Inventory baseline spatial data for the assessment of the effects of national policies and activities. Wetland maps are In 1906, and again in 1922, the U.S. Department used by local, State, and Federal agencies, as well as ofAgriculture inventoried the wetlands of the United by private industry and organizations. They are used States to identify those that could be drained and con- for many purposes, including the development of verted to other uses (Wilen and Tiner, 1993). In 1954, comprehensive resource management plans, environ- the first nationwide wetland survey by the FWS cov- Wetland maps mental impact assessments, natural resource inven- ered about 40 percent of the conterminous United are a prerequisite tories, habitat surveys, and the analysis of trends in States and focused on important waterfowl wetlands. wetland status. This survey was not comprehensive by today's stan- for wetiand Several Federal agencies map wetlands in sup- dards, but it stimulated public interest in the conser- inventory, port of their Congressional mandate. These include vation of waterfowl wetlands (Shaw and Fredine ' the U.S. Department of the Interior, U.S. Fish and 1956). (See the article "Wetlands as Bird Habitat,, in planning, Wildlife Service (FWS); the U.S. Department ofAg- this volume.) management, riculture, Natural Resources Conservation Service After the earlier inventories, and in response to tection, and (NRCS); and the U.S. Department of Commerce, passage of the Emergency Wetlands Resources Act Pro National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration and its amendments, the FWS established the Na- restoration. (NOAA). The FWS has the primary responsibility for tional Wetlands Inventory. The program is designed mapping and inventory of all the wetlands of the to (1) produce detailed maps on the characteristics United States. The wetland maps produced by other and extent of the Nation's wetlands, (2) construct a agencies serve different purposes and generally in- national wetlands data base, (3) disseminate wetland volve cooperation with the FWS. maps and digital data, (4) report results of State wet- land inventories, (5) report to Congress every 10 years THE U.S. FISH AND WILDLIFE on the status and trends of the Nation's wetlands, and SERVICE'S MAPPING AND INVENTORY (6) assemble and distribute related maps, digital data, ACTIVITIES and reports. The National Wetlands Inventory has produced The FWS National Wetlands Inventory is respon- more than 50,800 maps covering 88 percent of the sible for the mapping and inventory of wetlands conterminous United States, 30 percent of Alaska, throughout the United States. The Emergency Wet- and all of Hawaii and the U.S. Territories (fig. 44) lands Resources Act of 1986 and amendments to it Priorities for mapping have been based on the needs in 1988 and 1992 define the responsibilities of the of the FWS, other Federal agencies, and State agen- EXPLANATION National Wettand Inventory map HAWAII @J availability 1@. 't!@> = Final maps 0 160MILES Draft maps 0 100 KILOMETERS Unavailable ALASKA Figure 44. Areas of the United States that have been mapped by the National Wetlands Inventory program and status of 0 @OMILES those maps, 1996. (Source: Data from U.S. 0 500 MILES I Fish and Wildlife Service, National 0 500 KILOMETERS 0 500 KILOMETERS Wetlands Inventory files.) 'U.S. Fish and:Wildlife Service. 2 U.S. Geological Survey. 74 National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: OVERVIEW OF WETILAND RESOURCES cies. To date, mapping has been concentrated on the In addition to wetland maps and status and trend coastal zone (including the Great Lakes), prairie reports, the National Wetlands Inventory produces wetlands, playa lakes, flood plains of major rivers, special items related to the identification, mapping, and areas that reflect goals of the North American and inventory of wetlands. The "National List of Plant Waterfowl Management Plan (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Species that Occur in Wetlands" (Reed, 1988) is an Service, 1976). As a practical matter, priorities have important tool for identifying wetlands on the basis been based on the availability of funding and the of their vegetation, A computerized data base for wet- availability of high-quality aerial photographs. The land plants, developed by the National Wetlands In- National Wetlands Inventory produced maps at a rate ventory, also lists plants found in wetlands and ranks of about 5 percent of the conterminous United States their affinity to the wetland environment. This infor- To date, a IMOSt and about 2 percent of Alaska annually through mation is important for determining whether an area 1995-about 3,200 1:24,000-scale maps in the con- is really a wetland. Additionally, the National Wet- 18,800 maps, terminous United States and about 60 1:63,360-scale lands Inventory has contributed to a list of hydric soils representing 29 maps in Alaska. (soils found in wetlands) (U.S. Soil Conservation The National Wetlands Inventory has published Service, 199 1). Many published State wetland reports, percent of the a series of documents on the trends in Welland losses including "Wetlands of Maryland" (Tiner and Burke, United States, have and gains. The first of these reports was "Status and 1995), "Wetlands of Connecticut" (Metzler and Tiner, been digitiZed. Trends of Wetlands and Deepwater Habitats in the 1992), and "Status ofAlaska Wetlands" (Hall, Frayer, Conterminous United States, 1950's to 1970's" and Wilen, 1994), contain wetland inventory results (Frayer and others, 1983). In the Emergency Wetlands and other important information. Finally, in coopera- Resources Act of 1986 and subsequent amendments, tion with the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS), the Na- Congress directed the National Wetlands Inventory tional Wetlands Inventory has published a map (scale to (1) update and improve the information contained of 1 inch equals 50 miles) showing the locations of in this report by 1990 and at 10-year intervals there- major Welland complexes in the conterminous United after and (2) estimate the number of acres of wetland States, Hawaii, and Puerto Rico (Dahl, 1991) and a habitat in each State in the 1780's and the 1980's and map (scale of I inch equals 40 miles) of Alaska's calculate the percentage of loss in each State. In re- wetland resources (Hall, 1991). sponse to this directive, the National Wetlands Inven- tory published a 1990 report to Congress titled "Wet- OTHER FEDERAL AGENCIES' MAPPING lands- Losses in the United States, 1780's to 1980's" AND INVENTORY ACTIVITIES (Dahl, 1990). The National Wetlands Inventory also is prepar- Natural Resources Conservation Service.-The ing a geographically referenced digital data base for NRCS (formerly the Soil Conservation Service) con- wetlands so that wetland information can be placed ducts its wetland inventory under the auspices of the in geographic information systems (GIS) for use with wetland conservation provision (nicknamed computers. These digital maps and information are "Swampbuster") of the Food Security Act of 1985. easily transmitted over the Internet. To date, almost This Act provides for the reduction of a farmer's pro- 18,800 maps, representing 29 percent of the United gram benefits ifwetlands are converted to agricultural States, have been digitized (fig. 45). Statewide data production. In order to implement this act, the map- bases have been digitized for Delaware, Hawaii, In- ping of the NRCS is focused on freshwater wetlands diana, Maryland, Illinois, New Jersey, Washington, that have a high potential for agricultural conversion, Iowa, Minnesota, and West Virginia. Digitization is such as those adjacent to or lying within the bound- in progress for Florida, North Carolina, South Caro- aries of existing agricultural fields. lina, South Dakota, and Virginia. Wetland digital data The NRCS does not produce a standard map are available for parts of 35 other States. product. Many delineations are made on 1:660-scale ok EXPLANATION National Wetland Inventory map digitization Completed Figure 45. Areas of the conterminous Not completed United States and Hawaii where wetland data have been digitized by d 0 HAWAII the National Wetlands Inventory I111h program, 1996, (Source: Data from D 1130MILES U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, National Wetlands inventory files.) a 100KILOMETERS 50D MILES j o 500 KILOMETERS National Water Surnmary-Wetland Resources: MANAGEMENT AND RESEARCH 75 arm .11.111-1 .. May)" The "Swampbuster" discourages the conversion of wetlands to The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration delineates cropland. This wetland, which was converted to cropland at one time, coastal wetland and upland habitats, such as this coastal wetland at has been restored. (Photograph courtesy ofthe U.S. Fish and Wildlife Chincoteague National Wildlife Refuge on Assateague Island, Va. Service.) (Photograph by Judy D. Fretwell, U.S. Geological Survey.) black-and-white aerial photographs; others are made scales. However, many needs can be satisfied by com- on soil-survey base maps at scales that range from mon products, and efforts are being made to standard- 1:10,000 to 1:64,000 (Teels, 1990). Information ize maps and map products whenever possible or sources for this program include recent and histori- practical. Federal digital wetland mapping is coordi- cal aerial photographs, such as those regularly nated by the Wetlands Subcommittee of the Federal acquired by the U.S. Department of Agriculture, Geographic Data Coordination group in an effort to National Wetlands Inventory maps from the FWS, meet requirements established by the Office of Man- U.S. Department ofAgriculture crop history records, agement and Budget. The Office of Management and Efforts are made and field verifications. Budget requires agencies to develop a national digi- to standardize National Oceanic andAtmosphericAdministra- tal spatial information resource in collaboration with tion.-The NOAA has developed the Coastal Wet- State and local governments and the private sector. maps and map land Habitat Change Program in order to delineate This requirement is for the purposes of (1) promot- products when- coastal wetland habitats and adjacent uplands and ing the development, maintenance, and management plains to monitor changes in these habitats on a cycle of a national digital wetland data base; (2) encour- ever possible or of I to 5 years. The basis for monitoring will be a aging the development and implementation of stan- practical. data base describing the areal extent and distribution dards, exchange formats, specifications, procedures, of coastal wetlands in the conterminous United and guidelines; (3) promoting interaction among States. The program will help to determine the link- other Federal, State, and local government agencies ages between estuarine and marine wetlands, as well that have interests in the generation, collection, use, as the distribution, abundance, and health of living and transfer of wetland spatial data; (4) maintaining marine resources. and disseminating information on the type and avail- U.S. Geological Survey.-The USGS compiles, ability of wetland spatial data; and (5) promoting the produces, and disseminates topographic, hydrologic, concept of effective wetland management. and geologic maps and digital data related to wet- lands. The standard USGS 1:24,000-scale topo- graphic map commonly is used as a base for wetland mapping by other Federal, State, and local agencies. However, because USGS maps depict wetlands as un- bounded symbols (fig. 46), the maps cannot be used to establish exact boundaries for wetlands. Interme- EXPLANATION diate-scale (1:100,000) and large-scale maps (scales of 1:24,000 or greater) are used for project planning. Orchard Large-scale maps known as orthophoto quadrangles, Woods which are made by manipulation of aerial photo - ----- graphs to achieve a positionally accurate photo- Intermittent pond graphic base map, are used as a base for State wet- Z. land mapping. Marsh or swamp Wooded marsh or swamp COORDINATION OF FEDERAL 34 WETLAND MAPPING EFFORTS Differing needs of various Federal agencies can Figure 46. Unbounded symbols on a U.S. Geological Survey require different types of maps or different map topographic map show the general location of wetlands. 76 National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: OVERVIEW OF WETLAND RESOURCES PRODUCING NATIONAL WETLANDS structure, and arrangement; branching pattern; height; INVENTORY MAPS growth habit; and color. Determining the boundary of a wetland is the most difficult part of mapping. Most natural-resource inventories make use of Normally, transitions are found at the boundary from aerial photographs or satellite images combined with upland vegetation to wetland vegetation, from field verification. The National Wetlands Inventory nonhydric to hydric (wetland) soils, and from land uses the best and most appropriate aerial photographs that is not flooded to areas that are subject to flood- available for mapping wetlands. The principal data ing or saturation. On color-infrared photographs, source in the early 1980's was the 1:80,000-scale, water generally shows as a distinctive black and blue- high-altitude, black-and-white aerial photography ac- black color because of its lack of reflectance, Wet- The National quired by the USGS for topographic mapping and lands that have canopy openings and contain stand- Wetlands production of orthophoto quadrangles. After the ing water exhibit this signature along with assorted Inventory uses the USGSbeganits National High-Altitude Photography w,tland-vegetation signatures. Saturated soils show Program, 1:5 8,000-scale color-infrared photographs dark,,tones because ofthe nonreflectance ofthe soil- best and most for the entire country became available; the National water component. Even when wetland basins are dry, appropriate aerial Wetlands Inventory uses these photographs exten- the silt, clay, and other fine-grained materials hold ively. In 1987, the USGS replaced the National High- more water than the upland soils hold, which results photographs AsItitude Photography Program with the National in a distinctive dark color because of the lack of in- available for Aerial Photography Program, which produces frar,d reflectance. mapping wetlands. 1:40,000-scale color-infrared photographs; the Na- Vegetation characteristics help to identify wet- tional Wetlands Inventory uses these photographs as lands. Wetland vegetation generally is more dense, well. In some cases, the National Wetlands Inventory more crowded, and more concentrated than upland uses supplementary photography, such as some vegetation. Wetland vegetation normally exhibits a 1:60,000-scale color-infrared photographs of the prai- higher degree of lushness, vigor, and intensity than rie pothole region of the northern Great Plains, which does upland vegetation. Even wheat grown in a dry were acquired from the National Aeronautics and wetland basin has a distinctive signature; it is more Space Administration. vigorous because of extra moisture in the basin. Dead Stereoscopic color-infrared photographs are best and dying vegetation in flooded wetland basins also for identifying and delineating wetlands. Color, tex- has distinctive signatures. When physiographic po- ture, and pattern are important features of wetland sitions are associated with the vegetative character- vegetation and background soils. A combination of i,ti,, described above, wetland locations become vegetation factors produce a specific response or sig- more obvious on an aerial photograph (fig. 47). nature on the photograph (Wilen and Pywell, 1992). Patterns, or the repetition of the spatial arrange- These vegetation factors include leaf size, shape, ment, of vegetative types also provide important clues in the identification of wetlands. Basins that have a sernipermanently flooded center may have a season- ally flooded band around the center and a temporarily flooded outer band. Patterns are not restricted to veg- etation-they can include drainage patterns and land- u se patterns. Unplanted basins in farm fields might indicate wetlands; land-cover patterns such as ridges q4. and swales help separate uplands and wetlands. When wetlands are being mapped, the photo interpreter closely checks areas indicated by swamp symbols as wetlands on USGS topographic maps and NRCS soil survey maps to ensure their possible inclusion as wet- lands; such areas are considered wetlands unless strong evidence indicates otherwise. A typical National Wetlands Inventory map con- sists of wetland boundaries added to a black-and- white version of a 1: 24,000-scale USGS topographic base map. Wetlands are classified according to guide- lines developed by Cowardin and others (1979). (See J article "Wetland Definitions and Classifications in the United States" in this volume.) These wetland clas- sifications are shown on the map as alpha-numeric codes that are identified in a map explanation at the bottom of the map. Many steps are involved in the M 61 production of a wetland map from selecting the sites for field verification to delineation, quality control, and production of the final map product (fig. 48). All National Wetlands Inventory photointerpreters are Figure 47. Wetland features such as water, vegetation, and soil are identified on an trained extensively in wetland identification, the FWS aerial photograph by their signatures (left), and these signatures are used to produce wetland classification system, and the field identifi- wetland maps (right). (Source: U.S. Geological Survey, 1995 (left); TE Dahl, U.S. Fish cation of wetland plants and soils in order to ensure and Wild1fie Service, unpub. data, 7 992 (right).) the best quality, most accurate maps. National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: MANAGEMENT AND RESEARCH 77 A. 77"@ STEPS IN PRODUCING NATIONAL WETLANDS INVENTORY MAPS 1. Determine project area. 2. Obtain source materials. B. 3. Prepare source materials (photo A). A Allitkl 4. Review photo interpretation and plan field trip (photo B). 5. Conduct a field reconnaissance of study area. 6. Make photo interpretation (photo 0. 7. Check photointerpretation C. (quality control) (photo D). 8. Transfer photointerpreted data to base map (photo E). 9. Check transferred information (quality N control). 10. Prepare copy of draft map for review. 11. Conduct review of draft maps. 12. Make changes to draft map manuscript (photo F). 13. Conduct final quality control checks. 14. Produce final map for distribution (photo G). 15. Digitize the final map (photo H). Figure 48. The sequence of steps in producing National Wetlands Inventory maps. (PhotographsA and EbyludyD. Fretwell, U.S. Geological Survey; all other photographs by Donald W. Woodard, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service.) 78 National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: OVERVIEW OF WETLAND RESOURCES HOW AND WHERE TO GET NATIONAL Metzler, K.J., and Tiner, R.W., 1992, Wetlands of Connecti- WETLANDS INVENTORY MAPS cut: State Geological and Natural History Survey of Connecticut in cooperation with the U.S. Fish and Maps of the National Wetlands Inventory can be Wildlife Service National Wetlands Inventory, Report acquired from 33 State-run distribution centers, 6 of Investigations no. 13, 115 p. USGS Earth Science Information Center regional Reed, P.B., Jr., 1988, National list of plant species that oc- offices, or by calling the USGS national toll-free cur in wetlands-1988 national summary: U.S. Fish number: 1-800-USA-MAPS. Maps can also be and Wildlife Service Biological Report 88 (24), 244 p. viewed at the Library of Congress and the Federal Shaw, S.P., and Fredine, C.G., 1956, Wetlands of the United Depository Library System and downloaded cost-free States-Their extent and their value to waterfowl and other wildlife: U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Circu- through the National Wetlands Inventory Home Page lar 39, 67 p. on the Internet at http://wwwnwi.fws.gov. The six re- Teels, B.M., 1990, Soil Conservation Service's wetland gional USGS Earth Science Information Centers pro- inventory, in Kiraly, S.J., Cross, EA., and Buffington, vide online computer links to the National Wetlands J.D., eds., Federal coastal wetland mapping programs; Inventory map data base, which contains current in- a report by the National Ocean Pollution Policy Board: formation about the availability and production his- Washington, D.C., U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Bio- tory of National Wetlands Inventory maps and digi- logical Report 90 (18), p. 93-103. tal data. Digital data are available in Digital Line Tiner, R.W., and Burke, D.G., 1995, Wetlands of Maryland: Graph 3 (DLG3) optional or Geographic Resources Annapolis, Md., Maryland Department of Natural Re- sources, Water Resource Administration, in coopera- Analysis Support System (GRASS) formats; latitude tion with U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, National and longitude, State Plane Coordinates, or Universal Wetlands Inventory, 193 p. Transverse Mercator (UTM) coordinate systems; and U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 1976, Existing state and 9-track, 8-mm, or 1/4-inch cassettes in UNIX-TAR local wetland surveys (1965-1975), v. 11, Narrative: or ASCII tape formats. Other products available at Washington, D.C., U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, cost include acreage statistics by quadrangle, county, Office of Biological Services Report, 453 p. or study area and color-coded wetland maps. U.S. Geological Survey, 1995, South Florida Satellite Im- age Map, 1993: Reston, Va., U.S. Geological Survey, 1 sheet, scale 1:500,000. References Cited U.S. Soil Conservation Service, 199 1, Hydric soils of the United States: U.S. Soil Conservation Service in co- Cowardin, L.M., Carter, Virginia, Golet, F.C., and LaRoe, operation with the National Technical Committee for E.T., 1979, Classification of wetlands and deepwater Hydric Soils, Miscellaneous Publication No. 1491, 3d habitats of the United States: U.S. Fish and Wildlife ed., unnumbered pages. Service, Biological Services Program Report FWS/ Willen, B.O., and Pywell, H.R., 1992, Remote sensing of OBS-79/31, 131 p. the Nations wetlands, National Wetlands Inventory, in Dahl, TE., 1990, Wetlands-Losses in the United States, Proceedings: Forest Service Remote Sensing Applica- 1780's to 1980's: Washington, D.C., U.S. Fish and tions Conference, 4th biennial, Orlando, Fla., unnum- Wildlife Service, Report to Congress, 21 p. bered pages. -1991, Wetland resources of the United States: U.S. Wilen, B.O., and Titter, R.W., 1993, Wetlands of the United Fish and Wildlife Service National Wetlands Inventory States, in Whignam, D.F., Dykyjovd, Dagmar, and map, scale 1:3,168,000. Hejny, Slavomil, eds., Wetlands of the world I-Inven- Frayer, W.E., Monahan, T.J., Bowden, D.C., and Graybill, tory, ecology, and management: Dordrecht, The Neth- EA., 1983, Status and trends of wetlands and erlands, Kluwer Academic Publishers, p. 515-636. deepwater habitats in the conterminous United States, 1950's to 1970's: Fort Collins, Colo., Colorado State University, 32 p. Hall, J.`V, 199 1, Weiland resources ofAlaska: U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service National Wetlands Inventory map, FOR ADDITIONAL INFORMATION: Bill 0. Wilen, U.S. scale 1:2,500,000. Fish and Wildlife Service, National Wetlands Inventory, Hall, J.V, Frayer, W.E., and Wilen, B.O., 1994, Status of 4401 N. Fairfax Drive, Room 400 Arlington, VA 22203; Alaska wetlands: Anchorage, Alaska, U.S. Fish and Virginia Carter, U.S. Geological Survey, 430 National Cen- Wildlife Service, 33 p. ter, Reston, VA 22092 U.S. Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper 2425 National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: MANAGEMENT AND RESEARCH 79 Wetland Management and Research Wetland Functions, Values, and Assessment By Richard R Novitzkil, R. Daniel Smith,' and Judy D. Fretwell' Wetlands, or the lack thereof, were a significant ence in 1981, scientists defined the unique qualities factor in the severe flooding in the Upper Mississippi of wetlands and developed a list of wetland functions and Missouri River Basins in the summer of 1993 (Richardson, 1981). In addition to the more com- (Parrett and others, 1993) (fig. 49). Damages asso- monly recognized habitat functions of wetlands, the ciated with the flooding were undoubtedly worse than scientists described hydrologic and water-quality they would have been if flood-plain wetlands had still functions. During the 1980's, participants at many been in place. Human modification of the original more conferences and symposia expanded the under- wetlands (a common practice in the early part of this standing and appreciation of the values of wetlands Not all wetlands century) had destroyed the ability of the wetlands to (Kusler and Riexinger, 1986). perform all modify flooding. (See the article "Effects of the Great functions nor Midwest Flood of 1993 on Wetlands" in this volume.) WETLAND FUNCTIONS DEFINED Flood control, however, is only one of the values that do they perform wetlands have for society. In order to protect wet- Welland functions are defined as a process or all functions lands, the public first must recognize the values of series of processes that take place within a wetland. wetlands. People need to understand what is lost These include the storage of water, transformation of equally well. when a wetland is changed into an agricultural field, nutrients, growth of living matter, and diversity of a parking lot, a dump, or a housing development. Un- wetland plants, and they have value for the wetland derstanding the functions of wetlands will make it itself, for surrounding ecosystems, and for people. easier to evaluate wetlands when other uses are con- Functions can be grouped broadly as habitat, hydro- sidered. logic, or water quality, although these distinctions are somewhat arbitrary and simplistic. For example, the RECOGNITION OF WETLAND value of a wetland for recreation (hunting, fishing, FUNCTIONS AND THEIR VALUES bird watching) is a product of all the processes that work together to create and maintain the wetland. Wetlands are In the 1970's, scientists, ecologists, and conser- Not all wetlands perform all functions nor do they among the most vationists began to articulate the values of wetlands. perform all functions equally well. The location and At a wetland conference in 1973, wetlands were ac- size of a wetland may determine what functions it will productive habitats knowledged to be an important part of the hydrologic perform. For example, the geographic location may in the world. cycle (Helfgott and others, 1973). In 1977, participa- determine its habitat functions, and the location of a tion at the first National Wetland Protection Sympo- wetland within a watershed may determine its hydro- sium-attended by more than 700 people-demon- logic or water-quality functions (fig. 50). Many fac- strated a growing interest in the value of wetlands and tors determine how well a wetland will perform these the need to protect them (Kusler and Montanari, functions: climatic conditions, quantity and quality 1978). At a Welland Values and Management Confer- of water entering the wetland, and disturbances or al- All Air Figure 49. Flooding in the Upper Mississippi River Basin, summer 1993. (Photograph 0 Cameron Davidson, 1993.) Manl@ch Environmental 'kchnology, Inc. U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. U.S. Geological Survey. 80 National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: OVERVIEW OF WETLAND RESOURCES CHARACTERISTICS AND FUNCTIONS OF WETLANDS Isolated Wetlands 1. Waterfowl feeding and nesting habitat 2. Habitat for both upland and wetland species of wildlife 3. Floodwater retention area 19 ED WE A S 4. Sediment and nutrient retention area 5. Area of special scenic beauty Lake Margin Wetlands 1. See "isolated wetlands" above 2. Removal of sediment and nutrients from inflowing waters 3. Fish spawning area Riverine Wetlands 1. See "isolated wetlands" above 2. Sediment control, stabilization of river KE MARGIN ETLANDS banks 3. Flood conveyance area Estuarine and Coastal Wetlands 1. See "isolated wetlands" above 2. Fish and shellfish habitat and spawning areas 0614 3, Nutrient source for marine fisheries i ETLANDS 4. Protection from erosion and storm surges Barrier Island Wetlands 1. Habitat for dune-associated plant and animal species 2. Protection of backlying lands from high-energy waves 3. Scenic beauty TUARINE AND 0 WETLAND Figure 50. Wetland functions depend upon the location of the wetland within a watershed. (Source: Modified from ].A. Kusler, Our National Heritage: A Protection Guidebook. Copyright (c) 1963 by the BARRIER ISLAND WE Environmental Law Institute. Reprinted by permission.) OW, P % .71 wV a,@ Xt t At Timber harvest in a bottom-land forested wetland. (Photograph by Hay harvest in a prairie wetland. (Photograph by Richard P Novitzki, R. Daniel Smith, U.S. Army Engineer Waterways Experiment Station.) ManTech Environmental Technology, Inc.) National Water Surnmary-Wetland Resources: MANAGEMENT AND RESEARCH 81 teration within the wetland or the surrounding eco- system. Weiland disturbances may be the result of natural conditions, such as an extended drought, or human activities, such as land clearing, dredging, or the introduction of normative species. Perhaps wetlands are best known for their habi- tat functions, which are the functions that benefit 0 wildlife. Habitat is defined as the part of the physical environment in which plants and animals live (Lapedes, 1976), and wetlands are among the most & 40 productive habitats in the world (Tiner, 1989). They p rovide food, water, and shelter for fish, shellfish, birds, and mammals, and they serve as a breeding ground and nursery for numerous species. Many en- dangered plant and animal species are dependent on C NS wetland habitats for their survival. (See the article "Wetlands as Bird Habitat" in this volume.) Hydro- Velocity Reduction W", Atmospheric Processes, logic functions are those related to the quantity of "64i%round-water/Surfa water that enters, is stored in, or leaves a wetland. These functions include such factors as the reduction of flow velocity, the role of wetlands as ground-wa- ter recharge or discharge areas, and the influence of wetlands on atmospheric processes. Water-quality functions include the trapping of sediment, pollution control, and the biochemical processes that take place Figure 51. Wetland as water enters, is stored in, or leaves a wetland. (See functions and internal article "Weiland Hydrology, Water Quality, and As- and external values. sociated Functions" in this volume for more informa- tion on hydrologic and water-quality functions.) society may have to choose among wetland functions that benefit individuals or small groups, that are of WETLAND VALUES DEFINED value to most of society, or that are important to the maintenance of the wetland itself. If something has "value," then it is worthwhile, Wetland functions have value on several levels- beneficial, or desirable. The value of a wetland lies internal, local, regional, and global. All wetland func- in the benefits that it provides to the environment or tions are internal, but the values or benefits of wet- to people, something that is not easily measured. land functions can be internal or external to the wet- Wetlands can have ecological, social, or economic land (fig. 5 1). Functions that provide internal values values. Wed and products that have an economic value, are the functions that maintain or sustain the wetland such as commercial fish or timber, can be assigned a and are essential to the continued existence of the wet- monetary value. True wetland value, however, goes land. Conversely, many functions have external val- beyond money. How much value does one place on ues that extend beyond the wetland itself. On a local the beauty of a wetland or its archeological signifi- scale, wetlands affect adjacent or nearby ecosystems, cance? Wetland values are not absolute. What is valu- for example, by reducing flooding in downstream able and important to one person may not be valu- communities or by removing nutrients from waste- able to another person. As an example, the value of a water. However, the broadest influence of wetland A system of wetland as duck habitat may be important to the functions is global. Wetlands are now thought to have wettand hunter or birdwatcher but not to the farmer who owns a significant effect on air quality, which is influenced assessment is the land. by the nitrogen, sulfur, methane, and carbon cycles. "While wetland functions are natural processes In addition, migrating birds are dependent upon wet- necessary to of wetlands that continue regardless of their perceived lands as they travel. ensure that the value to humans, the value people place on those func- tions in many cases is the primary factor determin- PURPOSE OF WETLAND ASSESSMENT most valuable ing whether a wetland remains intact or is converted wetlands are for some other use" (National Audubon Society, Many times when decisions are made about de- pro 1993). In addition, values assigned to wetland func- velopment of an area, such as the selection of a site tected. tions may change over time as society's perceptions for a large commercial or industrial facility, the choice and priorities change. The values that benefit society of sites is not between a wetland or an upland, but be- as a whole tend to change slowly; however, the val- tween wetlands. In areas that have many wetlands, all ues assigned by individuals or small groups are arbi- alternative sites or routes for roads for a major facil- trary, and most are subject to rapid and frequent ity may involve the destruction or alteration of wet- change and may even conflict. For example, timber lands. In such cases, legal requirements commonly production may be improved by draining a wetland exist that require the replacement of destroyed wet- site, whereas waterfowl production may be improved lands. Even when a choice must be made between a by impounding more water. Society may have to re- wetland site and an upland site, the upland site may solve conflicts regarding the management or preset- have great value to the community. Managers, plan- vation of wetlands and their functions. Furthermore, ners, regulators, and even the general public have long 82 National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: OVERVIEW OF WETILAND RESOURCES felt the need to have in place a system of assess- oped for the Federal Highway Administration and has ment or evaluation that would make the choices clearer been used widely. It assigns values to specific func- and ensure that the most valuable wetlands are pre- tions of individual wetlands. The Environmental served. Such an evaluation system could be based MoDitoring Assessment Program-Wetlands was entirely or partly on wetland function if values could developed by the Environmental Protection Agency. be assigned to individual functions. It is presented here as an example of a program that Wetland assessment methods have been or are be- focuses on determining the ecological condition of a ing developed that assign numerical values to wetland population of wetlands in a region. It does this by functions. Some methods assign values on the basis comparing the function of a statistical sample of wet- of the benefits to the wetland itself by considering the lands to reference wetlands in the region. The question: How important is this function in terms of Hydrogeomorphic approach is being developed by the The WET evaluates maintaining this particular wetland? Other methods U.S. Army Corps of Engineers for assessing wetland assign values on the basis of the benefits to surround- functions. It combines features of the other two meth- functions and ing ecosystems or to humans. The types of questions ods by measuring the functions of individual wetlands values in terms of considered in this approach are as follows: How and also by comparing them to functions performed important is this function to environmental quality by other wetlands. effectiveness, downstream? How does this function benefit soci- opportunity, Social ety? This latter assessment method allows for the Wetland Evaluation Technique (WET) significance, and comparison of the worth of one wetland to that of another wetland. The WET is a comprehensive approach for evalu- habitat suitability. The development of a single method for assess- ating individual wetlands that was developed in 1983 ing the functions of wetlands or for assigning values (Adamus, 1983; Adamus and Stockwell, 1983) and to the functions of wetlands is not a simple task. In- revised in 1987 under the auspices of the U.S. Army deed, probably no one method will satisfy all needs. Corps of Engineers (Adamus and others, 1987). The However, assessing each function of a wetland and WET considers wetland functions to be the physical, then assigning a value to each function is a step to- chemical, and biological characteristics of a wetland. ward the protection of sensitive wetlands. Further- It assigns wetland values to the characteristics that are more, an evaluation system that provides the basis for valuable to society. The following functions are as- comparing wetlands would facilitate mitigation for signed values by WET: unavoidable wetland losses, would provide a tool for - Ground-water recharge determining the success (or failure) of programs and - Ground-water discharge policies intended to protect or manage wetland re- - Floodflow alteration sources, and would assist in identifying long-term - Sediment stabilization trends in the condition of wetland resources. - Sediment/toxicant retention - Nutrient removal/transformation WETLAND ASSESSMENT METHODS - Production export The three wetland assessment methods described - Wildlife diversity/abundance herein are representative of the methods that are avail- - Aquatic diversity/abundance able or are being used by wetland managers and plan- - Recreation ners. The Wetland Evaluation Technique was devel- - Uniqueness/heritage L The recreational pleasures of a wetland are captured in this photo at Horicon Marsh, VO s. (Photograph by Phillip J. Redman, U.S. Geological Survey.) National Water Surnmary-Wetland Resources: MANAGEMENT AND RESEARCH 83 The WET evaluates functions and values in terms for recreation) and a habitat suitability rating for of effectiveness, opportunity, social significance, and waterfowl, fish, and other wildlife (Adamus, 1988). habitat suitability. Effectiveness assesses the capabil- The probability rating is an estimate of the "likeli- ity of a wetland to perform a particular function. For hood" that a wetland will perform a function on the example, a wetland that has no outlet is assigned a basis of its characteristics. It does not estimate the de- high value for sediment retention, whereas a wetland gree or magnitude to which a function is performed. just downstream from a dam is assigned a low value. Recreation is not evaluated because no scientific ba- Opportunity assesses the potential for a wetland to sis exists for making an objective assessment with- perform a specific function; for example, a wetland out extensive data collection at the site. in a forested area that has no potential sediment The WET approach probably has been applied to sources would be assigned a low opportunity value nearly every type of wetland in every State; however, for sediment retention. Social significance assesses it has proved to be unwieldy to use. For most users, EMAP-Wetiands the value of a wetland in terms of special designations the need to be able to apply this method to every identifies (does it have endangered species?), potential eco- wetland in every part of the United States makes the "indicators" of nomic value (is it used regularly for recreational ac- system unnecessarily cumbersome. For example, tivities?), and strategic location (is it in a State where most users are interested in a local area and prefer not condition, very few wetlands of its type remain?). The WET uses to enter data repeatedly for local characteristics that standardizes 11 predictors" that relate to the physical, chemical, and are unlikely to change, as is required in the WET biological characteristics of the function being evalu- approach. In order to refine the method for specific methods of ated. As an example, the presence or absence of a con- regions and to refine the thresholds among the low, measurement, and stricted outlet from a wedand could be used to pre- medium, and high values, Adamus (1988) intended establishes a dict whether the wet]aDd might be effective in stor- that regional versions and five different levels of WET ing floodwaters. In addition, WET can be used to be developed, neither of which has happened. Despite national network. assess the habitat suitability for waterfowl and wet- its shortcornings, however, WET continues to be used land-dependent birds, fish, and invertebrates. by those who are familiar with it. Furthermore, much The WET approach was designed to provide a of the data generated by its application could be used balance between costly, site-specific studies and the to create data bases that would simplify its use and "best professional judgment" approach, which is less would improve its regional application. costly but lacks reproducibility. The WET method is intended to be used by any environmental profes- Environmental Monitoring Assessment sional, so that an engineer can evaluate biological Program-Wetlands (EMAP-Wetlands) functions or a biologist can evaluate hydrologic func- tions. First, information resources are obtained for the In 1988, the Environmental Protection Agency wetland, the area surrounding the wetland, and the initiated the Environmental Monitoring Assessment area downstream from the wetland. Then a series of Program (EMAP) in order to provide improved in- questions is answered about the wetland's watershed, formation on the status and trends in the condition topography, vegetation, and other features. By pro- of the Natiorfs ecological resources. The wetlands gressing next through a series of flow charts (or an part of EMAP was intended to develop an approach available computer software package), an evaluation for assessing the condition (how well a wetland is per- can assign a probability rating of "high ... .. moderate," forming its functions) of different types of wetlands or "low" to each of the functions listed above (except in a region and in the Nation as a whole (Novitzki, Sheep foraging at a wetland near Bridgeport, Calif. (Photograph by A.S. Van Denburgh, U.S. Geological Survey.) 84 National Water Surnmary-Wetland Resources: OVERVIEW OF WETLAND RESOURCES 1994; Novitzki and others, 1994). The near-term ob- Other likely indices will be related to the follow- jectives of the program were to conduct research in ing: habitat integrity (how does the population of wa- order to identify "indicators" of wetland condition, terfowl, finfish, or shellfish in sampled wetlands com- to standardize methods of measurement, and to es- pare with that in reference wetlands?), hydrologic tablish a national network for monitoring wetlands at integrity (how similar is the hydrologic regime in the regional scales and over long periods (decades). In sampled wetlands to that in reference wetlands?), and some places, it is impossible or impractical to mea- water-quality improvement (how do sediment trap- The HGM sure wetland functions directly; therefore, character- ping and other water-quality processes in sampled approach istics or "indicators" are measured, and these indi- wetlands compare with those in reference wetlands?). cate how well certain functions are being performed Wetland health may be evaluated either by sifnilarity represents a by the wetland. For example, the number of water- (how similar are sampled wetlands to reference wet- combination of fowl per acre can be calculated from actual field mea- lands?) or by biological criteria (are the sampled surements and then can be used as an indicator ofhow wetlands above or below a level determined from the WET and well a wetland is performing its waterfowl habitat measurements obtained in the reference wetlands?). EMAP-Wettands function. The comparison of the condition of sampled wetlands approaches The EMAP-Wetlands program was intended to with the condition of reference wetlands provides a have three phases. First, pilot studies were to be con- means for telling the difference between changes that ducted to evaluate the ability of selected indicators to result from long-term changes in climate (both make a distinction between healthy and degraded sampled wetlands and reference wetlands will be af- wetlands. Next, regional demonstrations were to be fected) and changes that happen because of manage- conducted by using some of the best indicators from ment actions, regulatory policy, or other human fac- the pilot studies. These demonstrations would confirm tors that affect wetlands (only the sampled wetlands the ability of the program to assess the condition of a will be affected). specific type of wetland in a specific region. Finally, Pilot studies of salt marshes in the Gulf of Mexico the program would be implemented to monitor the and prairie pothole wetlands ofthe Midwest have been condition of a specific wetland type in a region. Only completed. Results of these studies have been evalu- Phase I has been conducted. ated to identify the indicators that most effectively Data from pilot and demonstration studies in reveal the difference between healthy and degraded Phase I are being analyzed to develop preliminary wetlands. In the salt marshes, the indicators that seem indices of signs of the health of a wetland. One index to hold the greatest promise (Turner and Swenson, will be for biological integrity, which combines in- 1994) are as follows: dicators of healthy plant and animal communities. - Ratio of vegetated areas to open water Biological characteristics of the sampled wetlands - Number of plant species (or the diversity of plant will be compared with those of the most unaltered species) wetlands of the same type in the region, known as ref- - Biomass (production of plant material per unit erence wetlands. This comparison is based on the as- area) sumption that the least altered wetlands have sustain- - Amount of organic matter in soil able biological integrity. - Salinity i X Serene beauty is provided @I'A by this restored wetland in Montana. (Photograph M". by Edith B. Chase, U.S. Geological Survey.) AA National Water Surnmary-Wetland Resources: MANAGEMENT AND RESEARCH 85 In prairie pothole wetlands, indicators of the much water may be stored in the wetland. The nature health of a wetland that seem to hold the greatest of the debris lines also may suggest the velocity of promise at the local level (L.M. Cowardin, U.S. Fish the water as it moved through the wetland. For ex- and Wildlife Service, oral commun., 1994) are: ample, small leaves and twigs suggest slow-moving � Amount of developed land in the surrounding up- water, small branches suggest somewhat swifter land water, and large branches and tree trunks suggest very � Rates of increase and decrease in the number of high velocities. Sediment deposits observed at the site water-filled basins or in the area of water surface may suggest the depositional characteristics. For ex- between April (spring thaw) and August (end of ample, no sediment deposits suggest little deposition, summer) thin silt deposits suggest that slow-moving water was � Ratio of temporary to seasonal to semipermanent sustained for long periods, and gravel and cobble de- wetlands posits might suggest that water was flowing rapidly At the level of the individual wetland ecosystem, when it entered the site but then slowed significantly other promising indicators (L.M. Cowardin, oral at the site. commun., 1994) are: A wetland assessment provided by the HGM ap- - Diversity of plant species proach will likely be a "site profile" that lists the site - Number and types of species of large invertebrates characteristics that are related to identified wetland - Range of water-level fluctuation functions. This profile then will be compared with - Sedimentation rate characteristics of the reference wetlands (all wetlands in the region in the same geomorphic class) in order Hydrogeomorphic Approach (HGM) to rank the site. A data base that contains profiles of wetland characteristics (indicators of wetland func- In 1990, the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers be- tions) for each wetland type (hydrogeomorphic class) gan developing the Hydrogeomorphic Approach will be established for each region. These data will (HGM) as a way to provide a foundation for assess- define the range of characteristics found in these wet- ing the physical, chemical, and biological functions lands. of wetlands (Brinson, 1993; Smith and others, 1995). At present (1995), the HGM approach is in de- The program, still being developed, is intended to velopment and has not been released to the public. revise and simplify the WET approach described Field tests of this assessment method have been con- above (Adamus and others, 1987), as well as make it ducted in river-edge wetlands in the Pacific North- more applicable to specific regions. The WET pro- west, the Northeast, the Rocky Mountains, the South- cedure develops a profile of specific characteristics west, and the Southeast; in coastal wetlands in the (predictors) for an individual wetland, and these are Pacific Northwest, the North and South Atlantic used to assess the degree of effectiveness of the dif- States, and the gulf coast States; and in closed-basin ferent functions of the wetland. The HGM approach wetlands in the Midwest. Data and insights derived compares the characteristics of a specific wetland from these tests are being compiled and will be evalu- with the characteristics of a group of wetlands (ref- ated in regional workshops. Following those evalua- erence wetlands) in the region, and this information tions, manuals of draft HGM methods will be pre- is used to assess the degree to which the individual pared and presented for comment and review in re- wetland is performing selected functions. Thus, the gional workshops. HGM approach represents a combination of the WET and EMAP-Wetlands approaches. Wetland charac- CONCLUSIONS teristics to be evaluated by HGM are limited to those that are important in the specific region and hydro- If any hope remains for preserving the Natiorfs geomorphic setting. Hence, different characteristics wetland resources, it depends upon obtaining public It is critical to will be identified and evaluated for different support. Public support can be won if scientists can Create and hydrogeomorphic settings, such as closed basins in explain clearly how wetlands function, how they in- maintain a data the Midwest (for example, prairie pothole wetlands), teract with their surroundings, and how their func- river-edge wetlands in the Southeast (for example, tions can benefit society. Wetlands have come under base of wetiand bottom-land hardwood wetlands), and coastal wet- intensive scientific study only during the last two characteristics lands (for example, salt marshes). decades. Techniques of wetland evaluation will im- in which the data In the HGM approach, local wetland scientists or prove as scientists gather more information about the managers identify the functions that are performed processes that take place in wetlands and about the are reliable, by wetlands in a specific hydrogeornorphic setting in similarities and differences among the functions of com arable, and that region. Also, they identify wetland characteris- different types of wetlands. In order to develop pub- P tics (indicators), such as plant communities, plant lic support and to encourage enlightened policy de- rePeatable. species, and density of stems, that suggest whether cisions and regulations, it is critical to create and or not a wetland is performing a specific function, maintain a data base of wetland characteristics in such as slowing the flow velocity of floodwater. Next, which the data are reliable, comparable, and repeat- the value of each function is determined by measur- able at periodic intervals in order to monitor long- ing the degree to which that function is likely to be term trends. performed. This is based on the characteristics of the More than one approach to wetland evaluation is indicators. For example, if lines of debris are selected possible, as illustrated by the examples discussed as an indicator that a wetland has been flooded, their above. Wetland functions and their values to humans altitude may be used to determine how deep the and other living matter may be assessed for an indi- water may have been during flooding and thus how vidual wetland by using approaches such as WET or 86 National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: OVERVIEW OF WETLAND RESOURCES HGM. After this, they can be compared with other tection guidebook: Washington, D. C., Environmental natural wetlands in a region by using the HGM Law Institute, p. 4. approach. Both WET and HGM can be used to Kusler, J.A., and Montanari, J.H., 1978, National Wetland Protection Symposium: U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, determine the amount of mitigation required to off- Office ofBiological Services, FWS/OBS-78-97, Pro- set unavoidable wetland loss, as well as to evaluate ceedings, 255 p. the degree of success of individual mitigation Kusler, J.A., and Rjexinger, Patricia, eds., 1986, National projects. (See article "Wetland Protection Legisla- Wetland Assessment Symposium: Albany, N.Y., Asso- tion" in this volume for further discussion of mitiga- ciation ofStateWetland Managers, Proceedings, 331 p. tion.) The EMAP-Wetlands approach suggests that Lapedes, D.N., ed., 1976, McGraw-Hill dictionary of sci- it might be possible to examine the condition (pris- entific and technical terms: New York, McGraw-Hill tine or degraded) of a population of wetlands in a Book Company, 1634 p. specified area. Periodic reevaluation of this popula- National Audubon Society, 1993, Saving wetlands-A citizen's guide for action in the Mid-Atlantic region: tion of wetlands might be used to determine trends Camp Hill, Pa., National Audubon Society, 130 p. in their condition and to identify the effects of broad Nvitzki, R.P., 1994, EMAP-Wetlands-A program for policy decisions (such as "no net loss"), programs assessing wetland condition, in Mitsch, W.J., ed., Glo- (such as mitigation banking where wetlands are cre- bal wetlands-Old World and New: New York, Elsevier ated or restored to offset losses of other wetlands), Science Publishers, p. 691-709. or natural phenomena (such as climate change). Novitzki, R.P., Rosen, B.H., McAllister, L.S., Ernst, T.L., Huntley, B.E., and Dwire, K., 1994, EMAP-Wet- lands-Research strategy for the assessment of wetland References Cited condition: Corvallis, Oreg., U.S. Environmental Pro- tection Agency, Environmental Research Laboratory, Adamus, P.R, 1983, FHWA Assessment method, v. 2 of 149 p. Method for wetland functional assessment: Washing- Parrett, Charles, Melcher, N.B., and James, R.W., Jr., 1993, ton, D.C., U.S. Department of Transportation, Federal Flood discharges in the upper Mississippi River basin, Highway Administration Report no. FHWA-IP-82-24, 1993: U.S. Geological Survey Circular 1120-A, 14 p. 134 p. Richardson, Brandt. ed., 198 1, Selected proceedings of the -1988, The FHWA/Adanius (WET) method for wet- Midwest Conference on Weiland Values and Manage- land functional assessment., in Hook, D.D., McKee, ment: Navarre, Minn., Freshwater Society, 660 p. W.H., Jr., Smith, H.K., Gregory, James, Burrell, V.G., Smith, R.D., Ammann, Alan, Bartoldus, C., and Brinson, Jr., DeVoe, MR., Sojka, R.E., Gilbert, Stephen, Banks, M.M., 1995, An approach for assessing wetland func- Roger, Stolzy, L.H., Brooks, Chris, Mathews, T.D., and tions using hydrogeomorphic classification, reference Shear, T.H., Management, use, and value of wetlands, wetlands, and functional indices: Vicksburg, Miss., v. 2 of The ecology and management of wetlands: Port- U.S. Army Engineers Waterways Experiment Station, land, Oreg., Timber Press, p. 128-133. Technical Report TRWRP-DF, 10, [100 p.] Adarmis, RR., Clairain, E.J., Jr., Smith, R.D., and Young, Tinef, R.W., 1989, Wetlands of Rhode Island: Newton Cor- R.E., 1987, Weiland Evaluation Technique (WET), v. ner, Mass., U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, National 2 ofMethodology: Vicksburg, Miss., U.S. Army Corps Wetlands Inventory, 71 p., appendix. of Engineers, Waterways Experiment Station, Opera- Turner, R.E., and Swenson, E.M., 1994, Indicator develop- tional Draft Technical Report, 206 p. + appendixes. ment for evaluating estuarine emergent conditions- Adamus, P.R., and Stockwell, L.T., 1983, Criticalreview salt marsh pilot-technical narrative (draft final re- and evaluation concepts, v. I of Method for wetland port): Baton Rouge, La., Louisiana State University, functional assessment: Washington, D.C., U.S. Depart- v. 1, 65 p. ment of Transportation, Federal Highway Administra- tion Report no. FHWA-IP-82-23, 176 p. Brinson, M.M., 1993, Hydrogeomorphic classification for wetlands. Washington, D.C., U,S. Army Corps of En- gineers, Wetlands Research Program Technical Report WRP-DE-4,79 p. FOR ADDITIONAL INFORMATION: Richard P. Novitzki, Helfgott, T.B., Lefor, M.W., and Kennard, W.C., 1973, First ManTech Environmental Technology, Inc., 1600 S.W. West- Weiland Conference: Ston-s, Conn., University of Con- em Blvd., Corvallis, OR 97333; R. Daniel Smith, U.S. Army neCticut, Institute of Water Resources, Report 2 1, Pro- Engineer Waterways Experiment Station, 3909 Halls Ferry ceedings, 199 p. Road, Vicksburg, MS 39180; Judy D. Fretwell, U.S. Geo- Kusler, J.A., 1983, Our national wetland heritage-A pro- logical Survey, 407 National Center, Reston, VA 22092 U.S. Geologica@ Survey Water-Supp@y Paper 2425 National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: RESTORATION, CREATION, AND RECOVERY 87 Restoration, Creation, and Recovery of Wetlands Wetland Restoration and Creation Mary E. Kentula' The benefits of restoration of degraded or de- replacement function? (2) Will the proposed wetland stroyed wetlands and creation of new wetlands has only increase wildlife diversity? (3) Is the increased diver- recently been recognized. As the population has ex- sity worth the loss of habitat of any endangered spe- panded across the Nation during the past few centu- cies? Questions of this type always arise during plan- ries, wetlands have been drained and altered to accom- ning for wetland restoration and creation. Wettand alter- modate human needs. These changes to wetlands have A well-documented example of a physical linii- ations have directly, or indirectly, brought about changes in the tation associated with restoring a wetland can be seen migratory patterns of birds, local climate, and the along the shoreline of the Salmon River Estuary, Oreg. brought about makeup of plant and animal populations. In the past, (Frenkel and Morlan, 1990, 1991). In the past, many Changes in the people used wetland plants and animals for shelter and high marsh wetlands along the Pacific coast were diked food. More recently, people have become more aware to remove them from tidal action. After the area was Migratory patterns of other benefits that wetlands provide-water-qual- diked, the wetlands dried up and the land was used for of birds, local ity improvement, flood attenuation, esthetics, and rec- pasture. In 1978, in an effort to restore the Salmon reational opportunities. Now, it is recognized that nu- River Estuary to its original condition, two dikes were climate, and make merous losses are incurred when a wetland is damaged removed to allow the original wetlands to reestablish Up Of plant and or destroyed. Restoration and creation can help main- themselves. However, after 10 years, the resulting wet- animal tain the benefits of wetlands and their surrounding eco- lands (fig. 52) were not typical of other high marshes systems, and at the same time accommodate the hu- along the estuary. The land behind the dikes had sub- Populations. man need for development. sided over time, and the restored wetlands were more Wetland restorati on rehabilitates a degraded wet- typical of wetlands at lower elevations nearer the es- land or reestablishes a wetland that has been destroyed. tuary (low marsh). Although the wetlands continue to Restoration takes place on land that has been, or still evolve as sediments are trapped and deposited by the is, a wetland. A term commonly associated with res- vegetation (thus raising the elevation), it might take toration is "enhanced." An enhanced wetland is an another 50 years for the restored wetlands to become existing wetland that has been altered to improve a similar again to the original high marsh (Frenkel and particular function, usually at the expense of other Morlan, 1991). The time required and the ability to functions. For example, enhancing a site to increase develop a fully functional soil system in project wet- its use by a particular species of bird commonly lim- lands may be major determinants of the eventual ac- its its use as habitat for other species. (For informa- ceptance or rejection of restoration and creation as Restoration and tion on functions of wetlands see the articles "Wetland management options. creation can Hydrology, Water Quality, and Associated Functions" It is difficult to make a definitive statement about and "Wetland Functions, Values, and Assessment" in the ability to replace wetland functions. Goals for res- help maintain this volume.) toration and creation projects seldom are stated and the benefits of Wetland creation is the construction of a wetland information on the existing functions of the wetlands wetlands and on a site that never was a wetland. This can be done seldom are documented. This is due, in part, to the only on a site where conditions exist that can produce difficulty and expense of quantifying wetland func- accommodate the and sustain a wetland. Consequently, creation is more tions. Also, responsible monitoring during construc- human need for difficult than restoration. A term commonly associated tion and after completion of the project wetland is with wetland creation is "constructed." A constructed uncommon. Most information available on project evelopment. wetland is a wetland created specifically for the pur- wetlands is in the form of qualitative case studies. pose of treating wastewater, stormwater, acid mine drainage, or agricultural runoff (Hammer, 1989). As used in this article, "project wetland" refers to restored or created wetlands. (For a more complete discussion of the meaning of these terms and others associated with restoration and creation, see Lewis, 1990.) CHALLENGES OF RESTORATION AND CREATION Ecological issues and physical limitations are important factors to consider when planning for w et- Figure 52. View of a land restoration or creation. The relative merits of de- restored salt marsh in the Salm stroying the function of an existing wetland, or other an River Estuary on the ecosystem, in exchange for another wetland function Oregon coast. involves the consideration of numerous questions such (Photograph courtesy of as: (1) Which is more important, the existing or the the EPA Wetlands Research Program.) 'U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). 88 National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: OVERVIEW OF WETLAND RESOURCES DESIGNING FOR SUCCESS The position of the basin surface relative to the water Much of the written material on wetland resto- table influences the degree ofsoil saturation and flood- ration and creation deals with "project design." Project ing. To ensure that standing water is present year design considers a large number of site-specific, in- round, many project wetlands are excavated so that the terdependent factors that determine the structure and deepest part of the basin is below the lowest antici- function of a wetland. Although there is no "cook- pated water level. The slope of the basin banks deter- book" for restoring or creating wetlands, documents mines how much of the site will be vegetated and by describing general approaches to restoration and cre- what kinds ofplants (fig. 53). This is because the slope ation and the conditions conducive to project success determines how far the substrate (soil or rock mate- Benefits can are available (Garbisch, 1986; Marble, 1990; Pacific rial that forms the surface of the basin) will be from Estuarine Research Laboratory, 1990; Hammer, 1992; water and how much of the substrate has the neces- extend beyond Maynord and others, 1992). Elements common to sary conditions of wetness for specific plant species the wetland if wetland project design are site-selection criteria, hy- (Hollands, 1990). The ability to maintain the desired care is taken in drologic analysis, water Source and quality, substrate plant community, therefore, is ultimately dependent on augmentation and handling, plant material selection the hydrology of the site. In a properly constructed site selection. and handling, buffer zones placement, and long-term freshwater marsh, the lowest point of the wetland will management. A brief overview of each element is pre- be inundated to a depth and for a period long enough sented here in a sequence similar to that followed in that emergent vegetation can persist, but not so long project planning. as to destroy the plants. Site selection-Sites for project wetlands often Water source and quality.-Although it is com- are selected on the basis of available land, or on poli- monly acknowledged that site hydrology is a major cies that require wetlands to be restored or created to determinant of the success or failure of wetland res- compensate for nearby wetland losses (mitigation). A toration or creation, the influence of water quality of- wetland's structure, function, and ability to persist over ten is ignored. Inputs of chemicals from the surround- time are greatly influenced by its location. Wetlands in ing landscape can overwhelm a wetland's ability to settings with limited human influence can differ improve water quality and can change the character- greatly in structure and function from wetlands in set- istics of the site. For example, deicing salts are used tings dominated by human activities. Therefore, the extensively along highways and, if they enter a wet- present and projected land uses of the surrounding area land, can alter the productivity and composition of its are a consideration when selecting the site. The char- plant community, possibly favoring nuisance species acteristics of existing wetlands, in the same general such as purple loosestrife (Niering, 1989). area, or in an area with similar land uses, can be used Substrate augmentation and handling.-Wet- as models for what might be expected of the project lands are characterized by hydric soils, which develop wetland. Benefits that extend beyond the wetland itself as a result of an area being saturated, flooded, or can be derived from the placement of a wetland if care ponded long enough during the growing season to is taken in site selection. For example, restoration of develop anaerobic (oxygen-deficient) conditions (U.S. riverbank wetlands between agricultural land and a Soil Conservation Service, 1991) (fig. 54). Most ofthe stream can improve downstream water quality (Olson, chemical reactions in wetlands take place in the soils, 1992). where most chemicals are stored (Mitsch and Hydrologic analysis.-Hydrologic conditions Gosselink, 1993). The soils of project wetlands are re- probably are the most important determinants of the ceiving increased attention as studies link substrate type of wetland that can be established and what wet- characteristics to ecological function. Although a cre- land processes can be maintained (Mitsch and ated wetland may be structurally similar to a natural Gosselink, 1993). Elements of site hydrology that are wetland, its hydrology may differ greatly from that of important to maintaining a wetlarid are inflows and the natural wetland if the permeability of the substrates outflows of ground water and surface water, the result- differ (O'Brien, 1986). In addition to differences in ing water levels, and the timing and duration of soil permeability, soils in project wetlands commonly have saturation or flooding. a smaller amount oforganic matter than soils in slml'- One factor influencing hydrology is the configu- lar natural wetlands. Because organic matter in soils Hydrologic ration of the basin (depression) containing the wetland. stores nutrients that are critical to plant growth (Pa- conditions probably are the most important determinants of IV and processes. -High water table wetiand types High water table Low water table Low water table Figure 53. The relative position of a basin substrate, the water table, and differences in vegetation result ing from the degree of basin slope. National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: RESTORATION, CREATION, AND RECOVERY 89 cific Estuarine Research Laboratory, 1990), the smaller amounts of organic matter in soils of project wetlands may limit plant growth (Langis and others, 1991). Augmenting, or mulching, the substrate of project wetlands with materials from a "donor" wet- land can increase soil organic matter and provide a lot" source of needed plant species, microbes, and inver- tebrates. Mulching makes the substrate more condu- cive to rapid revegetation by reducing the evaporation of pore water, runoff, soil loss and erosion, and sur- face compaction and crusting (Thornburg, 1977). Chemicals from Mulching also can cause problems such as the intro- the surrounding duction of unwanted plant species. Ian Plant material selection and handling. -Vegeta- dscape can tion is the most striking visual feature of a wetland. Be- ft overwhelm a cause of the unique and stressful conditions that de- -1 Ii. wetlandls ability velop in wetlands, varying from long periods of flood- so, N., MLM.- ing to periodic drying, plants and animals found there to improve water have developed distinctive mechanisms to deal with quality. these stresses and conditions. It is important to recog- nize the constraints of this unique environment when planning a project wetland. Plant communities estab- Figure 54. Scientist checking to see if a soil sample lished in project wetlands will fare betterifthey closely has the unique coloration typical of wetland (hydric) resemble communities in similar, local wetlands. To soils. (Photograph courtesy ofthe EPA Wetlands increase the likelihood of successful colonization, Research Program). Garbisch (1986) suggests that project managers: � Select herbaceous species that rapidly stabilize the cess. However, few project sponsors have been will- substrate and that have potential value for fish and ing to assume long-term responsibility for managing wildlife these new systems (Kusler and Kentula, 1990b). Be- � Select species that are adaptable to a broad range cause of this, project wetlands that are designed to be of water depths. A survey of vegetation at wet- self-sustaining or self-managing will have the best lands of the type being created or restored can chance of survival. The installation of control struc- identify the conditions of "wetness" needed by tures, such as tide gates or pumps, that will require species maintenance and are subject to vandalism could be dis- -Avoid choosing only those species that are foraged advantageous to the life of the project wetland. by wildlife expected to use the site-muskrats and geese have been known to denude sites EVALUATION OF SUCCESS Avoid committing significant areas of the site to species that have questionable potential for suc- One of the most vexing aspects of wet] and resto- cessful establishment ration and creation projects is defining success, pri- In addition, Stark (1972) suggests the selection of "low marily because there is no generally accepted defini- maintenance" vegetation. tion. This is true for many reasons-lack of clearly Buffer zone placement.-Protective measures are stated objectives, lack of long-term monitoring needed for many restored and created wetlands, par- (Kusler and Kentula, 1990b), and the subjective point ticularly in urbanized areas. This protection can take of view of the definer (Roberts, 1993). The vast ma- the form of an undeveloped, vegetated band around the jority of project wetlands are ecologically young- 10 wetland; a fence or barrier; or a lake or sediment ba- years of age or less. The lack of information on eco- sin. This buffer between the wetland and surrounding logically mature projects limits the ability to predict land is desirable; however, the characteristics of an whether or not the functions of project wetlands can appropriate vegetated buffer are not well defined. Al- replace the functions of natural wetlands. Neverthe- though composition is important, width is the most less, the results of ongoing research and good profes- Plants in project frequently cited characteristic of an adequate buffer sional judgment can be used to provide insight into zone. Requirements for both composition and width the selection of projects that have a high probability wetlands fare are dependent upon the adjacent land uses, their po- of success, better if they tential effect on the functions of the wetland, and the Various attempts have been made to define suc- closely resemble requirements of the animals that will use the wetland cess criteria for wetland projects. The earliest criteria and buffer area. Buffers are used to: assumed that if conditions were correct for the estab- those in similar, - Deter predators from entering wetlands lishment of wedand vegetation, then other ecological local wetlands. - Trap and prevent undesirable materials from enter- functions would either be present or develop over time. ing the wetland through runoff from the sur- Now, it is known that a site "green" with vegetation rounding landscape does not necessarily mean success, and the standards - Provide habitat for wildlife that depend on uplands by which projects arejudged are more likely to be tied in addition to wetlands for part of their life cycle to wetland functions. Long-term management. -Careful monitoring of The Wetlands Research Program of the U.S. En- newly established wetlands and the ability to make vironmental Protection Agency (EPA) is developing an rnid-course corrections are critical to long-term suc- approach to establish quantitative performance crite- 90 National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: OVERVIEW OF WETLAND RESOURCES ria for project wetlands. In this approach, groups of 1992), and Florida (Brown, 1991) showed that, al- natural wetlands serve as reference sites against which though the level of diversity differs with each project, project wetlands are judged. For example, Zedler diversity tends to be higher on each project wetland (1993) uses reference data from natural marshes be- than on its natural counterpart. The type of wetland ing used by clapper rails (an indigenous bird species) studied was a pond with a fringe of freshwater marsh to define criteria that can be used tojudge the suitabil- (fig. 56). If a project wetland develops as hoped and ity of restored and created habitat for the birds. Older expected, after 2 to 5 years it probably will have a plant project wetlands also are used as reference sites against diversity greater than or equal to that of similar natu- which to judge newer project wetlands, both to verify ral wetlands. As competition for space and resources that development is as expected and to identify devel- increases and the plants more completely cover the It is Still opmental patterns that may have resulted from changes site, the diversity usually decreases and the plant com- uncertain if a in project design (Kentula and others, 1992). This munity tends to become more like that of a mature site. of approach is designed to produce results that are region- full suite ally applicable to wetland protection and management. STATUS OF THE SCIENTIFIC KNOWLEDGE wetland . One tool for comparing the characteristics of OF RESTORATION AND CREATION project wetlands with similar, naturally occurring wet- functions can be lands is a performance curve (fig. 55). Functions in a Current scientific knowledge about successful replaced. group ofrestored wetlands can be expected to increase wetland restoration and creation has been documented gradually with time to a point of maturity at which time in "Wetland Creation and Restoration: The Status of the level of function has stabilized, The mean level of the Science" (Kusler and Kentula, 1990a). Although function in mature project wetlands is generally less the literature on wetland restoration and creation has than that for natural wetlands. Rate and time of matu- increased since the publication of that book, the gen- ration and functional level at maturity will differ from eral assessment presented still applies. Key points from project to project, depending on the type of wetland the Executive Summary (Kusler and Kentula, 1990b) being restored. The curve provides information on are discussed below. (Additional information on res- when to monitor, how restored wetlands typically de- toration of aquatic systems, including wetlands, can be velop, and when project goals have been met. Changes found in a recent publication by the National Research in the characteristics of project wetlands can be ex- Council Committee on Restoration ofAquatic Ecosys- pected in response to the maturation process, but also tems, 1992.) in response to changes in the environment. Informa- The status of scientific knowledge about wetland tion on the development ofproject wetlands and sin-ii- restoration and creation differs by wetland function, lar natural wetlands helps managers determine type, and location. It is still uncertain if the full suite whether an observed change is typical for a particular of functions provided by a particular wetland type can year or stage of development. be replaced. Full functional replacement has not yet Over time, successful project wetlands can be ex- been demonstrated. In the case of specific functions, pected to become similar to comparable natural wet- the most is known about replacement of flood storage lands. A comparison of plant diversity on project wet- and waterfowl habitat, and the least is known about wa- lands and similar natural wetlands in Oregon (Kentuila ter-quality-improverrient and ground-water-associated and others, 1992), Connecticut (Confer and Niering, functions. The more complex the hydrology and ecol- ogy of a system, the more difficult it is to restore the system. Complete restoration might be impossible in some systems. With respect to types and locations of wetlands, the most is known about restoration and creation of Z intertidal salt marshes along the coasts of the United 0 States, in particular, the tall cordgrass marshes of the Z Atlantic coast. However, these salt marshes comprise LL only about 5 percent of the total wetland area of the LL 0 Nation and are only a small part of the marine and U) Maturity estuarine wetlands. Cn EXPLANATION Lu Much less is known about restoration and cre- Z Mean level of function LLJ > 0 For natural wetlands at ation of inland freshwater wetlands, such as ponds, U a point in time forested wetlands, or bogs and fens. Among these 0 For restored wetlands at Lu a point in time wetlands, most is known about restoration and cre- LL LL - For natural wetlands ation of those dominated by open water, such as Lu overtime 0 - - - For immature restored ponds, and the associated herbaceous vegetation. Z wetlands over time Much less is known about replacing forested wetlands For mature restored because of the time needed for woody vegetation to UJ wetlands over time cc mature. Experts agree, however, that the ecosystems Z that are least likely to be successfully replaced are bogs and fens. These are the wetlands with deep or- INCREASING MONITORING TIME ganic soils that have developed over thousands of years and that have hydrologic conditions that are difficult, F@gure 55. Typical performance curve illustrating the comparison of groups of if not impossible, to duplicate. natural wetlands and restored wetlands of the same type and similar size in the same land-use setting. (Source: Modified from Kentula and others, 1992.) National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: RESTORATION, CREATION, AND RECOVERY 91 FEDERAL AGENCY RESEARCH ON WETLAND RESTORATION AND CREATION Several Federal agencies have missions, and therefore conduct research activities, that involve wet- lands. This section presents a brief overview of Fed- eral research on wetland restoration and creation. [For more information on wetland research by Federal agencies, see the publications of the Wetlands Research Program of the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (Corps) and the article "Wetland Research by Federal Agen- cies" in this volume.] The Corps has been leading an effort to provide a reference source on current wetland research being conducted by Federal agencies. The first edition (U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Wetlands Research Program, 1992) presents information pro- vided by the Corps, the EPA, the Soil Conservation Service (renamed Natural Resources Conservation Service in October 1994), the Forest Service, the Na- tional Marine Fisheries Service, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, the Bureau of Reclamation, and the Figure 56. This pond with a fringe of marsh in Portland, Oreg., is a restored U.S. Geological Survey. The Corps surveyed over 25 wetland and is an example of the type of freshwater project wetland most agencies in 1993. To complement the Corps7 reference common in this country. (Photograph courtesy of the EPA Wetlands Research source, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service is maintain- Program.) ing the Wetland Creation/Restoration data base to pro- vide a current compilation of the published literature. A hard copy of the bibliographic material contained increasing the ability to discern which projects have a in the digital data base also has been produced high probability of restoring or replacing damaged or (Schneller-McDonald and others, 1989). lost ecosystems. Two factors that most limit the effec- Federal agencies' research into wetland restora- tive use of restoration and creation are: (1) lack of tion and creation generally falls into two categories- information on ecologically mature restored and cre- design implementation and performance evaluation. ated wetlands, and on the maturation process; and (2) Ecosystems that Major contributions on project design have been made the limited number of well designed andwell con- are least likely to by agencies involved in large-scale development, like structed project wetlands that can be used as models. the Corps (Maynord and others, 1992) and the Fed- In general, restoration is likely to be more suc- be successfully eral Highway Administration (Marble, 1990). The EPA cessful than creation. Restoration of a damaged or replaced are has focused its research on evaluation to support the destroyed wetland will have a greater chance of estab- agency responsibilities under Section 404 of the Clean lishing the range of prior wetland functions, includ- bogs and fens. Water Act (Zedler and Kentula, 1986; Leibowitz and ing critical habitat. Also, chances are greater for the others, 1992). Agencies responsible for stewardship of long-term persistence of a restored wetland than for living resources, such as the National Marine Fisher- one created where none existed before. ies Service, have produced information that will in- crease their effectiveness in management (Thayer, 1992). References Cited The Natural Resources Conservation Service and Brown, M.T., 1991, Evaluating constructed wetlands through the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service probably will con- comparisons with natural wetlands: Corvallis, Oreg., tribute the most information on practical, low-cost U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Environmental approaches to wetland restoration under the 1990 Research Laboratory, EPA/600/3-91/058, 37 p. Farm Bill (Food, Agriculture Conservation and Trade Confer, S.R., and Niering, W.A., 1992, Comparison of cre- Act of 1990-(P.L. 101-624) and the Wetland Reserve ated and natural freshwater emergent wetlands in Con- Restoration is Program. Under these programs, thousands of wetland necticut: Wetlands Ecology and Management, v. 2, likel to be more no. 3, p. 143-156. y acres previously converted to agriculture have been Frenkel, R.E., and Morlan, J.C., 1990, Restoration of the Successful than restored to wetlands. To support these efforts, both Salmon River salt marshes-Retrospect and perspec- agencies have produced guidelines for their field per- tive: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Region 10, Creation. sonnel who are working with the farmers to restore 142 p. wetlands (U.S. Soil Conservation Service, 1992; -1991, Can we restore our saltmarshes? Lessons from Wenzel, 1992). (For more information on legislation the Salmon River, Oregon: Northwest Environmental affecting wetlands, see the article "Weiland Protection Journal, v. 7, p. 119-135. Legislation" in this volume.) Garbisch, EX, Jr., 1986, Highways and wetlands-Com- pensating wetland losses: McLean, Va., Federal High- way Administration, Office of Implementation, Contract CONCLUSIONS Report DOT-FH-11-9442,60 p. Hammer, D.A., ed., 1989, Constructed wetlands for waste- Wetland restoration and creation is more an art water treatment-Municipal, industrial, and agricul- than a science, and functional replacement of wetlands tural: Chelsea, Mich., Lewis Publishers, Inc., 831 p. has not been conclusively demonstrated. At the same Hammer, D.A., 1992, Creating freshwater wetlands: Chelsea, time, the growing body of literature and experience is Mich., Lewis Publishers, Inc., 298 p. 92 National Water Surnmary-Wetland Resources: OVERVIEW OF WETLAND RESOURCES Hollands, G.G., 1990, Regional analysis of creation and res- tal Institute, University of Massachusetts, Publication tonation of kettle and pothole wetlands, in Kusler, J.A., 87-1,p.83-200. and Kentula, M.E., eds., Wetland creation and restora- Olson, R.K., ed., 1992, Special Issue-The role of created tion-The status of the science: Washington, D.C., Is- and natural wetlands in controlling nonpoint source pol- land Press, p. 281-298. lution: Ecological Engineering, v. 1, no. 112, p. 1- 170. Kentula, M.E., Brooks, R.P., Gwin, S.E., Holland, C.C., Pacific Estuarine Research Laboratory, 1990, A manual for Sherman, A.D., and Sifneos, J.C., 1992, An approach assessing restored and natural coastal wetlands with to improving decision making in wetland restoration and examples from southern California: LaJolla, Calif., Cali- creation: Washington, D.C., Island Press, 151 p. fornia Sea Grant Report Number T-CSGCP-021, 105 Kusler, J.A., and Kentula, M.E., eds., 1990a, Wetland cre- p- ation and restoration-The status of the science: Wash- Roberts, L., 1993, Wetlands trading is a losing game, say ington, D.C., Island Press, 591 p. ecologists: Science, v. 260, no. 5116, p. 1,890-1,892. Kusler, J.A., and Kentula, M.E., 1990b, Executive summary, Schneller-McDonald, Karen, Ischinger, L.S., and Auble, G.T., in Kusler, J.A., and Kentula, M.E., eds., Wetland cre- 1989, Wetland creation and restoration-Description ation and restoration-The status of the science: Wash- and summary of the literature: Washington, D.C., U.S. ington, D.C., Island Press, p. xvii-xxv. Fish and Wildlife Service Biological Report 89, 66 p. + Langis, Rene, Zalejko, M.K., and Zedler, J.B., 1991, Nitro- database records. gen assessments in a constructed and natural salt marsh Stark, Nellie, 1972, Low maintenance vegetation-Wildiand of San Diego Bay: Ecological Applications v. 1, p. 40- shrubs, their biology and utilization: Washington, D,C., 51. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Gen- Leibowitz, S.G., Preston, E.M., Arnaut, L.Y., Detenbeck, eral Technical Report INT-1. N.E., Hagley, C.A., Kentula, M.E., Olson, R.K., Thayer, G.W., ed., 1992, Restoring the Nation's marine en- Sanville, W.D., and Sumner, R.R., 1992, Welland re- vironment: College Park, Md., Maryland Sea Grant search plan-An integrated risk-based approach: College, 716 p. Corvallis, Oreg., U.S. Environmental Protection Agen- Thornburg, A., 1977, Use of vegetation for stabilization of cy, Environmental Research Laboratory, EPA/600/R-92/ shorelines of the Great Lakes, in the Proceedings of the 060, 123 p. Workshop on the Role of Vegetation in Stabilization of Lewis, R.R., Jr., 1990, Wetland restoration/creation/enhance- the Great Lakes Shoreline: Ann Arbor, Mich., Great ment terminology-Suggestions for standardization, in Lakes Basin Commission, p. 39-53. Kusler, J.A., and Kentula, M.E., eds., Wetland creation U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Wetlands Research Program, and restoration-The status of the science: Washington, 1992, National summary of ongoing wetlands research D.C., Island Press, p. 417-423. by Federal agencies (1992): Vicksburg, Miss., U.S. Marble, A.D., 1990, A guide to wetland functional design: Army Corps of Engineers, Waterways Experiment Sta- McLean, Va., Federal Highway Administration Report tion, 69 p. Number FRWA-IP-90-010, 222 p. U.S. Soil Conservation Service, 1991, Soils-Hydric soils Maynord, S.T., Landin, M.C., McCormick, J.W., Davis, J.E., of the United States: Washington, D.C., U.S. Depart- Evans, R.A., and Hayes, D.F., 1992, Design of habitat ment ofAgriculture, Soil Conservation Service Miscel- restoration using dredged material at Bodkin Island, laneous Publication Number 1491. Chesapeake Bay, Maryland: Vicksburg, Miss., U.S. _1992, Field handbook, Chapter 13-Wetland resto- Army Corps of Engineers, Waterways Experiment Sta- ration, enhancement, and creation: Washington, D.C., tion, Wetlands Research Program Technical Report U.S. Department of Agriculture, Soil Conservation WRP-1111-3, 33 p. + tables and figures. Service, 79 p. Mitsch, W.J., and Gosselink, J.G., 1993, Wetlands (second Wenzel, T.A., 1992, Minnesota wetland restoration guide: edition): New York,Van Nostrand Reinhold Company, Minneapolis, Minn., Minnesota Board ofWater and Soil Inc., 722 p. Resources. National Research Council Committee on Restoration of Zedler, J.B., 1993, Canopy architecture of natural and planted Aquatic Ecosystems-Science, Technology, and Public coTdgrass marshes-Selecting habitat evaluation crite- Policy, 1992, Restoration of aquatic ecosystems- Sci- ria: Ecological Applications, v. 3, no. 1, p. 123-138. ence, technology, and public policy: Washington, D.C., Zedler, J.B., and Kentula, M.E., 1986, Wetlands research National Academy Press, 552 p. plan: Corvallis, Oreg., U.S. Environmental Protection Niering, W.A., 1989, Effects of stormwater runoff on wet- Agency, Environmental Research Laboratory, EPA/600/ land vegetation: Proceedings of the Stormwater Confer- 3-86/009, 118 p, ence, Southborough, Mass., New England Institute for Environmental Studies, p. 1-38. O'Brien, A.L., 1986, Hydrology and the construction of a mitigating wetland, in Larson, J.S., and Neill, Christo- FOR ADDITIONAL INFORMATION: Mary E. Kentula, pher, eds., Mitigating freshwater wetland alterations in Wetlands Research Program, U.S. Environmental Protection the glaciated northeastern United States-An assess- Agency, Environmental Research Laboratory, Corvallis, OR ment of the science base: Amherst, Mass., Environmen- 97333 U.S. Geo@ogical Survey Water-Supply Paper 2425 National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: RESTORATION, CREATION, AND RECOVERY 93 Restoraton, Creation and Recovery of Wetands Effects of Hurricane Andrew 0 992) on Wetlands in Southern Florida and Louisiana By John K. Lovelace' and Benjamin F. McPherson' Hurricane Andrew was a small but powerful made landfall near the southern tip of Florida on the storm that caused massive destruction along a path morning ofAugust 24. After passing over the Florida through southern Florida and south-central Louisi- Everglades, the storm proceeded in a northwesterly ana in late August 1992 (fig. 57). Rainfall associated direction across the Gulf of Mexico and made land- with Andrew was light for a hurricane because of the fall in south-central Louisiana at Point Chevreuil on Andrew left a small size and rapid forward movement of the storm. the morning of August 26. Andrew deteriorated rap- path of destruc- However, rainfall totals of more than 7 inches were idly after landfall in Louisiana and was downgraded recorded for the storm period in southeastern Florida to a tropical depression on August 27. The remnants tion 25 miles wide and Louisiana; a high of 11.9 inches was recorded in ofAndrew proceeded on a northeasterly path, produc- and 60 miles long Hammond, La. (Rappaport, 1992). Maximum sus- ing severe weather throughout the Southeastern States tained windspeeds of 141 mph (miles per hour), with (Rappaport, 1992). gusts of 169 mph, were recorded on August 24, just Hurricane Andrew moved across southern before landfall in Florida (Rappaport, 1992). A storm Florida at an average forward speed of 18 mph (Na- surge of about 17 feet above sea level was recorded tional Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, at Biscayne Bay, Fla. (fig. 58) and about 9 feet near 1992). As it crossed southern Florida, Andrew left a Terrebonne Bay in south-central Louisiana (fig. 59). path of destruction 25 miles wide and 60 miles long HurricaneAndrew originated in the Nor-thAtlan- (Gore, 1993). tic Ocean, moved westward over the Bahamas, and NORTH -28 6,nl CAROLINA MAP AREA T NNESSEE -0 ARKA1\15AS SOL)TH 7 CAROLINA EXPLANATION 000 0 0 0 300100@ 27 2arn GFORGIA Tropical-storm-force winds 6a ALA13AMA Hurricane-force winds TEXAS LOUISIAN Figure 57. Storm path Hurricane passage and areal extent of 2@ 7 Storm passage tropical-storm- and 25 6arn Date and time hurricane-force winds PI rLORIDA produced by Hurricane ndrew, August 1992. *v (source: Data from @oo National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administra- 0 tion, National Weather low Service. Landsat images 0 300 MILES (photographs) from U.S. 41 Geological Survey, 0 300 KILOMETERS EROS Data Center) V @N X August 23,7992 4:53 pm August 24,1992 4:41 pm August 25,1992 4:29 pm August 26,1992 4:17 pm U.S. Geological Survey, 94 National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: OVERVIEW OF WETLAND RESOURCES Hurricane Andrew passed through the heart of the largest wetlands in the United States, the Florida Ev- erglades. (See article "Florida Wetland Resources" in the State Summaries part of this volume.) Perhaps the 0. most dramatic effect of the storm's passage through Hollyw od* these wetlands was the major structural damage to 26' - 7 ":-7 P%T trees caused by the strong winds. The storm passed directly over Biscayne National Park and Everglades Miami National Park, knocking down or severely damaging Coral Gables. mangrove trees on about 70,000 acres of wetlands in So4lh Miami- /Z the two parks. Within the storm's path, virtually all Kendall 105 Parrine, large trees located in hammock areas (islands of culler S, inns' Q@ dense, tropical undergrowth), typically hardwoods, dge, were defoliated and about 25 percent of the trees were 25'- Homestead. 30' Florida rity 1 windthrown or badly broken. About one-fourth of the Lake Okeechobs. royal palms and one-third of the pine trees in Ever- THE MAP glades National Park were broken or damaged by the EVERGL4DES AREA winds (fig. 60). Damage to woody vegetation was 0 20 MILES most severe near the eye of the storm where winds I I II Everglades were the strongest (Davis and others, 1994). However, 0 20 KILOMETERS National Park within 20 days surviving trees and shrubs had 0 100 MILES Biscayne sprouted new growth (Alper, 1992). i I I Florida National The storm appeared to have only minor effects 0 100 KILOMETERS Bay Park on the interior freshwater wetlands of The Ever- glades, which are composed mainly of sawgrass. Nearly all post-storm (August 28 to September 17, Figure 58. Storm-surge elevations, in feet above sea level, 1992) water-quality properties sampled by the South at selected points along the coast of Florida; < indicates Florida Water Management District were within the less than. (Source: Data from U.S. Geological Survey files.) range of pre-storm values. These properties included 7 1 . I . .I . @ I I I . I i I 6- A- 5 - Positive---- 1@ OKLAHOMA _J 4- surge LLJ ARKANSAS > 3 - Lu 2 GEORGIA uJ 1 U) 0- MISSISSIPPI ALABAMA 3.1 -1 -Negative__--@ -,\SEA LEVEL 0 urge -J UJI -2 03 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 LOUISIANA 2.0 TEXAS 0 1.5 uJ MAP > 1.0 M0 0.5 11 Atchafalaya@ AREA River Basin 0@@ 0 @ Ha ond F- -0.5- LU Cypremort uJ -1.0 SEA LEVEL Point U- -1.5 Z_ -2.0 Negative-J 0 200 MILES urge -2.5 0 200 KILOMETERS C) -3.0 -3.- 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 913. 912* 91. 90* 89. > 5.5 Lu \ _,A afalaya Ly _J stmary RiverBasin LU 5.0 - Parish C 0" _J 4.5 - 30' - Terrebonne Parish > 4.0 - LU LLJ 3*5, Positive 4.0 3.0 - surge UJ 2.5 - Vermilion CA 2.0 Bay 3: 1.5 10 Pt. Chevrouil 0. 7 0,5 - SEA LEVEL - 29' 7errebon n 5.3 0 50 MILES 22 23 124 25 26 27 '28 29 '30 X C Bay 0 50 KILOMETERS DAYS, @N AUGUST 1992 1 Figure 59. Storm-surge elevations, in feet above or below sea level, at selected points along the coast of Louisiana. Graphs indicate water levels at sites A, Vermilion Bay, near Cypremont Point; B, Wax Lake outlet, at Coleman; C, Houma Navigation Canal, at Dulac. (Source: Data from U.S. Geological Survey files.) National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: RESTORATION, CREATION, AND RECOVERY 95 turbidity, color, ammonia, and dissolved phosphate. Wind-heaped, vegetative marsh debris was evident along the edges of some forested islands, and the characteristic periphyton mat (group of stalkless mi- cro-organisms that live attached to surfaces project- ing from the bottom of freshwater bodies) was absent or altered in structure. However, much of The Ever- glades' marsh appeared undamaged by the storm. A significant effect of the wind in the freshwater wet- lands was the destruction of, or damage to, about 80 percent of the hydrologic and meteorologic monitor- ing stations located along the storms path (Davis and others, 1994). ' The hurricane had little effect on wildlife in The Everglades. Thirty-two deer wearing radio collars for a National Park Service study survived the hurricane, and the releafing of vegetation provided them with food and cover. Adult alligators appeared unaffected, but nests and young may have been adversely affected. Most wading birds survived; estimates of pre- and post-storm populations were similar, and about nor- mal for the late-summer wet season (Davis and oth- ers, 1994). In the marine environment, the major effects of the hurricane were changes in nearshore water qual- ity, patches of intense bottom scouring, and beach 7@ overwash. Dramatically increased turbidity persisted in some areas for at least 30 days, particularly in western Biscayne Bay where mangrove peat soils continued to break down and enter the water. In north- eastern Florida Bay, at the southern edge of the af- fected area, concentrations of ammonia, dissolved . ..... phosphate, and dissolved organic carbon increased Figure 60. Hammock (top) and pine forest (bottom) in Everglades dramatically. Phytoplankton (microscopic drifting National Park, Fla., after Hurricane Andrew, September 1992. (Photo- aquatic plants) blooms added to the increased turbid- graphs by Benjamin F McPherson, U.S. Geological Survey.) ity and, combined with low dissolved-oxygen concen- trations, could have had severe effects on fish and in- vertebrate populations. In addition, fuel from hun- damaged trees, primarily willows and some cypress. dreds of damaged boats and marina fuel tanks in Near the coast, about 80 percent of the trees were Biscayne Bay continued to discharge into the water knocked down; about 20 miles inland, the estimates for at least 27 days after the hurricane had passed were about 30 percent. With the loss of trees, an esti- (Davis and others, 1994). mated 50 to 75 percent of the young squirrels in the In Louisiana, the storm surge produced signifi- area, those produced during the second litter of the cant flooding in a few populated areas in the south- year, died. The storm had little effect on deer (David ern part of the State. However, there was no major Morrison, Louisiana Department of Wildlife and flooding of inland rivers. The greatest surge was east Fisheries, oral commun., 1993). of the point of landfall, where the counterclockwise In the Atchafalaya River Basin, an estimated 182 rotation of winds, combined with forward motion of million freshwater fish perished because of the the hurricane, pushed water northward (fig. 59). An- resuspension of anaerobic bottom materials in the drew also produced a negative surge of as much as 3 water column (fig. 61). Most ofthe fish probably died feet below sea level along the coast from about 10 during the first 24 hours after the storm as toxic hy- miles west of landfall to the Texas State line, as the drogen sulfide was released from bottom sediments, Hurricane counterclockwise winds west of the hurricane's eye and decaying organic matter consumed dissolved oxy- Andrew passed pushed water away from the shore. Because the hur- gen, causing fish to asphyxiate (Gary Tilyou, Loui- ricane was moving in a northwesterly direction at the siana Department of Wildlife and Fisheries, oral through the heart time of landfall, areas near landfall experienced a commun., 1993). After the storm, U.S. Geological of the largest negative surge as the hurricane was to the southeast, Survey personnel measured dissolved-oxygen con- wetlands in the then a positive surge as the hurricane moved past and centrations of less than 1 mg/L throughout most of was to the west. the basin, in an area extending northward more than United States. After making landfall in Louisiana, Hurricane 60 miles from the coast (Charles Demas, U.S. Geo- Andrew curved back towards the northeast, passing logical Survey, oral commun., 1993). Dissolved-oxy- over the Atchafalaya River Basin, which contains the gen concentrations in the upper water column of largest hardwood swamp (1.5 million acres) in the larger water bodies in the Atchafalaya River Basin United States, and Louisiana's largest palustrine wet- generally range from 3 to 6 mg/L during summer land. (See article "Louisiana Wetland Resources " in months (Dennis K. Demecheck, U.S. Geological Sur- this volume.) In parts ofthe basin, the storm severely vey, oral commun., 1994). During the 2 weeks follow- 96 National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: OVERVIEW OF WETLAND RESOURCES @V: ing the hurricane, fishkills were caused Sediment deposition in thicknesses of as much as 0 7-4. primarily by the movement of water 10 inches, but averaging less than 1 inch, which _-#e_ containing low concentrations of dis- killed vegetation and sank part of the floating solved oxygen into previously unaf- marsh fected water (Gary Tilyou, Louisiana Other damage was attributed to vegetative scour, Department of Wildlife and Fisheries, which resulted from large areas of attached plants oral commun., 1993). The value of having their roots torn from the bottom, and salt burn, freshwater fish killed was about $160 which occurred when saline (salty) water from the million, most of which was attributed Gulf of Mexico was pushed into freshwater areas, kill- ;0 e' ed 29,000 paddlefish that ing and damaging salt-sensitive plants (Lee Foot, U.S. to the estimat V@ died. (The paddlefish is an endangered Fish and Wildlife Service, oral commun., 1993). species and its valuation is based on the About 25 square miles of coastal wetlands in $2,500 per-fish fine for killing paddle- Louisiana are being lost every year due to coastal fish.) Estimates of the number of other erosion and wet] and deterioration. Hurricane Andrew species killed (in millions) include probably caused substantial immediate loss of coastal shad, 100; bream, 23; crappie, 7; large- wetlands and possibly has hastened the erosion and Figure 61. Dead fish in the Atchafalaya mouth bass, 5; fresh-water drum, 11; deterioration processes already at work (Dunbar and River Basin, La., September 2, 1992. buffalo, 12; catfish, 11; and carp, I others, 1992). (Photograph by Charles R. Demas, U.S. (Harry Blanchet, Louisiana Depart- Geological Survey.) ment of Wildlife and Fisheries, oral References Cited commun., 1993). In the coastal waters, an estimated 9.4 million Alper, Joe, 1992, Everglades rebound from Andrew: Sci- saltwater fish valued at $7.8 million were killed by ence, v. 257, p. 1,852-1,854. the storm. The exact causes of death are uncertain, Chabreck, R.H., and Linscombe, Greg, 1978, Vegetative but popular theories include suffocation, caused by type map of the Louisiana coastal marshes: Louisiana clogging of gills by sediment, and gas-bubble disease, Department of Wildlife and Fisheries, New Orleans, La., 1 sheet. caused by the formation of nitrogen bubbles in the Davis, G.E., Loope, L.L., Roman, C.T., Smith, G., and fish's bloodstream due to increased pressure. Most of Tilmont, J.T., compilers, 1994, Assessment of Hurri- the fish were found along a band of coastline about 5 cane Andrew impacts on natural and archeological re- miles long, just southeast of the point of landfall. sources of Big Cypress National Preserve, Biscayne Species killed (in millions) include menhaden, 5.7; National Park, and Everglades National Park, 15-24 mullet, 0.9; croaker, 0.9; spotted sea trout, 0.2; sea September 1992: National Park Service, 158 p. catfish, 0.4; black drum, 0.03; and red drum, 0.02 Dunbar, J.B., Britsch, L.D., and Kemp, E.B., IR, 1992, Land (Harry Blanchet, Louisiana Department of Wildlife loss rates, report 3, Louisianna coastal plain: U.S. Army and Fisheries, oral commun., 1993). Corps of Engineers Technical Report GL-90-2, p. 27. Gore, Rick, 1993, Andrew aftermath: National Geographic, Large segments of Louisiana's coastal marsh, v. 183, no. 4, p. 2-37. primarily in Terrebonne and St. Mary Parishes, were National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, 1992, damaged. About 40 percent of the Natiods tidal wet- Special climate summary, Hurricane Andrew: National lands are located on Louisiana's gulf coast (S.J. Wil- Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Southeast liams, 1993). A substantial part of these wetlands is Regional Climate Center, Columbia, S.C., 7 p. omposed of fresh and intermediate marsh (Chabreck Rappaport, Edward, 1992, Preliminary report, Hurricane An estimated 9.4 and Linscombe, 1978). Much of this marsh is Andrew, 16-28 August 1992: National Oceanic and At- million saltwater "floatant" (a floating type of marsh). The marsh is mospheric Administration, National Weather Service, said to float because partially decomposed organic National Hurricane Center, Coral Gables, Fla., 28 p. fish valued at $7.8 Williams, SJ., Penland, Shea, and Roberts, H.H., 1993, matter and intertwining plant roots form a dense mat Processes affecting coastal wetland loss in the Louisi- million were killed that rises and falls with the water level. The roots Of ana deltaic plain, in Magoon, O.T., Wilson, W.S., Con- by the storm. the plants that make up the mat are unattached, or only verse, Hugh, and Tbbin, L.T., eds., Coastal Zone '93- partly attached, to the bottom (Lee Foot, U.S. Fish Proceedings of the Eighth Symposium on Coastal and and Wildlife Service, oral commun., 1993). Ocean Management, July 19-23, 1993, New Orleans, The marsh suffered substantial damage caused by La.: New York, American Society of Civil Engineers, wind, tide, and wave action. Three specific kinds of v. 1, p. 211-219. damage were identified: � Compressed marsh, where a net decrease in sur- face area results from the marsh being pushed FOR ADDITIONAL INFORMATION: John K. Lovelace, together, somewhat like an accordion closing U.S. Geological Survey, Louisiana District, 3535 S. � Marsh balls, which are created by the marsh be- Sherwood Forest Blvd., Suite 120, Baton Rouge, LA 70816; ing piled, rolled, or otherwise deformed to cre- Benjamin F. McPherson, U.S. Geological Survey, T@mpa ate large mounds (resulting in decreased surface Subdistrict, 47 10 Eisenhower Blvd., Suite B-5, Tampa, FL area) 33634 U.S. Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper 2425 National Water Surnmary-Wetland Resources: RESTORATION, CREATION, AND RECOVERY 97 Restoration, Creation, and Recovery of Wetlands Effects of the Great Midwest Flo od of 1993 on Wetlands By James R. Kolval The Great Midwest Flood of 1993 was the 100o 95' MAP AREA most devastating flood in modem United 90, States history" with economic damages near $20 billion. More than 50,000 homes were AKOTA damaged or destroyed. The areal extent, inten- OT sity, and long duration of the flooding makes CONS 45* this event unique in the 20th century (National ::::@'SOUTI41@ Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, DAKOTA, 1994). At least 38 people lost their lives as a EXPLANATION result of this extreme flood (Interagency Flood- lain Management Task Force, 1994). Area of flooding streams p o Refuge, Boundary of Mississippi River Basin Significant flooding in the Upper Missis- sippi River Basin began in mid-June and per- sisted into early August 1993. The areal extent ILUNOfs 40' of this flooding included southern Minnesota, Southwestern Wisconsin, Iowa, western Illi- nois, northern Missouri, southern North Da- AISS kota, and eastern parts of South Dakota, Ne- Figure 62. Areal extent of flooding braska, and Kansas (fig. 62). in the Upper Mississippi River Basin Record flood-peak discharge was recorded 0 100 200 MILES during the Great Midwest Flood of at 39 streamflow-gaging stations in the Upper Mis- iI I II . 1993. (Source: Modified from sissippi River Basin. Fifteen other gaging stations re- 0 100 200 KILOMETERS Parrett and others, 1993). corded peak discharges exceeding previous maxi- mum known regulated discharges (Parrett and others, due to flooded foraging areas. Substrate disturbance 1993). The recurrence interval of the peak discharge and massive sedimentation affected freshwater mus- at 40 stations exceeded the 100-year flood (one-per- sel populations. Mussels were found buried by I to 2 cent chance of occurring in any given year). feet of sand. Mammals were displaced from the flood Near-record and record precipitation in June and plain and suffered higher than normal mortality rates July, falling on soil already saturated by as much as on adjacent roads and railroad tracks (James twice normal early spring rains, caused these record Lennartson, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, written floods. Precipitation for the period January-July 1993 commun., 1994). Fishes that rely on sight to find their -the "most totaled more than 20 inches in most of the flooded food were handicapped because of the increased tur- devastating flood in area and more than 40 inches in parts of northeast- bidity. modem United em Kansas and east-central Iowa (Wahl, Vining, and The flooding, however, had some short-term ben- Wiche, 1993). Many areas received more precipita- efits. Many fish feed and spawn on inundated flood States history"... tion in those 7 months than is normally received dur- plains. "Ideal conditions for spring spawning fishes ing the entire year. occur during years in which flood and temperature The Great Midwest Flood of 1993 was unique not rise are coupled" (Scientific Assessment and Strategy only because of the record high water levels and flows Team, 1994). The evidence, particularly in the lower and the wide areal extent, but also because of the long Missouri River flood plain, ""indicates that the duration of flooding. Many rivers were above flood magnitude and timing of the 1993 flood provided ap- stage for several months. The long period of inunda- propriate temperature and discharge cues for spawn- tion had significant effects on agricultural land and ing river-floodplain fishes" (Scientific Assessment ... a historically wetlands. and Strategy Team, 1994). unprecedented The flood effects on wetlands varied in both the The long-term effects of the floods are still be- short term and long term. In the Upper Mississippi ing evaluated. Fish habitat may have been improved hydrometeoro- National Wildlife Refuge, the flooding lasted 14 by creation of deep scour holes and massive under- logical event... weeks-from April through mid-August. "This pro- water debris piles which provide more cover (James longed inundation of bottom-land hardwood forest Lennartson, oral commun., 1994). Greater-than-nor- and backwater wetlands caused many tree tip-overs, mal sedimentation on flood plains and in wetland scoured out ground cover and tree regeneration sites, ponds may have introduced contaminants and excess eroded islands, destroyed emergent/submergent veg- nutrients into those areas. Exotic plants such as purple etation beds, impacted project dikes, and thus de- loosestrife have colonized disturbed areas and dis- stroyed most of the moist soil plants at three sites;' placed native vegetation (Susan Hassletine, U.S. Fish according to James Lennartson of the U.S. Fish and and Wildlife Service, oral commun., 1994). Purple Wildlife Service. The effects on wildlife populations loosestrife colonies also have been observed at higher also were severe. Many birds, including green-backed elevations than normal, probably because seeds were herons and red-shouldered hawks, fledged few young carried by the extremely high floodwaters to these I U.S. Geological Survey. 98 National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: OVERVIEW OF WETLAND RESOURCES event by 9-23 percent, but only by 5-10 percent in a 100-year event. Flood-plain wetlands decreased flooding 5-6 percent for I-year floods and only 2-3 percent for the 100-year storms. The Executive Summary of the Report of the In- teragency Floodplain Management Review Commit- tee to the Administrative Floodplain Management Task Force (1994) states the effect that wetlands had on the Great Midwest Flood of 1993: The loss of wetlands and upland cover and the modification of the landscape throughout the basin over the last century and a half signifi- cantly increased runoff. * * *Although upland ------- watershed treatment and restoration of upland and bottom-land wetlands can reduce flood This perimeter levee surrounding the Clarence Cannon National Wildlife stages in more frequent floods (25 years and Refuge, Mo., damaged during the 1993 flooding, allowed excessive less), it is questionable whether they would water to enter the refuge. (Photograph courtesy of U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service.) have significantly altered the 1993 conditions (Interagency Floodplain Management Task locations (James Lennartson, oral commum., 1994). Force, 1994). Flood debris on flood plains has caused access prob- In conclusion, the Great Midwest Flood of 1993 lems for people at some places, but provides good was a historically unprecedented hydrometeorologi- wildlife cover. Open wetland aquatic vegetation ap- cal event in area affected, severity of the effects, and peared to be back to normal condition during the sum- duration of the effects. Wetlands were affected ben- eficially and detrimentally in the short and long term. mer of 1994 (Susan Hassletine, oral commum., 1994). The historical loss of wetlands from the basin in- Wetlands commonly mitigate the effects of creased the severity of the flood, but even if all floods. Wetland areas can be filled with and tempo- presettlement wetlands had still existed, the flood rarily store floodwaters so that flood effects on agri- would probably still have set records and caused bil- cultural and residential areas are lessened. However, lions of dollars in damages. wetlands have been steadily dissappearing or con- verted to other uses throughout the flood-affected area for the last two cen- References Cited turies (see "History of Wetlands in the Interagency Floodplain Management Task Force, 1994, Conterminous United States" in this Report to the Administration Floodplain Management volume). These wetlands include the Task Force-Sharing the Challenge: Floodplain Man- river flood plains and the upland prai- agement into the 21st Century, 191 p. rie potholes. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, 1994, Many upland prairie pothole wet- Natural disaster survey report, The Great Flood of lands are closed flow systems, which 1993, [281 p.]. fill with rain and melting snow and then Parrett, Charles, Melcher, N.B., and James, R.W., Jr., 1993, slowly evaporate or drain through the Flood disharges in the Upper Mississippi River Basin, ground-water system. Thus, they are in Floods in the Upper Mississippi River Basin, 1993: ir ideal retention basins during and after U.S. Geological Survey Circular 1120-A, 14 p. Scientific Assessment and Strategy Team, 1994, Preliminary intense rains because they "do not nor- report to the Interagency Floodplain Management Re- mally contribute to stream flow by run- view Committee of the Administration Floodplain off, except during storms large enough Management Task Force-Science for floodplain man- to make the depressions fill and spill" agenient into the 21st century. (Scientific Assessment and Strategy Wahl, K.L., Vining, K.C., and Wiche, G.J., 1993, Precipi- Team, 1994). This seems to have been tation in the Upper Mississipi River Basin-January 1 the case in the flood of 1993. All avail- through July 31, 1993, in Floods in the Upper Missis sippi River Basin, 1993: U.S. Geological Circular able storage capacity of the wetlands 1120-B, 13 p. was exceeded, and usually noncontrib- These prairie grasses (foreground) and uting areas did contribute to runoff (In- trees (background) were killed by the excessive water resulting from the long- teragency Floodplain Management term flooding of the Mississippi River in Task Force, 1994). In modeling done by the summer of 1993. (Photograph the Scientific Assessment and Strategy FOR ADDITIONAL INFORMATION: James R. Kolva, courtesy of U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service.) Team (1994), upland wetlands simu- U.S. Geological Suevey, Utah District, 1745 West 1700 lated decreased flooding in a I-year South, Salt Lake City, UT 84104 U.S. Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper 2425 State SummaHes of Wefland Resources 1,7 7 Horicon Marsh, Wisconsin, provides recreational opportunities for outdoor enthusiasts. (Photograph by Phillip]. Redman, U.S. Geological Survey.) 99 State Summaries of Wetland Resources Alabama ......................... 101 Maine ............................. 213 Oklahoma ....................... 315 Alaska ............................. 107 Maryland and District Oregon ......................... - 321 Arizona ........................... 115 of Columbia ................. 219 Pennsylvania ................... 327 Arkansas ......................... 121 Massachusetts ................. 225 Puerto Rico ..................... 333 California ................ ....... 127 Michigan ........................ 231 Rhode island ................... 339 Colorado ......................... 135 Minnesota ....................... 237 South Carolina ................ 345 Connecticut .................... 141 Mississippi ...................... 243 South Dakota .................. 351 Delaware ........................ 147 Missouri .......................... 249 Tennessee ....................... 357 Florida ............................ 153 Montana ......................... 255 Texas .............................. 363 Georgia ........................... 161 Nebraska ........................ 261 U.S. Virgin Islands .......... 369 Hawaii ............................ 167 Nevada ........................... 267 Utah ............................... 375 Idaho .............................. 173 New Hampshire .. ....... -- 273 Vermont ... ...................... 381 Illinois ............................. 179 New Jersey ...................... 279 Virginia ........................... 387 Indiana ........................... 185 New Mexico ................... 285 Washington .................... 393 Iowa ....................... ....... 191 New York ....................... 291 West Virginia ........ ......... 399 Kansas ............................ 195 North Carolina ................ 297 Western Pacific Islands ... 405 Kentucky . ........................ 201 North Dakota .................. 303 Wisconsin ............. ......... 411 Louisiana ........................ 207 Ohio ... ........................... 309 Wyoming ........................ 417 100 National Water Summary-Wetland Resources 101 Alabama Wetland Resources Wflands cover about 10 percent of Alabama and range in size At the most general level of the classification system, wetlands are from small areas of less than an acre scattered throughout the State grouped into five ecological systems: Palustrine, Lacustrine, Riv- to a large forested tract of more than 100,000 acres in the Mobile- erine, Estuarine, and Marine. The Palustrine System includes only Tensaw River Delta (fig, 1). Wetlands are a valuable resource be- wetlands, whereas the other systems comprise wetlands and cause they can reduce flood stages, stabilize banks, and improve deepwater habitats. Wetlands of the systems that occur in Alabama water quality. Alabama's wetlands also are important nesting, breed- are described below. ing, nursing, and feeding grounds for many species offish, birds, and other wildlife and are a vital habitat for rare and endangered System Wetland description plants and animals and for migrating waterfowl (Shaw and Fredine, 1956). Some of the spring-fed wetlands in the State are home to Palustrine .................. Nonticlal and tida [-freshwater wetlands in which threatened or endangered species such as the watercress darter, vegetation is predominantly trees (forested wet- coldwater darter, and pygmy sculpin. Commercial and recreational lands); shrubs (scrub-shrub wetlands); persis- tent or noripersistent emergent, erect, rooted fisheries are sustained in large part by species that spend at least herbaceous plants (persistent- and nonpersis- part of their life cycle in wetlands. The State's wetlands and adja- tent-emergent wetlands); or submersed and (or) cent waters also are used for recreational activities such as hunt- floating plants (aquatic beds). Also, intermit- ing, boating, bird watching, and photography and for research and tently to permanently flooded open-water bod- ies of less than 20 acres in which water is less education. than 6.6 feet deep. Lacustrine ................. Nontidal and tidal-freshwater wetlands within an TYPES AND DISTRIBUTION intermittently to permanently flooded lake or reservoir larger than 20 acres and (or) deeper Wetlands are lands transitional between terrestrial and than 6.6 feet. Vegetation, when present, is pre- deepwater habitats where the water table usually is at or near the dominantly noripersistent emergent plants (nonpersistent-emergent wetlands), or sub- land surface or the land is covered by shallow water (Cowardin and mersed and (or) floating plants (aquatic beds), others, 1979). The distribution of wetlands and deepwater habitats or both. in Alabama is shown in figure 2A; only wetlands are discussed Riverine ..................... Nonticlal and tidal-freshwater wetlands within a herein. channel. Vegetation, when present, is same as Wetlands can be vegetated or nonvegetated and are classified in the Lacustrine System. on the basis of their hydrology, vegetation, and substrate. In this Estuarine ................... Tidal wetlands in low-wave-energy environments summary, wetlands are classified according to the system proposed where the salinity of the water is greater than by Cowardin and others (1979), which is used by the U.S. Fish and 0.5 part per thousand ippo and is variable ow- ing to evaporation and the mixing of seawater Wildlife Service (FWS) to map and inventory the Nations wetlands. and freshwater. Marine ....................... Tidal wetlands that are exposed to waves and cur- rents of the open ocean and to water having a salinity greater than 30 ppt. The Fws estimates that wetlands cover from 2.3 million to 3.1 million acres in Alabama Q.M. Hefner, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Ser- vice, written commun., 1992). Palustrine forested wetlands such as cypress and gum swamps, mixed hardwood forests, and wet pine flatwoods account for most of that acreage. Most of the State's forested wetlands are bottom-land forests in alluvial flood plains. Cypress and tupelo gum commonly pre- dominate in the permanently or seasonally flooded areas (swamps), whereas other trees such as swamp oak, water hickory, red maple, magnolia, sweetgum, and sycamore are more common in less fre- -land forest has been quently inundated areas. The loss of bottom extensive throughout the Southeastern United States; in some re- gions, only a small percentage of the original hardwood forests T, remains (Mitsch and Gosselink, 1986). Alabama has conserved a lar tract of its bottom-land forest along approximately 50 miles ge of the Mobile-Tensaw River Delta. Other palustrine wetlands, such as shrub swamps (scrub-shrub wetlands) and seepage bogs (emergent wetlands), exist as small, isolated wetlands in the Coastal Plain of Alabama (fig. 2,B). These wetlands typically are associated with ground-water seepage in Figure 1. Cypress trees and marsh in the Mobile- swales or near the bottom of slopes. Seepage bogs support a unique Tensaw River Delta. A large tract of delta wetlands and diverse flora, including at least 20 species of carnivorous plants has been designated a National Natural Landmark such as pitcher plants, sundews, butterworts, and bladderworts. The by the National Park Service. (Photograph by bogs also are home to several species of orchids and a variety of Benjamin F McPherson, U.S. Geological Survey.) sedges (Mohlenbrock, 1992). Fresh marshes, emergent wetlands 102 National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: STATE SUMMARIES vegetated primarily by sedges, rushes, and grasses, commonly of Coastal Plain rivers. Whereas many riverine wetlands have been fringe ponds, reservoirs, and fresh tidal reaches of coastal rivers. converted to deepwater habitat by impoundment, riverine wetlands Although not as abundant as palustrine wetlands, lacustrine are still present in the shallows of the remaining streams and rivers and riverine wetlands constitute a significant proportion of that have not been impounded. Rocky shoals are riverine rock-bot- Alabama's freshwater wetlands. There are few natural lakes in the tom wetlands that were once more common upstream from the Fall State, but impoundments on most of the larger rivers have created Line in most of the State's rivers before they were impounded. These many acres of lacustrine wetlands in the shallows of the reservoirs. wetlands are now present only in the Cahaba River system (which These wetlands can be nonvegetated (unconsolidated-bottom wet- remains largely unimpounded) and in a few tributaries of other, now- lands), vegetated by emergent plants such as American lotus and impounded rivers. Rocky shoals, primarily in the Cahaba River and golden club that are not visible above the water surface during part the Little Cahaba River (a tributary), support stands of the Cahaba of the year (nonpersistent- emergent wetlands), or vegetated by lily, a spider lily that grows only in the rocky-shoal habitat (Cahaba plants such as water lily or pondweed that grow on or below the River Society, 1992). water surface (aquatic-bed wetlands). Estuarine marshes (emergent wetlands) are extensive in Like lacustrine wetlands, riverine wetlands are nonvegetated Alabama's coastal waters. Salt marshes form along tidally influenced or vegetated by norpersistent emergent or submersed plants. Veg- river reaches, on deltas, and on the shores of estuaries and bays. Salt etated riverine wetlands are most common in slow-flowing reaches marshes that are greatly influenced by seawater, such as those on A 8V 5 7, B ntarior Low r rn Plateaus 34. Piedmont Provinco @J' Coastal Plain 7 _T PHYSIOGRAPHIC DEVISIONS 2" ---- - - --- - --- WETLANDS AND DEEPWATER HABITATS Distribution of wetlands and deepwater habitats- This map shows the approximate distribution of large j wetlands in the State. Because of limitations of scale and source material, some wetlands are not shown Predominantly wetland Predominantly deepwater habitat 11 T_ 0 25 50 MILES '5 0 j 0 2 5 KILOMETERS Grand 3Y B y Dral P Savanna NW uarine Reserve Douphin 11 1 NWR Fort Morgan Figure 2. Wetland distribution in Alabama and physiography of the State. A, Distribution of wetlands and deepwater habitats. 8, Physiog- raphy. (Sources:A, TE. Dahl, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, unpub. data, 1991. 8, Physiographic divisions from Fenneman, 1946; landforms data from EROS Data Center.) National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: ALABAMA 103 Little Dauphin Island and the Fort Morgan peninsula, are vegetated predominantly by dense stands of black needlerush in areas that are flooded during extreme A. Interior Low Plateaus high tides and by smooth cordgrass in areas that are PALUSTRINE WETLAND PALUSTRINE WETLAND flooded more regularly (Stout, 1979). In contrast, coastal marshes in less saline habitats have a greater d iversity of emergent plants (Stout, 1990). Field and RIVERINE WETLAND others (199 1) estimated that coastal salt marshes cover PALUSTRINE WETLANDS 25,500 acres in southern Alabama. - ------------ Beds of submersed aquatic vegetation grow in 0 Marsh Marsh the shallow waters of Mobile Bay and adjacent estu- RIVERINE WETLAND aries; they are usually inundated except during low tide (Stout, 1990). Only the zone of these aquatic beds exposed during mean low tide is considered to be wet- land by the Fws National Wetland Inventory; most Unnestone estuarine aquatic beds are in deepwater habitats. HYDROLOGIC SETTING Wetlands form where there is a persistent water B. Appalachian Plateaus supply at or near the land surface. The location and PALUSTRINE WETLAND persistence of the supply is controlled by factors such as precipitation, evapotranspiration, topography, soil RIVERNE WE LAND type, geology, runoff, and, near the coast, tides. Plen- T Ss tiful rainfall, about 55 inches per year statewide Shale', E PALUSTRINE WETLANDS PALUSTRINE WETLANDS (Jeffcoat and Mooty, 1986), is an important factor Coal contributing to wetland formation and maintenance Sandstone (Ss) RIVERINE WETLAND in Alabama. Wetlands commonly form in topographi- cally low areas, in areas of impeded drainage, and at locations where the water table intersects the land surface. The movement of ground water into wetlands Shale is controlled by hydraulic gradients (which are pri- marily determined by topography), recharge from Sh.1 Precipitation, regional geologic structure, joints and I Sandstone fractures in the bedrock, and aquifer porosity, perme- ability, and thickness. For the purpose of discussing wetland hydrology, C Coastal Plain Alabama can be divided into two geohydrollogic re- PALUSTRINE WETLANDS PALUSTRiNE WETLANDS gions that are separated by the Fall Line (fig. 2B). The Fall Line is a regional topographic feature that marks Tidal freshwater swamp ESTUARINE the boundary between the ancient, resistant crystal- -7- Mobile-Tensaw WETLANDS line rocks of the northern part of the State and the Ri- Delta younger, softer sediments to the south. < -7- < - The region north of the Fall Line in Alabama lies 3 in four physiographic provinces-the Interior Low Plateaus, the Appalachian Plateaus, the Valley and Sand aquifer Ridge, and the Piedmont (fig. 2B). This region has Freshwater diverse topography; altitudes range from 200 to 2,400 feet above sea level. Wetlands in this region are com- ------------- Confining laVer Saltwater monly associated with rivers, reservoirs, and im- poundments (as in Wheeler National Wildlife Refuge) Confined aquifer or with springs, seeps, and solution features such as caves and sinkholes (fig. 3A and 3B). Most of the EXPLANATION once-common rocky-shoal habitat has been destroyed Direction of ground-water C@ Scrub-shrub vagetation by channelization and damming of rivers, except in flow the Cahaba River Basin and a few tributaries of other Average water table Emergent vegetation rivers (Cahaba River Society, 1992). Most of the major springs in the State are in the Interior Low Plateaus and Valley and Ridge Province, where carbonate rocks Forest vegetation lk)? Submersed aquatic predominate. These rocks characteristically are frac- vegetation tured and cavernous and readily transmit ground Sand and organic water to the land surface (Chandler and Moore, 1987). deposits Isolated wetlands have formed near springs and seeps Figure 3. Generalized geohydrologic setting of wetlands in three physiograph- and in sinkholes throughout the northern part of the ic provinces of Alabama. A, Appalachian Plateaus. B, Interior Low Plateaus. State. Byrd Spring Swamp (also known as Byrd C, Coastal Plain. Spring Lake), a 650-acre wetland containing tupelo 104 National Water Surnmary-Wetland Resources: STATE SUMMARIES gum and other bottom-land hardwoods, is a notable example of a and commercial development, residential development, erosion and wetland that is spring fed from a karst cave system (U.S. Fish and subsidence, and natural succession from wetlands to uplands (Roach Wildlife Service, 1992). and others, 1987). Much of the loss of coastal wetlands occurred in The region south of the Fall Line in Alabama-the Coastal the Mobile Bay area, where the loss was due to direct and indirect Plain-has a gentle slope on which rivers and streams have devel- effects of dredging (Duke and Kruczynski, 1992). Stout (1979) es- oped broad flood plains shaped by wide seasonal fluctuations in timated that about 6,000 acres of marshland in the bay have been river levels. Wetlands have formed over extensive areas on these destroyed and about 2,200 acres of marshland created by deposi- flood plains in response to an abundant supply of water from river tion of dredged material. Cumulative effects of alterations of all flooding and ground-water sources. The hydrology of flood-plain kinds on the Mobile Bay ecosystem resulted in a loss of more than wetlands is typically dominated by river water levels that respond 10,000 acres of emergent estuarine marsh and probably more than to basinwide climatic conditions (Winter and Woo, 1990). In late 50 percent of the submerged aquatic vegetation in the bay between winter and early spring, annual flooding by rivers and streams can 1955 and 1979 (Watzin and others, in press). inundate the entire flood plain to depths of several feet or more. The Fws recently evaluated wetland changes in upper Mobile Natural levees along rivers and streams trap water in the flood plain Bay (Watzin and others, in press). The evaluation revealed no addi- and reduce surface runoff (Hofstetter, 1983). Water trapped in flood- tional loss of estuarine-marsh acreage since 1979 and reported a plain wetlands is lost primarily by evapotranspiration and as ground- substantial (75 percent) increase in freshwater marsh from 1979 to water recharge (Winter and Woo, 1990). During much of the year, 1988, The increase in freshwater marsh was attributed to growth of water levels in the flood plains are at or below the land surface, emergent vegetation in disposal areas and ditches and to mapping except in ponds, depressions, and sloughs, which can retain surface errors in earlier inventories. About 1,200 acres (2.7 percent) of for- water year round. ested wetlands in the upper Mobile Bay area were lost or converted Wetlands on flood plains also are sustained by ground water to scrub-shrub wetlands between 1979 and 1988. A major cause of (fig. 3C). A rise in river stage causes water to go into bank storage, the conversions was clearcutting associated with timber harvest. which results in a rise in ground-water levels in the flood plain. Losses were due largely to creation of impoundments and commer- Ground-water inflow from adjacent uplands also can be an impor- cial development. tant source of water to flood-plain wetlands because flood plains Wetland regulations currently (1993) in effect generally allow are topographically low and are a natural place for discharge from wetland destruction only when mitigated by wetland enhancement ground-water flow systems (Winter and Woo, 1990). or creation. The effectiveness of these measures in slowing wetland On flood plains near the coast, river discharge combined with loss will depend upon enforcement of and compliance with the tidal action causes flooding and temporary storage of freshwater in mitigation requirements. The effectiveness of wetland mitigation in large areas of wetlands, such as those in the Mobile-Tensaw River sustaining the ecological functions of wetlands remains in question Delta (fig. 3C). The temporary storage affects the timing and size (Stout, 1979; Alabama Department of Environmental Management, of freshwater influx into Mobile Bay, which is critical in maintain- 1992). ing optimal salinities in the bay. Temporary storage of freshwater in the delta wetlands also improves the quality of the water that flows CONSERVATION into the bay by reducing nutrient and sediment loads and by increas- ing organic detrital loads that serve as a food source for many es- Many government agencies and private organizations partici- tuarine organisms (Dardeau and others, 1990; Stout, 1990). pate in wetland conservation in Alabama. The most active agencies Estuarine wetlands form where freshwater and saltwater Mix and organizations and some of their activities are listed in table 1. and can be subject to widely varying salinity caused by tidal fluc- Federal wetland activities.-Development activities in Ala- tuations and by seasonal and annual differences in freshwater in- bama wetlands are regulated by several Federal statutory prohibi- put that result from climate variation. Plants and animals of estua- tions and incentives that are intended to slow wetland losses. Some rine wetlands must be adapted to constantly changing hydrologic, of the more important of these are contained in the 1899 Rivers and salinity, and nutrient-availability regimes. Owing to the differing Harbors Act; the 1972 Clean Water Act and amendments; the 1985 physiological tolerances of wetland plants and animals, wetland Food Security Act; the 1990 Food, Agriculture, Conservation, and communities develop in identifiable zones in response to those fac- Trade Act; the 1986 Emergency Wetlands Resources Act; and the tors. 1972 Coastal Zone Management Act. Section 10 of the Rivers and Harbors Act gives the U.S. Army TRENDS Corps of Engineers (Corps) authority to regulate certain activities in navigable waters. Regulated activities include diking, deepening, Alabama has lost as much as 50 percent of its wetlands in the filling, excavating,and placing of structures. The related section 404 last 200 years (Dahl, 1990). In predevelopment times, wetlands of the Clean Water Act is the most often-used Federal legislation covered about 7.6 million acres of the area that is now Alabarna. protecting wetlands. Under section 404 provisions, the Corps issues Recent estimates of the remaining wetland acreage in Alabama range permits regulating the discharge of dredged or fill material into from 2.3 million to 3.1 million acres (J.M. Hefner, U.S. Fish and wetlands. Permits are subject to review and possible veto by the U.S. Wildlife Service, written commun., 1992) to about 3.8 million acres Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), and the FWS has review and (U.S. Department of Agriculture, 1985). Differences in the estimates advisory roles. Section 401 of the Clean Water Act grants to States possibly reflect differences in inventory terminology or techniques. and eligible Indian Tribes the authority to approve, apply conditions Alabama lost about 10 percent of its interior wetlands from to, or deny section 404 permit applications on the basis of a pro- 1956 through 1979 (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 1992). Primary posed activity's probable effects on the water quality of a wetland. causes for the loss of the interior wetlands were agricultural con- Most farming, ranching, and silviculture activities are not sub- version of wetlands to croplands, conversion of bottom-land hard- ject to section 404 regulation. However, the "Swampbuster" provi- wood forests to pine culture, and inundation caused by reservoir sion of the 1985 Food Security Act and amendments in the 1990 construction. Food, Agriculture, Conservation, and Trade Act discourage (through Alabama lost about 69 percent of its coastal freshwater marsh financial disincentives) the draining, filling, or other alteration of and 29 percent of its estuarine marsh from 1955 through 1979. Pri- wetlands for agricultural use. The law allows exemptions from pen- mary reasons for the loss of these coastal wetlands were industrial alties in some cases, especially if the farmer agrees to restore the National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: ALABAMA 105 Table 1. Selected wetland-related activities of government (Frank Dukes, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, oral commun., 1992). agencies and private organizations in Alabama, 1993 The Corps manages 14 impoundments in the State and more than [Source: Classification of activities is generalized from information provided 100 public-use areas (U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, 198 1). Mili- by agencies and organizations. ., agency or organization participates in tary bases in Alabama cover an area of about 400,000 acres, some wetland-related activity; ..., agency or organization does not participate in of which contain wetlands. The Sanctuaries and Reserves Division wetland-related activity. MAN, management; REG, regulation; R&C, restora- tion and creation; LAN, land acquisition, R&D, research and data collection; of NOAA, in cooperation with the State of Alabama, manages the D&I, delineation and inventory] Weeks Bay National Estuarine Research Reserve. The Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA) maintains 3,750 acres of managed wetlands C' hern Alabama (Wes James, Tennessee Valley Authority, oral in nort Agency or organization commun., 1993). The Wildlife and Natural Heritage Resources FEDERAL Section of TVA develops and implements conservation and manage- Department of Agriculture ment strategies to ensure protection of wildlife and natural heritage Consolidated Farm Service Agency., .......................... resources on TvA lands and promotes protection and enhancement Forest Service ...................................... ........................... of such resources elsewhere in the region. The Natural Heritage Natural Resources Conservation Service ................. Resources Section, in cooperation with State wildlife-management Department of Commerce agencies and the FWS, operates projects that provide critical wet- National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration . land habitats that support migratory waterfowl and other important Department of Defense Army Corps of Engineers ............................................... wetland species. Military reservations .................................... ............... Although it does not manage wetlands, EPAs wetland-research Department of the Interior programs facilitate wetland management and conservation in Ala- Fish and Wildlife Service ............................................... barna. The EPA, in cooperation with State and other Federal agen- Geological Survey ............................... ........................... cies, is assessing coastal wetlands in the State as part of its Gulf of National Biological Service ............... ........................... National Park Service .................................................... Mexico Program. The EPA and Fws are conducting a demonstration Environmental Protection Agency ................................... project that will map changes in wetlands in Mobile Bay and the Tennessee Valley Authority ................... ........................... lower Mobile-Tensaw River Delta. STATE State wetland activities.-Although Alabama currently (1993) Department of Conservation and Natural Resources has no comprehensive wetland-protection program, the State is as- Department of Economic and Community Affairs ......... ... Department of Environmental Management ..................0 sessing the need for a wetlands policy. Several State agencies ac- Geological Survey of Alabama ......................................... ... tively participate in aspects of Federal programs, and some wetlands Marine Environmental Sciences Consortium ................ are protected under State programs. SOME COUNTY AND LOCAL GOVERNMENTS ............... The Alabama Department of Economic and Community Af- PRIVATE ORGANIZATIONS fairs is responsible for planning policies that protect the State's water The Nature Conservancy ................................................... Coastal Land Trust ...................................................... resources, including wetlands. The Department's newly formed Office of Water Resources has initiated a 3-year study to be com- pleted in 1995 that will address protection of wetlands and other altered wetland or other wetlands that have been converted to agri- water resources in the State. The Department also addresses wet- cultural use. The Wetlands Reserve Program of the 1990 Food, land issues in its Statewide Comprehensive Outdoor Recreation Plan Agriculture, Conservation, and Trade Act authorizes the Federal in response to section 303 of the Federal Emergency Wetlands Re- Government to purchase conservation easements from landowners sources Act of 1986. who agree to protect or restore wetlands. The Consolidated Farm The Alabama Department of Environmental Management Service Agency (formerly the Agricultural Stabilization and Con- manages wetlands in Alabama's coastal zone through its regulatory servation Service) administers the Swampbuster provisions and Wet- authority under the Alabama Coastal Zone Management Act and lands Reserve Program. The Natural Resources Conservation through its authority to issue section 401 water-quality certification. Service (formerly the Soil Conservation Service) determines com- The Department identifies wetlands and submersed grassbeds as pliance with Swampbuster provisions and assists farmers in the iden- coastal resources for which effects from any regulated uses must tification of wetlapds and in the development of wetland protection, be considered. This activity includes review of all State and Fed- restoration, or creation plans. eral permitting activities for the coastal zone of the State and pri- The 1986 Emergency Wetlands Resources Act and the 1972 marily, in the case of wetlands, section 404 dredge-and-fill permits Coastal Zone Management Act and amendments encourage wetland and Rivers and Harbors Act navigable-water permits issued by the protection through funding incentives. The Emergency Wetland Corps (Alabama Department of Environmental Management, 1992). Resources Act requires States to address wetland protection in their Alabama's Coastal Zone Management program defines the coastal Statewide Comprehensive Outdoor Recreation Plans to qualify for zone as that part of the State where the land surface is less than 10 Federal funding for State recreational land; the National Park Ser- feet above sea level. However, Rathburn and others (1987) reported vice provides guidance to States in developing the wetland compo- that approximately 28 percent ofAlabama's coastal wetlands are in nent of their plans. Coastal States that adopt coastal-zone manage- areas that are higher than 10 feet and, thus, are excluded from pro- ment programs and plans approved by the National Oceanic and tection under the Coastal Zone Management program. Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) are eligible for Federal fund- Mitigation for wetland losses caused by approved projects is ing and technical assistance through the Coastal Zone Management required in the coastal zone. A review of some of these coastal miti- Act. gation projects indicated that, of 14 projects, 6 could not be evalu- Federal agencies are responsible for the proper management ated, 3 were successful, 2 were partially successful, and 3 were fail- of wetlands on public land under their jurisdiction. In Alabama, the ures (Alabama Department of Environmental Management, 1992). U.S. Forest Service manages wetlands in five National Forests, The Department of Environmental Management regulates which contain 636,476 acres of land and more than 400 miles of dredge-and-fill activities in wetlands that are not in Alabama's rivers (Alabama Department of Economic and Community Affairs, coastal zone solely through the State's authority to issue section 401 1991). The FWS manages 55,000 acres on five National Wildlife water-quality certification under the Clean Water Act and through Refuges in the State, of which about 29,000 acres are wetlands the Nonpoint Source Discharge Management Program. Other ac- 106 National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: STATE SUMMARIES tivities that might affect wetlands, such as draining or logging op- Duke, Thomas, and Kruczynski, W.L., eds., 1992, Status and trends of erations that do not result in significant welland fill, are not regu- emergent and submerged vegetated habitats, GulfofM[exico, USA: The lated. Wetland waters are considered to be waters of the State in Environmental Protection Agency, Gulf of Mexico Program, 161 p. the Alabama Water Pollution Control Act but are not defined or Fenneman, N.M., 1946, Physical divisions of the United States: Washing- protected by the act for their inherent value (Alabama Department ton, D.C., U.S. Geological Survey special map, scale 1:7,000,000. Field, D.W., Reyer, A.J., Genovese, P.V., and Shearer, B.D., 1991, Coastal of Environmental Management, 1992). wetlands of the United States-An accounting of a valuable national The Alabama Department of Conservation and Natural Re- resource: Washington, D.C., National Oceanic and Atmospheric Ad- sources comments on section 404 permit applications and on local ministration and U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service cooperative report, land-use issues to call attention to potential effects on wildlife. The 59 p. Department manages, regulates, and acquires land (including wet- Hofstetter, R.H., 1983, Wetlands of the United States, in Gore, A.J.P., ed., lands) for wildlife-management areas, State parks, and for other State Ecosystems of the world; 4B, Mires-Swamp, bog, fen and moor: Re- recreational lands. The Department also will administer a new pro- gional studies, Amsterdam, Elsevier Scientific Publishing Co., p. 20 1- gram, "Forever Wild," that has the objective of acquiring land for 244. protection, recreation, education, and scientific research. Jeffcoat, H.H., and Mooty, W.S., 1986, Alabama surface-water resources, in U.S. Geological Survey, National water summary 1985-Hydro- Private wetland activities.-Private organizations in Alabama logic events and surface-water resources: U.S. Geological Survey are important advocates for wetlands. These organizations inform Water-Supply Paper 2300, p. 131-136. the public on wetland issues, organize citizen networks, and lobby Mitsch, W.J., and Gosselink, J.G., 1986, Wetlands: New York, Van Nostrand for wetland protection. The Alabama Conservancy, the Coastal Land Reinhold Company, 537 p. Trust, the Sierra Club, the National Audubon Society, the Alabama Mohlenbrock, R.H., 1992, Conecuh bogs, Alabama: Natural History, v. 10 1, Wildlife Federation, and the Cahaba River Society are involved in no. 3, p, 60-62. State wetland issues. RathbuTn, C.E., Watzin, M.C., Johnston, J.B., and O'Neil, P.E., 1997, Areal The Nature Conservancy is active in the acquisition and pro- extent of wetlands above and below the 10-foot contour line in Ala- bama: U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, National Weiland Research tection of wetlands in Alabama. The Nature Conservancy, along with Center Open-File Report 86-3, 9 p. the Coastal Land Trust, acquired 18,000 acres of wetlands in the Roach, E.R., Watzin, M.C., Scurry, J.D., and Johnston, J.B., 1987, Wetland Mobile-Tensaw River Delta. Most of this acreage has been sold to changes in coastal Alabama, in Lowery, T.A., ed., Proceedings of the Corps as part of its Tennessee-Tombigbee Waterway mitigation Symposium on the Natural Resources of the Mobile Bay Estuary, project and will be managed by the State. The Nature Conservancy Mobile, Ala., February 10- 12, 1987: Mobile, Ala., Auburn Univer- has been instrumental in the purchase and preservation of several sity, Alabama Sea Grant Extension Service and Alabama Cooperative other wetland areas in the State, including the Bon Secour National Extension Service, p. 92-101. Wildlife Refuge, the Weeks Bay National Estuarine Research Re- Shaw, S.P., and Fredine, C.G., 1956, Wetlands of the United States -Their serve, several small (2- to 35-acre) pitcher plant bogs in northern extent and their value to waterfowl and other wildlife: U.S. Fish and Alabama, and a 156-acre tract in southern Alabama that is primar- Wildlife Service Circular 39, 67 p. Stout, J.P., 1979, Marshes of the Mobile Estuary-Status and evaluation, ily pine savannah containing some wetlands. The Nature Con- in Loyacano, H.A., Jr., and Smith, J.P., eds., Proceedings of the Sym- servancy also has been requested by the FWS to assist in the estab- posium on the Natural Resources of the Mobile Bay Estuary, Mobile, lishment of the Grand Bay Savannah National Wildlife Refuge in Ala., 1979: Mobile, Ala., U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Mobile Dis- southwestern Alabama and southern Mississippi. This proposed trict, p. It 3 -122. 13,000-acre refuge will have substantial wetland acreage (Stratton -1990, Estuarine habitats, in Mobile Bay-Issues, resources, status, Bull, The Nature Conservancy of Alabama, written commun., and management-Proceedings of a seminar held in Washington, D.C., 1993). November 17, 1988: National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administra- tion, Estuary-of-tbe-Month Seminar Series no. 15, p. 63-88. U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, 1981, Environmental data inventory, State References Cited of Alabama: Mobile, Ala., U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, 325 p. U.S. Department of Agriculture, 1985, Status and conditions of land and Alabama Department of Economic and Community Affairs, 199 1, Alabama water resources in Alabama, 1982: Auburn, Ala., U.S. Department of Statewide Comprehensive Outdoor Recreation Plan: Montgomery, Agriculture, 140 p. Alabama Department of Economic and Community Affairs, 146 p. U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 1992, Regional wetlands concept plan, and appendix. Emergency Wetlands Resources Act, Southeast Region: Atlanta, U.S. Alabama Department of Environmental Management, 1992, Water-quality Fish and Wildlife Service, 259 p. report to Congress: Montgomery, Alabama Department of Environ- Watzin, M.C., Tucker, Sandy, and South, Celeste, in press, Environmental mental Management, 105 p. and appendix. problems in the Mobile Bay ecosystem-The cumulative effects of Cahaba River Society, 1992, It's almost lily time!: Cahaba River Society human activities: Mobile, Ala., Mississippi-Alabama Sea Grant Con- newsletter, May/June 1992, 16 p. sortium Publication. Chandler, RX, and Moore, J.D., 1987, Springs inAlabama: Alabama Geo- Winter, T.C., and Woo, Ming-Ko, 1990, Hydrology of takes and wetlands, logical Survey Circular 134, 95 p. in Wotman, M.G., and Riggs, H.C., eds., Surface water hydrology, Cowardin, L.M., Carter, Virginia, Golet, F.C., and LaRoe, E.T., 1979, Clas- Boulder, Colo., Geological Society of America, The Geology of North sification of wetlands and deepwater habitats of the United States: U.S. America, v. 0-1, p. 159-187. Fish and Wildlife Service Report FWS/OBS-79/31, 131 p. Dahl, T.E., 1990, Wetlands-Losses in the United States, 1780's to 1980's: FOR ADDITIONAL INFORMATION: District Chief, U.S. Geological Washington, D.C., U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Report to Congress, Survey, 5 20 19th Avenue, Tuscaloosa, AL 3540 1; Regional Weiland Coor- 13 p. dinator, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 1875 Century Building, Atlanta, Dahl, T.E., Johnson, C.E., and Frayer, W.E., 1991, Status and trends of GA 30345 wetlands in the conterminous United States, mid-I 970's to mid-1990s: L Washington, D.C., U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Report to Congress, 28 p. Prepared by Dardeau, M.R., Shipp, R.L. and Wallace, R.K., 1990, Faunal components, Benjamin E McPherson, in Mobile Bay-Issues, resources, status, and management-Proceed- U.S. Geological Survey ings of a seminar held November 17,1988: Washington, D.C., National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Estuary-of-the-Mooth Seminar Series no. 15, p. 89-114. U.S. Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper 2425 National Water Summary-Wetland Resources 107 Alaska Wetland Resources Alaska has more area covered by wetlands -approximately 170 to absorb some meltwater. Following snowmelt, wetlands have a millionofits 367 million acres-than the total areaofwetlands in greater capacity for streamflow regulation because the capacity of the other 49 States combined (Dahl, 1990). Alaska has a wide vari- the soils to store water increases: higher temperatures increase the ety of topographic, geologic, climatic, and hydrologic conditions that thickness of unfrozen soils and increase evaporation and plant tran- contribute to the variety of wetland complexes in the State. Alaska's spiration, which help lower the water table. wetland complexes differ in size, function, and type, and they in- Wetland plants help control the erosion of mineral soils by clude types that are rare in other States, such as vast expanses of decreasing wind and water velocities near the ground and by hold- treeless tundra (fig. 1) in northern Alaska and extensive black spruce ing soil particles together with their roots. In permafrost areas, veg- peatlands, or muskegs, elsewhere in the State. etation also reduces erosion by preventing the warming and thaw- Wetlands are sociologically, ecologically, and economically ing of ice-rich soils. In flood plains, wetland vegetation removes important to Alaska. Wetlands provide the resources for people in some suspended sediment from floodwaters by slowing water ve- rural Alaskan villages to survive (Ellanna and Wheeler, 1990)- locities. almost all subsistence hunting, fishing, trapping, and food gather- Wetlands in Alaska transform and retain nutrients and toxic ing occurs on or adjacent to wetlands. Many mammals, fish, and compounds. Nutrients and contaminants attach to the organic and birds within the State depend on some type of wetland for breed- fine mineral soils. Plants, phytoplankton, fungi, and bacteria use ing, nesting, rearing young, or feeding. Alaska's wetlands provide the nutrients and degrade some of the contaminants. recreational opportunities and support related businesses for people who hunt, observe, and photograph wildlife. TYPES AND DISTRIBUTION Alaska has seven wetland complexes that are important for their water-habitat value (Tiner, 1984): Yukon-Kuskokwim Delta, Wetlands are lands transitional between terrestrial and Izembek Lagoon, Yukon Flats, Teshekpuk Lake, upper Alaska Pen- deepwater habitats where the water table usually is at or near the insula, Copper River Delta, and upper Cook Inlet. In general, wet- land surface or the land is covered by shallow water (Cowardin and lands in Alaska that have the highest value for waterfowl are coastal others, 1979). The distribution of wetlands and deepwater habitats salt marshes and wetlands in and adjacent to lakes that have exten- in Alaska is shown in figure 2A; only wetlands are discussed herein. sive periods of drawdown or that fluctuate with river flow (Lensink Wetlands can be vegetated or nonvegetated and are classified and Derksen, 1990). on the basis of their hydrology, vegetation, and substrate. In this sum- During spring and fall migrations, huge flocks of waterfowl mary, wetlands are classified according to the system proposed by (ducks, geese, and swans) and shorebirds (dowitchers, godwits, Cowardin and others (1979), which is used by the U.S. Fish and plovers, turnstones, sandpipers, curlews, snipe, phalaropes, and Wildlife Service (Fws) to map and inventory the Nationlis wetlands. yellowlegs) stop at wetland areas in Alaska. More than 70,000 swans, At the most general level of the classification system, wetlands are I million geese, 12 million ducks, and 100 million shorebirds de- grouped into five ecological systems: Palustrine, Lacustrine, Riv- pend on Alaskan wetlands for resting, feeding, or nesting (King and erine, Estuarine, and Marine. The Palustrine System includes only Lensink, 197 1). During years of drought in prairie States and Prov- wetlands, whereas the other systems comprise wetlands and inces of Canada, birds displaced from their traditional breeding deepwater habitats. Wetlands of the systems that occur in Alaska areas fly northward to wetlands in Alaska. are described on page 3. Alaska wetlands provide forage for large mammals such as caribou, moose, and musk oxen. They also provide food and habi- tat for beaver, muskrat, mink, and land otter. Rocky coastal beaches serve as rookeries (areas where breeding and pupping occur) and resting areas for marine mammals such as seal, sea lion, and wal- rus. Alaska wetlands sustain some of the world's richest commer- cial, sport, and subsistence fisheries. Almost 90 percent of wild salmon caught in the United States are caught in Alaskan waters. These fish rely on palustrine and riverine wetlands to provide food, cover, and spawning areas during their life in inland waters, and they pass through riverine, estuarine, and marine wetlands on their mi- gration to and from the ocean. Resident freshwater and estuarine fish also depend on wetland habitat. Wetlands in Alaska have important hydrologic and water-qua] - ity functions, including flow regulation, erosion control, sediment retention, nutrient uptake, and contaminant removal. Many wetlands have limited flood-control or water-storage functions during snow- melt because their soils are seasonally or perennially frozen, limit- l ng absorption of runoff. However, several characteristics of wet- ands help reduce peak flows, even when soils are frozen (Post, 1990). Water is detained behind hummocks and within depressions, Figure 1. Tundra on the Arctic coastal plain southwest of the ponds, and lakes, and the velocity of the water is slowed by vegeta- Kavik River. Willow thickets are present along the meandering tion. The mosses, peats, and mineral soils of wetlands can become stream. (Photograph by FC Golet, U.S. Fish and Wildlife dryer during winter, and during snowmelt these materials are able Service.) 108 National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: STATE SUMMARIES 160- r@hekpuk BFA0roRT Sf-A Lake 150-ZK-ik Ri- 765. 145 r; S44 65. A Delta WETLANDS AND DEEPWATER HABITATS Distribution of wetlands and deepwater habitats- This map shows the approximate distribution of large wetlands in the State. Because of limitations of scale and source material, some wetlands are not shown ..3 Predominantly wetland Vicrage 1 0 Predominantly cleepwater habitat r n' au to Gl..k 135' Dole. B.y 17 Cope B. Willi.. Suckling &)U,d Cape ea. 0 100 200 MILES Fairweather G.@... stikine 0 100 200 KILOMETERS Kdiak L F 0 Flm I River 0 4 Delta be* ?a o@7@slrkjnak IsA@d 4 T"giduk 4leutian islands 780@ I175, 170, 165. "_ARCTIC"' AR C' NORTH WEST CONtlI4EkTAI,- f % TRANSITION B C TH SOUTH GEOGRAPHIC DIVISIONS CLIMATIC ZONES z 47, CON INENTAL SOUTH ALEUTIAN EAST MARITIME ISLANDS Figure 2. Wetland distribution in Alaska and physical and climatological features that control wetland distribution in the State. A, Distribu- tion of wetlands and deepwater habitats. B, Geographic divisions. C, Climatic zones. (Sources: A, TE. Dahl, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, k unpub. data, 199 1. B, Geographic divisions modified from Lamke, 1986; landforms data from EROS Data Center. C, Hartman and Johnson, 1978.) National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: ALASKA 109 System Wertland description The Joint Federal-State Land Use Planning Commission for Palustrine .................. Nontidal and tidal-freshwater wetlands in which Alaska (1973), Batten and Murray (1982), Lee and Hinckley (1982), vegetation is predominantly trees (forested wet- Batten (1990), and Viereck and others (1992) describe Alaska's lands); shrubs (scrub-shrub wetlands); persistent wetland vegetation. Many plants in Alaska grow well in a wide range or noripersistent emergent, erect, rooted herba- of climate, soil, and water conditions. Some species dominate plant ceous plants ipersistent- and nonpersistent- communities on both wet and dry soils, sometimes making it diffi- emergent wetlands); mosses and lichens (moss- cult to differentiate Alaska wetlands from uplands solely on the basis lichen wetland); or submersed and (or) floating plants (aquatic beds). Also, intermittently to per- of vascular-plant communities. manently flooded open-water bodies of less than Palustrine System.-Most ofAlaska's wetlands are palustrine. 20 acres in which water is less than 6.6 feet deep. Palustrine wetlands in Alaska include both peatlands (wetlands that Lacustrine ................. Nontidal and tidal-freshwater wetlands within an have organic soils) and nonpeatlands. Peatlands, also known as intermittently to permanently flooded lake or mires, occur throughout Alaska and cover an estimated 27 to 110 reservoir larger than 20 acres and (or) deeper million acres (Northern Technical Services and EKON0, Inc., 1980; than 6.6 feet. Vegetation, when present, is pre- dominantly noripersistent emergent plants (non- Dachnowski- Stokes, 1941), depending on the peatland definition persistent-emergent wetlands), or submersed and inventory techniques used. In general, a peatland is a moss-li- and (or) floating plants (aquatic beds), or both. chen, emergent, scrub-shrub, or forested wetland containing more Riverine ..................... Nontidal and tidal-freshwater wetlands within a than 12 inches of a wet organic soil (peat) consisting of partly to channel. Vegetation, when present, is same as well-decomposed plants. However, definitions of peatland differ in in the Lacustrine System. the thickness of peat required. Peat forms when the rate of plant Estuarine ................... Tidal wetlands in low-wave-energy environments production exceeds the rate of decomposition, usually under wa- wherethe salinity ofthewater is greaterthan 0.5 ter-saturated conditions. Poor air circulation, low levels of oxygen, part per thousand (ppt) and is variable owing to evaporation and the mixing of seawater and and cool ground water within the saturated soil inhibit the activity freshwater. of soil bacteria and fungi, so dead plant material decomposes slowly. Marine ....................... Ticlal wetlands that are exposed to waves and cur- Some peatlands in Alaska are underlain by poorly permeable silt, rents of the open ocean and to water having a clay, well-decomposed peat, or bedrock, which contribute to the salinity greater than 30 ppt. water-holding capacity of those sites. Throughout Alaska, peat is commonly several feet thick in topographic depressions and in Wetlands and deepwater habitats in Alaska are being invento- poorly drained lowlands. ried by the Fws. As ofDecember 1992, about 25 percent ofthe State Bogs and fens are peatlands that generally have a water table had been mapped to determine acreage of the wetland types within near the surface and ground-cover vegetation that is predominantly the classification system of Cowardin and others (1979). Wetlands mosses. Sedges, heath shrubs, and trees commonly grow above the also have been inventoried in some of Alaska's urban areas by the moss layer. In Alaska, sphagnum and feather mosses commonly U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (Corps). Maps showing wetland areas dominate the ground cover in flat peatlands having rain and snow for parts ofAnchorage, Fairbanks, Juneau, and the Kenai Peninsula as the predominant sources of water (bogs), whereas brown mosses, are available. The Natural Resource Conservation Service and grasses, and sedges are more prevalent on low-gradient slopes hav- Alaska Department of Natural Resources Soil and Water Conser- ing some internal drainage or ground-water inflow (fens). A moss- vation Districts also have mapped wetlands in some parts of south- floored peatland containing black spruce trees found primarily on central and interior Alaska having agricultural and potentially agri- cold, wet, poorly drained soils is commonly referred to as muskeg. cultural lands. The FWS 170-million-acre estimate for wetland area A inuskeg can be either a bog or a fen, depending on the source of in Alaska (Dahl, 1990) is based on soil surveys, land-cover maps, water. Bogs and fens underlain by permafrost are extensive in wet, National Weiland Inventory maps, and preliminary results of sta- low-relief areas near the Yukon and Kuskokwim Rivers in interior tistical surveys conducted by the National Wetland Inventory. Alaska, where they cover about 9 million acres (Joint Federal - State E PERMAFROST L.S_ Generally underlain by continuous permafrost Underlain by discontinuous D permafrost PRECIPITATION Underlain by isolated -40- Line of equal annual ldbbUb of permafrost precipitation- Interval, in inches, Generally free from is variable permafrost 80 160 160 320 40 80, 160 Figure 2. Continued. D, Average annual precipitation. E, Permafrost distribution. (Sources: D, Lamke, 1986. E, Ferrians, 1965.) 110 National Water Surnmary-Wetland Resources: STATE SUMMARIES Land Use Planning Commission for Alaska, 1973). In southeastern age are not available. Riverine wetlands provide critical spawning Alaska, where the terrain is mountainous, fens are more abundant and rearing habitat for resident fish and for fish that migrate from than bogs. Bogs and fens in southeastern Alaska form at the edges the ocean to spawn. Many riverine wetlands are subject to annual of mountain slopes and on adjacent lowlands. There, the wetlands or periodic inundations caused by snowmelt, glacier melt, and sum- are not underlain by permafrost but are commonly underlain by mer rainfall. Vegetated wetlands in low-gradient channels include bedrock at a shallow depth. submersed and floating aquatic plants and nonpersistent emergent Tundra, marshes, and meadows form in wet areas over min- plants such as buckbean, pendent grass, and cinquefoil. Vegetated eral or organic soils. Tundra is characterized by treeless terrain wetlands in high-gradient mountain streams are dominated by sub- covered by mosses, lichens, grasses, sedges, and low shrubs (mostly mersed aquatic mosses. emergent, moss-lichen, or scrub-shrub wetland). Permafrost com- Estuarine System.-Estuarine wetlands cover about 2 million monly is present at a shallow depth. Tundra occurs where summers acres in Alaska (Hall, 1988). Nonvegetated estuarine wetlands in- are not warm enough for tree growth and is most extensive in north- clude flats, beaches, and rocky shores, which cover about 1.7 mil- ern Alaska and above treeline in mountains throughout the State. lion acres and are most abundant (about 874,000 acres) in north- Three general types oftundra communities exist-wet, moist, and western and southwestern Alaska. Tidal flats are mud and sand alpine. The Joint Federal-State Land Use Planning Commission shores that appear to lack vegetation; however, a rich layer of mi- for Alaska (1973) estimated that wet tundra covers about 33 rnil- croscopic plants such as diatoms, blue-green algae, and dinoflagel- lion acres, moist tundra about 66 million acres, and alpine tundra lates typically covers the sediments. Intertidal sand and mud flats about 85 million acres. Most lowland tundra remains wet or moist bordering the Yukon - Kuskokwim Delta cover about 130,000 acres throughout the short thawing season because it is underlain by per- and in places are more than 6 miles wide. A series of barrier islands mafrost. However, only a small part of alpine tundra in higher moun- protects large areas of nonvegetated tidal flats in the Copper River tain regions is considered wetland. Delta. More than 20,000 acres of tidal flats occur on the seaward Freshwater marshes (emergent wetlands) are periodically in- edge of the Colville River Delta on the Beaufort Sea Coast. Exten- undated by standing or slowly moving water. Marshes in Alaska sive tidal flats not associated with major river deltas include contain sedges, rushes, marestail, and other aquatic plants. The Gustavus Flats near the mouth of Glacier Bay, intertidal lagoons of vegetation shows a distinct zonation according to water depth and Tugidak and Sitkinak Islands south of Kodiak Island, and vast frequency of exposure. Marshes are distinguished from bogs and mudflats in upper Cook Inlet. fens by the general absence of moss, heath-type shrubs, and peat. Vegetated estuarine wetlands cover about 345,000 acres in Marshes are common around the margins of lakes, ponds, and riv- Alaska (Hall, 1988). The most common type ofestuarine vegetated ers, in wet depressions and oxbows, on flood plains, in deltas, and wetland is the salt marsh (emergent wetland). Salt marshes contain- on gently sloping benches receiving water from steeper slopes above. ing sedges and grasses occur in tidally flooded, low-energy areas, Wet meadows (emergent wetlands) occupy seasonally flooded sites such as gently sloping shores close to the mouths of rivers or be- that dry out late in the growing season, although soils typically re- hind barrier islands and beaches. Large salt-marsh complexes oc- main saturated. Wet meadows are covered predominantly by her- cur along the 500-mile shoreline of the Yukon-Kuskokwim Delta baceous emergent plants, usually sedges, and are present on flood (about 162,000 acres), on the outer edge of the Copper River Delta, plains, lakeshores, and poorly drained lowlands throughout the State. and in the upper Cook Inlet area. Several million migrating shore- Palustrine wetlands within braided stream channels are com- birds and waterfowl use these coastal salt marshes for feeding and monly dominated by woody plants and perennial herbs. Willow and resting. alder are the predominant plants in riparian scrub-shrub wetlands Vegetated estuarine wetlands also include aquatic beds of al- adjacent to Alaska's many rivers. Cottonwood predominates in ri- gae and eelgrass. Rocky materials in tidal flats along the Aleutian parian forested wetlands. Ponds commonly contain aquatic beds Islands, in the western Gulf of Alaska, and in southeastern Alaska with water lilies, pondweeds, and submersed aquatic plants. provide habitat for algae. During fall, nearly the entire world's popu- Lacustrine System.-Alaska has hundreds of thousands of lation of Steller's ciders and emperor geese gather in aquatic-bed lakes which together cover more than 5 million acres (Joint Fed- wetlands in lagoons along the upper Alaska Peninsula. Izembek eral-State Land Use Planning Commission forAlaska, 1973), but Lagoon near the tip of the Alaska Peninsula contains one of the estimates of the area covered by wetlands within these takes are not largest eelgrass beds in the world, more than 94,000 acres. This available. Lakes are abundant in lowlands underlain by permafrost, lagoon serves as an international crossroad for migratory waterfowl in oxbows along braided and meandering rivers, in depressions in and shorebirds from Asia, the mid-Pacific, and North America. glacial-drift deposits, and in mountain valleys dammed by glacial Safety Lagoon on Seward Peninsula and Tugidak Lagoon on Tugidak moraines. Many lakes in Alaska contain aquatic beds in deeper water Island are other large eelgrass beds important to migrating water- and emergent aquatic plants in shallower water, commonly grading fowl. into surrounding palustrine and riverine wetlands. Marine System. -Marine wetlands, which border the open Lacustrine wetlands used extensively by waterfowl are char- ocean and are exposed to high-energy waves, cover about 46,000 acteristically in lakes having gradually sloping shorelines and ex- acres in Alaska (Hall, 1998). Nonvegetated marine wetlands are tensive shallow areas; profuse growth of submersed aquatic plants; generally sand and cobble-gravel shores or rocky shores. Most of a border of palustrine wetlands vegetated by emergent plants such the 250-mile coastline between Cape Suckling and Cape Fair- as sedges, cattails, and bulrush; an extensive band of grassland weather in the northern part of the Gulf of Alaska is sand beach, around the lake; an abundance of aquatic insects; and a lake bot- whereas most of the coast along the Aleutian Island chain is bed- tom composed of mineral soil (Lensink and Derksen, 1990). Those rock and boulder rocky shores. Vegetated marine wetlands occur characteristics are common in lakes that have long periods of gradu- primarily as algal aquatic beds colonizing rocky shores of the Alaska ally receding water levels or that are connected to a river. In the Peninsula and shores adjacent to the Gulf of A] aska. Yukon Flats, such lakes have the highest density of nesting water- fowl in interior Alaska, and they support a breeding population of HYDROLOGIC SETTING more than I million ducks. Riverine,!iystem.-Wetlands within river channels include bars Wetlands are present wherever topographic, climatic, and hy- and flats of mud, sand, or gravel. Alaska has tens of thousands of drologic conditions favor the retention of water. Low relief, perma- rivers, streams, and creeks, but estimates of riverine wetland acre- frost, a general abundance of precipitation relative to evaporation National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: ALASKA ill and plant transpiration, short cool summers, poorly permeable rocks become freshwater systems. Also, in some areas, salt marshes have near the land surface, and large tidal fluctuations help form and migrated seaward almost a mile. Kodiak Island and parts of south- maintain extensive wetlands in Alaska. Wetland characteristics con- eastern Alaska are rising because glaciers whose weight had for- tinuously change with changes in climate, water supply, soil mois- merly caused land subsidence are melting. The relative fall in sea ture, salinity, maturation of vegetation communities, tectonic activ- level is presumably modifying wetlands above the tidal zone and ity, fire, ice scour, glacier advance and retreat, and human activi- creating wetlands within the new tidal zone. ties such as draining and filling. The productivity of many Alaska wetlands is affected by fires. Alaska has seven broad, generally recognized geographic re- Fires occur only infrequently in coastal areas, allowing as much as gions (fig. 2B). These regions are Southeast, Aleutian Islands, South- several tens of feet of peat to accumulate in some bogs and fens in central, Southwest, Northwest, Arctic, and Interior Alaska. Alaska southeastern Alaska. Fires, common in interior Alaska, rid marshes has four climatic zones-Maritime, Transition, Continental, and of dead grass, sedges, and shrubs and make new shoots available Arctic (fig. 2C). The State's high mountain ranges, extensive coast- for waterfowl and mammals. Burning of vegetation and peat releases line, vast size-.- one-sixth the total area of the United States -and minerals and nutrients from organic litter, usually potassium, cal- long north-to-south distance are the principal causes for the great cium, phosphorus, magnesium, chloride, and nitrogen. However, differences in climate. From the northern part of the Arctic Zone to where permafrost is present, a severe fire may cause the relative the southern part of the Maritime Zone, average annual precipita- abundance of plant species to change, especially if the fire removes tion ranges from about 5 to 320 inches (fig. 2D), and average an- the insulating organic layer, which in turn causes the top of the nual temperature ranges from 10 to 45 degrees Fahrenheit. Two- permafrost to lower. If the burned area remains undisturbed, wet- thirds of the annual precipitation occurs from September through land conditions will eventually return, but it can take 50 to 100 years March in the Maritime Zone and from June through November in to complete the cycle. the Continental and Arctic Zones. In the Transition Zone, seasonal Sea ice and glaciers also affect Alaska wetlands. Sea ice scours precipitation patterns are not sharply defined, fluctuate from year the coast and I imits the establishment of vegetation in intertidal and to year, and can resemble those of either the Maritime or Continen- subtidal areas of the Bering, Chukchi, and Beaufort Seas. Advanc- tal Zones. ing glaciers can cover wetlands, whereas retreating glaciers provide Spring snowmelt supplies the most input to the annual water new areas where wetlands can form. budget in most Alaskan wetlands. Snowmelt is generally confined to a short time period during spring but produces considerable run- TRENDS off because it can represent the precipitation accumulated for most of the year. During summer, local rain or the melting of snow and Information on historical wetland gains and losses in Alaska glacier ice in upland areas replenishes the water supply of many is limited. Estimates of wetland losses for the entire State range from wetlands. In much of the Southeast and South-central regions of about 80,000 to 200,000 acres, or about 0.05 to 0. 15 percent of the Alaska, precipitation greatly exceeds evaporation. historic wetland area (Senner, 1989; Dahl, 1990). Senner (1989), Many wetlands throughout Alaska are underlain by poorly using existing quantitative data and aerial photographic interpreta- permeable materials, such as decomposed peat, bedrock, silt, clay, tion techniques, estimated the following wetland losses through 1986 seasonally frozen soils, or permafrost, that do not readily allow water by activity: petroleum -related development, about 30,000 acres; from snowmelt or rain to pass through. Permafrost, soil having a mining, about 13,000 acres; infrastructure (roads, harbors, airports, temperature below freezing for 2 years or more, helps form and and railroads), about 13,000 acres; development (residential, rec- maintain wetlands in the Northwest, Arctic, and Interior regions. The reational, and commercial), about 13,000 acres; agriculture, about extent and thickness of the permafrost decrease southward from a 8,500 acres; construction of military facilities (mostly roads and continuous layer as much as several hundred feet thick in the Arctic airfields), about 2,400 acres; and timber, less than 2,000 acres. region to areas generally free of permafrost in the South-central and Wetland losses have generally occurred in urban areas (Anchorage, Southeast regions (fig. 2E). In the Arctic coastal plain, thawed soi Is Juneau, Fairbanks), around villages and communities, and in large in the summer commonly are no more than about 3-feet thick, lim- industrial developments such as oil fields, transportation corridors, iting the rooting depth of plants and the infiltration of water. Long and industrial sites. As much as 50 percent of the wetlands in low- winters, cool summers, and the presence of permafrost maintain vast lying areas of Anchorage have been filled since 1945 (Alaska De- wet expanses under the same precipitation conditions that would partment of Natural Resources, 1992). Any additional industrial, produce only deserts in regions having temperate climates. commercial, and residential development within areas that are pre- Alaska has about 34,000 miles of shoreline. Extremely large dominantly wetland, such as in the Southwest, Northwest, and Arc- tidal fluctuations occur daily in southeastern Alaska, Prince Will- tic regions, might result in further draining or filling of wetlands. iam Sound, Cook Inlet, and Bristol Bay, forming expansive tidal flats and salt marshes. The diurnal fluctuation during spring tides is about CONSERVATION 40 feet vertically in upper Cook Inlet near Anchorage. In coastal areas having little topographic relief, such as those in the Southwest, Many government agencies and private organizations partici- Northwest, and Arctic regions, storm surges push seawater inland pate in wetland conservation in Alaska. The most active agencies several miles and affect the types and growth of plants. and organizations and some of their activities are listed in table 1. Alaska's large rivers form extensive deltas. The Yukon - Kusko- Federal wetland activities- Development activities in Alaska kwim Delta is one of the world's largest and supports more than 10 wetlands are regulated by several Federal statutory prohibitions and million acres of wetland. The deltas of the Colville, Copper, and incentives that are intended to slow wetland losses. Some of the more Stikine Rivers also support vast wetlands. Expansive wetlands, such important of these are contained in the 1899 Rivers and Harbors as the Yukon, Minto, Kanuti, and Koyukuk Flats, also occur adja- Act; the 1972 Clean Water Act and amendments; the 1985 Food cent to rivers flowing through large areas of low relief. Security Act; the 1990 Food, Agriculture, Conservation, and Trade Tectonic activities affect the hydrology of Alaska's wetlands. Act; the 1986 Emergency Wetlands Resources Act; and the 1972 During the 1964 earthquake, the Copper River Delta was uplifted Coastal Zone Management Act. 6 to 13 feet, and the Portage area, which is 40 miles southeast of Section 10 of the Rivers and Harbors Act gives the Corps au- Anchorage, subsided as much as 8 feet. In the Copper River Delta, thority to regulate certain activities in navigable waters. Regulated some wetlands that were salt marshes before the earthquake have activities include diking, deepening, filling, excavating, and plac- 112 National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: STATE SUMMARIES Table 1. Selected wetland-related activities of government pliance with Swampbuster provisions and assists farmers in the iden- agencies and private organizations in Alaska, 1993 tification of wetlands and in the development of wetland protection, [Source: Classification of activities is generalized from information provided restoration, or creation plans. by agencies and organizations. a, agency or organization participates in The 1986 Emergency Wetlands Resources Act and the 1972 wetJand-related activity ' ..., agency or organization does not participate in Coastal Zone Management Act and amendments encourage wetland wetland-related activity. MAN, management; REG, regulation; R&C, resto- ration and creation, LAN, land acquisition; R&D, research and data collec- protection through funding incentives. The Emergency Wetland tion; D&I, delineation and inventory] Resources Act requires States to address wetland protection in their Statewide Comprehensive Outdoor Recreation Plans to qualify for Federal funding for State recreational ]and; the National Park Set- C' Agency or organization vice (NPS) provides guidance to States in developing the wetland FEDERAL component of their plans. Coastal States that adopt coastal-zone Department of Agriculture management programs and plans approved by the National Oceanic Consolidated Farm Service Agency ........................... ... ... ... ... ... and Atmospheric Administration are eligible for Federal funding and Forest Service .................................................................0 0 0 0 0 technical assistance through the Coastal Zone Management Act. Natural Resources Conservation Service ................ ... 9 9 ... * 0 Many large tracts of land in Alaska are managed by Federal Department of Commerce agencies including the Bureau of Land Management (about 90 to National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration .........................................0 ... ... 0 ... 100 million acres), the FWS (16 wildlife refuges covering about 77 Department of Defense million acres), the NPS (parks and preserves covering about 50 mil- Army Corps of Engineers ..............................................e0 lion acres), the U.S. Forest Service (2 National Forests covering Military reservations .....................................................0 ... about 24 million acres), and the U.S. Department ofDefense (about Department of the Interior 2 million acres). Because wetlands in Alaska are widespread, al- Bureau of Land Management .............. .......................0 0 Bureau of Mines ............................................................. ... ... ... most all of these tracts contain some wetland. Thus, these agencies Fish and Wildlife Service ..............................................0... 0 directly or indirectly manage, inventory, or collect data on wetlands. Geological Survey .......................................................... ... ... ... ...* ... Many agencies are restoring and enhancing fish and wildlife habi- Minerals Management Service ........... ....................... ... ... ... ... 0 ... tats in wetlands that they manage. Reclamation of old mining sites, National Biological Service ......................................... ... ... ... ... . riverbanks trampled by fishermen, or other disturbed areas can in- National Park Service ...................................................o...o 0 0 Environmental Protection Agency .................................. ... ... ... 0 clude revegetation and wetland restoration. Some agencies also are NATIVE ALASKAN REGIONAL AND acquiring new lands containing wetlands. Governmental and non- VILLAGE CORPORATIONS ................................................. ... ... governmental groups and individuals have input into the manage- STATE ment plans for these Federal tracts. Department of Environmental Conservation ................ ... ... ... ... ... Native Alaskan regional and village corporation wetland ac- Department of Fish and Game ................. .......................e 0 0 . 0 Department of Natural Resouces .................................... tivities.-The Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act in 1971 allo- Department of Transportation and cated about 44 million acres to Native Alaskan regional and village Public Facilities ................................................................... ... ... ... ... ... corporations. Much of this land contains wetlands. University of Alaska ...........................................................0... ... ... ... State wetland activities.-Development activities in Alaska SOME BOROUGH AND LOCAL GOVERNMENTS .......... * wetlands are regulated by several State agencies. If the wetland is PRIVATE ORGANIZATIONS in a coastal area, a section 404 permit application is submitted to Ducks Unlimited ..................................................................a... ... 0 The Nature Conservancy ..................................................0... ... 0 the Corps and also to the Alaska Division of Governmental Coor- dination, which coordinates the review of permit applications by the Alaska Department of Environmental Conservation, Alaska Depart- ing of structures. The related section 404 of the Clean Water Act is ment of Fish and Game, and Alaska Department of Natural Re- the most often-used Federal legislation protecting wetlands. Under sources. The Division of Governmental Coordination also deter- section 404 provisions, the Corps issues permits regulating the dis- mines whether a proposed coastal activity is consistent with the charge of dredged or fill material into wetlands. Permits are sub- standards ofthe Alaska Coastal Management Program and with local ject to review and possible veto by the U.S. Environmental Protec- management policies and plans. State-agency reviews of permit tion Agency (EPA), and the Fws has review and advisory roles. Sec- applications for activities outside of coastal areas are not coordi- tion 401 of the Clean Water Act grants to States and eligible Indian nated by the Division. Tribes the authority to approve, apply conditions to, or deny sec- The Department of Environmental Conservation certifies per- tion 404 permit applications on the basis of a proposed activity's mit applications for compliance with State water-quality standards probable effects on the water quality of a wetland. under section 401 of the Clean Water Act and compliance with other Most farming, ranching, and silviculture activities are not sub- State laws and regulations. Pursuant to section 305(b) of the Clean ject to section 404 regulation. However, the "Swampbuster" provi- Water Act, the Department submits to the EPA and the U.S. Congress sion of the 1985 Food Security Act and amendments in the 1990 a biennial assessment of the State's water quality, including that in Food, Agriculture, Conservation, and Trade Act discourage (through wetlands (Alaska Department of Environmental Conservation, financial disincentives) the draining, filling, or other alteration of 1992). wetlands for agricultural use. The law allows exemptions from pen- Under Title 16 of the Alaska statutes, the Department of Fish alties in some cases, especially if the farmer agrees to restore the and Game has discretion to approve, deny, or issue conditional per- altered wetland or other wetlands that have been converted to agri- mits for activities affecting fish and wildlife and their habitats within cultural use. The Wetlands Reserve Program of the 1990 Food, State critic al-habitat areas (about 1.4 million acres), game refuges Agriculture, Conservation, and Trade Act authorizes the Federal (about 1.3 million acres), and game sanctuaries (about 94,000 Government to purchase conservation easements from landowners acres), many of which contain wetlands. Outside of such areas, The who agree to protect or restore wetlands. The Consolidated Farm Department's role is limited to activities affecting anadromous-fish Service Agency (formerly the Agricultural Stabilization and Con- habitat. servation Service) administers the Swampbuster provisions and Wet- The Department of Natural Resources Division of Parks and lands Reserve Program. The Natural Resources Conservation Outdoor Recreation is the lead agency developing State Compre- Service (formerly the Soil Conservation Service) determines com- hensive Outdoor Recreation Plans for Alaska. Pursuant to the re- National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: ALASKA 113 quirements of the Emergency Wetlands Resources Act of 1986, the References Cited plan (Alaska Department of Natural Resources, 1992) prioritizes Alaska Department of Environmental Conservation, 1992, Alaska water wetland protection by wetland type and function and outlines cri- quality assessment, 1992: Juneau, Alaska Department of Environmen- teria used for the selection of high-recreational-value wetlands for tal Conservation, Division of Environmental Quality, Water Quality possible acquisition. The Department of Natural Resources Soil and Management Section, 57 p. Water Conservation Districts help private landowners determine Alaska Department of Natural Resources, 1992, Alaska's outdoor legacy- whether the landowner's rural properties contain wetlands and Statewide Comprehensive Outdoor Recreation Plan, 1992-1996, whether a proposed activity requires permits from Federal and State Public review draft: Anchorage, Alaska Department of Natural Re- agencies. sources, Division of Parks and Outdoor Recreation, 100 p. As a result of the 1959 Alaska Statehood Act, Alaska gained Alaska Division of Governmental Coordination, 1990, Alaska coastal man- selection rights to about 105 million acres from the Federal Gov- agement program-Annual report, Fiscal year 1989: Juneau, Division of Governmental Coordination, 29 p. ernment. So far, the State has received title to about 85 million acres. -1991, Alaska coastal management program- Statutes and regula- The State also owns about 65 million acres of submersed lands that tions, September 199 1: Juneau, Division of Governmental Coordina- include the land between mean high tide and 3 miles offshore and tion, 105 p. the land under many large lakes and rivers. Most State lands are Batten, A.R., 1990, A synopsis of Alaska wetland vegetation, in Alaska- managed by the Department of Natural Resources, including about Regional wetland functions, Proceedings of a workshop, Anchorage, 3 million acres in State parks and about 2 million acres in State Alaska, May 28 -29, 1986: University of Massachusetts at Amherst, forests. The University of Alaska owns some wetlands and has sev- The Environmental Institute Publication 90-1, p. 23-44. eral academic departments researching wetlands and fish and wild- Batten, A.R., and Murray, D.F., 1982, A literature survey on the wetland life that use wetlands. vegetation of Alaska: U.S. Army Engineer Waterways Experiment Station Technical Report Y- 82 -2, 222 p. Regional, borough, and local wetland activities.-The Alaska Cowardin, L.M., Carter, Virginia, Golet, F.C., and LaRoe, E.T., 1979, Clas- Coastal Management Act established the Alaska Coastal Manage- sification of wetlands and deepwater habitats of the United States: U.S. ment Program, which is described by the Alaska Division of Gov- Fish and Wildlife Service Report FWS/OBS -79/31, 131 p. ernmental Coordination (1990, 1991) and Kyle (1982). The act al- Dachnowski-Stokes, A.P., 194 1, Peat resources in Alaska: U.S. Department lows local governments, rural regions, and the State to cooperatively of Agriculture Technical Bulletin 769, 82 p. protect and manage Alaska's coastal resources, including wetlands. Dahl, T.E., 1990, Wetlands -Losses in the United States, 17 80's to 1980's: The coastal zone includes all marine waters and submersed lands Washington, D.C., U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Report to Congress, extending offshore to the 3-mile limit of State jurisdiction and in- 13 p. land areas affecting coastal waters and resources. Many communi- Ellanna, L.J., and Wheeler, P.C., 1990, Subsistence use of wetlands in Alaska, in Alaska-Regional wetland functions, Proceedings of a ties are along the coast or along a major river within the coastal zone. workshop, Anchorage, Alaska, May 28 -29, 1986: University of Mas- Thirty-three coastal communities or regions have formed districts sachusetts at Amherst, The Environmental Institute Publication 90 - to work with the Alaska Coastal Policy Council and to prepare 1, p. 85-103. Coastal Management Plans that guide development in their local Ferrians, O.J., Jr., 1965, Permafrost map of Alaska: U.S. Geological Sur- areas. These district plans influence local, State, and Federal deci- vey Miscellaneous Geologic Investigations Series Map 1-445, scale sions on development within the district, including the issuance of 1:2,500,000. section 404 permits. Hall, JX, 1988, Alaska coastal wetlands survey: Anchorage, U.S. Fish and Anchorage, Juneau, Homer, Kodiak, and Sitka have wetland- Wildlife Service, 34 p. management plans designating critical wetlands where little or no Hartman, C.W., and Johnson, P.R., 1978, Environmental atlas of Alaska: Fairbanks, University of Alaska, Institute of Water Resources, 101 p. development is allowed, as well as less valuable wetlands that may Joint Federal- State Land Use Planning Commission for Alaska, 1973, Ma- be available for development. These plans aid project planning, jor ecosystems of Alaska: Washington, D.C., U.S. Geological Survey decrease the number of permit applications, and expedite review map, scale 1:2,500,000. of approvable projects. King, J.G., and Lensink, C.J., 1971, An evaluation of Alaskan habitat for General permits can be issued by the Corps to authorize speci- migratory birds: U.S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Sport fied activities within an area, such as a coastal district. They can be Fisheries and Wildlife Administrative Report, 74 p. administered by a local government and eliminate the need for in- Kyle, A.D., 1982, Local planning for wetlands management -A manual for dividual evaluation. districts in the Alaska Coastal Management Program: Juneau, Alaska Private wetland activities. - Alaska has many private-interest Office of Coastal Management, 89 p. Lamke, R.D., 1986, Alaska surface-water resources, in U.S. Geological groups that keep the public informed on wetland issues, organize Survey, National water summary 1985 -Hydrologic events and sur- citizen networks, and lobby either for or against wetland-protection face-water resources: U.S. Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper measures. The Nature Conservancy helps government agencies and 2300,p.137-144. private landowners identify rare and important ecological commu- Lee, L.C., and Hinckley, T.M., 1982, Impact of water level changes on woody nities, protects valuable habitats and natural systems through ac- riparian and wetland communities - The Alaska region: U.S. Fish and quisition or purchase, and assists governmental agencies and other Wildlife Service Report FWS/OBS-82/22, v. IX, 212 p. conservation organizations in their land-preservation efforts. Ducks Lensink, C.J., and Derksen, DX, 1990, Evaluation of Alaska wetlands for Unlimited has helped government agencies acquire, enhance, and waterfowl, in Alaska-Regional wetland functions, Proceedings of a protect wetlands used by waterfowl in the Anchorage, Fairbanks, workshop, Anchorage, Alaska, May 28 -29, 1986: University of Mas- sachusetts at Amherst, The Environmental Institute Publication 90- and the Copper River Delta areas. The Alaska Center for the Envi- 1, p. 45-84. ronment, Anchorage Waterways Council, National Audubon Soci- Northern Technical Services and EKONO, Inc., 1980, Peat resource esti- ety, National Wildlife Federation, Sierra Club, Southeast Alaska mation in Alaska: Anchorage, Northern Technical Services, v. 1, 107 p. Conservation Association, and Trustees for Alaska are a few of the (contract report prepared for the U.S. Department of Energy). organizations engaged in activities to protect Alaska's wetlands, in- Post, R.A., 1990, Effects of petroleum operations in Alaskan wetlands - A cluding programs to educate the public about wetland issues. The critique: Alaska Department of Fish and Game Technical Report 90- Alaska Wetlands Coalition opposes potential developmental con- 3, 112 p. straints and is lobbying for the State to be exempt from portions of Senner, R.G.B., 1989, Effects of petroleum operations in Alaskan wetlands: section 404 regulations because of the abundance of wetlands in the Anchorage, Robert Senner and Company, 138 p. State. 114 National Water Summay-Wetland Resources: STATE SUMMARIES Tiner, R.W., Jr., 1984, Wetlands of the United States -Current status and recent trends: Washington, D.C., U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 59 p. Viereck, L.A., Dyrness, C.T., Batten, A.R., and Wenzlick, K.J., 1992, The Alaska vegetation classification: U.S. Forest Service, General Tech- nical Report PNW-GTR-286,278 p. FOR ADDITIONAL INFORMATION: District Chief, U.S. Geological Survey, 4230 University Drive, Suite 201, Anchorage, AK 99508; Regional Wetland Coordinator, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 1011 East Tudor Road, Anchorage, AK 99503 Prepared by Roy L. Glass, U.S. Geological Survey U.S. Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper 2425 National Water Summary-Wetland Resources 115 Arizona Wetland Resources Less than I percent of Arizona's landscape has wetlands (Arizona TYPES AND DISTRIBUTION State Parks, 1989). Since the late 1800's, streams and wetlands Wetlands are lands transitional between terrestrial and deep- throughout Arizona have been drained or modified, resulting in the water habitats where the water table usually is at or near the land loss of more than one-third of the State's original wetlands (Dahl, surface or the land is covered by shallow water (Cowardin and oth- 1990). Despite their limited extent, wetlands are a valuable resource ers, 1979). The distribution of wetlands and deepwater habitats in for the State's people and wildlife. Arizona is shown in figure 2A; only wetlands are discussed here- Benefits derived from the State's wetlands include flood con- trol, streambank stabilization, water-quality improvement, water in. Wetlands can be vegetated or nonvegetated and are classified supply, wildlife habitat, recreation, and education. Riparian wetlands on the basis of their hydrology, vegetation, and substrate. In this can lessen the severity of floods by retaining stormwater and re- summary, wetlands are classified according to the system proposed leasing it slowly. Riparian vegetation can stabilize streambanks and by Cowardin and others (1979), which is used by the U.S. Fish and reduce erosion. Wetlands can improve water quality by decreasing Wildlife Service (FWS) to map and inventory the Natiotfs wetlands. the sediment and pollutant load in the water that filters through the At the most general level of the classification systm, wetlands are wetland (Carter, 1986). Rivers, lakes, and artificial stock ponds are grouped into five ecological systems: Palustrine, Lacustrine, Riv- sources of water for public supply, irrigation, and livestock use. erine, Estuarine, and Marine. The Palustrine System includes only Wetlands are among the most valuable wildlife habitats in Ari- wetlands, whereas the other sytems comprise wetlands and deep- zona (Arizona State Parks, 1989). The variety and concentration of water habitats. Wetlands of the systems that occur in Arizona are wildlife in wetlands are the result of abundant water, diverse veg- described below. etation (which provides adequate cover), and the dynamic and tran- sitional nature of constantly changing water levels. Wetlands provide essential habitat for many waterfowl and other birds (including System Wetland description shorebirds and tropical migrants), amphibians, fish, and mammals. Palustrine .................. Wetlands in which vegetation is predominantly Some of the threatened or endangered species that depend directly trees iforested wetlands); shrubs (scrub-shrub or indirectly on Arizona wetlands include the bald eagle, humpback wetlands); persistent or nonpersistent emergent, chub, Apache trout, Gila topminnow, Yuma clapper rail, Hualapai erect, rooted, herbaceous plants (persistent- and Mexican vole, and ocelot (Arizona State Parks, 1989). nonpersistent-emergent wetlands); or sub- mersed and (or) floating plants (aquatic beds). Recreational use of wetlands benefits the State economically. Also, intermittently to permanently flooded Arizona's streams and wetlands offer diverse recreational experi- open-water bodies of less than 20 acres in which ences, including boating, hunting and fishing, camping, hiking, and water is less than 6.6 feet deep. wildlife watching. During 1978, in more than 46,000 visits to j list Lacustrine ................. Wetlands within an intermittently to permanently three wetlands in southern Arizona, nonresident wildlife watchers flooded lake or reservoir. Vegetation, when pres- generated more than $5 million in tourist revenue, or approximately ent, is predominantly nonpersistent emergent plants (nonpersistent-emergent wetlands), or $12,370 per acre (Arizona State Parks, 1989). Some wetlands, such submersed and ior) floating plants (aquatic as Montezuma Well (fig. 1), also are of historical, archeological, and beds), or both. cultural interest and provide opportunities for education and re- Riverine ..................... Wetlands within a channel. Vegetation, when pres- search. Many Arizona tourist attractions are prehistoric and historic ent, is same as in the Lacustrine System. settlements that developed around streams and wetland areas that provided fish, game, and water. Palustrine wetlands are represented in Arizona by riparian wetlands that include oxbow lakes, marshes, cienegas, and bosques and nonriparian wetlands such as tinajas. Palustrine wetlands also include artificially created wetlands such as farm ponds and cattle stock ponds. Riparian wetlands are in a transitional zone between the stream or lake and the dry desert upland. These habitats, the most extensive Arizona wetland habitat type, form as a result of consis- tently wet surface or subsurface conditions. Oxbow takes are former river channels that are sustained by floodwater from the nearby main stem of a river. Cienegas are riparian spring-fed marshes that are surrounded by upland and characterized by permanently saturated, organic soils (Arizona State Parks, 1989). Cottonwood and willow bosques (forests) are largely restricted to the flood plains of peren- nial and intermittent streams. The forests are sustained by winter and spring flooding. Some streams are sustained by ground-water pumpage and have provided a scattering of aquatic communities in Figure 1. Montezuma Well, a lacustrine spring-fed and parts of Arizona that were once devoid of surface water. Tinajas, wetiand/deepwater habitat that has formed in a sink- also known as rock pools, are small depressions scoured in bedrock hole. Located in a semiarid basin, this wetland was one by boulders moved by flash floods (Arizona State Parks, 1988). of the few sources of water for prehistoric inhabitants of Lacustrine wetlands in Arizona include playas and caldera the area. (Photograph by Eleanor Robbins, U.S. lakes. Playas, also referred to as sinks or sinkholes, are dry, Geological Survey.) unvegetated lakebeds in closed basins. The surface water of playa 116 National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: STATE SUMMARIES lakes comes from direct precipitation and runoff-, over time, the surface water evaporates and leaves tightly compacted fine sedi- ments that compose the lake bottom. During wetter years, these Northern Arizona areas can be flooded. Caldera takes are formed by the collapse of basalt crust over a volcanic vent. Riverine wetlands in Arizona occur in perennial, ephemeral, San Francisco and intermittent streams. Perennial streams contain flowing water Plateau throughout the entire year. Intermittent streams are streams that flow White seasonally. Ephemeral streams, called washes, flow occasionally and Mtns only as a result of surface runoff from precipitation. HYDROLOGIC SETTING South-Central Arizona Extreme aridity and seasonally varying precipitation are the climatic characteristics that most significantly affect wetland for- Southeastern mation and distribution in Arizona. The State's few perennial streams Lower Arizona Colorado arise mainly at higher altitudes, where there is more moisture and River lower evaporation rates. As these streams descend to the desert PHYSIOGRAPHIC plains, evaporative losses and seepage to the ground-water system DIVISIONS greatly reduce or eliminate surface flows. 114' 110. A 77 - . : X , , ev Hoo a P 0 25 50 MILES 0 25 50 KILOMETERS C- WETLANDS AND DEEPWATER HABITATS Distribution of wetlands and deepwater habitats- This map showsthe a proximate distribution of large ------- p wetl :nds in the State. Because,of limitations of scale and ource material, some wet ends are not shown Predominantly wetland Predominantly deepwater habitat Figure 2. Wetland distribution in Arizona and physiography of the State. A, Distribution of wetlands and deepwater habitats. 8, Physiogra- phy. (Sources: A, TE. Dahl, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, unpub. data, 1991. B, Physiographic divisions from Brown, 1985; landforms data from EROS Data Center.) National Water Surnmary-Wetland Resources: ARIZONA 117 Most wetlands in Arizona require more moisture than that pro- South-Central Arizona. -The South-Central Arizona region vided by local precipitation. Such moisture is available in drainages has a warm-temperate to tropical -subtropical climate (Arizona State and their flood plains (riparian zones) (fig. 3), on poorly drained Parks, 1988). Most of the wetlands in this region have disappeared lands, and in and near other wet areas such as ponds, margins of during the 20th century because of large-scale surface-water diver- lakes, and springs and their outflows. sions and extensive ground-water pumping required to support Arizona can be divided into six physiographically distinct re- municipal and agricultural development. Oxbow lakes and associ- gions for purposes of discussing wetland hydrology (fig. 2B). These ated marshes were once fairly common in the flood plains of the six regions are the (1) White Mountains, (2) the San Francisco Pla- major rivers in this area, particularly along the lower Verde, Salt, teau, (3) Northern Arizona, (4) South-Central Arizona, (5) South- and Gila Rivers. Most of the wetlands in this part of the State are eastern Arizona, and (6) the Lower Colorado River. directly associated with the free-flowing, unmodified stream seg- White Mountains. -The White Mountains region is the wet- ments in the more mountainous regions and with ephemeral and test part of the State; precipitation averages more than 23 inches per intermittent streams at lower attitudes. Forested wetlands are com- year, of which more than 50 percent falls as snow (Brown, 1985). mon in this region. Snow is the main source for most of Arizona's perennial streams. Southeastern Arizona. -Summer precipitation in Southeast- Most of the vegetated wetlands in the region are above 8,000 feet ern Arizona is more predictable than in other parts of the State and in the cold boreal or subalpine climatic zone (Arizona State Parks, generally exceeds winter precipitation. Historical accounts of this 1989). Many of the wetlands have been flooded by reservoirs. The area describe many extensive ponds and shallow grassy marshes water in these reservoirs typically is clear and promotes abundant (Arizona State Parks, 1989). Channelization and ground-water with- aquatic vegetation (Brown, 1985). Reservoir wetlands in the White drawals have drained most of the marshes, and those that remain Mountains region are the nesting habitat of more than 70 percent have been stripped of vegetation and reduced in size. Seasonal playa of the waterfowl present in Arizona (Brown, 1985). Playas are lakes are common in this region. A few cienegas and other marshes present east of Show Low, below 5,500 feet in altitude (Arizona State exist in the northern part of the region, but similar wetlands have Parks, 1989). Riparian wetlands in the region are on flood plains disappeared or have been eliminated in the eastern part of the re- of high-altitude creeks and other drainages. gion (Arizona State Parks, 1989). Many of the cienegas and marshes San Francisco Plateau.-Annual precipitation in the San are directly connected to linear riparian corridors associated with Francisco Plateau region averages about 19 inches, and about 75 streams. Wetlands in the region occur at altitudes between 3,200 percent falls as snow (Arizona State Parks, 1989). Because of a per- and 4,600 feet (Arizona State Parks, 1989). meable substrate of basalt and cinder, the San Francisco Plateau has Lower Colorado River. -The Lower Colorado River region has few perennial streams. Most wetlands are in intermountain grass- a tropical -subtropical climate (Arizona State Parks, 1988). In the lands or open woodlands and have a seasonal water regime that extreme northwestern part of the region, wetlands are directly as- depends on winter precipitation and snowmelt. Palustrine emergent, sociated with the Colorado River and the Virgin River. Historically, scrub-shrub, and forested wetlands form around caldera lakes. oxbow lakes and associated marshes were common in this area. Caldera lakes typically are found at altitudes between 6,900 and Construction of Hoover Dam in 1935, however, eliminated the natu- 7,200 feet (Arizona State Parks, 1989). An example is Mormon ral fluctuations of the Colorado River, which deprived many oxbow Lake, which is southeast of Flagstaff and is the State's largest natu- takes of their maj .or source of water. The result has been a decrease ral water body. in wetlands associated with oxbow lakes. Northern Arizona. -The Northern Arizona region has a cold- temperate to boreal climate (Arizona State Parks, 1988). At least TRENDS four types of palustrine wetlands exist in this region. These wetlands include small seasonal lakes in the southern part of the Northern Arizona's landscape was not always as dry as it is today. Little Arizona region, tule-fringed sinkholes (emergent wetland), marshes more than a century ago, Arizona had a natural river-drainage sys- of the Little Colorado River and a few of its tributaries, and ripar- tem that flowed year-round and spanned nearly every part of the ian forested wetlands (Brown, 1985; Platts and Jensen, 1986). State (Arizona State Parks, 1989). Perennial streams sustained the Native American and Hispanic cultures that occupied the State and provided water for a fledgling Anglo- PALUSTRINE WETLAND PALUSTRINE WETLAND American pioneer community. Arizona has lost many Desert of its natural wetlands as the increasing requirements of agriculture, mining and other industry, and cities Flood Flood terrace RIVERINE WETLAND terrace have resulted in the modification of the State's aquatic landscape. All the major rivers and many of the lesser streams have been impounded, regulated, and diverted (Arizona State Parks, 1989). Many other perennial streams and wetlands have disappeared because ground-water pumping has drained the aquifers, and other land-use practices have altered the hydrology of the drainage basins. Some of these changes were implemented for flood control, water storage, and hy- EXPLANATION droelectric power. Others changes resulted from land- scrub-shrub vegetation Emergent vegetation use practices and water-management actions (Arizona State Parks, 1989). Regardless of the causes, the re- structuring of Arizona's stream and wetland systems Cottonwood-willow forest mesquiteforest has affected the natural extent and distribution of these resources. The result has been greatly diminished op- portunities for stream- and wetland-based recreation 'Figure 3. Hydrologic setting of wetlands in riparian areas of the Sonoran Desert. and degraded open-space quality in and around urban (Source: Arizona State Parks, 1988.) communities. Further, diminished natural-runoff re- 118 National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: STATE SUMMARIES tention caused by wetland alteration or destruction has led to faster Table 1. Selected wetland-related activities of government rising streams and higher flood peaks; these conditions have elimi- agencies and private organizations in Arizona, 1993 nated native fish and wildlife species in some areas. lSource: Classification of activities is generalized from information provided Dahl (1990) estimates that, from predevelopment times until by agencies and organizations. o, agency or organization participates in the 1990's, wetland acreage in Arizona decreased by more than one- wetand-related activity; agency or organization does not participate in wetland-related activity. MAN, management; REG, regulation; R&C, res- third. Harvesting of trees for fuel and building supplies, overgraz- toration and creation; LAN, @and acquisition; R&D, research and data col- ing, conversion to croplands, inundation by impoundments, desic- lection, D&I, delineation and inventory] cation caused by diversions, invasion of normative plant species, plant eradication for increased water yield and flood control, flood- plain development for urban needs, sand and gravel mining, and Agency or organization <@@ channelization and flood control have directly affected riparian FEDERAL wetlands. Losses of nonflowing surface water and aquatic habitat Department of Agriculture in cienegas also have been extensive. Consolidated Farm Service Agency ........................... Trends that will affect the future of wetlands in Arizona are the Forest Service ................................................................. increasing population and urbanization; the changing attitudes about Natural Resources Conservation Service ................ ... Department of Defense land-, water-, and riparian-resource uses; the diversifying economy; Army Corps of Engineers ..............................................0 and the shifting and increasingly complex patterns of water use. The Military reservations .....................................................* population and urbanization trends can be expected to affect stream Department of the Interior and wetland resources because the demand for wetland recreation Bureau of Land Management ......................................9 will continue to increase, and municipal development will increase Bureau of Reclamation ................................................. ... pressure to encroach on riparian areas for residential, commercial, Fish and Wildlife Service .............................................. National Biological Service ......................................... and industrial activities. Geological Survey .......................................................... ... ... ... ... National Park Service ................................................... Environmental Protection Agency .................................. CONSERVATION TRIBAL Many government agencies and private organizations partici- Some Indian tribes ............................................................. STATE pate in wetland conservation in Arizona. The most active agencies Department of Environmental Quality ........................... and organizations and some of their activities are listed in table 1. Department of Water Resources .................................... ... Federal wetland activities. -Development activities in Ari- Game and Fish Department ..............................................0 zona wetlands are regulated by several Federal statutory prohibi- Outdoor Coordinating Commission .............................0 tions and incentives that are intended to slow wetland losses. Some State parks .......................................................................0 COUNTY AND LOCAL of the more important of these are contained in the 1899 Rivers and Counties .............................................................................. ...* Harbors Act; the 1972 Clean Water Act and amendments; the 1985 Municipalities ..................................................................... ... Food Security Act; the 1990 Food, Agriculture, Conservation, and Salt River Project... .................. .......................................... ... ... ... ... Trade Act; and the 1986 Emergency Wetlands Resources Act. PRIVATE ORGANIZATIONS Section 10 of the Rivers and Harbors Act gives the U.S. Army Desert Fishes Council ....................................................... Ducks Unlimited .................................................................. Corps of Engineers (Corps) authority to regulate certain activities Johnson Historical Museum of the Southwest ........... in navigable waters. Regulated activities include diking, deepening, National Audubon Society ............................................... filling, excavating, and placing of structures. The related section 404 Arizona Riparian Council .................................................. of the Clean Water Act is the most often-used Federal legislation Arizona Wildlife Federation ............................... ............. protecting wetlands. Under section 404 provisions, the Corps issues The Arizona Nature Conservancy .................................. permits regulating the discharge of dredged or fill material into Whittell Trust ............. .................... . .................................. ... wetlands. Permits are subject to review and possible veto by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, and the Fws has review and ad- visory roles. Section 401 of the Clean Water Act grants to States tification of wetlands and in the development of wetland protection, and eligible Indian Tribes the authority to approve, apply conditions restoration, or creation plans. to, or deny section 404 permit applications on the basis of a pro- The 1986 Emergency Wetlands Resources Act encourages posed activity's probable effects on the water quality of a wetland. wetland protection through funding incentives. The act requires Most farming, ranching, and silviculture activities are not sub- States to address wetland protection in their Statewide Comprehen- ject to section 404 regulation. However, the "Swampbuster" provi- sive Outdoor Recreation Plans to qualify for Federal funding for sion of the 1985 Food Security Act and amendments in the 1990 State recreational land; the National Park Service provides guidance Food, Agriculture, Conservation, and Trade Act discourage (through to States in developing the wetland component of their plans. financial disincentives) the draining, filling, or other alteration of State wetland activities. -The Arizona Game and Fish Depart- wetlands for agricultural use. The law allows exemptions from pen- ment is responsible for the management of fish and wildlife through- alties in some cases, especially if the farmer agrees to restore the out the State except within Indian reservations (Arizona State Parks, altered wetland or other wetlands that have been converted to agri- 1989). The Department of Environmental Quality is responsible for cultural use. The Wetlands Reserve Program of the 1990 Food, setting, monitoring, and enforcing water-quality standards for all Agriculture, Conservation, and Trade Act authorizes the Federal navigable waters, their major tributaries, and all ground water of the Government to purchase conservation casements from landowners State. The Department of Water Resources has authority for gen- who agree to protect or restore wetlands. The Consolidated Farm eral control and supervision of the waters in Arizona and the ap- Service Agency (formerly the Agricultural Stabilization and Con- propriation and distribution of such waters. servation Service) administers the Swampbuster provisions and Through the actions of the Game and Fish Department, De- Wetlands Reserve Program. The Natural Resources Conservation partment of Environmental Quality, Department ofWater Resources, Service (formerly the Soil Conservation Service) determines com- and State Parks, the State has taken steps to conserve streams and pliance with Swampbuster provisions and assists farmers in the iden- wetlands and promote their recreational use but has not established National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: ARIZONA 119 a comprehensive policy pertaining to these resources. The Ripar- References Cited ian Area Advisory Committee, made up of agencies, associations, Arizona State Parks, 1988, Chapter 3-Wetlands resources in Arizona- citizen groups, and academia, currently (1993) is working on a full An addendum to 1983 statewide comprehensive outdoor recreation report to the Governor that will address a statewide policy and rec- plan: Phoenix, Arizona State Parks, p. 29-60. ommendations. -1989, Arizona rivers, streams, and wetlands study, in 1999 State- County and local wetland activities. -The framework exists wide comprehensive outdoor recreation plan: Phoenix, Arizona State within county and city governments to incorporate wetland areas Parks, 244 p. as assets to the local community. Local governments can establish Brown, D.E., 1985, Arizona wetlands and waterfowl: Tucson, University of policies to protect wetlands by restricting nearby development and Arizona Press, 169 p. land uses. Arizona municipalities that have programs or policies to Carter, Virginia, 1986, An overview of the hydrologic concerns related to facilitate the protection of wetlands and riparian areas include wetlands in the United States: Canadian Journal of Botany, v. 64, p. 364-374. Scottsdale, Prescott, Tucson, Sierra Vista, Show Low, and Pinetop. Cowardin, L.M., Carter, Virginia, Golet, F.C., and LaRoe, E.T., 1979, Clas- The quasi-public Salt River Project's activities have major im- sification of wetlands and deepwater habitats ofthe United States: U.S. plications for streams and wetlands in Arizona (Arizona State Parks, Fish and Wildlife Service Report FWS/OBS -79/31, 131 p. 1989). The reservoirs and irrigation projects that the Project ad- Dahl, T.E., 1990, Wetlands -Losses in the United States, 1780's to 1980's: ministers have inundated or otherwise drastically altered tens of Washington, D.C., U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Report to Congress, thousands of acres of native riparian areas and hundreds of miles 13 p. offree-flowing streams (Arizona State Parks, 1989). In recent years, Plans, W.S., and Jensen, Sherman, 1986, Wetland/riparian ecosystems of however, the Project has been active in the Arizona Riparian Coun- the Great Basin/desert and montane region-An overview, in Great cil and in work to establish methods of'measuring and permitting Basin/Desert and Montane Regional Wetland Functions -Proceed- ings of a workshop held at Logan, Utah, February 27-28, 1986: The critical instream flows. Additionally, the Project's environmental Environmental Institute, University ofMassachusetts at Amherst Pub- policy includes protection of aquatic ecology and cooperation with lication 90 -4, p. 1-22. Federal, State, and local agencies responsible for environmental pro- tection. Private wetland activities. -Programs from private groups focus mainly on the acquisition and management of stream and ri- FOR ADDITIONAL INFORMATION: District Chief, U.S. Geological parian areas, education and information exchange, wetland resto- Survey, 375 South Euclid Avenue, Tucson, AZ 85719; Regional Wetland ration, and advocacy for wetland recreation and conservation. The Coordinator, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 500 Gold Avenue, SW, Room Nature Conservancy, an international nonprofit organization, seeks 4012, Albuquerque, NM 87103 to protect rare plants and animals by preserving the habitats they need to survive -critical lands in the United States and beyond our Prepared by borders. The Arizona Riparian Council provides an important com- L.K. Ham, U.S. Geological Survey, and munication channel for professionals working in the area of ripar- S.K. Bulmer and Tanna Thornburg, ian-habitat management. Through the work of its subcommittees, Arizona State Parks the Council has begun to address coordination and consistency problems within the existing decentralized statewide riparian-man- agement system. 120 National Water Surnmary-Wetland Resources: STATE SUMMARIES U.S. Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper 2425 National Water Summary-Wetland Resources 121 Arkansas Wetland Resources WtIands occupy about 8 percent of the land surface in Arkan- TYPES AND DISTRIBUTION sas (Dahl, 1990) and are an important but threatened resource, Wetlands are lands transitional between terrestrial and deep- Historically, wetlands occupied a much larger area of the State and water habitats where the water table usually is at or near the land greatly influenced early economic development. At the time the first surface or the land is covered by shallow water (Cowardin and oth- Europeans settled in the area, wetlands occupied about 28 percent ers, 1979). The distribution of wetlands and deepwater habitats in of what is now Arkansas. These wetlands consisted largely of vast Arkansas is shown in figure 2A; only wetlands are discussed herein. bottom-land forests and swamps bordering the Mississippi River and Wetlands can be vegetated or nonvegetated and are classified other rivers and streams. The forested wetlands contained abundant on the basis of their hydrology, vegetation, and substrate. In this bottom-land trees such as cypress, tupelo gum, sycamore, birch, summary, wetlands are classified according to the system proposed cottonwood, and several species of oak that provided a source of by Cowardin and others (1979), which is used by the U.S. Fish and timber for domestic and economic development. As the forests were Wildlife Service (FWS) to map and inventory the Natiorfs wetlands. cleared and the wetlands were drained, the fertile bottom land was At the most general level of the classification system, wetlands are opened up to agriculture, which eventually became the mainstay of grouped into five ecological systems: Palustrine, Lacustrine, Riv- the local economy. The loss of wetlands to agriculture and urban- crine, Estuarine, and Marine. The Palustrine System includes only ization and the associated loss of wildlife habitat have slowed but wetlands, whereas the other systems comprise wetlands and continue to be a major concern (Arkansas Department of Pollution deepwater habitats. Wetlands of the systems that occur in Arkansas Control and Ecology, 1992). are described below. Wetlands provide critical habitat for many important plants and animals in Arkansas. Seven endangered species and three threatened species of plants and animals inhabit wetlands in the State (Curtis System Wetland description James, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, written commun., 1993). Palustrine .................. Wetlands in which vegetation is predominantly Some of the endangered or threatened species of animals and plants trees (forested wetlands); shrubs (scrub-shrub in Arkansas that rely on wetlands sometime during their lives in- wetlands); persistent or nonpersistent emergent, clude the bald eagle, the red-cockaded woodpecker, the grey bat, erect, rooted, herbaceous plants (persistent- and the pink mucket pearly mussel, the fat pocketbook pearly mussel, nonpersistent-emergent wetlands); or sub- mersed and (or) floating plants (aquatic beds). and the pondberry. Also, intermittently to permanently flooded Arkansas bottom-land forested wetlands provide important open-water bodies of less than 20 acres in which habitats for many species of fish. Seasonal flooding of river flood water is less than 6.6 feet deep. plains provides access to new or expanded food supplies during Lacustrine ................. Wetlands within an intermittently to permanently periods of increased energy needs of fish at critical stages in their flooded lake or reservoir. Vegetation, when pres- reproductive and growth cycles (Jack Kilgore, John Baker, and R.D. ent, is predominantly nonpersistent emergent plants (nonpersistent-emergent wetlands), or Smith, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, unpub. data, 1993). submersed and (or) floating plants (aquatic Wetlands in Arkansas, especially those in the Mississippi River beds), or both. Valley, are a critical component of the series of wetland habitats Riverine ..................... Wetlands within a channel. Vegetation, when pres- along the Mississippi Flyway, which is used by millions of migra- ent, is same as in the Lacustrine System. tory birds each year. The management board of the Lower Missis- sippi Valley Joint Venture for the restoration of Mississippi Flyway Most of the wetlands in Arkansas are palustrine forested, scrub- waterfowl populations considers the protection and preservation of shrub, and nonvegetated wetlands (Arkansas Department of Pollu- wetlands in Arkansas to be a key to the success of their program tion Control and Ecology, 1992; U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, (Lower Mississippi Valley Joint Venture Management Board, 1990). 1992). The most extensive areas of wetlands in the State lie along Wetlands in the Cache-Lower White River system (fig. 1) in the the major rivers, such as the lower Mississippi, Arkansas, Red, Mississippi Flyway have been designated as one of nine "Wetlands White, and Little Rivers and their principal tributaries in the Mis- of International Importance" in the United States under provisions of the Convention on Wetlands of International Importance Espe- cially as Wildlife Habitat (Arkansas Department of Pollution Con- trol and Ecology, 1992), which is known informally as the Ramsar Convention after Ramsar, Iran, where the convention was held in 1971. F Wetlands modify the water quality and hydrology of conter- igure 1. Black Swamp, minous water bodies by serving as nutrient, sediment, and sedime nt- a wetland along the related toxic-materials traps. For example, Kleiss (1993), in a study Cache River. The on the Cache River in eastern Arkansas, found that there was a sub- Cache-Lower White stantial decrease in suspended sediment and nitrate loads in the river River wetlands have after it passed through a wetland. Wetlands also mitigate the sever- been designated "Wet- ity of floods and droughts by serving as floodways and reservoirs lands of International for surface waters and recharge- discharge areas for ground water Importance" under the (Mitsch and Gosselink, 1993). Wetlands in Arkansas also provide provisions of the 1971 Ramsar Convention. recreational opportunities for hunting, fishing, bird watching, and (Photograph by Ed Morris, boating to thousands of people each year. U.S. Geological Survey.) 122 National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: STATE SUMMARIES sissippi Alluvial Plain, South Central Plains, and Arkansas Valley HYDROLOGIC SETTING Ecoregions (fig. 2A and 2B). Other wetlands are scattered through- The existence of wetlands depends on geologic and hydrologic out the State and are associated with springs and seeps in the conditions that favor the retention of water and on hydrologic proc- Ouachita Mountains and Ozark Highlands. Arkansas has 7 National esses that allow the water to accumulate (Winter and Woo, 1990). Wildlife Refuges, I National Scenic River System, I National For- Wetland hydrology involves complex water-flow patterns that are est, 17 State wildlife management areas, and 6 State parks that con- affected by regional and local geology, topography, soil character- tain significant wetland areas. istics, and climate. Water in small wetlands can be supplied by local The larger wetlands in Arkansas generally are forested wetlands shallow ground-water flow systems, surface waters, or precipitation. associated with the flood plains of rivers such as the Saline, In the mountainous areas of northern and western Arkansas, wet- Ouachita, and Little Rivers and Bayou Dorcheat. Mixed forested and lands typically are small and associated with springs. Larger wet- scrub-shrub wetlands border the Cache, Black, and St. Francis Riv- lands in southern and eastern Arkansas commonly receive water ers and Taylor Bay. Little Bayou Meto is lined by an example of a from local and regional ground-water flow systems and surface mixed forested and emergent wetland, which is uncommon in Ar- water. Surface water collects in topographic lows, and ground water kansas. Smaller wetlands with unique features include Centerville Pondberry and Coffee Prairie. These two wetlands contain plant commonly discharges in these areas. The rate at which water per- species of special concern to the State. Coffee Prairie has been iden- colates downward from these wetlands to ground-water systems or tified by The Nature Conservancy and the Natural Heritage Com- upward from ground-water systems to the wetlands is a function of mission as deserving of priority-protection (U.S. Fish and Wildlife local hydraulic conditions and geologic characteristics. Service, 1992). 940 92- "ovii f 36 l3offalo Jon I River carlopmAlle n e I A On Fort Srpjj 1 0 25 50 MILES birer 0 25 50 KILOMETERS o%.ck, tj E .:, br 'no 81.4 34- White River c NWR F k op A El Dorad. @Ra. i A WETLANDS AND DEEPWATER HABITATS B ECOREGIONS Distribution of wetlands and deepwarter habitats- A. South Central Plains This ma p shows the approximate distribution of large B. Ouachita Mountains wetlands in the State. Because of limitations of scale C. Arkansas Valley and source material, some wetlands are not shown I). Boston Mountains E. Ozark Highlands Predominantly wetland F. Mississippi Alluvial Plain Predominantly cleepwater habitat Figure 2. Wetland distribution in Arkansas and ecoregions of the State. A, Distribution of wetlands and deepwater habitats. B, Ecoregions. (Sources: A, TE. Dahl, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, unpub. data, 199 1. B, Ecoregions from Omemik, 1987; landforms data from EROS Data Center.) National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: ARKANSAS 123 In some parts of the State, seasonal fluctuations in precipita- A. During flooding tion result in seasonal differences in the flooded area of wetlands. However, precipitation in the State is abundant and averages from PALUSIT11NE WETLAND PALUSTRINE WETIAND 40 to 56 inches per year. No season is without at least moderate amounts of precipitation (Freiwald, 1985); therefore, seasonal varia- E RIVERINE WETLAND tions in the water content of most wetlands in the State are small. Major wetlands in Arkansas are closely associated with the ca State's large river flood plains, and most are influenced by the Mis- sissippi River. In the northeastern and eastern parts of the State, Natural N: levee many streams flow through channels cut into alluvium -sands, silts, and clays-deposited by the Mississippi River. These streams in- I ly clude the Black, White, St. Francis, and Cache Rivers and Bayou Deview (Arkansas Department of Pollution Control and Ecology, Alluvium 1992). The flood plain of the Mississippi River is an area of little to- pographic relief that has been subjected to frequent flooding. This frequent flooding has resulted in the establishment of large stands 0. During flood recession of water-tolerant bottom-land trees and the development of back- water swamps associated with such hydrologic conditions (fig. 3A, PALUSTRINE WETLAND PALUSTRINE WETLAND 3B, and 3Q. The continued survival of these forested and scrub- RIVERINE WETLAND shrub wetlands depends on continued seasonal flooding and dewa- tering cycles. Disruption of the flooding and dewatering cycle can adversely affect plant and animal communities in wetlands and al- ter the size and type of the wetlands. When the flooding cycle is prevented, such as when wetland areas are leveed or ditched and CT Natural levee N: lure,+* drained, the water-tolerant plant species commonly are replaced by less water-tolerant trees and shrubs. Once the threat of flooding is reduced, these areas often are cleared for agriculture. When wet- Alluvium lands are drained or cleared, they can no longer trap sediments and Alluvium sediment-bound contaminants, remove nutrients from flood waters, or provide off- channel storage to lessen the severity of floods. Also, nursery habitat for certain species of fish and invertebrates is greatly C. During low flow restricted when wetlands are drained. This can result in lower fish and invertebrate populations. Conversely, in forested wetlands sub- PALUSTRINE WETLAND PALUSTRINE WETLAND jected to permanent flooding, such as occurs when a river is dammed, the establishment of new trees will cease and the existing RIVERINE WETLAND trees will die. Eventually, the forested wetland will be replaced by open water. TRENDS Natural Natural levee levee The area that is now Arkansas began losing wetlands shortly after the arrival of European settlers and has lost more wetland acres than any inland State in the Nation (Scott Yaich, U.S. Fish and Alluvium Alluvium Wildlife Service, written commun., 1993). Wetland loss in Arkari- sas from the 1780's to the 1980's was about 72 percent (Dahl, 1990), F and many remaining wetlands have been altered from their natural state. Arkansas originally contained about 9,848,600 acres of wet- Figure3. Surface hydrologic interaction between a river and forested lands before the arrival of European settlers. By 1937, wetland area wetlands in the flood plain. A, During flooding. B, During flood in the State had decreased to about 4,900,000 acres (U.S. Fish and recession. C, During low flow; note establishment of new trees. Wildlife Service, 1992). The rate of wetland loss increased after World War 11 owing to the increased availability of mechanized and Wildlife Service, written commun., 1993). equipment. Wetland loss was about 36 percent of the remaining Almost all of the cleared lands in the major wetland areas of wetland area from 1957 to 1967 but decreased to about 14 percent the State were being farmed in the 1990's, although many of these from 1977 to 1985 (Arkansas Department of Pollution Control and areas are considered marginal for crop production because of the Ecology, 1992). Holder (1969) estimated that 90 percent of the flooding hazard (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 1992). Some of wetland loss in the last 40 years was due to the expansion of soy- these marginal farmlands reverted to scrub-shrub wetlands when bean production. By 1993, more than 90 percent ofArkansas'origi- farming operations were discontinued. nal bottom-land forested wetlands had been converted to upland or Even though the rate of wetland loss has declined in recent other types of wetlands (Scott Yaich, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Ser- years, Arkansas continues to lose wetlands. Continuing threats to vice, written commun., 1993). The 72-percent wetland loss reported the remaining, primarily forested wetlands of the State as identi- by Dahl (1990) represents total wetland loss in the State but does fied by Fws (1992) include (1) drainage and flood protection, (2) not account for conversion of natural wetlands to some other type dredging and stream chatmelization, (3) conversion of forested of wetland or the creation of artificial wetlands. For example, some wetland to scrub-shrub, emergent, or open-water wetlands, (4) al- of the State's remaining wetland acreage includes small farm ponds, teration of drainage patterns, (5) construction of dikes and levees, which are not high-quality wetland habitat (Scott Yaich, U.S. Fish and (6) discharge of pollutants. 124 National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: STATE SUMMARIES Much of the historical wetland loss within Arkansas has been Table 1. Selected wetiand-related activities of government a result of Federal legislation. In 1850, the, U.S. Congress passed agencies and private organizations in Arkansas, 1993 the Swamp Land Act, which granted to Arkansas 7,686,575 acres (Source: Classification of activities is generalized from information provided of swamp and overflow lands considered unfit for cultivation. The by agencies and organizations. ., agency or organization participates in objective of the act was to help control floods in the Mississippi wetland-related activity; ..., agency or organization does not participate in wetland-related activity. MAN, management; REG, regulation; R&C, resto- River Valley and encourage the drainag@ and clearing of these "sub ration and creation; LAN, land acquisition; R&D, research and data collec- marginal" lands for agriculture by allowing sale of these lands to tion, D&I, delineation and inventory] private individuals for development (Shaw and Fredine, 1971). Congress passed the Flood Control Act of 1928 in response to the C disastrous 1927 floods in the Mississippi Valley. This act removed Agency or organization 9@ 1@@ the requirement for local interests to pay one-half of the cost of levee FEDERAL construction on the Mississippi River. The passage of this bill re- Department of Agriculture sulted in the accelerated construction of a vast network of levees Consolidated Farm Service Agency ........................... along the Mississippi River and its tributaries. The net effect of this Forest Service ............................................. ................... and other flood-control acts was the conversion of thousands of acres Natural Resources Conservation Service ................ of wetlands to agriculture due to the removal of the threat of fre- Department of Defense Army Corps of Engineers .............................................. quent flooding (Arkansas Department of Pollution Control and Department of the Interior Ecology, 1992). Fish and Wildlife Service .............................................. Geological Survey .......................................................... National Biological Service ......................................... CONSERVATION National Park Service ................................................... Many government agencies and private organizations partici- Environmental Protection Agency .................................. STATE pate in wetland conservation in Arkansas. The most active agencies Department of Pollution Control and Ecology ............. and organizations and some of their activities are listed in table 1. Forestry Commission .........................................................0 0* 0 0 Federal wetland activities.-Development activities in Arkan- Game and Fish Commission .............................................o o 0 e 0 sas wetlands are regulated by several Federal statutory prohibitions Natural Heritage Commission ..........................................0 0 and incentives that are intended to slow wetland losses. Some of the Soil and Water Conservation Commission ...................* 0 PRIVATE more important of these are contained in the 1899 Rivers and Har- Ducks Unlimited .................................................................. a 0 bors Act; the 1972 Clean Water Act and amendments; the 1985 Food National Audubon Society ............................................... 0 0 Security Act; the 1990 Food, Agriculture, Conservation, and Trade The Nature Conservancy ..................................................0 0 0 0 Act; and the 1996 Emergency Wetlands Resources Act. Section 10 of the Rivers and Harbors Act gives the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (Corps) authority to regulate certain activities in navigable waters. Regulated activities include diking, deepening, States to address wetland protection in their Statewide Comprehen- filling, excavating, and placing of structures. The related section 404 sive Outdoor Recreation Plans to qualify for Federal funding for of the Clean Water Act is the most often-used Federal legislation State recreational land; the National Park Service (NPS) provides protecting wetlands. Under section 404 provisions, the Corps issues guidance to States in developing the wetland component of their permits regulating the discharge of dredged or fill material into plans. wetlands. Permits are subject to review and possible veto by the U.S. The Fws administers seven National Wildlife Refuges, includ- Environmental Protection Agency, and the FwS has review and ad- ing the 154,000-acre White River National Wildlife Refuge located visory roles. Section 401 of the Clean Water Act grants to States along the lower White River in Arkansas. The Fws also administers and eligible Indian Tribes the authority to approve, apply conditions wetland-acquisition programs and advises Federal and State agen- to, or deny section 404 permit applications on the basis of a pro- cies responsible for wetland conservation. Other Federal agencies posed activity's probable effects on the water quality of a wetland. that have management or monitoring responsibilities for wetlands Most farming, ranching, and silviculture activities are not sub- in Arkansas include the NPS, the U.S. Forest Service (FS), and the ject to section 404 regulation. However, the "Swampbuster" provi- U.S. Geological Survey (usGs). The FS is responsible for the man- sion of the 1985 Food Security Act and amendments in the 1990 agement of wetlands in the State's National Forests. Buffalo National Food, Agriculture, Conservation, and Trade Act discourage (through River, a segment of the Buffalo River under the jurisdiction of the financial disincentives) the draining, filling, or other alteration of NPS, has some small wetland areas associated with the river. The wetlands for agricultural use. The law allows exemptions from pen- usGs collects information on the quantity and quality of many of alties in some cases, especially if the farmer agrees to restore the the Nation's water resources, including its wetlands. altered wetland or other wetlands that have been converted to agri- State wetland activities.-Arkansas has a Natural and Scenic cultural use. The Wetlands Reserve Program of the 1990 Food, Rivers program and a Natural Heritage program. These two pro- Agriculture, Conservation, and Trade Act authorizes the Federal grams designate extraordinary and ecologically sensitive areas, in- Government to purchase conservation easements from landowners cluding wetlands, within the State. A technical review committee who agree to protect or restore wetlands. The Consolidated Farm made up of representatives from State agencies makes recommen- Service Agency (formerly the Agricultural Stabilization and Con- dations to the Governor on section 404 permits. The State has servation Service) administers the Swampbuster provisions and Wet- adopted a program administered by the Arkansas Department of lands Reserve Program. The Natural Resources Conservation Pollution Control and Ecology that applies an antidegradation policy Service (formerly the Soil Conservation Service) determines com- to substantial alterations of a water body, including associated wet- pliance with Swampbuster provisions and assists farmers in the iden- lands. In addition, the Arkansas Soil and Water Conservation Com- tification of wetlands and in the development of wetland protection, mission and the Arkansas Forestry Commission have extensive re- restoration, or creation plans. sponsibilities concerning the manage 'ment of the State's wetlands. The 1986 Emergency Wetlands Resources Act encourages The Arkansas Game and Fish Commission, the State's lead wetland protection through funding incentives. The act requires wildlife agency, has a long-standing commitment to protect wetlands National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: ARKANSAS 125 within the Mississippi River Valley because of the area's importance Cowardin, L.M., Carter, Virginia, Golet, F.C., and LaRoe, E.T., 1979, Clas- to wildlife, particularly to migratory birds. The Arkansas Game and sification of wetlands and deepwater habitats of the United States: U.S. Fish Commission owns or controls more than 174,000 acres in 14 Fish and Wildlife Service Report FWS/OBS -79/31, 131 p. wildlife management areas within the Mississippi River Valley, much Dahl, T.E., 1990, Wetlands-Losses in the United States, 1780's to 1980's: of which consists of wetlands. The Arkansas Game and Fish Com- U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Report to Congress, 13 p. Freiwald, D.A., 1985, Average annual precipitation and runoff for Arkan- mission and the Arkansas Natural Heritage Commission are com sas, 1951-80: U.S. Geological Survey Water-Resources Investigations mitted to additional investment in the Mississippi River Valley and Report 84-4363, scale 1:1,000,000. have begun developing comprehensive plans for these activities. The Holder, Trusten, 1969, Disappearing wetlands in eastern Arkansas: Little Game and Fish Commission has developed the Cache-Lower White Rock, Arkansas Planning Commission, 71 p. Rivers Joint Venture under the North American Waterfowl Manage- Kleiss, B.A., 1993, An ecosystem study of bottom land hardwood wetlands ment Plan. The objective of this program is to protect bottom-land associated with the Cache River, eastern Arkansas, in Landin, M,C., habitat in the Cache River and lower White River Basins, which ed., Wetlands, Proceedings of the 13th Annual Conference Society of constitute the second-largest area of contiguous bottom-land habi- Weiland Scientists, New Orleans, La.: Utica, Miss., Society of Wet- tat in the Mississippi River Valley, second only to the Atchafalaya land Scientists, South Central Chapter, p. 31-37. Lower Mississippi Valley Joint Venture Management Board, 1990, Conserv- River Basin in Louisiana. In 1990, protected Federal and State lands ing waterfowl and wetlands: Vicksburg, Miss., North American Wa- in the Joint Venture were designated "Wetlands of International terfowl Management Plan, Lower Mississippi Valley Joint Venture, Significance" under the provisions of the 1971 Ramsar Convention, 32 p. which produced an international agreement for cooperation in the Lynch, J.M., Baker, W.W., Foti, Tom, and Peacock, Lance, 1992, The White conservation of wetland habitats. River-lower Arkansas River megasite-A landscape conservation In 1988, the Natural Heritage Commission, in cooperation with design project: Little Rock, Arkansas Natural Heritage Commission the Arkansas Chapter of The Nature Conservancy, began to develop and the Arkansas Nature Conservancy, 81 p. the White River-Lower Arkansas River Megasite plan (Lynch and Mitsch, W.J., and Gosselink, J.G., 1993, Wetlands (2d ed.): New York, Van others, 1992). This plan presents a landscape-level design inven- Nostrand Reinhold Company, 722 p. Omernik, J. M., 1987, Ecoregions of the United States- Map supplement: tory of an ecologically intact, biologically diverse bottom-land sys- Annals of the Association of American Geographers, v. 77, no. 1, scale tem that includes more than 550,000 acres. More than 280,000 acres 1:2,500,000. in this habitat system are public lands. The boundaries of this habi- Shaw, S.P., and Fredine, C.G., 197 1, Wetlands of the United States -Their tat system differ somewhat from those of the high-priority water- extent and their value to waterfowl and other wildlife: U.S. Fish and fowl habitat defined by the Cache -Lower White Rivers Joint Ven- Wildlife Service Circular 39, 67 p. ture, although both are in the Mississippi River Valley. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 1992, Regional wetlands concept plan- Regional andprivate wetland activities.-The Arkansas Chap- Emergency wetlands resources act, southeast region: Atlanta, Ga., U.S. ter of The Nature Conservancy is involved in an effort to protect Fish and Wildlife Service, 259 p. and restore the forested wetlands of the Mississippi River Alluvial Winter, T.C., and Woo, Ming-Ko, 1990, Hydrology of lakes and wetlands: in Wolman, M.G., and Riggs, II.C., eds., Surface water hydrology: Plain in Arkansas as part of a coordinated effort to protect wetlands Boulder, Colo., Geological Society of America, The geology of North of that region in seven States. The National Audubon Society and America, v. 0-1, chap. 8, p. 159-187. Ducks Unlimited also are involved in the protection and restoration of wetlands and the critical wildlife habitats they contain. More than 50 percent of the remaining bottom-land forests in the Mississippi River Valley are in private ownership and much of FOR ADDITIONAL INFORMATION: District Chief, U.S. Geological these forests are commercial timberlands owned by the forest-prod- Survey, 401 Hardin Road, Little Rock, AR 72211; Regional Weiland Coor- ucts industry. Most of these commercial timberlands are a critical dinator, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 1875 Century Building, Suite 200, part of the Lower White-Lower Arkansas River Megasite plan be- Atlanta, GA 30345 cause they occupy key locations contiguous with and connecting public lands within the system. Prepared by Charles R. Demas and Dennis K. Demcheck, References Cited U.S. Geological Survey Arkansas Department of Pollution Control and Ecology, 1992, Wetlands, Chapter 4 of water quality inventory report, 1992: Little Rock, Arkan- sas Department of Pollution Control and Ecology, p. 45-48. 126 National Water Surnmary-Wetland Resources: STATE SUMMARIES U.S. Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper 2425 National Water Summary-Wetland Resources 127 California Wetland Resources California has about 454,000 acres of nonagricultural wetlands; summary, wetlands are classified according to the system proposed more than 90 percent of the State's wetlands have been drained, by Cowardin and others (1979), which is used by the U.S. Fish and mostly for agricultural purposes. Before significant agricultural con- Wildlife Service (FWS) to map and inventory the Natiotils wetlands. version began, about 5 million acres of wetlands supported lush At the most general level of the classification system, wetlands are aquatic vegetation and provided habitat for hundreds of species of grouped into five ecological systems: Palustrine, Lacustrine, Riv- fish and wildlife as well as food, clothing, protection from preda- erine, Estuarine, and Marine. The Palustrine System includes only tors, and transportation for native Americans. wetlands, whereas the other systems comprise wetlands and California's wetlands provide stopover, wintering, and breed- deepwater habitats. Wetlands of the systems that occur in Califor- ing habitat for vast numbers of waterfowl (fig. 1). The Sacramento - nia are described below. San Joaquin River Delta is the largest remaining wetland area in the State. The delta's wetlands regularly harbor as much as 15 percent System Wetland description of the waterfowl on the Pacific Flyway, the bird-migration corridor extending from the southern tip of South America to Alaska. Al- Palustrine .................. Nontidal and tidal-freshwater wetlands in which though significantly reduced in size since predevelopment times, vegetation is predominantly trees (forested wet- wetlands in the delta are a source of large amounts of plant and algal lands); shrubs (scrub-shrub wetlands); persistent or nonpersistent emergent, erect, rooted herba- materials that are the basis of complex food systems in the wetlands ceous plants (persistent- and nonpersistent- themselves and downstream in the estuaries of San Francisco Bay. emergent wetlands); or submersed and (or) California's wetlands have significant environmental and eco- floating plants (aquatic beds). Also, intermit- nomic value for humans and wildlife. Wetlands provide temporary tentIV to permanently flooded open-water bod- ies of less than 20 acres in which water is less storage of floodwaters, reducing downstream damage, and serve as than 6.6 feet deep. buffers against erosion. Marshes in the Sacramento -San Joaquin Lacustrine ................. Nontidal and tidal-freshwater wetlands within an River Delta and many coastal marshes act as freshwater barriers to intermittently to permanently flooded lake or seawater intrusion of aquifers. Wetlands also trap sediment and ab- reservoir larger than 20 acres and @od deeper sorb many waterborne pollutants and excess nutrients. Wetlands than 6.6 feet. Vegetation, when present, is pre- dominantly nonpersistent emergent plants (non- provide fish and wildlife habitat; inland wetlands are excellent habi- persistent-emergent wetlands), or submersed tat for bass, catfish, bluegill, sunfish, crappie, geese, ducks, wading and (or) floating plants (aquatic beds), or both. birds, and many species of amphibians. Wetlands offer recreational Riverine ..................... Nontidal and tidal-freshwater wetlands within a and educational activities, as well as opportunities for scientific channel. Vegetation, when present, is same as studies. in the Lacustrine System. Estuarine ................... Tidal wetlands in low-wave-energy environments where the salinity of the water is greater than 0.5 TYPES AND DISTRIBUTION part per thousand (ppt) and is variable owing to evaporation and the mixing of seawater and Wetlands are lands transitional between terrestrial and deep- freshwater. water habitats where the water table usually is at or near the larid Marine ....................... Tidal wetlands that are exposed to waves and cur- surface or the land is covered by shallow water (Cowardin and oth- rents of the open ocean and to water having a ers, 1979). The distribution of wetlands and deepwater habitats in salinity greater than 30 ppt. California is shown in figure 2A; only wetlands are discussed herein. Wetlands can be vegetated or notivegetated and are classified The Fws National Wetland Inventory currently (1993) is map- on the basis of their hydrology, vegetation, and substrate. In this ping California's wetlands and compiling statewide acreage data. However, that inventory is not scheduled to be completed until the late 1990's, and there are no other systematically compiled data concerning statewide wetland acreage. Dahl (1990), on the basis of Central Valley (fig. 2,B) acreage data in Frayer and others (1989) and approximations by the FWS, estimated that California had 454,000 acres of wetlands in the mid-1980's-0.4 percent of the State's area. Frayer and others (1989) reported the results of a systematic survey of Central Valley and Sacramento -San Joaquin River Delta .......... v wetlands conducted in the mid-1980's. The study indicated that there were about 378,800 acres of freshwater and estuarine nonagricul- :;p tural wetlands and 658,600 acres of flooded rice fields, most of which are converted wetlands. Field and others (1991) reported that Coastal counties of California had about 198,500 acres of palustrine, estuarine, and marine wetlands on the basis of interpre- tation of aerial photography done from the mid4970's to the mid- 1980's. Acreage data for the alluvial basins of northern California, montane wetlands in the Sierra Nevada and Cascade Range, and Figurell. Suisun Marsh provides habitat to many kinds of water- desert wetlands in southern California are not yet available. fowl. Agricultural and urban encroachment has reduced and con- The 378,800 acres of nonagricultural wetlands in the Central tinues to threaten valuable wetlands. (Photograph courtesy of the Valley and Sacramento -San Joaquin River Delta includes approxi- Bureau of Reclamation.) mately 318,900 acres of palustrine wetlands and 59,900 acres of 128 National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: STATE SUMMARIES 124') 122" A 120 C AREA HAVING ANNUAL WATER DEFICIT Area of water deficit 40' L nd be la M S rfF ancis.@@""'. N "k a Note S." 1-d- B.v IN S,6n Jo a j son N B 1k@h ,n S,1..,g,@' -F, i a, Res ' h Resewe on s' fle 0 25 50 MILES U, 116' 3\1 0 25 50 KILOMETERS 0,- L.k@ rsfield %b S.d. Ink, @rds Air Force Base 4 R R--d L.k, o--d L.k, Ldke A Southern Cascade Range Lm Angeles Tijuana Estuary leg Natim ar' h Reserva Researc Y Pj-- Bi- WETLANDS AND DEEPWATER HABITATS 8outh Distribution of wetlands and deepwater habitats- 1) C This map shows the approximate distribution of large assert wetlands in the State. Because of limitations of scale re and source material, some wetlands are not shown Sd r Predominantly wetland Predominantly deepwater habitat 71 Area typified by a high density of small wetlands B PHYSIOGRAPHIC DIVISIONS Figure 2. Wetland distribution in California and physical and climatological features that influence wetland distribution in the State. A, Distri- bution of'wetlands and deepwater habitats. B, Physiography. C, Moisture balance. (Sources: A, TE. Dahl, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, unpub. data, 199 7. B, Physiographic divisions modified from Fenneman, 1946; landforms from EROS Data Center C, Modified from Thomas and Phoenix, 1976.) National Water Surnmary-Wetland Resources: CALIFORNIA 129 estuarine wetlands (Frayer and others, 1989). The palustrine wet- Cascade Range, and Klamath Mountains. Annual precipitation lands are of three types: (1) Those associated with or adjacent to amounts can differ widely from year to year because of variability rivers -primarily overflowed lands, sloughs, and bypasses; (2) in the Pacific storm track. those associated with grasslands -mainly on the alluvial fans of Mountain ranges induce precipitation at the higher altitudes the eastern and western slopes of the valley, which contain numer- and create "rain shadows" (dry areas) in the leeward valleys and ous vernal pools during normal-precipitation years; and (3) plains. In California, nearly continuous ranges of coastal mountains marshes -mainly in the central lowlands of the Sacramento and San extend from the Oregon border to Mexico, and these ranges are Joaquin River drainage basins and the Tulare Basin. The Central Val- paralleled by the southern Cascade Range and the Sierra Nevada ley's estuarine wetlands are in the Suisun Marsh in the westernmost about 150 miles farther inland (fig. 2B). Between the two ranges, part of the Sacramento-San Joaquin River Delta. in.the rain shadow of the Coast Ranges, lies the Central Valley, nearly On the basis of data from Field and others (1991), most wet- 400 miles long and 70 miles w 'ide. In the rain shadow of the south- lands in California's coastal counties, which are primarily in the ern Cascade Range, the Sierra Nevada, and the coastal mountains Coast Ranges, are classified as palustrine. Of the 198,500 coastal of southern California are the Basin and Range and Southern Cali- wetland acres, 46,700 acres are fresh marsh (palustrine emergent fornia Desert physiographic provinces. wetlands), 77,800 acres are palustrine forested or scrub-shrub wet- Central Valley wetlands. -Streams originating in the Sierra lands, 21,700 acres are salt marsh (estuarine emergent wetlands), Nevada carry 95 percent of the runoff entering the Central Valley. and 52,200 acres are tidal flats (estuarine unconsolid ated- shore Before hydrologic modification associated with agriculture, much wetlands), which are mostly nonvegetated. (The acreages for indi- of the southern Sierra Nevada runoff flowed into the internally vidual wetland types do not total 198,500 because of rounding.) drained Tulare Basin, creating several large freshwater lakes that The mountains of California contain palustrine, lacustrine, and existed for more than 2,000,000 years (Page, 1986). The largest, riverine wetlands. These wetlands have not been inventoried to date Tulare Lake, formed a large lacustrine wetland extending over 600 (1993) because of their isolated and widely different topographic square miles. Streams flowing in the trough of the Central Valley and ecological settings. Construction of reservoirs on the upland typically have low gradients and almost imperceptible natural levees. reaches of creeks and major rivers in the Sierra Nevada and Cas- Consequently, before the rivers were contained by irrigation and cade Range has created additional wetland acreage. Palustrine wet- flood-control projects, flood plains were wide, and in many years lands of the Sierra, Cascades, and parts of the Coast Ranges are the entire valley was inundated by floodwater. Overbank flooding emergent wetlands commonly called bogs or meadows and forested created thousands of acres of marshland and tens of thousands of or scrub-shrub wetlands called swamps. These wetlands are typi- vernal pools. Despite flood-control projects since the mid4850's, cally small, sometimes only a few thousand square feet, and exist overbank flooding still can occur in wet years. randomly among coniferous forests at altitudes generally higher than In the years before flood-control and irrigation projects, shal- 3,000 to 3,500 feet. low water tables supported large areas of wetlands on the valley The desert basins of southeastern California contain lacustrine floor. However, as a result of agricultural drainage, ground-water and palustrine wetlands referred to as playas, which are lakebeds withdrawal, building of upland diversion dams, and flood-control that are intermittently flooded. Rogers, Soda, Searles, China, and projects, the original flow paths of water into the Central Valley and Rosamond Lakes are large playas. The typical playa is nonvegetated most of California's other alluvial basins have been altered, and the except where fissures and sinklike depressions provide intermittent valley's hydrology is now generally as shown in figure 3A. Floods sources of water by pooling rainfall and overland flow. In unusu- no longer regularly cover the valley floors but are diverted to crop- ally wet years and for periods following them, plants whose roots land, stored, or channeled. Ground-water levels under the valley reach the water table, such as saltbrush, rabbitbrush, tamarisk, and floors have been drawn down to such an extent that recharge is pri- mesquite, grow in areas of shallow ground water and around dry marily from irrigation, and discharge is mainly to large centers of springs (C.J. Londquist, U.S. Geological Survey, written commun., ground-water pumping (Bertoldi and others, 1991). Most of the 1993). valley's wetlands are now sustained by controlled application of Mono Lake, a saline lake remnant of a much larger ice-age lake water (Frayer and others, 1989). in the Basin and Range east of the central Sierra Nevada (fig. 2B), Many wildlife refuges in the Central Valley use irrigation drain supports an abundance of brine shrimp and brine flies that are a water either as a part or as the total source of water. Until 1986, 1,200 significant food source for eared grebes, avocets, plovers, sandpip- acres of ponds in the Kesterson National Wildlife Refuge (fig. 2A) ers, gulls, ducks, and phalaropes (Bakker, 1984). Because of the high were partly sustained by agricultural drain water from the west side salinity of the lake water, only salt-tolerant plants such as stinkweed, of the San Joaquin Valley. In 1983, the Fws discovered an unusu- goosefoot, and salt or alkali grass grow around the lake. ally high incidence of deformed or dead birds in the refuge. Studies In the Southern California Desert near the California -Mexico of the drain water entering the ponds and of the water in the ponds border is a type of palustrine desert wetland known popularly as an showed that the deformities were caused by high concentrations of "oasis." These emergent, scrub-shrub, and forested wetlands sup- selenium in the drain water. The Bureau of Reclamation (BOR) port willow, catclaw, mesquite, cottonwood, tamarisk, reeds, arrow- implemented a plan to mitigate the effects of the drain water at the wood, and in some places, sedges, tules, and cattails. But the most refuge by stemming the flow of agricultural drain water into the distinctive plants of the oases are the native fan palms (Bakker, refuge and eliminating all aquatic habitat in the areas of the con- 1984). taminated ponds. Surface water is now imported into the refuge. Estuarine wetlands. -California's estuaries have a high de- HYDROLOGIC SETTING gree of variability in their physical and hydrologic environment. For most of the year, coastal estuaries, such as the Suisun Marsh below To understand the existence of once vast natural wetlands in a the confluence of the Sacramento and San Joaquin Rivers (and the State that has an average annual precipitation of about 20 inches and Sacramento- San Joaquin Delta wetlands under natural conditions) is commonly considered to be semiarid to arid, California's hydrog- are sustained by brackish to saline water. In the wet season during raphy and topography must be examined. Most of the State has a winter, they can become completely fresh. In addition, streamflow natural annual water deficit (fig. 2C). However, in the areas having varies substantially, from none in many years to floods in wet years. a natural water surplus, precipitation ranges from 40 to as much as There is little emergent wetland acreage remaining in the Sac- 90 inches per year, most of that being snowfall in the Sierra Nevada, ramento -San Joaquin River Delta. After World War 1, nearly all 130 National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: STATE SUMMARIES delta marshland had been transformed to the series of improved causes inland migrations of the estuaries, and tectonic up] ift, which channels and leveed islands that exist to the present (fig. 3B). The partly offsets the effects of a rising sea level. Deep submarine can- delta soils are predominantly organic peat, and in agricultural use yons and unusual shoreline configurations affect the size and con- have oxidized extensively, causing land Surfaces to subside to more dition of both estuaries. Longshore drifting and currents have not than 15 feet below sea level within the leveed islands (California been measured, but the effects are well known. Beach erosion has Department of Water Resources, 1993) so that emergent wetlands caused landward movement of the estuarine shorelines and subse- can exist only on the margins of the delta. quent salinity changes. After decades of study at the Tijuana Na- Three of California's estuarine wetlands have attracted national tional Estuarine Research Reserve, restoration programs are under- and international attention. The largest of these wetland areas is the way. complex system of over 1,000 miles of waterways in the Sacra- Montane wetlands. -The most common types of montane mento-San Joaquin River Delta and three bays within a 1,200- wetlands in California are meadows, which are palustrine wetlands square-mile area of central California. The bays, beginning with the with persistent emergent vegetation (fig. 3C and 3D). Meadows in most landward, are Suisun, San Pablo, and the largest, San Fran- California have been best studied in the Sierras, where they are es- cisco. About 70 percent of California's water supply originates in timated to compose about 10 percent ofthe total area (Ratliff, 1985). the Sierras, flows through the Central Valley into the bay-delta sys- At higher altitudes, glacial cirques commonly contain small pools tem, then discharges into the Pacific Ocean at San Francisco Bay. or lakes known as tarns. Meadows can develop when tarns fill with Two other, smaller estuarine wetlands, Elkhorn Slough on sediment, peat, or both. Monterey Bay and the Tijuana River estuary at San Diego, have been California's mountains are geomorphologically dynamic be- included in the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration's cause of glaciation, tectonic uplift, and volcanic eruptions in the (NOAA) National Estuarine Research Reserves. Such reserves are recent geologic past. Dynamic features include glacially scoured defined as "classes of ecosystems worthy of research and educa- depressions, moraines, and till and outwash deposits resulting from tion, yet different enough to warrant selection as a distinct regional landslides and mudflows and from volcanic debris and lava flows type" (Zedler and others, 1992). The recent geologic factors that that impede the movement of water from precipitation and snow- shape these estuaries are the forces of slowly rising sea levet, which melt, leading to the formation of wetlands. Impoundments can form A. Central Valley EXPLANATION COASTRANGE SIERRA NEVADA Direction of ground-water flow RIVERINE WETLAND RIVERINE WETLAND LACUSTRINE r_1 Average water table PALUSTRINE WETLAND WETLAND E C@ Scrub-shrub vegetation F-1 I I U) PALUSTRINE WETLAND PALUSTRINE WETLAND Forest vegetation RIVERINE WETLAND V,' Canal or -, Z' J/111 Emergent vegetation farm ditch Well Fractures @11# Farmed crops Well Glacial till Basin-fill sediment ---- -- and alluvium Elsain-fill aquifer Peat Gre Ite Confining bad or interbed Note: Vertical scale greatly Granite exaggerated B. Sacramento-San Joaquin River Delta RIVERINE WETLAND r@ PALUSTRINE WETLANDS ESTUARINE WETLANDS N:tural N:tural Manm:de Manm do I vee I @ee lava levea. Drain i5 P-P -High tide Figure 3. Generalized hydrologic setting of wetlands Afftnrium in California. A, Central Valley. B, Sacramento-San I Joaquin River Delta. National Water Surnmary-Wetland Resources: CALIFORNIA 131 as a result of landslides or mining, road construction, and other human activities. Beavers create wetlands as C. Sierra Nevada a result of dam building. An example of a landslide- LACUSTRINE WETLANDS created wetland can be found in Mirror Lake at the base of Half Dome in Yosemite National Park. The lake PALUSTRINE I WETLAND is filling with sediment, and vegetation is becoming established. RIVERINE -8 Meadows form in several topographic positions: WETLAND 2 Z depressions in valley bottoms, on glacially gouged PALUSTRINE WETLANDS F-1 surfaces, in glacial moraines with surface depressions where water is held, and on slight to moderate slopes where ground water discharges into fine-textured soils (commonly glacial or landslide deposits) at a rate i3vanite greater than it can be released to streams and the at- Precut here. mosp Meadows can have a range of hydrologic charac- Central teristics, from seasonally wet from snowmelt to satu- Valley rated throughout the year. A single meadow can have several different hydrologic regimes, each supporting different vegetative communities (Ratliff, 1985). Basin Meadows can be hydrologically dependent on both fill surface and ground water. Recent studies indicate that ground water is more important to meadow wetlands D. Coast and Coast Range than previously thought (Akers, 1986; Winter and Woo, WEST COASTRANGE 1990). LACUSTRINE WETLAND The present hydrologic condition of meadows in PALUSTRINE the Sierras, and likely elsewhere in California, ranges WETLANDS from slightly to highly altered; however, no systematic evaluation has been reported. Grazing of livestock RIVEMNE WETLAND since the mid-I 850's disturbed many meadows enough to cause erosion, which in turn affected the hydrologic ESTUARINE WETILAND I -_ regime and the vegetative communities. More recently, MARINE WETILAND E intensive recreational use has contributed to degraded I meadow conditions as well. Restoration of meadow -6 vegetation to support grazing by livestock and wild- life requires that the hydrologic regime first be restored C@ (Ratliff, 1985). Hightide Southern California DesertlBasin and Range Corisedidated madne Wetlands. - Southeastern California from the Mexico gagim"tary rocks border to the eastern flank of the Sierra Nevada lies Frmur" % in the rain shadow of the mountain ranges to the west. Precipitation is very low and temperatures are very high. Water for wetlands typically is supplied by moun- E. Southern California Desert/Basin and Range tain front creeks, springs, seeps, pools, and in more RIVERINE WETLAND recent times, irrigation canals (fig. 3E). The largest wetlands in the region are playas, which typically are dry much of the year. Playas receive water from inter- mittent surface flows and from direct precipitation PALUSTRINE WETLANDS PALUSTRINE WETLANDS during infrequent storms. Water leaves playas through r----- -I evaporation and transpiration because there is no sur- face drainage. Elsewhere, isolated springs and seeps 8 support generally small marshes (cienagas) and other wetlands, such as oases. Where the water supply is relatively persistent but drainage is limited, saline ------ --------- -- - wetlands can form. California's population is concentrated and in- creasing in the southern part of the State. The grow- ing demand for water and recreational activities (Bu- Alluvial aquifer reau of Land Management, 1980) affects water re- sources and desert lands, especially wetland and ripar- Sedimentary, Auluvial aquifer ian areas. Ground-water pumping in the western rocks 430moop Alluvial aquifer Mojave Desert has caused fissures in playas at Edwards Air Force Base, and riparian vegetation has Figure3. Continued. Generalized hydrologic setting of wetlands in California. C, been adversely affected by declining ground-water Sierra Nevada. D, Coastand Coast Ranges. E, Southern California Desertand Basin levels. Increased amounts of water diverted for urban and Range. uses decreases the amount supporting wetlands. Rec- 132 National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: STATE SUMMARIES reational activities and grazing have damaged riparian vegetation, CONSERVATION contributing to a general decline in the quantity and quality of ri- Many government agencies and private organizations partici- parian wetlands. pate in wetland conservation in California. The most active agen- Owens Valley, a closed basin at the base of the Sierra Nevada's cies and organizations and some of their activities are listed in table eastern escarpment, historically received runoff from the mountains I that supported flow in the Owens River. This surface-water flow Federal wetland activities, -Development activities in Cali- maintained Owens Lake and a ground-water level close to the ground fornia wetlands are regulated by several Federal statutory prohibi- surface of the valley floor. Diversions of surface water and ground tions and incentives that are intended to slow wetland losses. Some water to Los Angeles since 1970 virtually eliminated wetlands de- of the more important of these are contained in the 1899 Rivers and pendent on surface water in the river and lake. However, ground- Harbors Act; the 1972 Clean Water Act and amendments; the 1985 water-dependent vegetation on the valley floor has survived a low- Food Security Act; the 1990 Food, Agriculture, Conservation, and ering of the water table by several feet by extending the root sys- Trade Act; the 1986 Emergency Wetlands Resources Act; and the tems (Sorenson and others, 1991). Its longer term survival and re- 1972 Coastal Zone Mana ement Act. production have not been studied. 9 Table 1. Selected wetland-related activities of government TRENDS agencies and private organizations in California, 1993 [Source: Classification of activities is generalized from information provided by agen6es and organizations. o, agency or organization participates in The earliest estimates of wetland acreage in California are those wetland-related activity; ..., agency or organization does not participate in documented by the California State Engineers Surveys dating be@ wetland-related activity. MAN, management; REG, regulation; R&C, restora- tween 1868 and 1886 (Hall, 1887). At that time, William H. Hall tion and creation; LAN, land acquisition; R&D, fesearch and data collection; recorded nearly 5.2 million acres of land as swamps, lakes, bogs D&I, delineation and inventory] and river overflow areas, most of which were located in the CenQ Valley. Dahl (1990) estimated that about 5 million acres of wetlands Agency or organization IZ4, 4. 41P <@' existed before large-scale agricultural conversions began. Of the FEDERAL original 5 million acres, nearly 4 million were palustrine, lacustrine, Department of Agriculture and riverine wetlands in the Central Valley, 700,000 were estuarine Consolidated Farm Service Agency ........................... ... wetlands, 65,000 were palustrine and lacustrine wetlands of the Forest Service .................................................................0 Coast Ranges, 120,000 were palustrine, lacustrine, and riverine Natural Resources Conservation Service ................ ... Department of Commerce wetlands of the Cascade Range and Sierra Nevada, and 15,000 acres National Oceanic and Atmospheric were riverine orpalustrine wetlands ofthe interiorbasins and ranges. Administration .................................................................0 Significant wetland loss in California began in about 1850. In Department of Defense that year, the National Swamp and Overflowed Land Act conveyed Army Corps of Engineers ............................................... all swamp and overflowed I and, including delta marshes, from Fed- Military reservations ...................................................... ... ... ... ... Department of the Interior eral ownership to the State of California. In 1866, the California Bureau of Land Management .............................. Legislature formed the Board of Swamp and Overflowed Land Bureau of Reclamation ................................................. ... ... Commissioners to manage reclamation projects and proceeds from Fish and Wildlife Service ..............................................* sales of swampland by the State. In 1869, the board relinquished Geological Survey .......................................................... ... ... ... ... its authority to individual county boards of supervisors, By about National Biological Service ......................................... ... ... National Park Service ...................................................0 1870, nearly all of California's wetlands were in private ownership Environmental Protection Agency .................................. ...0 and subsidies were established to aid private developers in reclaim- STATE ing swamplands (California Department of Water Resources, 1993). Environmental Protection Agency Between 1850 and 1920, about 70 percent of California's wet- State Water Resources Control Board ...................... ... * land acreage was modified or converted to upland, largely by levee Regional Water-Quafty Control Board .............. ....... ...0 and drainage projects (Dennis and others, 1984). Nearly all of the Resources Agency California Coastal Commission .................................... ...e reclaimed land was put into agriculture, helping to make California Department of Conservation .......................... . ........... the leading agricultural State in the Nation by 1887. The diversion Department of Fish and Game ..................................... and redistribution of Sierran runoff water into the valley continued Department of Parks and Recreation ........................ vigorously so that by 1939, 95 percent of the wetlands had been lost. Department of Water Resources ................................ By 1940, Tulare Lake, which had in post-European-settlement his- San Francisco Bay Conservation and Development Commission .................................... ....... ... ... tory covered as much as 1,000 square miles, had been completely State Reclamation Board ............................................. ... drained. Between 1938 and the early 1970's, construction of large- State Lands Commission ....................................... scale irrigation systems had modified more than 90 percent of the State Coastal Conservancy .......................................... original wetlands. Wildlife Conservation Board ........................................ ... ... Although losses of wetlands have been large, some changes in SOME COUNTY AND LOCAL GOVERNMENTS Local planning authorities ........................................ ....... ... ... ... 0 land-use practices since about 1980 have caused increases or im- Reclamation districts ........................................................000 provements in wetland habitats. Since 1939, a switch from Resource conservation districts ....................................00 0 pasturcland and row-crop farming to flooded rice paddies in the Water districts ....................................................................090 0 0 Sacramento Valley and parts of the San Joaquin Valley has increased PRIVATE palustrine wetlands by 41,000 acres (Frayer, 1989). Rice farmers California Waterfowl Association ..................................9 I Ducks Unlimited ........... ..............................................0 in conjunction with university and State researchers and private Farmlands and Open-Space Foundation ....................... ... ... organizations, are developing methods to flood rice paddies during National Audubon Society ............................ .................. ... ... critical periods of occupation by migratory waterfowl. If these Pacific Flyway Project. ......................................................0.. methods are perfected, several hundred thousand acres could be Sierra Club ........................................................................... ... ... returned to seasonal wetland-habitat status while continuing to be The Nature Conservancy ..................................................0 Trustfor Public Land ......................................................* used as agricultural lands. National Water Surnmary-Wetland Resources: CALIFORNIA 133 Section 10 of the Rivers and Harbors Act gives the U.S. Army The Fws manages approximately 225,000 acres of land on 34 Corps of Engineers (Corps) authority to regulate certain activities National Wildlife Refuges, Wildlife Management Areas, National in navigable waters. Regulated activities include diking, deepening, Fish Hatcheries, or other wildlife facilities. Wetlands on these hold- filling, excavating, and placing of structures. The related section 404 ings are among the most important habitat along the entire Pacific of the Clean Water Act is the most often-used Federal legislation Flyway. Through the American Waterfowl Management Plan, the protecting wetlands. Under section 404 provisions, the Corps issues Fws administers the Central Valley Joint Habitat Venture, which permits regulating the discharge of dredged or fill material into comprises private organizations and other public agencies that have wetlands. Permits are subject to review and possible veto by the U.S. pooled their resources to help meet a target of restoring and main- Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), and the Fws has review and taining the diversity, distribution, and abundance of waterfowl at advisory roles. Section 401 of the Clean Water Act grants to States 1970's levels. and eligible Indian Tribes the authority to approve, apply conditions State wetland activities. - California has no single agency that to, or deny section 404 permit applications on the basis of a pro- implements an integrated plan for management of wetland resources, posed activity's probable effects on the water quality of a wetland. nor does the State have a wetlands-management policy. The Gover- Most farming, ranching, and silviculture activities are not sub- nor's Office sets broad environmental goals for the State. The ject to section 404 regulation. However, the "Swampbuster" provi- Governor's Office of Planning and Research has no regulatory au- sion of the 1985 Food Security Act and amendments in the 1990 thority but has substantial influence in guiding administration policy Food, Agriculture, Conservation, and Trade Act discourage (through and is the clearinghouse for all documents promulgated under the financial disincentives) the draining, filling, or other alteration of California Environmental Quality Act of 1970. This act establishes wetlands for agricultural use. The law allows exemptions from pen- the basic charter for protection of California's environment. A major alties in some cases, especially if the farmer agrees to restore the policy under the act is the maintenance of fish and wildlife popula- altered wetland or other wetlands that have been converted to agri- tions, and the protection of wetlands is identified as a significant cultural use. The Wetlands Reserve Program of the 1990 Food, goal. Agriculture, Conservation, and Trade Act authorizes the Federal The California Environmental Protection Agency administers Government to purchase conservation easements from landowners four boards that set standards, control pollution, and improve the who agree to protect or restore wetlands. The Consolidated Farm quality of the environment throughout the State. The State Water Service Agency (CFSA, formerly the Agricultural Stabilization and Quality Control Board administers the system of water rights and, Conservation Service) administers the Swampbuster provisions and through a series of nine Regional Water Quality Control Boards, is Wetlands Reserve Program. The Natural Resources Conservation responsible for implementing section 108 of the Clean Water Act, Service (NRCS, formerly the Soil Conservation Service) determines which is a mandate to control nonpoint pollution. The boards also compliance with Swampbuster provisions and assists farmers in the implement the provisions of the Porter-Cologne Act of 1969. These identification of wetlands and in the development of wetland pro- provisions provide for assessment reports identifying surface-wa- tection, restoration, or creation plans. ter bodies that would not meet water-quality standards without non- The 1986 Emergency Wetlands Resources Act and the 1972 point-source controls and allow for the development and implemen- Coastal Zone Management Act and amendments encourage wetland tation of best-management practices for control of nonpoint sources protection through funding incentives. The Emergency Wetlands of pollution. Resources Act requires States to address wetland protection in their Several departments and commissions, operating within the Statewide Comprehensive Outdoor Recreation Plans to qualify for overall administration of the Resources Agency of the State of Cali- Federal funding for State recreational land; the National Park fornia, have primary responsibility for the enhancement and pro- Service provides guidance to States in developing the wetland com- tection of wetland habitats. The Fish and Game Commission sets ponent of their plans. Coastal States that adopt coastal-zone man- policy for the Department of Fish and Game. The Department has agement programs and plans approved by NOAA are eligible for Fed- legislative authority to preserve, protect, and manage California's eral funding and technical assistance through the Coastal Zone fish, game, and native plants, without respect to their economic Management Act. value, and administers provisions of the State Endangered Species The EPA has authority, through the National Pollution Discharge Act. The Department is responsible for wildlife management, col- System, National Pretreatment Program, Ocean Dumping/Dredging lecting and managing data for waterfowl and nongame wildlife, and Fill Program, and the Clean Water Act, to certify that permit- disease research, wetland enhancement, and habitat development ted use of the State's waters is consistent with established water- and management on 76 State-owned designated wildlife areas, eco- quality objectives. Under the Clean Water Act, the EPAs San Fran- logical reserves, and other public lands. The Department of Fish and cisco Bay-Estuary Project has a 5-year-program objective to develop Game Stream or Lake Alteration Agreements are required for ac- a comprehensive management plan that would set operational stan- tivities that result in changes in natural conditions in streams, lakes, dards for nearly 700,000 acres of estuarine and marine wetlands. channels, or crossings. The U.S. Department of Agriculture, through local conserva- The San Francisco Bay Conservation and Development Com- tion districts and the NRCS, administers the Federal Water Bank mission is authorized by the McAteer-Petris Act to analyze, plan, program with assistance from the CFSA and the State of California. and regulate development activities in San Francisco Bay and along The major objective of this program is to restore, preserve, enhance, its shoreline. The Commission implements the San Francisco Bay or improve wetland habitat in important migratory waterfowl nest- Plan and the Suisun Marsh Protection Plan. The Commission also ing and breeding areas. regulates dredging and filling in the bay, and in sloughs, marshes, The NOAA administers the Coastal Zone Management Act, certain creeks, and tributaries within 100 feet of the bay. The plan whose purpose is to increase awareness and understanding of the is subject to Coastal Zone Management Agency consistency review coastal environment and to increase the ability of States' coastal- as a component of California's Coastal Plan, which is administered zone-management programs to address problems. NOAA funding by the Commission. The Suisun Marsh Preservation Act was en- under the act assists California in coastal-plan development, includ- acted in 1977 to establish policies and programs in the Suisun Marsh ing wetlands. Grants have been awarded to the California Coastal Protection Plan. Local governments and districts must prepare lo- Plan and San Francisco Bay Plan. NOAA also administers the Na- cal protection programs to bring their policies and ordinances into tional Estuarine Research Reserve program, which provides site ac- conformity with the provisions of the act. quisition for preservation, research, and education. The Department of Water Resources is authorized by the Delta 134 National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: STATE SUMMARIES Protection Act of 1988 to approve levee improvement in wetlands California Department of Water Resources, 1993, Sacramento-San Joaquin of the Sacramento -San Joaquin Delta. The Department is respon- delta atlas: Sacramento, California Department of Water Resources, sible for the State Water Project pumping facilities in the delta. The 121 p. Department, as authorized by Delta Flood Protection Act of 1988 Cowardin, L.M., Carter, Virginia, Golet, F.C., and LaRoe, E.T., 1979, Clas- is involved in a levee-improvement program for flood protection tha; sification of wetlands and deepwater habitats of the United States: U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Report, FWS/OBS - 79/31, 131 p. overlaps the North Delta Water Management Plans for widening Dahl, T.E., 1990, Wetlands-Losses in the United States, 1780's to 1980's: channels, the South Delta Water Management Plans, and the Los Washington, D.C., U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Report to Congress, Banos Grandes projects. The Department represents the State in 13 p. Corps and BOR flood-control and water- development projects. Dennis, N.B., Marcus, M.L., and Hill, H., 1984, Status and trends of Cali- County and local wetland activities. -Resource Conservation fornia wetlands-Report to the California Assembly Resources Sub- Districts are authorized by Division 9 of the California Public Re- committee: Sacramento, The California Assembly, 125 p. sources Code to assist the State in conserving soil and water re- Fermeman, N.M., 1946, Physical divisions of the United States: Washing- sources, including wetlands. There are about 400 water, reclama- ton, D.C., U.S. Geological Survey special map, scale 1:7,000,000. tion, and drainage districts in California, another 300 park and open- Field, D.W., Reyer, AT, Genovese, PX, and Shearer, B.D., 1991, Coastal wetlands of the United States: Rockville, Md., National Oceanic and space districts, and 110 public-utility districts governed by Division Atmospheric Administration and U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service co- 9 authority for conservation. operative publication, 59 p. In addition to special districts, county and city governments Frayer, W.E.,,Peters, D.D., and Pywell, H.R., 1989, Wetlands of the Cali- are required to have a general plan that has mandated elements in- fornia Central Valley-Status and trends, 1939-1980's: Portland, cluding open space/conservation, safety, land use, and water circu- Oreg., U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Report, 29 p. lation (Government Code, Section 65000 et seq.). There are no re- Hall, W.H., 1887, Topographical and irrigation maps of the Great Central gional requirements for plan consistency among the counties and Valley of California, embracing the Sacramento, San Joaquin, Tulare cities. The conservation element of the general plan must address and Kern Valleys and the bordering foothills for California: Sacra- the conservation, development, and utilization of natural resources, mento, California Department ofEngineering, scale about 1:380,160, 2 sheets. including water and its hydraulic force, forests, soils, rivers, and Page, R.W., 1986, Geology of the fresh ground-water basin of the Central other waters, harbors, fisheries, wildlife, minerals, and other natu- Valley, California, with textural maps and sections: U.S. Geological ral resources. The open-space element defines provisions for open Survey Professional Paper 1401 - C, 5 3 p@ space for the preservation of natural resources, the managed pro- Ratliff, R.D., 1985, Meadows in the Sierra Nevada of California- State of duction of resources, outdoor recreation, and public health and knowledge: U.S. Forest Service General Technical Report PSW-84, safety. 52 p. Private wetland activities. -Duck hunting clubs own most of Sorenson, S.K., Dileanis, P.D., and Branson, F.A., 1991, Soil water and the rionagricultural Central Valley and Suisun Bay wetlands and vegetation responses to precipitation and changes in depth to ground manage these areas for waterfowl. Ducks Unlimited is a major par- water in Owens Valley, California: U.S. Geological Survey Water- Supply Paper 2730-G, 54 p. ticipant in the Joint Venture program of the FWS, in which public Thomas, H.E., and Phoenix, D.A., 1976, Summary appraisals ofthe Nations and private organizations cooperate to preserve wetlands. The Na- ground-water resources, California region: U.S. Geological Survey ture Conservancy, California Waterfowl Association, Pacific Fly- Professional Paper 813-E, 51 p. way Project, Trust for Public Land, Solano County Farmlands and Winter, T.C., and Woo, Ming-Ko, 1990, Hydrology of takes and wetlands, Open Space Foundation, Sierra Club, and National Audubon Soci- in Wolman, M.G., and Riggs, H.C., eds., Surface water hydrology: ety have acquired sensitive lands for preservation and restoration. Boulder, Colo., Geological Society ofAmerica,The Geology ofNorth America, v. 0- 1, p. 159-187, Zedler, J.B., Nordby, C.S., and Kus, B.E., 1992, The ecology of Tijuana References Cited estuary, California-A national estuarine research reserve: Washing- Akers, J.P., 1986, Ground water in the Long Meadows area and its relation ton, D.C., National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration Office with that in the General Sherman Tree area, Sequoia National Park, of Coastal Resource Management, 151 p. California: U.S. Geological Survey Water-Resources Investigations Report 85-4178, 15 p. FOR ADDITIONAL INFORMATION: District Chief, U.S. Geological Bakker, E.S., 1984, An island called California-An ecological introduc- Survey, Room W-2233, Federal Building, 2800 Cottage Way, Sacramento, tion to its natural communities: Berkeley, University of California CA 95825; Regional Weiland Coordinator, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Press, 484 p. 9 11 N.E. I I th Avenue, Portland, OR 97232 Bertoldi, G.L., Johnston, R.H., and Evenson, K.D., 1991, Ground water in the Central Valley, California- A summary report: U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 1401 -A, 44 p. Prepared by Bureau of Land Management, 1980, California Desert Conservation Area G.L. Bertoldi and Walter C. Swain, Plaw. Riverside, Calif., Bureau of Land Management, Desert District, U.S. Geological Survey 173 p. U.S. Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper 2425 National Water Summary-Wetland Resources 135 Colorado Wetland Resources Wtlands cover only about 1.5 percent of Colorado but are eco- ine, 14 percent was mixed lacustrine and palustrine, and 83 percent logically and economically valuable to the State. Wetlands provide was palustrine (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 1955; 1960). important wildlife habitat -during some part of their life cycle, as Palustrine wetlands in Colorado include forested wetlands in ripar- much as 90 percent of the State's fish and wildlife depend on ripar- ian areas and near springs and seeps; scrub-shrub wetlands, such ian habitats that include wetlands (Redelfs, 1980), and wetlands as willow carrs (thickets) and bottomland shrublands; emergent provide stopover and breeding grounds to migratory waterfowl. wetlands, such as marshes, fens, alpine snow glades, and wet and Wetlands also provide flood attenuation, bank stabilization, and salt meadows; and aquatic-bed wetlands in ponds and lakes (Colo- water-quality improvement (fig. 1). Colorado's tourist industry ben- rado Department of Natural Resources, 1992). efits from the scenic beauty of the State's wetlands and deepwater Wetlands occupy about I million acres (1.5 percent) of Colo- habitats and from the opportunities they afford for recreational ac- rado (Dahl, 1990). In the Great Plains (fig. 2B), wetlands occur in tivities that include hunting, fishing, bird watching, nature photog- the flood plains of the South Platte and Arkansas Rivers and in scat- raphy, camping, hiking, and boating. Because wetland vegetation tered locations throughout the plains. Wetlands generally are generally is more lush and productive than that in uplands, some sparsely distributed in the Colorado Plateaus and Wyoming Basin. wetlands are considered prime grazing land. Peat is mined from In the Southern and Middle Rocky Mountains, wetlands occur pri- wetlands for use as a garden soil amendment. In the past, much of marily in high mountain valleys and intermountain basins. the State's mineral wealth was mined from placer gold and heavy- mineral deposits in riparian zones. These benefits are provided by HYDROLOGIC SETTING diverse wetlands distributed across Colorado's plains, mountains, and deserts. Wetlands form where there is a persistent water supply at or near the land surface. The location and persistence of the supply is TYPES AND DISTRIBUTION a function of interdependent climatic, physiographic, and hydrologic factors such as precipitation and runoff patterns, evaporation, to- Wetlands are lands transitional between terrestrial and deep- pography, and configuration of the water table. water habitats where the water table usually is at or near the land Precipitation (fig. 2C) and runoff rates differ annually and with surface or the land is covered by shallow water (Cowardin and oth- season and location. The average annual precipitation in Colorado ers, 1979). The distribution of wetlands and deepwater habitats in ranges from about 7 inches in the San Luis Valley to about 60 inches Colorado is shown in figure 2A; only wetlands are discussed herdiri. in some mountainous areas. Most runoff occurs in spring and early Wetlands can be vegetated or nonvegetated and are classified summer and is greatest in the mountains. Greater precipitation and on the basis of their hydrology, vegetation, and substrate. In this runoff in the mountains are the principal reasons for the greater summary, wetlands are classified according to the system proposed acreage of wetlands in the intermountain basins than in other re- by Cowardin and others (1979), which is used by the U.S. Fish and gions of the State. In the mountains, melting snow is the primary Wildlife Service (FWS) to map and inventory the Nation's wetlands. source of runoff, whereas in the eastern plains, runoff is mostly from At the most general level of the classification system, wetlands are rainfall (Petsch, 1986). The timing and volume of runoff affect the grouped into five ecological systems: Palustrine, Lacustrine, Riv- establishment and function of riparian wetlands. High strearnflow, erine, Estuarine, and Marine. The Palustrine System includes only which results from snowmelt in the mountains during spring and wetlands, whereas the other systems comprise wetlands and early summer, is essential for the maintenance of normally func- deepwater habitats. Wetlands of the systems that occur in Colorado are described below. System Wetland description Palustrine .................. Wetlands in which vegetation is predominantly trees (forested wetlands); shrubs (scrub-shrub wetlands); persistent or nonpersistent emergent, erect, rooted, herbaceous plants (persistent- and nonpersistent-emergent wetlands); or sub- mersed and lor) floating plants (aquatic beds). Also, intermittently to permanently flooded open-water bodies of less than 20 acres in which water is less than 6.6 feet deep. Lacustrine ............... Wetlands within an intermittently to permanently flooded lake or reservoir. Vegetation, when pres- ent, is predominantly nonpersistent emergent plants (non persistent-emergent wetlands), or A AN submersed and (or) floating plants (aquatic beds), or both. Riverine ..................... Wetlands within a channel. Vegetation, when pres- ent, is same as in the Lacustrine System. Figure 1. Wetland in Tennessee Park, about4 m i I es northwest of Leadville. This wetland receives acidic mine drainage and was the There is no current (1993) estimate of statewide wetland acre- subject of a study to determine the capacity of wetlands to improve age in each of the systems. Inventories of wetland and open-water the chemical quality of such drainage. (Photograph by Katherine areas conducted in the 1950's estimated that 3 percent was river- Walton-Day U.S. Ceological Survey.) 136 National Water Surnmary-Wetland Resources: STATE SUMMARIES 106. A 7@7 l' 40" er "a 0,10 C114" C, Sow Park .1. d Pk,. R r6olm I P.. 1. 3V % T*" Buft@ 1-@a NWR ..R. V.) t. _j _j WETLANDS AND DEEPWATER HABITATS 0 25 50 MILES i I I I I Distribution of wetlands and deepwater habitats- 0 25 50 KILOMETERS This map shows the approximate distribution of large wetlands in the State. Because of limitations of scale and source material, some wetlands are not shown Predominantly wetland Predominantly deepwater habitat Middle Rocky Mountains C "W vomft k Great 7 :0@c J' j 77' n PHYSIOGRAPHIC DIVISIONS PRECIPITATION -12- Line of equal annual precipitation- Interval, in inches, is variable. Figure 2. Wetland distribution in Colorado and physical and climatological features that control wetland distribution in the State. A, Dis- tribution of wetlands and deepwater habitats. H, Physiography. C, Annual precipitation. (Sources: A, TE. Dahl, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, unpub. data, 1991. B, Physiographic divisions from Fermeman, 1946; landforms data from FROS Data Center C, Petsch, 1986.) National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: COLORADO 137 tioning riparian ecosystems. Water-control projects such as reser- In the Colorado Plateaus and Wyoming Basin, wetlands occur voirs or irrigation canals, which reduce seasonal strearnflow varia- along perennial and intermittent streams, in oxbow lakes, around tion and eliminate periodic flooding, can adversely affect many reservoirs, in springs and seeps, and where there is a shallow water streamside-wetland functions (Cooper, 1988). table. Because of their semiarid to and climate, these regions have Evaporation generally is greatest in eastern Colorado (fig. 2D). a lower density and acreage of wetlands than does the rest of the Evaporation decreases with altitude and is least in the mountains. State. As a result, the regiods wetlands are disproportionately valu- Local evaporation patterns can affect wetland development. For able to wildlife. example, on the windward side of ridges above timberline, strong In the Rocky Mountains, wetlands form in two physio- winds redistribute snow to the leeward side and increase evapora- graphically and climatically distinct settings: mountain valleys and tion (Windell and others, 1986). The result is a dry environment on intermountain basins. Mountain valleys generally are geologically the windward side, whereas on the leeward side, accumulated snow young and, therefore, steep. The valleys have been shaped either by melts slowly and creates a moist environment conducive to devel- running water over their entire length or by glaciers at higher alti- opment of alpine wetlands. tude and running water at lower altitude. Wetlands in mountain In most of Colorado, evaporation exceeds precipitation annu- valleys occur in both glaciated and nonglaciated parts of the val- ally, and, except in mountainous areas, there is a net statewide an- leys in locations from cliff faces to valley floors. Glaciation (fig. nual moisture deficit that inhibits wetland formation. The moisture 2E ) in the alpine zone of some mountain valleys formed large cirque deficit prevents the formation of bogs, which are emergent wetlands basins in which remnant glaciers or late-melting snow maintain that have organic soils and receive moisture only from precipita- spring, seep, and snowbed wetlands. Cirque lakes, or tarns, formed tion. In mountainous areas, where there is sufficient moisture for by glacial scouring, collect meltwater and attenuate downhill flow. bog formation, steep topography and shifting stream channels pre- Also in the alpine zone, ponds form in depressions behind slump- vent their development (Cooper, 1986). ing saturated soils or in depressions caused by the weight of ac- Ground-water discharge from springs, shallow water tables, or cumulated snow. Below cirque basins, glaciated, steep-sided, U- both maintain wetlands in many areas of Colorado. The results of a shaped valleys have broad, flat floors and relatively low-gradient study of wetlands in a river basin in the eastern plains indicated that streams. Wetlands form on saturated cliff faces, at the sloping floor most wetlands were along springfed streams that have perennial flow near the sides of the valley, in oxbow lakes, in glacial kettle ponds, in reaches 1-2 miles in length (Cooper and Cottrell, 1989). In the in depressions on the surface of glacial moraines, in lakes created intermountain basins, ground water is an important determinant of by terminal or lateral moraines, in landslide-formed lakes, in or near wetland location. Wetlands in the San Luis Valley (fig. 2A), an in- seeps and springs, and in beaver ponds. In steep, V-shaped, non- termountain basin, are hydrologically supported by springs or glaciated parts of mountain valleys, wetlands occur as narrow ri- ground-water mounds that form during spring and summer runoff parian wetlands, in or near springs and seeps, and in beaver ponds (Cooper and Severn, 1992). (Windell and others, 1986). Climatic, topographic, and hydrologic characteristics differ Intermountain basins, which were formed by tectonic forces, among and sometimes within physiographic provinces. Colorado's are filled by sediments derived from erosion of the surrounding diverse physiography results in diverse hydrologic settings for wet- mountains. The large, flat valleys are drained by low-gradient me- land formation. andering streams and rivers. Wetlands in the intermountain basins In the Great Plains, wetlands occur in riparian zones of peren- form along these streams and rivers, in natural and constructed nial streams, in oxbow lakes (abandoned stream meanders), in iso- impoundments, in oxbow lakes, and in areas having a shallow water lated depressions that have permanent or seasonal water supply, in table maintained by underlying aquifers, annual flooding, or imper- playa lakes (primarily in the southern part of the region), and in meable substrates (Windell and others, 1986). association with reservoirs or channelized streams, rivers, and irri- The San Luis Valley is an intermountain basin in southern gation ditches. Colorado. Throughout much of the valley, the water table is shal- E A@" 'jJ A '4 Y A,.'A"@' EVAPORATION GLACIATION -40- Line of equal free-water-surface 11111111 Glacial extent during most recent evaporation- interval, 5 inches glacial maximum Figure 2. Continued. Wetland distribution in Colorado and physical and climatological features that control wetland distribution in the State. 0, Annual free-water-surface evaporation. E, Extent of most recent glaciation. (Sources: 0, Farnsworth and others, 1982. E, Mon- tagne, 1972.) 138 National Water Surnmary-Wetland Resources: STATE SUMMARIES low or at land surface, creating large areas of wetlands that have ley (Windell and others, 1986), but also in other regions of the State diverse vegetation (Cooper and Severn, 1992). Wetlands in the val- (Hopper, 1968; Rector and others, 1979). Gravel-pit construction ley provide habitat for resident and migratory waterfowl and enhance also has increased wetland acreage, and gravel mining and agricul- water quality. The valley hosts endangered whooping cranes dur- tural activities are totally or partially responsible for two-thirds of ing migration and has the State's largest concentration of wintering the wetlands inventoried in the Boulder, Colo., area (Cooper, 1988). bald eagles (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 1990). The State's largest Reservoir construction has undoubtedly increased the acreage of National Wildlife Refuges, Alamosa and Monte Vista, are located lacustrine wetlands. there. Ground water is used to irrigate the valley and augment sur- face-water flow in the Rio Grande. Recently, developers have sought CONSERVATION to export ground water from the valley to urban areas. The State Engineer's office estimated that this project could cause permanent Many government agencies and private organizations partici- water-table drawdown of several feet over large areas in the north- pate in wetlands conservation in Colorado. The most active agen- ern valley (Cooper and Severn, 1992). Such declines could decrease cies and organizations and some of their activities are listed in table wetland acreage by reducing the area of saturated or inundated soil I . and the duration of inundation in emergent wetlands (Cooper and Federal wetland activities, -Development activities in Colo- Severn, 1992). Redelfs (1980) reported that changes in irrigation rado wetlands are regulated by several Federal statutory prohibi- practices since the early 1970's already have reduced wetland acre- tions and incentives that are intended to slow wetland losses. Some age in the valley by 40 to 50 percent and have caused loss or drastic of the more important of these are contained in the 1899 Rivers and alteration of high-quality wetlands. The issue of new ground-water Harbors Act; the 1972 Clean Water Act and amendments; the 1985 development illustrates the conflicts that occur frequently between Food Security Act; the 1990 Food, Agriculture, Conservation, and development and wetland-conservation interests in the State. Trade Act; and the 1986 Emergency Wetlands Resources Act. Studies of wetland function have been conducted in a few Section 10 of the Rivers and Harbors Act gives the U.S. Army Colorado wetlands. Rovey and others (1986) concluded that veg- Corps of Engineers (Corps) authority to regulate certain activities etation and water levels of wetlands in the Cross Creek area were in navigable waters. Regulated activities include diking, deepening, dependent on stream hydrology. However, in another study of Cross filling, excavating, and placing of structures. The related section 404 Creek wetlands, Sundeen and others (1989) determined that the of the Clean Water Act is the most often-used Federal legislation hydrology of those wetlands was largely independent of streams that protecting wetlands. Under section 404 provisions, the Corps issues flowed through them. Ruddy and Williams (1991) reached a simi- permits regulating the discharge of dredged or fill material into lar conclusion about wetlands in the Williams Fork. Cooper (1990), wetlands. Permits are subject to review and possible veto by the U.S. in a study of wetland vegetation in South Park, delineated stands of Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), and the Fws has review and rare vegetation whose main range is in wetlands of boreal and arc- advisory roles. Section 401 of the Clean Water Act grants to States tic Canada and Alaska. A study of the water-quality function of a and eligible Indian Tribes the authority to approve, apply conditions subalpine wetland in the upper Arkansas River basin (indicated that to, or deny section 404 permit applications on the basis of a pro- the wetland removed iron from a stream affected by acidic mine posed activity's probable effects on the water quality of a wetland. drainage that flowed through the wetland (Walton-Day, 1991). An Most farming, ranching, and silviculture activities are not sub- upper-montane wetland has been intensively studied to determine ject to section 404 regulation. However, the "Swampbuster" provi- the processes that caused elevated uranium concentrations (Owen, sion of the 1985 Food Security Act and amendments in the 1990 1990), and reconnaissance work has been conducted in many other Food, Agriculture, Conservation, and Trade Act discourage (through such wetlands (Owen and others, 1992). Although these investiga- financial disincentives) the draining, filling, or other alteration of tions of natural processes have added to what is known of Colorado's wetlands for agricultural use. The law allows exemptions from pen- wetlands, the functions and values of the State's wetlands remain alties in some cases, especially if the farmer agrees to restore the largely unstudied (Cooper and Severn, 1992). altered wetland or other wetlands that have been converted to agri- cultural use. The Wetlands Reserve Program of the 1990 Food, TRENDS Agriculture, Conservation, and Trade Act authorizes the Federal Government to purchase conservation easements from landowners The Fws has estimated that, from the 1790's to the 1980's, who agree to protect or restore wetlands. The Consolidated Farm wetland area in Colorado decreased by 50 percent-from about 2 Service Agency (formerly the Agricultural Stabilization and Con- million to about I million acres (Dahl, 1990). In agricultural areas, servation Service) administers the Swampbuster provisions and Wet- conversion to cropland, dewatering for irrigation purposes, and lands Reserve Program. The National Resources Conservation overgrazing by livestock contribute to wetland losses. In urban areas, Service (formerly the Soil Conservation Service) determines com- wetland losses are due to encroachment by residential and commer- pliance with Swampbuster provisions and assists farmers in the iden- cial construction, channelization, dewatering for municipal and tification of wetlands and in the development of wetland protection, industrial purposes, and contamination from inadequately treated restoration, or creation plans. sewage and industrial waste. In other areas, losses have been caused The 1986 Emergency Wetlands Resources Act encourages by ski-resort development, transmountain water diversions, drain- wetland protection through funding incentives. The act requires age, river channelization, burning, clear cutting, mining and related States to address wetland protection in their Statewide Comprehen- activities that produce toxic acidic or alkaline drainage, peat mining, sive Outdoor Recreation Plans to qualify for Federal funding for placer mining, water disposal, mine-tailing deposition, erosion and State recreational land; the National Park Service provides guidance sedimentation, accidents such as drilling-mud spills or tailing-dam to States in developing the wetland component of their plans. failures, sand and gravel mining, road and railroad construction, State wetland activities. -Although Colorado currently (1993) dams and reservoirs, and acidic precipitation (U.S. Fish and Wild- has no comprehensive wetlands -protection program, the State is life Service, 1990, p. 9; Windell and others, 1986). assessing the need for a wetlands policy. Several State agencies Some land-use practices have created new wetlands or enlarged actively participate in aspects of Federal programs, and some wet- existing ones. Leaking ditches, uncapped flowing wells, and seeps lands are protected under State programs. and return flows associated with irrigation have increased wetland The Water Quality Control Division of the Department of acreage or improved wetland habitat, notably in the San Luis Val- Health reviews section 404 permit applications to ensure compli- National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: COLORADO 139 Table 1. Selected wetland-related activities of government mit applications and some local land-use issues to assess potential agencies and private organizations in Colorado, 1993 adverse effects on wildlife. Also, the Division regulates construc- [Source: Classification of activities is generalized from information provided tion activities that affect streams and riparian areas, acquires wet- by agencies and organizations. e, agency or organization participates in lands through sales of Federal duck-hunting permits, and conducts wetland-related activity; agency or organization does not participate in habitat-improvement projects on public and private lands. wetland-related activity. MAN, management; REG, regulation; R&C, res- toration and creation; LAN, land acquisition; R&D, research and data col- The activities of a few State agencies include restoration of lection; D&I, delineation and inventory] former wetlands or creation of new wetlands. The Department of Highways uses best management practices to avoid or minimize co disturbances to wetlands caused by highway maintenance and con Agency or organization 0 01 01 1;@@ struction. Unavoidable damage to wetlands is mitigated through FEDERAL wetland restoration or creation. The Department has data-collec- Department of Agriculture tion and monitoring programs to facilitate compliance with section Consolidated Farm Service Agency ........................... ... ... ... ... ... 404 permitting requirements and to assess the effectiveness of n-Liti- Forest Service .................................................................0 0 0 0 0 gation projects. The Division of Minerals and Geology creates Natural Resources Conservation Service ................ ... wetlands to treat water from abandoned mines. The State Forest Department of Defense Service helps private landowners develop or augment wetlands. Army Corps of Engineers ..............................................* Military reservations .....................................................0 County and local wetland activities. -Most regulation of de- Department of the Interior velopment activities in Colorado's wetlands is accomplished through Bureau of Land Management .......... ...........................* Federal and State laws. However, Eagle and Pitkin Counties (which Bureau of Reclamation ................................................. ... ... contain the towns of Vail and Aspen, respectively) and the cities of Fish and Wildlife Service ..............................................0... Boulder, Broomfield, Fort Collins, and Greenwood Village have Geological Survey .......................................................... ... ... ... ...0 National Biological Service ......................................... ... ... ... ... 0 adopted their own ordinances or guidelines to protect wetlands or National Park Service ...................................................a o 0 0 0 to mitigate unavoidable wetland losses. Environmental Protection Agency .................................. ...0 - 0 0 Private wetland activities. -Ducks Unlimited owns more than Native American Tribes 2,200 acres of wetlands statewide (Ducks Unlimited, 1992). The Southern Ute ...................................................................o00 0 0 Nature Conservancy owns about 1,600 acres (A.T. Carpenter, The Lite Mountain ................................................................... ...0 STATE Nature Conservancy, written commun., 1992). Other organizations Department of Agriculture ............................................... that participate in wetland -protection activities in the State include Department of Health the Colorado Native Plant Society, the Colorado Riparian Associa- Hazardous Materials and Waste tion, the Colorado Wildlife Federation, the Grand Canyon Trust, Management Division .................................................... ...o High Country Citizerfs Alliance, the Sierra Club, Colorado Trout Water Quality Control Commission ............................. ...o Water Quality Control Division .................................... ...e 0 Unlimited, the Colorado Cattlemarfs Association, and Colorado Department of Highways .................................................. ... .... Earth First! (Chew, 199 1). Department of Natural Resources Division of Parks and Outdoor Recreation Colorado Natural Areas Program ...........................& References Cited Division of Wildlife .........................................................0 Land Commissioners ......................................................0 Bureau of Land Management, 1991, Riparian-wetlands initiative for the Division of Minerals and Geology ............................... ... 1990's: Bureau of Land Management Report BLM[WO/GI-9 I/ State Forest Service .......................................................... ... 001 +4340, 50 p. SOME COUNTY AND LOCAL GOVERNMENTS .............- Chew, M.K., 1991, Bank balance -Managing Colorado's riparian areas: PRIVATE ORGANIZATIONS Fort Collins, Colorado State University Cooperative Extension Bui- Ducks Unlimited ................................................................ - 0e 0 0 letin 553A, 49 p. The Nature Conservancy ................................................... 0 0 0 Colorado Department of Natural Resources, 1992, Statewide comprehen- sive outdoor recreation plan, draft of section IX, SCORP wetlands amendment: Denver, Colorado Department of Natural Resources, Division of Parks and Outdoor Recreation, 8 p. ance with State water-quality laws. A permit is not issued by the Cooper, D.J., 1986, Ecological studies of wetland vegetation, Cross Creek Corps without certification of such compliance by the Division. Valley, Holy Cross Wilderness, Sawatch Range, Colorado: Boulder, Pursuant to section 305(b) of the Clean Water Act, the Division Colo., Holy Cross Wilderness Defense Fund, Technical Report 2, 25 p. submits to the EPA and the U.S. Congress a biennial assessment of [Available from Holy Cross Wilderness Defense Fund, 1130 Alpine, the State's surface-water quality, including that of wetlands. Boulder, CO 80304.1 The Colorado Department of Natural Resources has diverse -1988, Advance identification ofwetlands in the city ofBoulder Com- wetland responsibilities. The Department's Division of Parks and prehensive Planning Area: Boulder, Colo., Boulder Planning Depart- Outdoor Recreation develops the Statewide Comprehensive Outdoor ment, 53 p. -1990, Ecological studies in South Park, Colorado -Classification, Recreation Plan. Pursuant to the requirements of the Emergency functional analysis, rare species inventory, and the effects of remov- Wetlands Resources Act of 1986, the most recent plan (Colorado, ing irrigation (Contract report prepared for the U.S. Environmental Department of Natural Resources, 1992) prioritizes wetland protec- Protection Agency, Region V111, and the Park County Commission): tion by wetland type and function. The Divisiorfs Colorado Natural Fairplay, Colo., Park County Commission, 94 p. [Available from Li- Areas Program identifies and seeks protection for unique natural brarian, U.S. Geological Survey, Colorado District, Box 25046, MS areas in the State. A "natural area" designation results in a main- 415, Deaver Federal Center, Bldg. 53, Denver, CO 80225.] tenance agreement among landowners, the Colorado Natural Areas Cooper, D.J., and Cottrell, T.R., 1989, An ecological characterization and Program, and other interested parties. By 1992, about 5,000 acres functional evaluation of wetlands in the Cherry Creek Basin - Cherry of wetland were in designated natural areas (J.J. Coles, Colorado Creek Reservoir upstream to Franktown (Contract report prepared for the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Region Vill, and the city Natural Areas Program, oral commun., 1992). The Colorado Natu- of Greenwood Village): Golden, Colorado School of Mines, 57 p. ral Areas Program has compiled inventories of plants and animals Cooper, D.J., and Severn, Craig, 1992, Wetlands of the San Luis Valley, and plant associations of special concern in environments that in- Colorado-An ecological study and analysis ofthe hydrologic regime, clude wetlands. The Division of Wildlife reviews section 404 per- soil chemistry, vegetation and the potential effects of a water table 140 National Water Surnmary-Wetland Resources: STATE SUMMARIES drawdown (Contract report prepared for the State of Colorado Divi- in Kane, D.L., ed., Proceedings of the Symposium on Cold Regions sion ofWildlife, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, and Rio Grande Water Hydrology, Fairbanks, Alaska, 1986: Bethesda, Md., American Water Conservation District [Colo.]):. Denver, Colorado Division of Wild- Resources Association, p. 93 -100. life, 158 p. [Available from Librarian, U.S. Geological Survey, Colo- Ruddy, B.C., and Williams, R.S., Jr., 1991, Hydrologic relations between rado District, Box 25046, MS 415, Denver Federal Center, Bldg. 53, streamflow and subalpine wetlands in Grand County, Colorado: U.S. Denver, CO 80225.) Geological Survey Water-Resources Investigations Report 90-4129, Cowardin, L.M., Carter, Virginia, Golet, F.C., and LaRoe, E.T., 1979, Clas- 53 p. sification ofwetlands and deepwater habitats ofthe United States: U.S. Sundeen, K.D., Leaf, C.F., and Bostrom, G.M., 1989, Hydrologic functions Fish and Wildlife Service Report FWS/OBS-79/31, 131 p. of sub-alpine wetlands in Colorado, in Fisk, D.W., ed., Proceedings Dahl, T.E., 1990, Wetlands-Losses in the United States, 1780's to 1980's: of the Symposium on Wetlands - Concerns and Successes, Tampa, Washington, D.C., U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Report to Congress, Fla., September 17-22, 1989: Bethesda, Md., American Water Re- 13 p. sources Association, p. 401-413. Ducks Unlimited, 1992, Homework- Stockpiling wildlife does not work, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 1955, Wetlands inventory- Colorado: Al- preserving the habitatTCSouTce does!-. Wild Dawn, v. 2, no. 4, p. 6-7. buquerque, N. Mex., U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Report by the Farnsworth, R.K., Thompson, E.S., and Peck, E.L., 1982, Evaporation at- Office of River Basin Studies, 19 p., 16 p1s. las for the contiguous 48 United States: National Oceanic and Atmo- -1960, Inventory of permanent water areas of importance to water- spheric Administration Technical Report NWS 33, 27 p. fowl in the state of Colorado: Albuquerque, N. Mex., U.S. Fish and Fenneman, N.M., 1946, Physical divisions of the United States: Washing- Wildlife Service and Colorado Department of Game and Fish coop- ton, D.C., U.S. Geological Survey special map, scale 1:7,000,000. erative publication, 9 p. Hopper, R.M., 1968, Wetlands ofColorado: Colorado Department of Game, -1990, Regional wetlands concept plan-Emergency wetlands re- Fish, and Parks Technical Publication 22, 89 p. sources act: Lakewood, Colo., U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 90 p., Montagne, J.M., 1972, Glaciation during the Wisconsin stage, in Rocky 4 apps. Mountain Association of Geologists, 1972, Geologic Atlas of the Walton-Day, Katherine, 1991, Hydrology and geochemistry of a natural Rocky Mountain Region: Denver, Hirschfeld Press, p. 259. wetland affected by acid mine drainage, St. Kevin Gulch, Lake County, Owen, D.E. (chair), 1990, Session G -Multidisciplinary studies of a moun- Colorado: Golden, Colorado School of Mines, Ph.D. dissertation #T- tain fen, Society of Weiland Scientists, I I th annual meeting, Final 4033, 299 p. Program, Breckenridge, Colo., June 4-6, 1990: Society of Wetland Windell, J.T., Willard, B.E., Cooper, D.J., and others, 1986, An ecological Scientists, p. 54, 56-58, 61, 70. characterization of Rocky Mountain montane and subalpine wetlands: Owen, D.E, Otton, J.K., Hills, F.A., and Schumann, R.R., 1992, Uranium U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Biological Report 86(11), 298 p. and other elements in Colorado Rocky Mountain wetlands -A recon- naissance study: U.S. Geological Survey Bulletin 1992, 33 p. Petsch, H.E., Jr., 1986, Colorado surface-water resources, in U.S Geologi- FOR ADDITIONAL INFORMATION: District Chief, U.S. Geological cal Survey, National water summary 1985 -Hydrologic events and Survey, Building 53, Box 25046, Mail Stop 415, Denver Federal Center, surface-water resources: U.S. Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper Denver, CO 80225; Regional Weiland Coordinator, U.S. Fish and Wildlife 2300,p.167-174. Service, Fish and Wildlife Enhancement, P.O. Box 25486, Denver Federal Rector, C.D., Mustard, E.W., and Windell, J.T., 1979, Lower Gunnison Basin Center, Denver, CO 80225 wetland inventory and evaluation: U.S. Soil Conservation Service, Bureau of Reclamation, Colorado Division of Wildlife, and Univer- sity of Colorado cooperative publication, 90 p. Prepared by ,Redelfs, A.E., 1980, Wetlands values and losses in the United States: Katherine Walton-Day, Stillwater, Oklahoma State University, M.S. thesis, 144 p. U.S. Geological Survey Rovey, E.W., Kraeger-Rovey, Catherine, and Cooper, D.J., 1986, Hydrologi- cal and ecological processes in a Colorado Rocky Mountain wetland, U.S. Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper 2425 National Water Summary-Wetland Resources 141 Connecticut Wetland Resources Connecticut's diverse wetlands are valued for the environmental to the Fws National Wetland Inventory (Metzler and Tiner, 1992), and economic benefits they provide, such as wildlife habitat, water- wetlands covered about 172,500 acres, or about 5 percent, of Con- quality improvement, flood and erosion control, recreation, hunt- necticut at that time. Wetlands were defined on the basis of aerial- ing, trapping, and esthetic beauty. Wetlands provide food, shelter, photo interpretation of visible vegetation types and hydrology Evalu- and breeding and nursery grounds for fish, shellfish, birds, and other ations of the accuracy of the National Wetland Inventory maps for wildlife, many of whose populations are threatened or endangered. Vermont and Massachusetts, which were produced using the same The quality of water that passes through wetlands is typically en- techniques as for the Connecticut inventory, indicated that the hanced by physical and biochemical processes. Undeveloped flood- 1: 24,000-scale maps had accuracies of 91 percent and greater than plain wetlands along the Connecticut River and other rivers in the 95 percent, respectively, in those States (Metzler and Tiner, 1992). State provide natural storage that helps regulate floodwaters. Be- Wetland area and density are greatest in the eastern part of the State cause wetlands are valuable to the people of Connecticut, the Fed- (fig. 2B). Palustrine wetlands are by far the most common wetland eral and State governments own and protect several wetlands, such type in the State, followed by estuarine wetlands (fig. 2C); together, as Robbins Swamp (fig. 1). they constitute about 99 percent, by area, of the State's wetlands. The combined area of lacustrine and riverine wetlands makes up TYPES AND DISTRIBUTION the remaining I percent of wetland acreage. A description of Connecticut's most common wetland types follows. Wetlands are lands transitional between terrestrial and deep- Palustrine wetlands.-Vegetated palustrine wetlands in Con- water habitats where the water table usually is at or near the land necticut include ponds and shallow lakes in which the dominant surface or the land is covered by shallow water (Cowardin and oth- vegetation is floating or submersed (aquatic-bed wetlands); fresh- ers, 1979). The distribution of wetlands and deepwater habitats in water marshes, fens, and bogs dominated by herbaceous plants Connecticut is shown in figure 2A; only wetlands are discussed (emergent wetlands); and bogs and swamps dominated by shrubs herein. or trees (scrub-shrub or forested wetlands). Palustrine forested Wetlands can be vegetated or nonvegetated and are classified wetlands constitute 54 percent of the State's wetlands (Metzler and on the basis of their hydrology, vegetation, and substrate. In this Tiner, 1992) and consist primarily of red maple swamps with some summary, wetlands are classified according to the system proposed evergreen forested wetlands. Red maple grows in most inland by Cowardin and others (1979), which is used by the U.S. Fish and wetlands because it tolerates a wide range of flooding and soil-satu- Wildlife Service (FWS) to map and inventory the Nation's wetlands. ration conditions. The vegetation found with red maple, in the un- At the most general level of the classification system, wetlands are derstory and intermixed or codominating in the canopy, differs ac- grouped into five ecological systems: Palustrine, Lacustrine, Riv- cording to nutrient conditions and water regime. Evergreen forested erine, Estuarine, and Marine. The Palustrine System includes only wetlands are commonly vegetated by Atlantic white cedar in east- wetlands, whereas the other systems comprise wetlands and ern Connecticut (Metzler and Tirier, 1992) and hemlock or black deepwater habitats. Wetlands of the systems that occur in Connecti- spruce in western Connecticut (Messier, 1980). cut are described below. Lacustrine and riverine wetlands.-Although present through- out the State, lacustrine and riverine wetlands comprise only a small System Wetland description percentage of Connecticut's wetlarid area. These freshwater wetlands generally are restricted to the channel or the shallow zone between 4 Palustrine .................. Nontidal and tidal-freshwater wetlands in which the shore and deepwater habitat. If vegetated, they have only aquatic- vegetation is predominantly trees (forested wet- bed or nonpersistent emergent vegetation. Riverine wetlands are lands); shrubs (scrub-shrub wetlands); persistent most abundant in the freshwater tidal areas of the Connecticut and or nonpersistent emergent, erect, rooted herba- ceous plants (persistent- and nonpersistent- Housatonic River (Metzler and Tiner, 1992). Shallow wetlands ad- emergent wetlands); or submersed and (or) floating plants (aquatic beds). Also, intermit- tently to permanently flooded open-water bod- ies of less than 20 acres in which water is less than 6.6 feet deep. Lacustrine ................. Nontidal and tidal-freshwater wetlands within an intermittently to permanently flooded lake or reservoir larger than 20 acres and (or) deeper than 6.6 feet. Vegetation, when present, is pre- Figure 1. Robbins dominantly noripersistent emergent plants (non- Swamp, near Canaan. persistent-emergent wetlands), or submersed i This 1,000-acre forested and (or) floating plants (aquatic beds), or both. wetland is the largest Riverine ..................... Nontidal and tidal-freshwater wetlands within a inland wetland in channel. Vegetation, when present, is same as i Connecticut. The in the Lacustrine System. wetland provides wild- 5i -R'k, Estuarine ................... Tidal wetlands in low-wave-energy environments life habitat, outdoor where the salinity of the water is greater than 0.5 recreation, and other partperthousand (ppt) and is variable owing to benefits. Parts are owned by the State and evaporation and the mixing of seawater and freshwater. 0 5 0 The Nature Conserv ancy. (Photograph by According to a survey conducted in the early 1980's by the Connecticut Department of Environmental Protection on contract Ellen M. Ramsey The Nature Conservancy.) 142 National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: STATE SUMMARIES jacent to rivers or lakes are classified as palustrine wetlands if there HYDROLOGIC SETTING is persistent emergent vegetation present. Estuarine wetlands.-Estuarine wetlands consist of salt and Wetlands occur in geologic, topographic, and hydrologic set- brackish marshes (emergent and scrub-shrub wetlands) that have tings that enhance the accumulation and retention of ground water, developed in protected coves and embayments along the coast and surface water, or both for extended periods of time. Hydrologic proc- estuaries adjacent to Long Island Sound. Sparsely vegetated estua- esses are the primary factors determining the existence of wetlands; rine flats and beaches, alternately flooded by tide or exposed to air, even if the geologic and topographic settings are favorable for wet- also are present. land formation, unfavorable hydrologic conditions can inhibit wet- 73' . .........r 72' r A Can@ 7T 'Q 42' J i W %G4 .'d 0 ?,1 40 1 16"t) 16 0 . 6 Robbi5AWamp Wunqor Lm s 10 4 . t 'D r - r* 9 000 % HArtf.rd % 4) % % 'ell % #of PBchaug J Great Meadows orwich Vaurharn. Meadows 6hesler Ged @S 1 0; . or wmp 'r . % ' % R % It .4 1, of .le % Barn Island 04L a 0 Newife Cove Fish and Wildlife Area Set Meadow NWR State Park EVId. p. S 0 Stuart B. NtKinney I s r4 WETLANDS AND DEEPWATER HABITATS NWR 0 Distribution of wetlands and deepwater habitats- This map shows the approximate distribution of large wetlands in the State. Because of limitations ofscale 0 5 10 15 MILES and source material, some wetlands are not shown i I I I I I 0 5 10 15 KILOMETERS Predominantly wetland M Predominantly deepwater habitat B 4 77 TOLLAN '. -"28,102 D A 22,761 271766 "1 11,572@ 8.6 C Riverine and 38 4.5 4'3 11@v lacustrine wetlands 8 HARTFORD 1 percent (1,929 acres) C LITCHPIILD@ Estuarine wetlands c Lm-1, 15,402 34,819 11 percent (18,828 acres) 19,465 @ 6.5 8.2 L 3 NEW LONDON 5.0 NEW D 4.8 HAVEN FAIRFIELD ' D WETLAND ACREAGE AND DENSITY, Palustrine wetlands BY COUNTY 88 percent PHYSIOGRAPHIC DIVISIONS (151,791 acres) New England Province 28,702 Acres of wetland in county A. Taconic Section '4 4" ]@IHYSICIG @AIHIC .VISIJ ..S B. Connecticut valley Lowland 8.6 Percent of county covered RELATIVE AND ACTUAL ACREAGE C' New England Upland Section by wetland OF WETLANDS TYPES D. Seaboard Lowland Section IN CONNECTICUT Figure 2. Wetland distribution in Connecticut and physical features that control wetland distribution in the State. A, Distribution of wetlands and deepwater habitats. B, Wetland acreage and density, by county. C, Relative and actual acreage of wetland types in the early 1980's for Connecticut. 0, Physiography. (Sources: A, TE. Dahl, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, unpub. data, 1991. B and C, Data from Metzler and Tiner, 1992. D, Physiographic divisions from Fenneman, 1938; landforms data from EROS Data Center.) National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: CONNECTICUT 143 land formation (Winter, 1988). On an annual basis, precipitation Sections, which are underlain by metamorphosed calcareous rocks, exceeds evapotranspiration losses in Connecticut, resulting in an are distinct from those in the more widespread acidic bedrock ar- annual moisture surplus. Hydrology, therefore, favors the formation eas of the State. Soils and ground water derived from calcareous of wetlands throughout the State, and wetland location is determined rocks are rich in nutrients, resulting in wetlands such as Robbins primarily by geologic and topographic controls. Swamp that support a lush and diverse flora (Dowhan and Craig, Connecticut's physical features -created by geologic forces 1976). over millions of years, erosion and deposition from recent glacia- As vegetation became established after glacial retreat and de- tion, and human activities -combined with present-day hydrologic veloped in response to the warming climate, open-water areas filled conditions, determine the distribution of wetlands in the State. Con- with sediment or organic matter to become wetlands or remained necticut can be divided into four physiographic divisions based upon lakes with wetlands fringing open water. Studies of upland wetlands general topographic relief: the Taconic, the Connecticut Valley Low- in northeastern Connecticut have shown that wetlands have devel- land, the New England Upland, and the Seaboard Lowland Sections oped over many divergent paths in the time since deglaciation of the New England Province (fig. 2D). Topographic relief gener- (Thorson, 1990, 1992; Thorson and Harris, 1991). Postsettlement ally increases from the southeast to northwest corners of the State. agricultural and industrial practices, rather than natural ecological Major lowland areas include the Seaboard Lowland, Connecticut factors, determined the present-day character of all previously Valley Lowland, and, in the New England Upland and Taconic Sec- existing wetlands., In addition, many wetlands were formed since tions, deep valleys formed of weathered, calcareous bedrock. Con- settlement as a result of the effects of colonial land use and the con- necticut was completely covered by ice during the last glaciation; struction of cattle-watering sites, ice ponds, and mill ponds for the ice margin reached its maximum extent at Long Island, New water-powered industries. York. Glaciation did little to change the preglacial, fluvially eroded Tidal wetlands.-Wetlands in coastal areas of Connecticut have bedrock topography except for locally deepening bedrock hollows water-level fluctuations that are driven largely by ocean tides. Tidal and river valleys (Schafer and Hartshorn, 1965). Large quantities wetlands form a continuum from estuarine to tidal riverine to of sediment were produced and deposited over bedrock throughout palustrine wetlands. The effects of wave energy and salinity on the the State. This sediment either was deposited on upland hilltops and wetlands diminish along this continuum, although not necessarily slopes as till or was eroded and reworked by glacial meltwater and at the same rate. Tidal effects are present in the Connecticut River deposited as stratified drift (sorted and layered glacial sediments). as far as Windsor Locks near the Massachusetts border, whereas Stratified drift was deposited in topographically low areas-major wetlands have graded from salt and brackish to freshwater before lowlands such as the Connecticut Valley Lowland and in stream and reaching Hartford. Tidal wetlands receive freshwater input from river valleys throughout the State. Many. wetlands in Connecticut upland areas through ground-water discharge, stream overflow, and occur in the depressions, deepened valleys, and lowlands in which hillslope runoff. Regional ground-water discharge is greatest near stratified drift was deposited. the break in slope between upland and coastal areas, and interme- Inland wetlands.-During deglaciation, a series of large gla- diate and local ground-water flow systems increase in importance cial lakes occupied the Connecticut Valley Lowland, and smaller in low areas (Winter, 1988). Floodwater resulting from high tides lakes occurred along many river valleys throughout the State or stormflows may be temporarily stored on the wetland surface. (Schafer and Hartshorn, 1965). Extensive areas of flat, slowly per- The drainage of floodwater and hillslope runoff from the wetland meable stratified drift were deposited on the bottom of these lakes. surface is slowed by the low slope of coastal areas. Major areas of The generally low relief and poorly permeable substrate of these tidal wetlands are shown along major portions of the Housatonic, areas retain surface water or slow its drainage, leading to the for- Quinnipiac, and Connecticut Rivers in figure 2A. mation and maintenance of wetlands. Owing to the low slope of these The major factors affecting the development and persistence areas, small drainage obstructions can form large wetlands. Sources of tidal wetlands are the postglacial rise of sea level relative to the of water can be ground-water discharge, surface runoff, or direct land, the tidal regime, the supply of sediments to the wetland, and precipitation. the ability of plants to survive submergence by saltwater (Redfield, Wetlands occur in small and large valleys throughout Connecti- 1972). Unless the submergence of tidal wetlands by rising sea level cut. Some wetlands occupy the depressions, or kettles, left by melt- is counteracted by the vertical accretion of the wetland by sediment ing ice blocks in stratified drift. Wetlands also have formed in areas deposition and plant accumulation, the wetland will drown and be- modified by the recent erosion and deposition of rivers -in aban- come a deepwater habitat. When the glaciers melted, the sea rose doned river channels, behind levees and overbank sediments adja- and encroached upon land, inundating many stream and river val- cent to rivers, and in backswamp areas. In the New England Up- leys to form estuaries. Tidal wetlands either have migrated inland land and Taconic Sections, the hilly topography of upland areas of along estuaries, river valleys, and coastal slopes or the wetlands have till or bedrock generally does not retain surface runoff. Wetlands been completely inundated. Salt-marsh peats, as much as,12.5 feet form primarily in isolated depressions where surface runoff and thick, overlie freshwater peats in parts of the Pataguanset River val- ground-water discharge collect. The depressions may have no out- ley and indicate the change in wetland type in response to chang- flow or have drainage controlled by bedrock sills, stratified drift, ing sea levels 4,000 years ago (Orson and others, 1987). Presently, beaver dams, or manmade structures. Seepage wetlands may form tidal wetlands exist in a narrow setting between rising sea level and where the water table intersects the land surface, such as on con- expanding coastal development. As sea level continues to rise, the cave slopes and at breaks in slope; however, the wetlands are pe- migration of these wetlands inland is hindered by historic alteration rennial only if ground-water discharge is perennial (Winter, 1988). of coastal-margin wetlands and by present development. The position of a wetland in the landscape determines the nutrient status and vegetative characteristics of the wetland TRENDS (Damman and French, 1987). Water that has moved through soil and subsurface materials carries nutrients that encourage plant growth. The Fws has estimated that Connecticut lost 74 percent of its Wetlands in upland till and bedrock depressions are primarily areas original wetlands over the 200-year period between the 1780's and of discharge from nutrient-poor, local ground-water flow systems, the 1980's (Dahl, 1990). The Fws estimate is based on the assump- whereas wetlands in lowland stratified- drift valleys receive dis- tion that Connecticut originally had about 670,000 acres of wetlands. charge from more nutrient- enriched ground-water flow systems However, Metzler and Tiner (1992) discuss some of the limitations (Winter, 1988). Wetlands in the New England Upland and Taconic of the methods used in the Fws inventory to estimate predevelopment 1" National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: STATE SUMMARIES and recent wetland acreage when applied to Connecticut. They be- Federal wetland activities.-Development activities in Con- lieve that statewide wetland losses of one-third to one-half are more necticut wetlands are regulated by several Federal statutory prohi- realistic (Metzler and Tiner, 1992). The Connecticut Department bitions and incentives that are intended to slow wetland losses. Some of Environmental Protection estimates losses of 40 to 50 percent of the more important of these are contained in the 1899 Rivers and for freshwater wetlands and 65 percent for coastal wetlands. Harbors Act; the 1972 Clean Water Act and amendments; the 1985 Some tidal wetlands have been created through the effects of Food Security Act; the 1990 Food, Agriculture, Conservation, and human activities. Barske (1988) describes the development of 700 Trade Act; the 1986 Emergency Wetlands Resources Act; and the acres of salt marsh at the mouth of the Housatonic River through 1972 Coastal Zone Management Act. the accumulation of sediment, the result of upstream deforestation Section 10 of the Rivers and Harbors Act gives the Corps au- and other activities. Often, however, human activities lead to the thority to regulate certain activities in navigable waters. Regulated degradation of tidal wetlands. The elimination or restriction of tidal activities include diking, deepening, filling, excavating, and plac- flow commonly results in reduced salinity, lowered water tables, ing of structures. The related section 404 of the Clean Water Act is subsidence of wetlands peats, and conversion of wetland vegetation the most often-used Federal legislation protecting Wetlands. Under to less salt-tolerant species (Roman and others, 1984; Rozsa, 1988). section 404 provisions, the Corps issues permits regulating the dis- Roman and others (1984) estimate that 10 percent of Connecticut's charge of dredged or fill material into wetlands. Permits are sub- salt marshes are subject to tidal-flow restriction. Loss of upstream ject to review and possible veto by the U.S. Environmental Protec- freshwater wetlands, separation of watercourses and remaining up- tion Agency, and the Fws has review and advisory roles. Section 401 stream wetlands from downstream areas by a railroad right-of-way, of the Clean Water Act grants to States and eligible Indian Tribes and loss of downstream tidal marshes have all contributed to a re- the authority to approve, apply conditions to, or deny section 404 duction of productivity in Alewife Cove, an estuary on Long Island permit applications on the basis of a proposed activity's probable Sound (Welsh and others, 1976). Several degraded coastal wetlands effects on the water quality of a wetland. in Connecticut are the site of restoration projects. The U.S. Army Most farming, ranching, and silviculture activities are not sub- Corps of Engineers (Corps), in cooperation with the Connecticut ject to section 404 regulation. However, the "Swampbuster" provi- Department of Environmental Protection, is working to identify and sion of the 1985 Food Security Act and amendments in the 1990 restore salt marshes that have been degraded as a result of tidal-flow Food, Agriculture, Conservation, and Trade Act discourage (through restriction. financial disincentives) the draining, filling, or other alteration of wetlands for agricultural use. The law allows exemptions from pen- CONSERVATION alties in some cases, especially if the farmer agrees to restore the altered wetland or other wetlands that have been converted to agri- Many government agencies and private organizations partici- cultural use. The Wetlands Reserve Program of the 1990 Food, pate in wetland conservation in Connecticut. The most active agen- Agriculture, Conservation, and Trade Act authorizes the Federal cies and organizations and some of their activities are listed in Government to purchase conservation easements from landowners table 1. who agree to protect or restore wetlands. The Consolidated Farm Service Agency (formerly the Agricultural Stabilization and Con- Table 1. Selected wetland-related activities of government servation Service) administers the Swarripbuster provisions and Wet- agencies and private organizations in Connecticut, 1993 lands Reserve Program. The Natural Resources Conservation [Source@ Classification of activities is generalized from information provided Service (formerly the Soil Conservation Service) determines com- by agencies and organizations. 9, agency or organization participates in pliance with Swampbuster provisions and assists farmers in the iden- wetland-related activity; .., agency or organization does not participate in tification of wetlands and in the development of wetland protection, wetland-related activity. MAN, management; REG, regulation; R&C, resto- restoration, or creation plans. ration and creation; LAN, land acquisition; R&D, research and data collec- tion; D&I, delineation and inventory] The 1986 Emergency Wetlands Resources Act and the 1972 Coastal Zone Management Act and amendments encourage wetland protection through funding incentives. The Emergency Wetland Agency or organization \3@ <e Resources Act requires States to address wetland protection in their FEDERAL Statewide Comprehensive Outdoor Recreation Plans to qualify for Department of Agriculture Federal funding for State recreational land; the National Park Ser- Consolidated Farm Service Agency ........................... . ... ... vice (NPS) provides guidance to States in developing the Weiland Forest Service ................................................................. component of their plans. Coastal States that adopt coastal-zone Natural Resources Conservation Service ................ management programs and plans approved by the National Oceanic Department of Commerce and Atmospheric Administration are eligible for Federal funding and National Oceanic and technical assistance through the Coastal Zone Management Act. Atmospheric Administration ........................................ Department of Defense Federal agencies are responsible for the proper management Army Corps of Engineers .............................................. of wetlands on public lands under their jurisdiction. The FWS pro- Military reservations ..................................................... tects and manages wetlands in two National Wildlife Refuges -the Department of the Interior Stewart B. McKinney National Wildlife Refuge and the Salt Meadow Fish and Wildlife Service .............................................. National Wildlife Refuge. The Corps manages and conserves for- National Biological Service ......................................... Environmental Protection Agency .................................. ests, water, fish, wildlife, wetlands, and recreation areas for mul- STATE tiple uses at dams, reservoirs, and parks located throughout the State. Department of Environmental Protection ..................... State wetland activities. -Tidal wetlands are protected under Department of Transportation ......................................... the Tidal Wetlands Act of 1969 and the Coastal Management Act of University of Connecticut ................................................. 1979. Activities in tidal wetlands are regulated at the State level with TOWN AND CITY CONSERVATION COMMISSIONS PRIVATE ORGANIZATIONS exemptions for mosquito control, conservation, navigation, and Connecticut Audubon Society ......................................... emergency activities. Tidal wetlands are defined by the State as areas Ducks Unlimited .................................................................. ... that border or lie beneath tidal waters and that contain certain plant The Nature Conservancy ..................................................0 species. About 15,000 acres of tidal salt marsh and 7,000 acres of National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: CONNECTICUT 145 brackish and freshwater tidal wetlands are regulated under this responsible for planning and regulating wetland-related activities statute (Lefor and Tiner, 1972). at the town or municipal level. Inland wetland and watercourse com- Nontidal freshwater wetlands are protected under the Inland missions regulate activities through permitting under the Inland Wetlands and Watercourses Act of 1972. Inland wetlands are regu- Welland and Watercourses Act. Coastal-area zoning and planning lated according to State standards by local inland wetlands and commissions balance development and the preservation of environ- watercourses commissions. Permits are required for all activities mental values in coastal areas under the Coastal Management Act. within wetlands with exemptions for agricultural activities, construc- The act provides commissions with planning, research, and permit- tion and maintenance of water-supply systems, certain conserva- ting authority. Education, training, support, and final authority are tion and recreation uses, and the enjoyment and maintenance of provided to commissions by the Department of Environmental residential property. Inland wetlands are defined by soil type - Protectiorils Wetland Program. poorly drained, very poorly drained, flood-plain, or alluvial soils Private wetland activities.-Private organizations in Connecti- as delineated by the National Cooperative Soil Survey. Rivers, cut are active in land acquisition and management, research, edu- streams, waterways, and other natural and artificial water bodies cation, and policy review and planning. The Nature Conservancy are regulated under this statute as watercourses. On the basis of the protects about 1,800 acres of wetlands within the 9,000 acres of land State's wetland definition, 15 to 20 percent of Connecticut's land is under its ownership. Ducks Unlimited provides technical and finan- subject to regulation as inland wetlands (Metzler and Tiner, 1992). cial assistance to Federal and State agencies in order to protect Under section 401 of the Federal Clean Water Act, any activ- waterfowl habitat in Connecticut. ity that results in a discharge, including that of fill into wetlands or State waters that requires a federal permit, must also obtain a sec- References Cited tion 401 water-quality certification stating that the activity will not violate State surface-water-quality standards. Many activities ex- Barske, Philip, 1988, Man and nature-Willing or unwilling partners, in empted under the Inland Wetlands and Watercourses Act are in the Lefor, M.W., and Kennard, W.C., eds., Proceedings of the 4th Wet- Department of Environmental Protection's jurisdiction under the lands Conference, November 15, 1986: University of Connecticut section 401 certification program; however, normal maintenance and Institute of Water Resources Report 34, p. 91-99. improvement of agricultural lands remain exempt from State and Butts, M.P., 1988, Status of wetland creation/mitigation projects on State highway projects in Connecticut, in Lefor, M.W., and Kennard, W.C., Federal authority. Use of the antidegradation provisions of State eds., Proceedings of the 4th Wetlands Conference, November 15, 1986: surface -water-quality standards on wetlands provides enhanced University of Connecticut Institute of Water Resources Report 34, wetland protection. Antidegradation provisions provide for the p. 13-18. protection of existing wetland functions and the level of water quality Cowardin, L.M., Carter, V., Golet, F.C., and LaRce, E.T., 1979, Classifica- necessary to maintain and protect those functions. No degradation tion of wetlands and deepwater habitats of the United States: U.S. Fish is allowed in areas designated as "outstanding national resource and Wildlife Service Report FWSJOBS -79/31, 131 p. waters," such as National Wildlife Refuges, National Parks, State Dahl, T.E., 1990, Wetlands -Losses in the United States, 1780's to 1980's: parks, wildlife areas, and other areas of ecological significance. The Washington, D.C., U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Report to Congress, Water Resources Division of the Department of Environmental Pro- 13 p. Damman, A.W.H., and French, T.W., 1987, The ecology of peat bogs of the tection is responsible for section 401 certifications in Connecticut. glaciated northeastern United States -A community profile: U.S. Fish The Department of Environmental Protection is the primary and Wildlife Service Biological Report 85(7.16), 100 p. environmental and conservation agency in Connecticut. The Depart- Dowhan, IT, and Craig, R.J., 1976, Rare and endangered species of Con- ment owns more wetland acreage in Connecticut than does the Fed- necticut and their habitats: Connecticut Geological and Natural His- eral Government (Metzler and Titter, 1992). Numerous wetlands are tory Survey Report of Investigations no. 6, 137 p. protected in State parks, State forests, and wildlife-managemerit Fermeman, N.M., 1938, Physiography of Eastern United States: New York, areas throughout the State. Chester Cedar Swamp and Pachaug Great McGraw-Hill, 714 p. Meadows are partly State-owned wetlands and are designated as Lefor, M.W., and Titter, R.W., 1972, Tidal wetlands survey of the State of National Natural Landmarks by the NPS. The State owns significarit Connecticut-Report of the consultant biologists for the period De- cember 22, 1969 to June 30, 1972: Storrs, Biological Sciences Group, portions of wetlands at Robbins Swamp, Durham Meadows, Barn University of Connecticut, 113 p. Island Fish and Wildlife Areas, and Hammonasset State Park Messier, S.N., 1980, The plant communities of the acid wetlands of north- (Metzler and Tiner, 1992). Wetlands are acquired through the Rec- western Connecticut: Storrs, University of Connecticut, M.S. thesis, reation and Natural Heritage Act and sale of the new Connecticut 98 P. Waterfowl Hunting Stamp. Funds derived from the stamp will be Metzler, K.J., and Tiner, R.W., 1992, Wetlands of Connecticut: State Geo- used solely for wetland acquisition or improvements. logical and Natural History Survey of Connecticut Report of Investi- Development projects that cause unavoidable wetlands degra- gations no. 13, 115 p. dation or loss are required to mitigate or compensate for wetland Orson, R.A., Warren, R.S., and Niering, W.A., 1987, Development of a tidal loss by replacing or providing a substitute wetland resource. The marsh in a New England river valley: Estuaries, v. 10, p. 20-27. Redfield, A.C., 1972, Development of a New England salt marsh: Ecologi- Connecticut State Department of Transportation has been involved cal Monographs, v. 42, p. 201-237. in wetlands creation and mitigation projects as a way to offset the Roman, C.T., Niering, W.A., and Warren, R.S., 1984, Salt marsh vegeta- long-term effects of highway construction. Wetlands, created and tion change in response to tidal restriction: Environmental Manage- restored as a part of the design, permit, and construction.process, ment, v. 8, p. 141-150. have provided lost wetland functions with varying success (Butts, Rozsa, Ronald, 1988, An overview of wetland restoration projects in Con- 1988). The Department of Transportation. has acquired about 200 necticut, in Lefor, M.W., and Kennard, W.C., eds., Proceedings of the acres of wetlands in compensation for wetlands lost through devel- 4th Wetlands Conference, November 15,1986: University of Connecti- opment projects; most of this land has remained under the cut Institute of Water Resources Report 34, p. 1-11. Department's management. The Department provides funds for Schafer, J.P., and Hartshorn, J.H., 1965, The Quaternary of New England, in Wright, H.E., Jr., and Frey, D.G., eds., The Quaternary of the United wetland-retated research primarily at the University of Connecti- States: Princeton, N.J., Princeton University Press, p. 113-128. cut. Thorson, R.M., 1990, Development of small upland wetlands-A strati- Local wetland activities.-Inland wetland and watercourse graphic study in northeastern Connecticut: Storrs, University of Con- commissions and coastal-area zoning and planning commissions are necticut School of Engineering, Final Report JHR 90-191, 285 p. 146 National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: STATE SUMMARIES -1992, Remaking the wetlands in Lebanon, Connecticut- Cultural and natural changes in the postglacial epoch: Storrs, University of Con- necticut School of Engineering, Final Report JHR 92 - 215, 157 p. Thorson, R.M., and Harris, S.L., 1991, How "natural" are inland wet- lands?-An example from the Trail Wood Audubon Sanctuary in Connecticut, USA: Environmental Management, v. 15, p. 675-687. Welsh, B.L., Herring, J.P., Bessette, Diane, and Read, Luana, 1976, The importance of an holistic approach to ecosystem management and planning, in Lefor, M.W., Kennard, W.C., and Helfgott, T.B., eds., Proceedings of the 3rd Wetlands Conference, June 14, 1975: Univer- sity of Connecticut Institute of Water Resources Report 26, p. 16- 33. Winter, T.C., 1988, A conceptual framework for assessing cumulative im- pacts on the hydrology of nontidal wetlands: Environmental Manage- ment, v. 12, p. 605 - 620. FOR ADDITIONAL INFORMATION: District Chief, U.S. Geological Survey, Ribicoff Federal Building, 450 Main Street, Room 525, Hartford, CT 06103; Regional Wetlands Coordinator, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 300 Westgate Center Drive, Hadley, MA 01035 Prepared by Sandrat. Harris, U.S. Geological Survey National Water Summary-Wetland Resources 147 Delaware Wetland Resources Wetlands cover about 17 percent of Delaware (Tiner and Finn, grouped into five ecological systems: Palustrine, Lacustrine, Riv- 1986). These wetlands support rich biotic communities in freshwa- erine, Estuarine, and Marine. The Palustrine System includes only ter, brackish-water, and saltwater settings across the State. Some of wetlands, whereas the other systems comprise wetlands and the most familiar wetlands in Delaware are the tidal marshes along deepwater habitats. Wetlands of the systems that occur in Delaware Delaware Bay (fig. 1). axe described below. Wetlands have many chemical, physical, and biological func- tions. In Delaware, wetlands trap waterborne sediments, nutrients, System Wetland description and toxic chemicals by filtering inflowing water and storing or trans- forming the filtrate. Coastal-zone and flood-plain wetlands mitigate Palustrine .................. Nontidal and tidal-freshwater wetlands in which the effects of flooding caused by runoff and tides by reducing flow vegetation is predominantly trees (forested wet- velocity, storing water temporarily, and releasing it gradually. Veg- lands); sh rubs (scru b-sh rub wetl ands); persistent or nonpersistent emergent, erect, rooted herba- etation in riparian wetlands maintains stream channels by stabiliz- ceous plants (persistent- and nonpersistent- ing the land surface, and tidal wetlands act as buffers against storm emergent wetlands); or submersed and (or) tides and waves, thus impeding erosion. One of the most important floating plants (aquatic beds). Also, intermit- functions of wetlands is habitat for waterfowl, terrestrial and aquatic tently to permanently flooded open-water bod- ies of less than 20 acres in which water is less animals, and a wide variety of plant life. Wetlands provide food, than 6.6 feet deep. shelter, resting and feeding places on migration routes, breeding Lacustrine ................. Nontidal and tidal-freshwater wetlands within an areas, and nurseries for many animals including species of particu- intermittently to permanently flooded lake or lar economic interest in Delaware such as muskrat, fish, ducks, and reservoir larger than 20 acres and (or) deeper geese. Many rare and endangered plant species are adapted to hy- than 6.6 feet. Vegetation, when present, is pre- drologic conditions present only in wetlands, especially freshwater dominantly nonpersistent emergent plants (non- persistent-emergent wetlands), or submersed wetlands. and (or) floating plants (aquatic beds), or both. Delawares wetlands have considerable recreational and eco- Riverine ..................... Nontidal and ticla I -freshwater wetlands within a nomic value. They provide outdoor educational and recreational channel. Vegetation, when present, is same as opportunities, including activities such as bird watching, hiking, and in the Lacustrine System. canoeing. In addition, wetlands in Delaware support the hunting, Estuarine ................... Tidal wetlands in low-wave-energy environments fur trapping, commercial and sport fishing, lumbering, and tourist where the salinity ofthe water is greater than 0.5 industries. part per thousand (ppt) and is variable owing to evaporation and the mixing of seawater and freshwater. TYPES AND DISTRIBUTION Marine ....................... Tidal wetlands that are exposed to waves and cur- rents of the open ocean and to water having a Wetlands are lands transitional between terrestrial and deep- salinity greater than 30 ppt. water habitats where the water table usually is at or near the land surface or the land is covered by shallow water (Cowardin and oth- Palustrine wetlands are the most abundant wetlands in Dela- ers, 1979). The distribution of wetlands and deepwater habitats in ware, comprising 132,000 acres in 1983, or about 59 percent of the Delaware is shown in figure 2A; only wetlands are discussed herein. wetland area in the State (Tiner, 1985). Palustrine wetlands are dis- Wetlands can be vegetated or nonvegetated and are classified tributed throughout the State in topographic depressions and in ri- on the basis of their hydrology, vegetation, and substrate. In this parian zones along rivers and streams. In 1983, estuarine wetlands summary, wetlands are classified according to the system proposed covered 89,800 acres in Delaware, or about 40 percent of the wet- by Cowardin and others (1979), which is used by the U.S. Fish and land area in the State. Estuarine wetlands occur along the shores of Wildlife Service (FWS) to map and inventory the Natioifs wetlands. Delaware Bay and the Delaware River and behind the barrier At the most general level of the classification system, wetlands are beaches of the Atlantic Coast. Other types of wetland comprise less than I percent of Delaware's welland area. In 1983, the State had about 650 acres of riverine wetland, 140 acres of lacustrine wet- land, and 540 acres of marine wetland (mostly beaches and sand- ...... bars along the Atlantic Coast). Delaware is a small State, but it contains many different types of wetlands. The plant composition of vegetated wetlands is deter- mined by factors such as climate, soil type, ground-water and sur- face-water chemistry, salinity, and the extent and duration of flood- ing. The predominant vegetation or specific location of a Delaware wetland frequently determines its common name. For example, in- land bays are natural coastal features that contain both palustrine and estuarine emergent wetlands, and such wetlands occur in Rehoboth, Indian River, and Little Assawoman Bays. Palustrine and Figure 1. Estuarine wetlands on Cedar Creek at Slaughter estuarine emergent wetlands can be found in impoundments modi- Beach, Delaware. These are tidal wetlands typical of those fied by constructed levees and managed by water-control structures. found along Delaware Bay. (Photograph by Evelyn M. Maur- Salt and brackish marshes are predominantly estuarine emergent meyer Coastal and Estuarine Research, Inc.) wetlands characterized by vegetation tolerant of brackish to salty 148 National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: STATE SUMMARIES water; small scrub-shrub wetlands commonly are associated with The Delaware Department of Natural Resources and Environ- the landward margins of salt marshes. Interdunal swales (dune mental Control has established five wetland categories for the State slacks) are topographic depressions among sand dunes on the At- based on relative functions and values of the State's wetlands. Cat- lantic Coast that contain palustrine emergent or scrub-shrub wet- egory I wetlands provide exceptional value or unique biotic assem- lands. Palustrine forested wetlands in Delaware include Atlantic blages and include Delmarva bays, dune slacks, Atlantic white cedar white cedar swamps, cypress swamps, and flood-plain forests, both swamps, and cypress swamps. Category Il wetlands are those gen- tidal and nontidal. Delmarva bays (small, closed topographic depres- erally considered permanently to seasonally wet or those that pro- sions) commonly contain seasonally flooded palustrine emergent, vide significant habitat or biotic values. Category III wetlands in- scrub-shrub, or forested wetlands. Delmarva bays and associated clude temporarily flooded wetlands and all wetlands not included in wetlands also are known as whale wallows; loblollies; flatwoods another category. Category IV wetlands consist of farmed wetlands. depressions; and intermittent, temporary, vernal, woodland, or Category V wetlands are all wetlands created from nonwetland areas coastal-plain ponds. for purposes other than mitigation and include drainage ditches, farm ponds, stormwater-retention basins, and borrow pits. A -dY d- Churchmans Wi Marsh Mba Ch 39, 30, C Naxontown Pond Blackbird SF Piedmont Pro 'nce Fall Line COASTAL PLAIN 0.0 HYDROGEOMORPHIC REGIONS r_1 Poorly Drained Upland as- 00' Well-Drained Upland 4 SJ@ghter Sewh r= Surficial Confined PHYSIOGRAPHIC I:= inner Coastal Plain The DIVISIONS Great MI Coastal Welland and Marsh Beach Region C= Piedmont Province edden SF 8.Y WETLANDS AND DEEPWATER HABITATS ATIANTIC ibution of wetlands and deepwater habitats Distri This map shows the approximate distribution of large 1@dl.. Riwl OCFAN wetlands in the State. Because of limitations of scale B-Y and source material, some wetlands are not shown Predominantly wetland Predominantly cleepwater habitat B-Y F 75' 30' 0 5 10 15 MILES 1 1 -L-@@ 0 5 10 15 KILOMETERS Figure 2. Wetland distribution in Delaware and physical features that control wetland distribution in the State. A, Distribution of wetlands and deepwater habitats. B, Physiography. C, Hydrogeornorphic regions in the Coastal Plain of Delaware. (Sources: A, TE. Dahl, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, unpub. data, 1991. B, Landforms data from EROS Data Center, divisions from Spo1jarik andjordan, 1966. C' Shedlock and others, 1993.) National Water Surnmary-Wetland Resources: DELAWARE 149 HYDROLOGIC SETTING hummocky, has low relief, and has many seasonally flooded forested wetlands and small, sluggish streams in poorly defined, low-gradi- In Delaware, water in small, nontidal wetlands is supplied by ent, shallowly incised valleys (fig. 3A) (Shedlock and others, 1993). direct precipitation, surface runofffrom precipitation, and localized, About 43 percent of the region is forested, including the topographic shallow ground-water-flow systems recharged by precipitation. depressions, which have poorly drained soils and typically contain Larger wetlands (tidal and nontidal) also can interact with regional wetlands. Forests are interspersed with agricultural fields that are ground-water-flow systems. The primary source of water in tidal in areas of higher elevation than the forests. The water table in this wetlands is tidal inundation, although runoff and ground-water dis- region is shallow and has a relatively large seasonal fluctuation. charge can be important secondary sources. Water from surface Local ground-water-flow patterns are directly affected by the depth runoff can collect in topographic lows, where ground water com- of the water table and can differ with seasonal precipitation, even monly discharges after periods of greater-than-normal precipitation. to the extent of changing direction, so that wetlands where ground These hydrologic conditions are conducive to the formation and water is discharged in wet periods can become areas ofground-water maintenance of wetlands. recharge during dry periods (Phillips and Shedlock, 1993). Typical Abundant precipitation (an annual average of 43 inches) wetlands in this region are seasonally saturated, forested wetlands. (Simmons, 1986) and extensive tidal zones in Delaware Bay and the Examples include the wetlands in Redden State Forest, which have Atlantic Ocean provide ample water for wetlands in Delaware. Fluc- poorly defined topographic boundaries (typical of the southern part tuations in local precipitation and evapotranspiration rates combine of this region), and the small wetlands in Blackbird State Forest, with local differences in geology, topography, soil characteristics, which are contained within Delmarva bays (typical of the northern and tides to create transient or seasonal changes in the local inter- part of this region). actions ofgrourid water and surface water in wetlands (Winter, 1992; The Well-Drained Upland occurs in a north-south trending Phillips and Shedlock, 1993). In general, mid-October to early April band in eastern Delaware and in an area in the southern part of the (nongrowing season) is a period of ground-water recharge, with high State around the headwaters of the Nanticoke River. This region is rates of precipitation and low rates of evapotranspiration. Mid-April flat to gently rolling and has higher relief than the Poorly Drained to mid-October (growing season) is characterized by high rates of Upland (fig. 3A). Streams are deeply incised, particularly tidal evapotranspiration and declining water levels (Johnston, 1973). streams and their tributaries. About 28 percent of the Well-Drained Delaware is in two physiographic provinces: the Coastal Plain Upland is forested, primarily in riparian (streamside) zones, which and the Piedmont Province (fig. 2B). Geology, topography, and soils include most of the wetlands in the region. The rest of the region is in the two provinces differ considerably; the types and distribution covered by agricultural fields. Typical wetlands in the region include of wetlands in each province reflect this difference. Figure 3A - 3C the palustrine forested wetlands along the Nanticoke RiveL is a generalization of wetland hydrology in Delaware. The Coastal Wetland and Beach region extends southward Coastal Plain. -Ninety-three percent of Delaware, including along the coast of Delaware from the Delaware River to the Dela- more than 94 percent of its wetland area, is in the Coastal Plain. ware-Maryland border. This region is very flat and has dunes along All of the estuarine wetlands in the State are in this relatively flat the Atlantic Coast (fig. 3A). The surficial. aquifer is composed of a province (Tiner, 1987), which rises from below sea level only to variety of sediments that were deposited in several coastal settings, about 100 feet above sea level. The Coastal Plain is underlain by an including beach, dune, and tidal marsh. The water table is gener- extensive and locally complex surficial aquifer that has a wide range ally within a few feet of the land surface because of geohydrologic of depth, porosity, and permeability (Andres, 1987; Talley, 1987). conditions and because the land-surface altitude is near sea level. Wetlands in the Coastal Plain generally intersect the surficial aqui- Wetlands in this region have complex hydrology because of the fer. geologic setting and because of the interactions between tides and Coastal Plain wetlands are supported by precipitation, surface ground-water discharge. Extensive wetlands in low-lying areas form runoff, flooding from streams, and ground-water discharge. Re- as shallow embayments, salt marshes, and tidal and nontidal fresh- charge of the ground-water system in the Coastal Plain is mainly water marshes and swamps. Examples of wetlands in the Coastal by infiltration of precipitation in interstream areas (Heath, 1984), Weiland and Beach region include the large marshes in Indian River and discharge results from evapotranspiration and by seepage to Bay, the Great Marsh (an extensive tidal marsh along Delaware Bay), streams, estuaries, wells, ditches, and the ocean. Both local and and the freshwater and brackish tidal marshes along Blackbird regional ground-water flow may help sustain wetlands, especially Creek. in low-lying areas near the coast, which contain extensive, mainly The Surficial Confined region occupies two small areas of emergent wetlands. Forested wetlands occur primarily in bottom southern Delaware. The landscape is flat, except for a number of lands along stream channels, especially in headwater areas. The low, sandy ridges (relict dunes) that rise above their surroundings width of these forested wetlands in streamside and upland areas (fig. 3B). This region is physiographically similar to the Poorly commonly has been reduced by ditching and the conversion of land Drained Upland. Geohydrologic conditions in the upper sand unit to agricultural use. of the aquifer are the cause of the poor drainage conditions and Regional differences in the configuration and geohydrologic widespread presence of wetlands in the Surficial Confined region properties of sedimentary deposits in the Coastal Plain are reflected (Shedlock and others, 1993). Extensively ditched agricultural lands by differences in topography, soils, degree of stream incision, the have been converted from former wetland. About 55 percent of the configuration of the water table, and the paths of ground-water flow. area in this region is still in large tracts of woodlands that occur in These characteristics, which affect the distribution of wetlands in uplands between streams and in wetlands in riparian zones. Ex- the landscape, have been used to divide the Coastal Plain on the amples of wetlands in the Surficial Confined region include the Delmarva Peninsula into hydrogeomorphic regions (Shedlock and remnant of a large cypress swamp located east of Gumboro and the others, 1993). In Delaware, there are five hydrogeomorphic regions forested wetlands along the Pocomoke River. (fig. 2C): the Poorly Drained Upland, the Well-Drained Upland, the The Inner Coastal Plain is in northern Delaware. There is con- Surficial Confined, the Inner Coastal Plain, and the Coastal Wet- siderable topographic relief in this region, and streams are well in- land and Beach. Each of these regions contains wetlands. cised in their lower reaches (fig. 3C). Land use in this region is The Poorly Drained Upland lies along the drainage divide sepa- heterogeneous. There has been considerable development of the rating the Chesapeake Bay drainage basin to the west from the drain- northeastern section, which is mostly urban. The northwestern sec- age basins of Delaware Bay and the Atlantic Ocean. This region is tion of the region is forested, and the southern section has mixed 150 National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: STATE SUMMARIES agricultural and residential usage. Wetlands in the Inner Coastal about 450 feet. The Piedmont Province is underlain by folded and Plain occur in riparian zones, especially in the tidal reaches of the faulted igneous and metamorphic bedrock overlain by a regolith of Christina River, in forested areas, and in small, discontinuous ar- variable thickness. Regolith, which underlies the land surface nearly eas. Examples of wetlands in the region include Churchmarfs Marsh, everywhere in this province, is a layer of unconsolidated, mostly a tidal emergent wetland; Nonesuch Creek Marsh, an emergent fine-grained material composed of fragmental, weathered bedrock wetland whose tidal flow is restricted by tide gates; and the small, and alluvium overlying unweathered bedrock. Wetlands in the Pied- nontidal, palustrine wetlands around Noxontown Pond. mont Province occur along riparian valleys and other low areas of Piedmont Province.-The Piedmont Province occupies the the ground surface, which commonly occur over fracture zones in northern 6 percent of the State and contains only 2 percent of the bedrock. Water is more likely to collect and be discharged in Delaware's total wetland area (Tiner and Finn, 1986). The gently these depressions than in other areas because fracture zones are rolling hills of this province range in altitude from near sea level to major pathways of ground-water movement (Heath, 1984). A. Poorly Drained Upland, Well-Drained Upland, and Coastal Wetland and Beach POORLY DRAINED UPLAND PALUSTRINE WETLAND PALUSTRINE WETLANDS WELL DRAINED UPLAND RIVERINE WETLANDS "R COASTAL WETLAND AND BEACH ESTUARINE WETLAND ESTUARINE WETLAND ------- -- - -- ----- -------- -- aquifer ------ UL >07@1 11 if '@V Saltwater Freshwater Estuarine deposits B. Surficiat Confined region EXPLANATION Generalized direction of C@ Scrub-shrub vegetation PALUSTRINE WETLANDS PALUSTRINE WETLANDS ground-water flow RIVERINE WETLAND RIVERINE WETLAND RIVERINE WETLAND Average water table r-1 I I f Forest vegetation Water table in Poorly Drained is E Upland in wart season 2 1 11@1/lv Emergent vegetation ---- - ---- --- R rc Water table in Poorly Drained Sand a --------------- Upland in dry season @$ff# Farmed crops or Direction of ground-water @ref;@@ Submersed aquatic uppe it) flow in Poorly Drained vegetation Sand aquifer (upper unit) Upland in wet season Channel-f.11 sediments Direction of ground-water flow in Poorly Drained Regolith Sand aquifer Upland in dry season (lower unit) ----- Contact between fresh- water and saltwater Nolte: Vertical scale greatly exaggerated C. Piedmont Province and Inner Coastal Plain RIVERINE WETLAND PIEDMONT PROVINCE INNER COASTAL PLAIN PALUSTRINE WETLANDS PALUSTRINE WETLANDS ESTUARINE WETLAND RIVERINE WETLANDS 2 U - ----- -- Figure 3. Geohydrologic setting of wetlands in Delaware. A, Poorly Drained Upland, Well-Drained Send Fractured bedrock aquifer Upland, and Coastal Wetland and Beach. B, Surficial u fe 7 Confined region. C, Piedmont Province and inner Coastal Plain. National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: DELAWARE 151 Recharge of the ground-water system in the Piedmont Prov- of the Clean Water Act is the most often-used Federal legislation ince is by infiltration of precipitation, mostly in the uplands (Heath, protecting wetlands. Under section 404 provisions, the Corps issues 1984); however, most precipitation in this province is transported permits regulating the discharge of dredged or fill material into to surface depressions and streams by overland runoff. In forested wetlands. Permits are subject to review and possible veto by the U.S. areas, water seeps into the soil layer and moves through it laterally Environmental Protection Agency, and the Fws has review and ad- to discharge into streams and, by evapotranspiration, into the atmo- visory roles. Section 401 of the Clean Water Act grants to States sphere. Some water moves below the soil zone to the water table in and eligible Indian Tribes the authority to approve, apply conditions the regolith. The water seeps from the regolith into the underlying to, or deny section 404 permit applications on the basis of a pro- bedrock or discharges to surface-water bodies (fig. 3C). Much of posed activity's probable effects on the water quality of a wetland. the ground water available to wetlands in this region is stored in the Most farming, ranching, and silviculture activities are not sub- regolith (Metzgar, 1973). ject to section 404 regulation. However, the "Swampbuster" provi- Types of wetlands in the Piedmont Province include flood-plain sion of the 1985 Food Security Act and amendments in the 1990 emergent marshes, seeps, and excavated farm ponds. Notable among Food, Agriculture, Conservation, and Trade Act discourage (through wetlands in this province are the forested wetlands along Brandy- financial disincentives) the draining, filling, or other alteration of wine Creek. wetlands for agricultural use. The law allows exemptions from pen- alties in some cases, especially if the farmer agrees to restore the TRENDS altered wetland or other wetlands that have been converted to agri- cultural use. The Wetlands Reserve Program of the 1990 Food, In the 1780's, about 480,000 acres (36 percent) of Delaware Agriculture, Conservation, and Trade Act authorizes the Federal was wetland (Dahl, 1990). By the mid-1 980's, 223,000 wetland acres Government to purchase conservation easements from landowners remained-a loss of about 54 percent since the 1780's. The esti- who agree to protect or restore wetlands. The Consolidated Farm mated annual loss of all types of wetland between 1955 and 1981 Service Agency (formerly the Agricultural Stabilization and Con- was 1,600 acres (Tiner, 1987). Both human activities that adversely servation Service) administers the Swampbuster provisions and Wet- affect water quality and natural phenomena have contributed to lands Reserve Program. The Natural Resources Conservation Ser- widespread wetland loss and degradation. vice (formerly the Soil Conservation Service) determines compli- Major causes of vegetated nontidal wetland loss have been ance with Swampbuster provisions and assists farmers in the iden- channelization and ditching (about 55 percent), direct conversion tification of wetlands and in the development of wetland protection, to agriculture (28 percent), urbanization (12 percent), and pond restoration, or creation plans. creation (5 percent) (Tiner, 1987). Major causes of vegetated tidaJ The 1986 Emergency Wetlands Resources Act and the 1972 wetland loss have been urbanization (63 percent), inundation by Coastal Zone Management Act and amendments encourage wetland submersion, dredging, or impoundment (24 percent), and pond cre- ation (6 percent). Small areas of wetland have been formed in re- Table 1. Selected wetland-related activities of government cent times, especially by inadvertent flooding during road construc- agencies and private organizations in Delaware, 1993 tion, by pond construction and, most recently, by the establishment [Source: Classification of activities is generalized from information provided of compensatory wetland-mitigation sites. Properly managed shal- by agencies and organizations. *, agency or organization participates in low ponds and impoundments do not usually result in welland losses wetiand-related activity; ..., agency or organization does not participate in but rather in conversions from drier to wetter types of wetlands; they wetiand-related activity. MAN, management; REG, regulation; R&C, resto- can even yield net increases in wetland value with the change in ration and creation; LAN, land acquisition; R&D, research and data collec- function. New wetlands also have formed on washover fans and flood tion; D&I, delineation and inventoryl tidal deltas along coastal areas as well as on former upland areas inundated by rising sea levels. Implementation of the 1973 State Wetlands Act and the 1972 Agency or organization Federal Clean Water Act markedly reduced the rate of human-caused FEDERAL tidal wetland loss. The estimated annual tidal wetland loss between Department of Agriculture 1954 and 1973 was 444 acres (Lesser, 1971); between 1973 and Consolidated Farm Service Agency ........................... Natural Resources Conservation Service ................ 1979 the estimated annual rate of tidal-wetland loss was 20 acres Department of Commerce (Hardisky and Klemas, 1983). Recent rates of nontidal-wetland loss National Oceanic and have not been accurately quantified. Atmospheric Administration ..................... .................. ... Department of Defense Army Corps of Engineers ........................... .................. CONSERVATION Department of the Interior Fish and Wildlife Service .............................................. Many government agencies and private organizations partici- Geological Survey .......................................................... ... ... pate in wetland conservation in Delaware. The most active agencies National Biological Service ......................................... ... ... and organizations and some of their activities are listed in table 1. National Park Service ...................................................0 Federal wetland activities. -Development activities in Dela- Environmental Protection Agency .................................. ... STATE ware wetlands are regulated by several Federal statutory prohibi- Delaware Geological Survey ........................................... ... ... tions and incentives that are intended to slow wetland losses. Some Department of Natural Resources and of the more important of these are contained in the 1899 Rivers arid Environmental Control ....................................................... Harbors Act; the 1972 Clean Water Act and amendments; the 1985 State Highway Administration ......................................... ... ... Food Security Act; the 1990 Food, Agriculture, Conservation, and University of Delaware Trade Act; the 1986 Emergency Wetlands Resources Act; and the College of Marine Studies ............................................ SOME COUNTY AND LOCAL GOVERNMENTS ............. 1972 Coastal Zone Management Act. PRIVATE ORGANIZATIONS Section 10 of the Rivers and Harbors Act gives the U.S. Army The Nature Conservancy .................................................. Corps of Engineers (Corps) authority to regulate certain activities Delaware Wild Lands, Inc . ............................................... in navigable waters. Regulated activities include diking, deepening, Delaware Nature Society ....................... .................. filling, excavating, and placing of structures. The related section 404 Ducks Unlimited ..................................................................000 152 National Water Surnmary-Wetland Resources: STATE SUMMARIES protection through funding incentives. The Emergency Wetland niques and results: Environmental Management, v. 7, no. 4, p. 339- Resources Act requires States to address wetland protection in their 344. Statewide Comprehensive Outdoor Recreation Plans to qualify for Heath, R.C., 1984, Ground-water regions of the United States: U.S. Geo- Federal funding for State recreational land; the National Park Ser- logical Survey Water-Supply Paper 2242, 78 p. vice provides guidance to States in developing the wetland compo- Johnston, R.H., 1973, Hydrology of the Columbia (Pleistocene) deposits of Delaware: Delaware Geological Survey Bulletin 14, 78 p. nent of their plans. Coastal States that adopt coastal-zone manage Lesser, C.A., 1971, Memorandum to Secretary Austin N. Heller from ment programs and plans approved by the National Oceanic and Charles Lesser RE 1971 wetland inventory (corrected): Dover, Del., Atmospheric Administration are eligible for Federal funding and Department of Natural Resources and Environmental Control, 3 p. technical assistance through the Coastal Zone Management Act. Metzgar, R.G., 1973, Wetlands in Maryland: Maryland Department of State State wetland activities. -Delaware's State Wetlands Act, en- Planning Publication 157, 80 p. acted in 1973, protects coastal tidal wetlands, including some fresh- Phillips, P.J., and Shedlock, R.J., 1993, Hydrology and chemistry of ground- water wetlands along tidal rivers, and requires a permit from the water and seasonal ponds in the Atlantic Coastal Plain in Delaware, Department of Natural Resources and Environmental Control for U.S.A.: Journal of Hydrology, v. 141, p. 157 -178. many activities in these wetlands. A proposed freshwater (nontidal) Shedlock, R.J., Hamilton, P.A., Denver, J.M., and Phillips, P.J., 1993, Multiscale approach to regional ground-water quality assessment of wetlands statute would establish a State-run nontidal-wetiands regu- the Delmarva Peninsula, in Alley, W.M., ed., Multiscale approach to latory program based on five categories of wetlands. This would be regional ground-water quality assessment: New York, Van Nostrand part of a comprehensive statewide management program and is in- Reinhold & Co., p. 563-587. tended to result in the assumption of authority for the Federal sec- Simmons, R.H., 1986, Delaware surface-water resources, in U.S. Geologi- tion 404 program by the State. The Department ofNatural Resources cal Survey, National water summary 1985-Hydrologic events and and Environmental Control also administers section 401 of the surface-water resources: U.S. Geological Survey WateT-Supply Paper Federal Clean Water Act, providing regulatory control in wetland 2300, p. 181-186. areas in terms of effects on surface-water-quality standards. The SpoIjaric, Nenad, and Jordan, R.R., 1966, Generalized geologic map of Delaware: Newark, Del., Delaware Geological Survey map, scale coastal-zone management program in Delaware bars the develop- 1:296,075. ment of heavy manufacturing industry within 2 miles of the State's Talley, J.H., 1987, Geohydrology of the southern coastal area: Delaware coastline where wetlands are abundant, while allowing the devel- Geological Survey Hydrologic Map Series no. 7, scale 1:24,000. opment of light industry and the expansion of preexisting industry Tiner, R.W., 1985, Wetlands of Delaware: Newton Corner, Mass., U.S. Fish under a permit system. Permits are also required for substantial and Wildlife Service and Delaware Department of Natural Resources changes to the character of beach or open-water areas. The Sub- and Environmental Control cooperative publication, 77 p. aqueous Lands Act and the Beach Preservation Act regulate activi- -1987, Mid-Atlantic wetlands-A disappearing natural treasure: ties in tidal and nontidal subaqueous navigable waters and within Newton Corner, Mass., U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service and U.S. En- the coastal dune systems along the Atlantic Ocean and Delaware Bay. vironmental Protection Agency cooperative publication, 28 p. Private wetland activities. -Private organizations with inter- Tiner, R.W., and Finn, J.T., 1986, Status and recent trends of wetlands in five mid-Atlantic states -Delaware, Maryland, Pennsylvania, Vir- ests in wetlands in Delaware are active in the development of regu- ginia, and West Virginia: Newton Corner, Mass., U.S. Fish and Wild- lations, policy planning, advocacy, land acquisition and manage- life Service, National Wetlands Inventory Project technical report, ment, environmental education, and research. A few of the many 40 p. such organizations in the State are The Nature Conservancy, the Winter, T.C., 1992, A physiographic and climatic framework for hydrologic Delaware Nature Society, Delaware Wild Lands, Inc., the Sierra studies of wetlands, in Robarts, R.D., and Bothwell, M.L., eds., Pro- Club, Ducks Unlimited, and the Brandywine Conservancy. ceedings of the Symposium on Aquatic Ecosystems in Semi-Arid Regions, 1990: Saskatoon, Saskatchewan, Environment Canada, The National Hydrology Research Institute Symposium Series no. 7, References Cited p. 127-147, Andres, A.S., 1987, Geohydrology of the northern coastal area, Delaware: Delaware Geological Survey Hydrologic Map Series no. 5, scale FOR ADDITIONAL INFORMATION: District Chief, U.S. Geological 1:24,000. Survey, 208 Carroll Building, 8600 LaSalle Road, Towson, MD 21286; Cowardin, L.M., Carter, Virginia, Golet, F.C., and LaRoe, E.T., 1979, Clas- Regional Weiland Coordinator, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 300 Westgate sification of wetlands and deepwater habitats of the United States: U.S. Center Drive, Hadley, MA 01035 Fish and Wildlife Service Report FWS/OBS - 79/31, 131 p. Dahl, T.E., 1990, Wetlands -Losses in the United States, 1780's to 1980's: Washington, D.C., U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Report to Congress, Prepared by 13 p. Martha A. Hayes, Hardisky, M.A., and Klemas, Vytautas, 1983, Tidal wetlands natural and U.S. Geological Survey human-made changes from 1973 to 1979 in Delaware- Mapping tech- U.S. Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper 2425 National Water Summary-Wetland Resources 153 Florida Wetland Resources Wands covered more than one-half of Florida, approximately oyster, mullet, spotted seatrout, and red drum (Tiner, 1994; Palik 20.3 million acres, in predevelopment times. Although only about and Kunneke, 1984). one-half of the original wetlands remain, Florida still has more In the past, wetlands were considered obstacles to the devel- wetlands than any of the other 47 conterminous States (Dahl, 1990). opment of the State. Widespread destruction and degradation of Wetlands in Florida are diverse and include types that are rare in wetlands, however, resulted in drastic losses of wildlife, water short- other States, such as mangrove swamps and hydric hammocks. As- ages, and water-quality problems (Frayer and Hefner, 199 1). Today, sociations of warm-temperate and subtropical wetlands not found Florida's wetlands are considered important resources and are pro- elsewhere are common in Florida, a prime example being the unique tected by laws that preserve their esthetic and ecological value. complex of extensive sawgrass marshes and other wetlands known as The Everglades (fig. 1). TYPES AND DISTRIBUTION Florida's wetlands have considerable economic and environ- mental value. In river basins, flood-plain wetlands reduce down- Wetlands are lands transitional between terrestrial and deep- stream flood damages by retaining overflows in backwater ponds water habitats where the water table usually is at or near the land and depressions. Organic soils in many wetlands can store large surface or the land is covered by shallow water (Cowardin and oth- quantities of water and release it slowly to plants during drought. ers, 1979). The distribution of wetlands and deepwater habitats in Wetlands can filter out and accumulate pollutants from surface Florida is shown in figure 2A; only wetlands are discussed herein. water-some cypress depressions in Florida have been used spe- Wetlands can be vegetated or nonvegetated and are classified cifically for wastewater treatment (Dierberg and Brezonik, 1984). on the basis of their hydrology, vegetation, and substrate. In this Many rare or endangered plant and animal species, such as the in- summary, wetlands are classified according to the system proposed sectivorous white-top pitcherplant and the snail kite, live in Florida by Cowardin and others (1979), which is used by the U.S. Fish and wetlands. Wetlands provide breeding and feeding grounds for resi- Wildlife Service (FWS) to map and inventory the Nation's wetlands. dent and migratory birds. Coastal wetlands such as salt marshes, At the most general level of the classification system, wetlands are mangrove swamps, and seagrass beds are nursery areas for sea tur- grouped into five ecological systems: Palustrine, Lacustrine, Riv- tles and economically important species such as shrimp, blue crab, erine, Estuarine, and Marine. The Palustrine System includes only wetlands, whereas the other systems comprise wetlands and deepwater habitats. Wetlands of the systems that occur in Florida are described below. System Wetland description T Palustrine .................. Nontidal and tidal-freshwater wetlands in which vegetation is predominantly trees (forestedwet- 77Z @@aW '1,0_1 'IV lands); shrubs (scrub-sh rub wetlands); persistent or nonpersistent emergent, erect, rooted herba- ceous plants (persistent- and nonpersistent- emergent wetlands); or submersed and (or) floating plants (aquatic beds). Also, intermit- tently to permanently flooded open-water bod- ies of less than 20 acres in which water is less than 6.6 feet deep. Lacustrine ................. Nonticial and tidal-freshwater wetlands within an intermittently to permanently flooded lake or reservoir larger than 20 acres and (or) deeper than 6.6 feet. Vegetation, when present, is pre- dominantly noripersistent emergent plants (non- persistent-emergent wetlands), or submersed and (or) floating plants (aquatic beds), or both. Riverine ..................... Nontidal and tidal-freshwater wetlands within a channel. Vegetation, when present, is same as in the Lacustrine System. Estuarine ................... Tidal wetlands in low-wave-energy environments wherethe salinityof thewater is greaterthan 0.5 part perthousand (ppt) and is variable owing to evaporation and the mixing of seawater and freshwater. Marine ....................... Tidal wetlands that are exposed to waves and cur- rents of the open ocean and to water having a salinity greater than 30 ppt. Lacustrine and riverine wetlands are not addressed in this re- port. They constitute a relatively small part of Florida's wetlands and were not distinguished from deepwater habitats by the FWS Figure 1. Sawgrass marsh and tree islands in the Everglades-Big National Wetlands Inventory (Frayer and Hefner, 1991). Cypress region of southern Florida. (Photograph courtesy of Florida Palustrine System.-Eighty-seven percent of Florida's wetlands State Archives.) are in the Palustrine System. Palustrine forested wetlands cover 5.5 154 National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: STATE SUMMARIES million acres, nearly one-half the acreage of all Florida wetlands tion. In many areas, numerous seasonal ponds, small streams, and (Frayer and Hefner, 1991). These wetlands, which are widely dis- other wetlands are embedded within the larger pine-flatwoods tributed throughout the State, fringe rivers and lakes, line small matrix. In wet flatwoods, soils can remain saturated through much drainages and sloughs, form in small depressions and ponds, and of the rainy season, and there can be standing water for I to 2 months cover wet flatwoods. The predominant trees can be pines, hard- every year. During the dry season, however, high evapotranspira- woods, or cypress. tion from sandy soils and an impermeable hardpan preventing up- Pine flatwoods, the most common ecological community in ward movement of ground water result in dry conditions that can Florida, are distributed statewide. These communities are on flat persist for months (Abrahamson and Hartnett, 1990). land and have poorly drained, acidic, sandy soils that commonly are Palustrine forested wetlands in which mixed hardwoods pre- underlain by a clay or organic hardpan. Pine flatwoods can be a dominate cover about 2 million acres of Florida (Kautz, 199 1) and mixture of both wetland and upland communities that are difficult comprise many wetland types. Bottom-land hardwood forests on to delineate. Discrepancies between present-day estimates of 8.2 and river flood plains are most common in the northern part of the State, 11.0 million acres of remaining wetlands in Florida (Frayer and reaching their greatest extent in the alluvial flood plains of the pan- Hefner, 1991; Kautz, 1991) might be due primarily to difficulties handle (Wharton and others, 1977). Tree diversity can be high in inherent in distinguishing wet from dry flatwoods. Wet flatwoods alluvial flood plains: a study of the flood-plain forest bordering the can grade into dry flatwoods with imperceptible changes in eleva- Apalachicola River (Leitman and others, 1984) recorded 47 tree A 84' onvitle 30' Big Rend WETLANDS AND DEEPWATER HABITATS Distribution of wetlands and deepwater habitats- ATLANTIC This map shows the approximate distribution of large wetlands in the State. Because of limitations of scale OCEAN and source material, some wetlands are not shown Predominantly wetland 4, Predominantly deepwater habitat 28- a Moder wk@ are Ok@@ WAVEENERGY Average breaker height- 26' In centimeters a$ 0 25 50 MILES Low 0-10 i I I Moderate 10-50 0 25 50 KILOMETERS High Above 50 X Figure 2. Distribution of wetlands and deepwater habitats in Florida and physical and climatological features that control wetland distribu- tion in the State. A, Distribution of wetlands and deepwater habitats. B, Wave height along the Florida coast. (Sources: A, TE. Dahl, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, unpub, data, 1991. B, Carlton, 1977.) National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: FLORIDA 155 species and 5 major tree communities. Blackwater streams, which palms, and the endangered Florida panther (Grow, 1989). Cypress are common in Florida, are dark colored owing to the presence of scrub is a drier community of stunted cypress found primarily in organic acids from decaying vegetation. The Suwannee River, which southern Florida on nutrient-poor, calcium-carbonate-rich soils or has characteristics of both blackwater and spring-fed streams, has shallow sand over limestone. Big Cypress National Preserve has an extensive flood-plain forest in its lower reaches. Bay swamps, large areas of cypress scrub in which mature cypress trees usually black gum swamps, and other mixed-hardwood wetlands that form are less than 20 feet tall. in depressions are common throughout Florida. These forested Palustrine emergent wetlands such as freshwater marshes and wetlands often are mixed with shrub bogs (scrub-shrub wetlands) wet prairies cover 2.9 million acres of Florida (Frayer and Hefner, as in the Apalachicola National Forest and in Pinhook Swamp, the 1991). Freshwater marshes are concentrated in southern Florida, southern extension of the Okefenokee Swamp in Florida (Wharton where about 1.6 million acres remained in 1973, including 624,000 and others, 1977). Shrub bogs are depressional wetlands that have acres of sawgrass marshes (Odum and Brown, 1977). Other major acidic, organic soils and that typically are dominated by titi, marsh systems include those in the Kissimmee and St. Johns River gallberry, fetterbush, and other evergreen shrubs (U.S. Soil Con- flood plains (Kushlan, 1990). Freshwater marshes are inundated servation Service, 1989). Hydric hammocks, which form on poorly most of the year, have thick accumulations of organic materials, and drained soils or soils saturated by near-surface water tables and in burn infrequently. Wet prairies usually are inundated for less than which evergreen oaks such as live oak and swamp laurel oak pre- one-half of the year, have less organic accumulation, and burn more dominate, are rare outside Florida (Vince and others, 1989). Ex- frequently--every 1-3 years if fuel is sufficient. Fires maintain both otic tree species such as mclaleuca have invaded wetlands in south- wetland types by limiting the invasion of woody vegetation and ern Florida to such an extent that some authors consider wetlands retarding the accumulation of organic matter (Kushlan, 1990). in which they are the predominant vegetation to belong to a distinct Estuarine and Marine Systems.-Florida has about 1.4 mil- forested-wetland type (Wharton and others, 1977; Ewe], 1990). lion acres of estuarine and marine intertidal wetlands along 1,200 Palustrine forested wetlands in which cypress predominates miles of coastline. About 12 percent of Florida's wetlands are es- cover about 1.6 million acres in Florida (Kautz, 1991). Cypress tuarine, and less than I percent are marine. Tides cycle terrestrial domes are small, isolated, depressional wetlands that have convex sediments, nutrients, and detritus through coastal wetlands, mak- silhouettes when viewed from a distance. They are acidic, stillwater ing them highly productive ecological communities (Florida Natu- swamps that have standing water at least part of the year, and many ral Areas Inventory and Division of State Lands, 1990). The most have a permanent central pond. The Green Swamp in west-central common coastal wetlands are salt marshes, mangrove swamps, and Florida has a high density of cypress domes in a pine-flatwoods seagrass beds. matrix (McPherson, 1979). Large swamps in which cypress pre- Salt marshes are emergent wetlands that develop along low- dominates commonly ring lakes or line watercourses. Cypress wave-energy coastlines and in estuaries. Wave energy (fig. 2B), strands are linear cypress swamps along watercourses. Fakahatchee salinity, frequency of inundation, and tidal range vary along the Strand State Preserve in southwestern Florida contains an outstand- coasts, resulting in substantial differences in the areal extent and ing example of a cypress strand; the wetland harbors rare orchids, plant-species composition of these marshes. The most extensive C D TOPOGRAPHYAND BATHYMETRY- Interval is in feet DAYS BELOW FREEZING 250 200 -5 ---- Line of equal annual number of days in 150 which temperature is 320 F or lower- 100 Dashed where approximately located. 2 50 Interval is variable Sea level 60 120 300 Figure 2. Continued. Distribution of wetlands and deepwater habitats in Florida and physical and cJimatological features that control wetland distribution in the State. C, Topography of Florida and bathymetry of adjacent offshore waters. 0, Average annual number of days in which temperature is 32'F or lower. (Sources: C, Fernald, 198 1. D, Conway and Liston, 1990.) 156 National Water Surnmary-Wetland Resources: STATE SUMMARIES development of salt marshes occurs in the Big Bend region of the northern Florida, but the difference is not as great as in southern gulf coast (fig. 2A). Florida because of a secondary rainfall peak in February and March. Mangrove swamps replace salt marshes along southern coastal In adjacent States to the north, this secondary winter-spring peak areas that generally are subject to low-energy waves. Mangroves are is more pronounced and in some areas is the primary peak. Most of salt-tolerant trees that colonize shallow, subtropical marine and es- the drainage basins of the larger northern Florida rivers such as the tuarine waters. Tropical storms commonly damage or destroy man- Apalachicola, Choctawhatchee, Escambia, and Suwannee are in groves before they reach their maximum height (Odurn and McIvor, Georgia and Alabama. Therefore, rainfall patterns in those States 1990), and most mangrove swamps are classified as scrub-shrub have a significant effect on the hydrology of these rivers and their wetlands because the trees typically are less than 20 feet tall. flood-plain wetlands. The broad flood plains of these rivers have Seagrass beds are colonies of several species of rooted vascu- topographic features and tree communities that have been shaped lar plants that typically live totally submersed in saltwater. Most of by wide fluctuations in river levels. During the annual flooding in Florida's seagrass beds are in Florida Bay at the southern tip of the late winter and early spring, water depths on the flood plain of 15- State and in the Gulf of Mexico offshore from the Big Bend. In this 20 feet are not unusual. However, in the rest of the year, these flood report, only the shallowest zone of seagrass communities, in which plains are mostly dry except for ponds, depressions, and sloughs that shoal grass predominates, are considered to be wetlands; extensive retain water year round. seagrass beds below the intertidal zone are considered to be in deep- Southern Florida has a nearly freeze-free climate (fig. 2D). water habitats. Wetlands along the southern coasts support plant species that gen- erally do not thrive in the cooler climate of northern Florida coasts HYDROLOGIC SETTING (Odum and others, 1982). For example, mangroves are killed back by freezes, which are more common in northern Florida, and some Many factors contribute to the abundance of wetlands in seagrass species are better adapted to the warm waters of the south- Florida, the most important of which are the low, flat terrain and ern coasts. Wetlands in southern Florida commonly are invaded by plentiful rainfall. Most of the State's wetlands are in flat areas be- nonnative tropical species that alter native-species associations; two low 50 feet above sea level that extend from the coast inland for many such nonnative species, melaleuca and Brazilian pepper, have be- miles (fig. 2A and 2C). Runoff and drainage in these wetlands are come predominant in many southern Florida wetlands. The near slow as a result of the low relief. The flat landscape and the imper- absence of frost in southern Florida that enables some tropical spe- meable strata underlying wetland soils commonly result in lateral cies to thrive also limits the distribution of some temperate wetland flow of water on or near the land surface. Some wetlands are drained species. Pond pine, several hollies, titis, some of the tupelos, many by low-gradient stream systems, as in the upper St. Johns River bottom-land hardwood tree species, and several species of marsh basin, which has extensive freshwater marshes and where the aver- plants grow only in the central and northern regions of the State. age velocity of the river is only 0.3 foot per second (Heath and Early travelers to southern Florida encountered a vast fresh- Conover, 198 1). Near the coast, water levels in freshwater wetlands water marsh that covered most of the peninsula from Lake along these streams are affected by tidal fluctuations. Close to the Okeechobee south. This wetland, now known as The Everglades, mouth of the streams, the transition from freshwater to saltwater covered about 2.9 million acres and was predominantly peatland causes major changes in the structure and composition of estuarine covered by tall sawgrass growing in shallow water. Associated plant wetlands (Florida Department of Natural Resources, 1988). communities included pond apple swamps south of the lake, sloughs Except along the southeastern coast, the land slopes gradually with aquatic vegetation, wet prairies, tree islands, and mangrove into the Gulf of Mexico and Atlantic Ocean. The shallow water off- swamps bordering Florida Bay. The Everglades was part of the larger shore diminishes the energy of incoming waves, resulting in small, Kissimmee-Lake Okeechobee-Everglades Basin, which extended low-energy breakers onshore. Two areas on the gulf coast receive as a single drainage basin from present-day Orlando to Florida Bay, low-wave energy favorable to the development of tidal marshes, about two-thirds the length of the Florida peninsula (fig. 3A). The seagrass beds, and mangrove swamps (fig. 2B). The near-zero wave- Kissimmee River meandered across a 2-mile-wide flood plain south energy coastline from north of Tampa to St. Marks is a result of the to Lake Okeechobee, a shallow water body of 470,000 acres. When shallow offshore waters and a protected location in Florida's Big the lake was full, water sometimes overflowed the southern rim into Bend. One of few coastal areas in the world subject to so little wave The Everglades. Water in The Everglades moved slowly to the south action, this part of the coast has the second-largest area of seagrass by sheet flow in what Douglas (1947) called the River of Grass. beds in the Gulf of Mexico (Zieman and Zieman, 1989), large ar- Much of the land was inundated during the rainy season in normal eas of coastal marsh, and extensive hydric hammocks just landward years, and, during years of heavy rains, all but the highest tree is- of coastal salt marshes (Vince and others, 1989). lands were flooded. During floods, water moved with enough force Rainfall in Florida averages 53 inches per year and is greatest to cause tree islands to develop an alignment pattern parallel to the during the warm season from June through, September. Southern lines of surface-wateT flow (Parker, 1974). During the dry season, Florida has a subtropical climate characterized by two seasons- ground-water levels generally were close to the land surface, but dry and rainy-rather than by the four seasons typical of temperate during some years, severe drought lowered water levels well below climates to the north. As a result, wetlands in southern Florida are the land surface and fires swept over the land, burning vegetation affected by greater extremes of hydrologic conditions than those in and peat. Seasonally varying flows of freshwater from The Ever- the rest of the State. Wet prairies, wet pine flatwoods, and scrub glades into Florida Bay had an important influence on the salinity cypress forests that are saturated or inundated in the rainy season of the bay and contributed to the productivity of coastal wetlands can be severely dehydrated in the dry season in late winter and early and fisheries. spring when rainfall is relatively low and temperatures and evapo- Significant drainage of The Everglades began in the early transpiration rates remain relatively high (Jordan, 1984). 1880's and continued through the 1960's. By the late 1920's, five Opposite conditions exist in northern Florida, where flooding canals connected Lake Okeechobee to the Atlantic Ocean. During and replenishment of water in swamps and flood plains is greatest the hurricanes of 1926 and 1928, Lake Okeechobee overflowed, in the late winter and early spring. Winter evapotranspiration is killing thousands of people and destroying crops. In response to substantially lower than that in southern Florida because tempera- these disasters, a 38-foot-high dike was constructed around the tures are near or below freezing on many days and much of the southern shore of the lake, and canals were enlarged to increase vegetation is dormant. Summer rainfall exceeds winter rainfall in drainage (Blake, 1980). The Central and Southern Florida Flood National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: FLORIDA 157 Control Project of 1948 authorized construction of a complex drain- Everglades National Park, which was established in 1947 on 1.4 age and water-management system comprising canals, levees, million acres at the southwestern end of the drainage basin. pumps, and control structures. Lake Okeechobee and three water- Alterations of The Everglades by drainage and development conservation areas (WCAS; fig. 3B) became reservoirs for flood pro- have had severe environmental consequences. About 40 percent of tection during the wet season and for agricultural irrigation and the water that originally flowed southward from Lake Okeechobee recharge of ground water in urban wellfields during the dry season into The Everglades is now diverted westward to the Gulf of Mexico (Klein and others, 1975). Most of the 800,000 acres of the Ever- by the Caloosahatchee Canal and eastward to the Atlantic Ocean glades Agricultural Area was drained to grow sugar cane and other by the St. Lucie Canal (fig. 3B). Seawater intrusion into the surficial crops. About 50 percent of the original Everglades was eliminated aquifer has occurred as far as 6 miles inland in some areas by the early 1990's. The remaining 50 percent is preserved in WCA- (VanArman and others, 1984). Lowered water tables have resulted I (Loxahatchee National Wildlife Refuge), wcA-2, WCA-3, and in oxidation of drained peat and damaging peat fires that have low- 83' 82- 81o 80* 79o Draina Bashl, B ndaryP-: 28' 0 St Lucie;? 27' tch Predevelopment Everglades andassociated Big wetlands Cypresi- 2V Swamp no 83* 82o 8V 80, 79' Drain asin nda'y. 25o FLORIDA SAY 28' t 0 25 50 MILES S! Lucie R i I I I _J 0 25 50 KILOMETERS St Lucie Canal 27* Everglades Cal hatche"s Agricultural EXPLANATION Canal, Area (EAA) 2 water Conservation Area (WCA) G1 Loxabatchee number Krildlife Refuge ,P Direction of water flow Big 26* Cypr 3 Present V des Figure 3. Drainage patterns and selected geographic features in the Everglades-Lake Okeechobee-Kissimmee 250 - Park,.:' River drainage basin before and after development. A, FLORIDA BAY Predevelopment. B, Recent. (Sources: A, Parker, 1974; Davis, 1943. B, South Florida Water Management District, 1992.) 158 National Water Surnmary-Wetland Resources: STATE SUMMARIES ered the land surface more than 5 feet in some agricultural areas enhance pine timber production. The rate of wetland losses for all (Davis, 1943; Duplaix, 1990). Using the wCA's as reservoirs has re- of Florida slowed to 26,000 acres annually between the mid-] 970's sulted in conditions that are often too dry or too wet to maintain and mid-1980's; losses due to agriculture still were greatest, and natural communities (McPherson, 1973). South of Lake Okeecho- losses to urbanization were second in importance (Frayer and bee, populations of wood storks and other wading birds decreased Hefner, 1991). by almost 95 percent from 1870 to 1973 as a direct result of hydro- Recent estimates of the wetland acreage remaining in Florida logic alterations (Crowder, 1974; Kushlan and others, 1975). Drain- differ by almost 3 million acres; most of the difference. is in the age and land clearing have increased opportunities for exotic plants forested-wetland category. Wetlands delineated in figure 2A and such as melaleuca. to become established in dense stands that ex- reported by the FWS total I I million acres (Frayer and Hefner, 199 1). clude native species. Water pumped into canals from agricultural The Florida Game and Fresh Water Fish Commission, using 1985- lands can have high levels of phosphorus and other nutrients. As a 89 Landsat Thematic Mapper imagery, estimated that about 8.2 mil- result, sawgrass, which is adapted to a low-nutrient environment lion acres of wetlands remain (Kautz, 1991). Hampson (1984) esti- (Davis, 1991), is being replaced by cattails in the northern Ever- mated that about 8.3 million acres of wetlands existed in Florida in glades, particularly in WCA-2, where nutrient loading is a problem 1973. These two estimates are lower than the Fws estimate prob- (South Florida Water Management District, 1992). ably because they exclude most of Florida's wet pine flatwoods, one The magnitude of environmental alterations of The Everglades of the most common natural communities in the State. The Game has produced public concern and countermeasures to protect this and Fresh Water Fish Commission estimate also excluded some significant wetland. The 570,000-acre Big Cypress National Pre- mixed-hardwood wetlands in areas where they could not be easily serve adjacent to Everglades National Park was established in 1974. distinguished from upland hardwoods Q.M. Hefner, U.S. Fish and The Everglades was designated a "Wetland of International Impor- Wildlife Service, written commun., 1993). tance" by the Federal Government. State and Federal agencies work- Wetlands regulations and legislation in effect today generally ing cooperatively have developed plans that call for acquisition of allow wetlands destruction only when mitigated by wetlands en- parts of Shark River Stough and the remaining Everglades east of hancement, preservation, or creation. The effectiveness of these Everglades National Park and reestablishment of water flows along measures in slowing wetland loss is currently under evaluation historic flow paths. Preliminary plans also have been made to re- (Frayer and Hefner, 1991). A recent report on the success of miti- store the once-meandering Kissimmee River, which was reduced gation indicated that the ecological success rate for completed from 90 to 52 miles in length by chatinelization in the 1960's. The projects was low-for one-third of all permitted projects, the re- State, as part of the settlement of a lawsuit filed by the Federal quired mitigation had never been attempted (Florida Department Government, has agreed to enforce a plan to greatly reduce nutri- of Environmental Regulation, 199 1). ent loading from the Everglades Agricultural Area. Federal legisla- tion has assured minimum flows to Everglades National Park, and CONSERVATION attempts are being made to distribute water based on historic sea- sonal-flow models. However, as water-demand patterns in southern Many government agencies and private organizations partici- Florida become more complex, difficulties in providing water of the pate in wetlands conservation in Florida. The most active agencies proper quantity and quality at the proper time to remaining natural and organizations and some of their activities are listed in table 1. areas of The Everglades will increase. Because of the extensive Federal wetland activities.-Development activities in Florida water-control system, water-management decisions have replaced wetlands are regulated by several Federal statutory prohibitions and natural events as the driving force controlling the function and evo- incentives that are intended to slow wetland losses. Some of the more lution of The Everglades. important of these are contained in the 1899 Rivers and Harbors Act; the 1972 Clean Water Act and amendments; the 1985 Food TRENDS Security Act; the 1990 Food, Agriculture, Conservation, and Trade Act; the 1986 Emergency Wetlands Resources Act; and the 1972 Wetlands covered more than one-half of Florida before devel- Coastal Zone Management Act. opment began (Hampson, 1984; Dahl, 1990). The Swamp Land Acts Section 10 of the Rivers and Harbors Act gives the U.S. Army of the mid-1800's transferred 20.3 million acres of "swamp and Corps of Engineers (Corps) authority to regulate certain activities overflowed" lands from Federal to State ownership (Shaw and in navigable waters. Regulated activities include diking, deepening, Fredine, 1956), and that was the acreage assumed by the Fws Na- filling, excavating, and placing of structures. The related section 404 tional Wetlands Inventory for Florida's predevelopment (1780's) of the Clean Water Act is the most often-used Federal legislation wetlands (Dahl, 1990). In 1906, the U.S. Department of Agricul- protecting wetlands. Under section 404 provisions, the Corps issues ture conducted the first inventory of the Natiorfs wetlands. The sur- permits regulating the discharge of dredged or fill material into vey reported 19.8 million acres of wetlands in Florida excluding wetlands. Permits are subject to review and possible veto by the U.S. coastal lands overflowed by tidewater, indicating that wetland losses Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), and the Fws has review and in Florida probably were minimal before the 1900's (Shaw and advisory roles. Section 401 of the Clean Water Act grants to States Fredine, 1956). a-ad eligible Indian Tribes the authority to approve, apply conditions Wetland losses were greater in the early 1900's than in the to, or deny section 404 permit applications on the basis of a pro- period between 1930 and the mid-1950's owing to the lack of funds posed activity's probable effects on the water quality of a wetland. available for drainage projects during the Great Depression and Most farming, ranching, and silviculture activities are not sub- World War 11. By the mid4950's, 15.3 million acres of wetlands ject to section 404 regulation. However, the "Swampbuster" PTOVi- remained (Shaw and Fredine, 1956). Most of the losses were due to sion of the 1985 Food Security Act and amendments in the 1990 agricultural drainage in the St. Johns River valley, on the lower east Food, Agriculture, Conservation, and Trade Act discourage (through coast, in the Kissimmee River and Everglades region around Lake financial disincentives) the draining, filling, or other alteration of Okeechobee, and scattered in the west-central peninsula (Gray and wetlands for agricultural use. The law allows exemptions from pen- others, 1924; U.S. Bureau of the Census, 1952; Blake, 1990). Be- alties in some cases, especially if the farmer agrees to restore the tween the mid-l 950's and mid4 970's, wetland losses were extensive altered wetland or other wetlands that have been converted to agri- in The Everglades, where 1.5 million acres of primarily wet prai- cultural use. The Wetlands Reserve Program of the 1990 Food, ries and freshwater marshes were drained for agriculture and real Agriculture, Conservation, and Trade Act authorizes the Federal estate development (Odum and Brown, 1977). Moderate drainage Government to purchase conservation easements from landowners was conducted from the mid- to late 1950's in northern Florida to who agree to protect or restore wetlands. The Consolidated Farm National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: FLORIDA 159 Service Agency (formerly the Agricultural Stabilization and Conser- unaffected wetlands, or wetlands creation. Pursuant to section vation Service) administers the Swampbuster provisions and Wet- 305(b) of the Clean Water Act, the Department of Environmental lands Reserve Program. The Natural Resources Conservation Protection submits to the EPA and the U.S. Congress a biennial as- Service (formerly the Soil Conservation Service) determines com- sessment of the State's surface-water quality, including that of wet- pliance with Swampbuster provisions and assists farmers in the iden- lands. The Department of Environmental Protection has general tification of wetlands and in the development of wetland protection, oversight authority for the five water-management districts, which restoration, or creation plans. have authority to levy local taxes and regulatory authority over iso- The 1986 Emergency Wetlands Resources Act and the 1972 lated wetlands within district boundaries. Authorization to use Coastal Zone Management Act and amendments encourage wetland wetlands that are part of sovereign submerged lands is required from protection through funding incentives. The Emergency Wetland the Department of Environmental Protection. These lands, which Resources Act requires States to address wetland protection in their lie under navigable waters, are held in trust for all the citizens of Statewide Comprehensive Outdoor Recreation Plans to qualify for Florida. The Department of Enviornmental Protection has desig- Federal funding for State recreational land; the National Park Ser- nated portions of these submerged lands as aquatic preserves, which vice provides guidance to States in developing the wetland compo- are carefully managed. nent of their plans. Coastal States that adopt coastal-zone manage- Since 1963, the State of Florida has administered land-acqui- ment programs and plans approved by the National Oceanic and sition programs that have preserved many wetlands and areas adja- Atmospheric Administration are eligible for Federal funding and cent to water bodies. Much of the land purchased for preservation, technical assistance through the Coastal Zone Management Act. as well as parks and other State-owned properties, is managed by State wetland activities.-The Department of Environmental the Department of Environmental Protection; however, a substan- Protection is the principal State agency that issues permits for de- tial amount of publicly owned wetlands are managed by the water- velopment activities in wetlands. The Henderson Wetlands Act of management districts, the Game and Fresh Water Fish Commission, 1984 gave the Department of Environmental Regulation (now called and the Division of Forestry. Historically, land-management pro- the Department of Environmental Protection) expanded jurisdiction grams were designed for recreation, to develop specific resources over the issuance of permits for dredge-and-fill activities affecting such as timber, or to favor a few important game animals or endan- wetlands. The Department of Environmental Protection evaluates gered species. Partly as a result of citizen input and involvement, the potential effects on wetlands before granting permits and seeks ecosystem-management techniques such as prescribed burning are mitigation of unavoidable losses by enhancement, preservation of now widely used to maintain the natural character of wetlands and other ecological communities. Since the early 1970's, ecosystem Table 1. Selected wetland-related activities of government maintenance as a land-management goal has gained favor in Florida agencies and private organizations in Florida, 1993 as the best strategy to ensure long-term protection of plant and [Source: Classification of activities is generalized from information provided animal species as well as sustainable resources for people. by agencies and organizations. e, agency or organization participates in Regional, county, and local wetland activities.-Florida's Com- wetland-related activity; agency or organization does not participate in prehensive Planning Act of 1985, administered by the Department wetiand-related activity. MAN, management, REG, regulation; R&C, restora- of Community Affairs, requires local governments to produce long- tion and creation; LAN, land acquisition; R&D, research and data collection; range plans for the development and conservation of resources. D&I, delineation and inventory] Policies for wetlands protection are required elements of all plans. Some city and county governments have strong regulatory or land- Agency or organization 4@ 1Y acquisition programs that provide wetlands protection beyond that which is required by the State. Others, particularly in the largely FEDERAL rural northern part of the State, are less able to develop strong lo- Department of Agriculture cal protection programs owing to funding limitations; thus, the State Consolidated Farm Service Agency ........................... and water-management districts have the largest roles in wetland Forest Service ............................................ . .................... Natural Resources Conservation Service ................ protection in those areas. Department of Commerce Private wetland activities.-Private organizations in Florida National Oceanic and have important roles as advocates of wetland conservation and pro- Atmospheric Administration ........................................ tection. Florida has many private-interest groups that keep the public Department of Defense informed on wetland issues, organize citizen networks, and lobby Army Corps of Engineers .............................................. Military reservations for wetland-protection measures. The National Audubon Society, Department of the Interio"r* ................*................ The Nature Conservancy, and the Trust for Public Lands have pur- Fish and Wildlife Service .............................................. chased wetlands in Florida for preservation. Some of these lands Geological Survey .......................................................... have been transferred to State or Federal ownership; others are pre- National Biological Service .................................... served in private ownership, such as Corkscrew Swamp, an Audubon National Park Service ................................................... sanctuary. Other groups, such as the Florida Wildlife Federation and Environmental Protection Agency .................................. STATE the Sierra Club, conduct wetland-prolection activities that include Department of Agriculture and Consumer programs to educate the public about wetland issues. Services Division of Forestry ........................................................0 Department of Community Affairs .................................. ... References Cited Department of Environmental Protection .....................* Game and Fresh Water Fish Commission .....................9 Abrahamson, W.G., and Hartnett, D.C., 1990, Pine flatwoods and dry prai- University of Florida Center for Wetlands .................... ries, in Myers, R.L., and Ewel, J.J., eds., Ecosystems of Florida: Or- Other State university programs ..................................... lando, University of Central Florida Press, p. 103-149. REGIONAL, COUNTY, AND LOCAL Blake, N.M., 1980, Land into water, water into land-A history of water Water Management Districts .......................................... management in Florida: Tallahassee, University Presses of Florida, Regional Planning Councils ............................................. ... 344 p. Some County and City Governments .............................e Carlton, J.M., 1977, A survey of selected coastal vegetation communities PRIVATE ORGANIZATIONS of Florida: Florida Department of Natural Resources, Florida Marine National Audubon Society .......................................0 Research Publication 30, 40 p. The Nature Conservancy ..................................................*Conway, McKinley, and Liston, L.L., eds., 1990, The weather handbook: Trust for Public Lands ........................................ Norcross, Ga., Conway Data, Inc., 548 p. 160 National Water Surnmary-Wetland Resources: STATE SUMMARIES Cowardin, L.M., Carter, Virginia, Golet, F.C., and LaRoe, E.T., 1979, Clas- McPherson, B.F., 1973, Vegetation in relation to water depth in Conserva- sification ofwetlands and deepwater habitats ofthe United States: U.S. tion Area 3, Florida: U.S. Geological Survey Open-File Report 73- Fish and Wildlife Service Report FWS/OBS -79/31, 131 p. 0173, 60 p. Crowder, J.P., 1974, Some perspectives on the status of aquatic wading birds 1979, Land cover map of the Green Swamp area, Central Florida: in South Florida: U.S. Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife Report U.S. Geological Survey Miscellaneous Investigations Series Map I- PB-231 216, 12 p. t t34, scale 1:63,360. Dahl, T.E., 1990, Wetlands-Losses in the United States, 1780's to 1980's: Odum, H..T., and Brown, Mark, eds., 1977, Carrying capacity for man and Washington, D.C., U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Report to Congress, nature in South Florida: Gainesville, Fla., National Park Service and 13 p. University of Florida Center for Wetlands cooperative publication, Davis, J.H., 1943, The natural features of southern Florida: The Florida 886 p. Geological Survey Bulletin 25, 311 p. Odum, W.E., and McIvor, C.C., 1990, Mangroves, in Myers, R.L., and Ewel, Davis, S.M., 1991, Sawgrass and cattail nutrient flux -Leaf turnover, de- J.J., Ecosystems of Florida: Orlando, University of Central Florida composition, and nutrient flux of sawgrass and cattail in the Ever- Press, p. 517-548. glades: Aquatic Botany, v. 40, p. 203-224. Odum, W.E., McIver, C.C., and Smith, T.J., 111, 1982, The ecology of the Dierberg, F.E., and Brezonik, P.L., 1984, The effect of wastewater on the mangroves of South Florida-A community profile: U.S. Fish and surface water and groundwater quality of cypress domes, in Ewet, Wildlife Service Report FWS/OBS - 81/24, 144 p. K.C., and Odum, J.T., eds., Cypress Swamps: Gainesville, University Patik, T.F., and Kunneke, J.T., 1984, Northwestern Florida ecological char- Presses of Florida, p. 83-101. acterization-An ecological atlas: U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Douglas, M.S., 1947, The Everglades -River of grass: New York, Rhinehart, Report FWS/OBS-82/47.1, 302 p. 406 p. Parker, G.G., 1974, Hydrology of the pre-drainage system of the Everglades Duplaix, Nicole, 1990, South Florida water-Paying the price: National in South Florida, in Gleason, P.J., ed., Environments of South Geographic, v. 178, no. 1, p. 89-113. Florida-Present and past: Miami, Fla., Miami Geological Society, Ewel, K.C., 1990, Swamps, in Myers, R.L., and Ewel, J.J., eds., Ecosys- Memoir 2, p. 718-727. tems of Florida: Orlando, University of Central Florida Press, p. 28 1- Shaw, S.P., and Fredine, C.G., 1956, Wetlands of the United States -Their 322. extent and their value to waterfowl and other wildlife: U.S. Fish and Fernald, E.A., ed., 198 1, Atlas of Florida: Tallahassee, The Florida State Wildlife Service Circular 39, 67 p., I map. University Foundation, Inc., 276 p. South Florida Water Management District, 1992, Surface water improve- Florida Department of Environmental Regulation, 199 1, Report on the ef- ment and management plan for the Everglades: West Palm Beach, fectiveness of permitted mitigation: Tallahassee, Florida Department South Florida Water Management District Support Information Docu- of Environmental Regulation, 59 p. ment, 472 p. Florida Department ofNatural Resources, 1988, Wetlands in Florida-An Tiner, R.W., Jr., 1984, Wetlands of the United States-Current status and addendum to Florida's Comprehensive Outdoor Recreation Plan: Tal- recent trends: Washington, D.C., U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 59 p. lahassee, Florida Department of Natural Resources, 91 p. U.S. Bureau of the Census, 1952, United States census of agriculture, 1950, Florida Natural Areas Inventory and Division of State Lands, 1990, Guide v. 4-Drainage of agricultural lands: Washington, D.C., U.S. Gov- to the natural communities of Florida: Tallahassee, Florida Depart- ernment Printing Office, 307 p. ment of Natural Resources, 111 p. U.S. Soil Conservation Service, 1989, Twenty-six ecological communities Frayer, W.E., and Hefner, J.M., 1991, Florida wetlands - Status and trellas, of Florida (revised ed): Gainesville, Florida Chapter Soil and Water 1970's to 1980's: Atlanta, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 31 p. Conservation Society, 286 p. Gray, L.C., Baker, O.E., Marschner, F.J., and Weitz, B.O., 1924, The utili- VanArman, Joel; Nealon, Dennis; Burns, Scott; Jones, Brad; Smith, Lisa; zation of our lands for crops, pasture and forests, in U.S. Department MacVicar, Thomas; Yamsura, Margaret; Federico, Anthony; Bucca, ofAgriculture, Agriculture yearbook-I 923: Washington, D.C., U.S. Jane; Knapp, Michael; and Gleason, Patrick, 1984, South Florida Water Government Printing Office, 1,284 p. Management District, in Fernald, E.A., and Patton, D.J., eds., Water Grow, Gerald, 1989, Florida parks-A guide to camping in nature (4th ed.): resources atlas of Florida: Tallahassee, Florida State University, p. Tallahassee, Fla., Longleaf Publications, 260 p. 138-157. Hampson, P.S., 1984, Wetlands in Florida: Tallahassee, Florida Bureau of Vince, S.W., Humphrey, S.R., and Simons, R.W., 1989, The ecology of Geology Map Series 109, scale 1:2,000,000. hydric hammocks-A community profile: U.S. Fish and Wildlife Heath, R.C., andConover, C.S., 1981, Hydrologic almanac of Florida: U.S. Service Biological Report 85(7.26), 81 p. Geological Survey Open-File Report 81-1107, 239 p. Wharton, C.H.; Odum, H.T.; Ewet, K.C.; Duever, M.I.; Lugo, Ariel; Boyt, Jordan, C.L., 1984, Florida's weather and climate -Implications for water, Rene; Bartholemew, J.; DeBellevue, E.B.; Brown, S.; Brown, M.; and in Fernald, E.A., and Patton, D.J., eds., Water resources atlas of Duever, L.C., 1977, Forested wetlands of Florida -Their management Florida: Tallahassee, Florida State University, p. 18 - 35. and use: Gainesville, University of Florida, 348 p. Kautz,R.S., 1991, Space age habitat mapping: Florida Wildlife, v. 45, no. 73, Zieman, J.C., and Zieman, R.T., 1989, The ecology of the seagrass mead- p. 30-33. ows of the west coast of Florida -A community profile: U.S. Fish and Klein, Howard, Armbruster, J.T., McPherson, B.F., and Freiberger, J.J., Wildlife Service Biological Report 85(7.25), 155 p. 1975, Water and the south Florida environment: U.S. Geological Sur- vey Water-Resources Investigations 24-75, 165 p. Kushlan, J.A., 1990, Freshwater marshes, in Myers, R.L., and Ewel, J.J., Ecosystems of Florida: Orlando, University of Central Florida Press, FOR ADDITIONAL INFORMATION: District Chief, U.S. Geological p. 324-363. Survey, 227 N. Bronough St., Suite 3015, Tallahassee, FL32301; Regional Kushlan, J.A., Ogden, J.C., and Higer, A.L., 1975, Relation of water level Wetland Coordinator, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 1875 Century Build- and fish availability to wood stork reproduction in southern Ever- ing, Suite 200, Atlanta, GA 30345 glades, Florida: U.S. Geological Survey Open-File Report 75-434, 56 p. Leitman, H.M., Sohm, J.E., and Franklin, M.A., 1984, Wetland hydrology Prepared by and tree distribution of the Apalachicola River flood plain, Florida: Melanie R. Darst, Helen M. Light, and Benjamin F. McPherson, U.S. Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper 2196, 52 p. U.S. Geological Survey U.S. Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper 2425 National Water Summary-Wetland Resources 161 Georgia Wetland Resources Georgia has more than 7.7 million acres of wetlands -about one- A league and a league of marsh-grass, waist-high, fifth of the surface area of the State (Hefner and others, 1994.) Most broad in the blade, wetlands in Georgia have been adversely affected by human activi- Green, and all of a height, and unflecked with a light ties, but coastal salt marshes and a large area of preserved wilder- or a shade, ness in the Okefenokee Swamp remain relatively undisturbed. One Stretch leisurely off, in a pleasant plain, of the -few remaining old-growth cypress-tupelo forests in the South- To the terminal blue of the main. cast is on the lower Altamaha River flood plain (fig. 1). Wetlands provide many economic and ecological benefits. TYPES AND DISTRIBUTION Flood-plain wetlands dissipate the energy of floods, reduce erosion, and stabilize the streamside environment. Wetlands filter water Wetlands are lands transitional between terrestrial and deep- entering rivers and coastal marsh systems, removing sediment and water habitats where the water table usually is at or near the land pollutants. Annual flooding moves leaf litter and other terrestrial surface or the land is covered by shallow water (Cowardin and oth- organic detritus from the flood plain into the main channel, provid- ers, 1979). The distribution of wetlands and deepwater habitats in ing a primary source of food for stream and estuarine organisms. Georgia is shown in figure 2A; only wetlands are discussed herein. Wetlands bordering many streams in Georgia are important habi- Wetlands can be vegetated or nonvegetated and are classified tat corridors for wildlife. Amid the pine plantations and farms cov- on the basis of their hydrology, vegetation, and substrate. In this ering most of the uplands, wetland corridors connect areas that summary, wetlands are classified according to the system proposed provide food, shelter, and water for many species of animals. During by Cowardin and others (1979), which is used by the U.S. Fish and low-water periods, flood-plain ponds and backwaters contribute to Wildlife Service (FWS) to map and inventory the Nationlis wetlands. biological diversity in stream ecosystems by providing still-water At the most general level of the classification system, wetlands are habitats for fish, amphibians, reptiles, and aquatic invertebrates. grouped into five ecological systems: Palustrine, Lacustrine, Riv- Biological productivity in estuarine emergent wetlands is higher erine, Estuarine, and Marine. The Palustrine System includes only than on most agricultural lands (Teal and Teal, 1969). Such coastal wetlands, whereas the other systems comprise wetlands and wetlands are essential to the life cycles of many commercially har- deepwater habitats. Wetlands of the systems that occur in Georgia vested species such as clams, shrimp, blue crab, and mullet (Tiner, are described below. 1984). In addition to their ability to remove undesirable chemicals and SVstem Wetland description support wildlife, wetlands are valued by tourists and Georgians for their recreational uses and natural beauty. Sidney Lanier, a native Palustrine .................. Nontidal and tidal-freshwater wetlands in which of Georgia, described a vista of coastal marshland in his poem "The vegetation is predominantly trees (forested wet- Marshes of Glynn": lands); shrubs (scrub-shrub wetlands); persistent or nonpersistent emergent, erect, rooted herba- ceous plants (persistent- and nonpersistent- emergent wetlands); or submersed and (or) floating plants (aquatic beds). Also, intermit- Z tently to permanently flooded open-water bod- tr ies of less than 20 acres in which water is less than 6.6 feet deep. Lacustrine ................. Nontidal and tidal-freshwater wetlands within an intermittently to permanently flooded lake or reservoir larger than 20 acres and (or) deeper than 6.6 feet. Vegetation, when present, is pre dominantly nonpersistent emergent plants (non- persistent-emergent wetlands), or submersed and (or) floating plants (aquatic beds), or both. Riverine ..................... Nontidal and tidal-freshwater wetlands within a channel, Vegetation, when present, is same as in the Lacustrine System. Estuarine ................... Tidal wetlands in low-wave-energy environments wherethe salinity ofthewater is greaterthan 0.5 part perthousand (ppt) and isvariable owing to evaporation and the mixing of seawater and freshwater. Marine ....................... Tidal wetlands that are exposed to waves and cur- rents of the open ocean and to water having a salinity greater than 30 ppt. About 95 percent of Georgia's wetlands are palustrine. Estua- rine and marine wetlands comprise approximately 4 percent of the State's wetland acreage. Lacustrine and riverine wetlands are not Figurel. Old-growth gum-cypress forest on the addressed in this report because they constitute a relatively small Altamaha River flood plain. (Photograph by C.H. part of the State's wetlands and are generally fringe areas between Wharton, Clayton, Ga.) palustrine wetlands and deepwater habitats. 162 National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: STATE SUMMARIES Palustrine System. -Forested wetlands constitute about 83 Blackwater streams such as the Ogeechee, Satilla, and St. percent of all palustrine wetlands in Georgia (J.M. Hefner, U.S. Fish Marys Rivers generally contain water that is dark or tea colored and Wildlife Service, oral commun., 1993). Large tracts of second- because of a high content of tannins and other organic acids. Black- growth bottorn-land hardwoods and tupelo-cypress forests exist water streams usually have low velocities and carry little sediment. along many Georgia rivers. Most of these rivers can be character- Their flood plains have less topographic relief and are usually nar- ized as either alluvial or blackwater streams. rower than flood plains of alluvial streams. Blackwater river flood- Alluvial streams such as the Altamaha, Oconee, Ocmulgee, plain wetlands have canopies of tupelo, cypress, and other tree spe- Savannah, Flint, and Chattahoochee Rivers carry large amounts of cies tolerant of wet organic soils. sediment. Their flood plains have mineral soils and diverse topo- Forested palustrine wetlands in Georgia that are not associated graphic features such as flats, ridges, backswamps, and oxbow lakes. with stream systems include cypress domes, gum swamps, Flats and ridges support forests of mixed bottom-land hardwood limesinks, Carolina bays, wet pine flatwoods, and hydric hammocks. species; backswamps generally have canopies of tupelo and cypress. Isolated cypress swamps and cypress domes occur primarily below The alluvial river with the greatest average discharge in Georgia is the Fall Line (fig. 2B), the area of transition between the higher the Altamaha River, which has a flood plain 3- to 5-miles wide along topographic relief of the piedmont to the north and the flatter to- some reaches. The Altamaha River drainage basin includes about pography of the coastal plain to the south. Cypress domes are cir- one-fourth ofthe State and extends from Atlanta to the Atlantic coast. cular depressional wetlands forested by pond cypress trees that grow The basin has many small streams and two large rivers, the Oconee taller in the center of the wetland and thus create a dome-shaped and Ocmulgee Rivers, which join to form the Altamaha River. canopy. Gum swamps are depressional wetlands in which swamp :7 r Cumberland Plateau Southern Blue Section Ridge Section Southern Valley and Ridge Section Southern Piedmont Section 34' ta Ag..t. See Island Section B Ent Gulf Coastal Plain Section Macon 0 Colu a PHYSIOGRAPHIC DIVISIONS Savannah 32' ATLANT[C A Alba Jr 0 C E A N S am Too WETLANDS AND DEEPWATER HABITATS d Distribution of wetlands and deepwater habitats- This map shows the approximate distribution of large fsh*@v'NWR wetlands in the State. Because of limitations of scale and source material, some wetlands are not shown fe doe 82' 84' mp Predominantly wetland 0 25 50 MILES E-1 Predominantly deepwater habitat 0 25 510 KILOMETERS - Dams (Storage capacity at least 5,000 acre/feet) Figure 2. Weiland distribution in Georgia and physiography of the State. A, Distribution of wetlands and deepwater habitats. 8, Physio- graphy. (Sources: A, TE. Dahl, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, unpub. data, 199 1. B, Physiographic divisions from Clark and Zisa, 1976; landforms data from EROS Data Center.) National Water Surnmary-Wetland Resources: GEORGIA 163 tupelo is the predominant tree. The northwestern part of the velocities are slower. Width of flood plains along rivers and the Okefenokee Swamp contains large tracts of gum swamp. Limesinks occurrence of isolated depressional wetlands between rivers in- are depressional wetlands formed by the dissolution or collapse of crease as the land flattens toward the coast. Coastal areas have the underlying limestone. Limesinks differ widely in size, depth, and greatest acreage of wetlands (fig. 2A). average length of time they are inundated or have saturated soils. The great diversity of Georgia wetlands is a result of the State's The Swamp of Toa in southwestern Georgia is the most extensive diverse physiography. Clark and Zisa (1976) divided Georgia into limesink area in Georgia. Many of the limesinks are connected to six physiographic sections (fig. 2B). Three of the sections, the ground-water aquifers and serve as recharge areas (Kalla and others, Cumberland Plateau, Southern Valley and Ridge, and Southern Blue 1993). The Swamp of Toa is a mosaic of wetland and upland habi- Ridge, are in northern Georgia and are the areas with the greatest tats that support rare plant and animal species such as chaffseed topographic relief. Many of the wetlands in these sections are moun- and blind cave salamander. Limesink depressions called sagponds tain seeps and bogs that are too small and scattered to be shown in are distinctive wetlands because they occur in mountainous north- figure 2A. Narrow wetlands border some streams. Depressional western Georgia yet contain relict populations of lowland plants wetlands are rare, except for sagponds, which exist in some areas (Wharton, 1977). Sagponds differ in wetness from intermittently of the Coosa River Valley of the Southern Valley and Ridge Section to permanently flooded. Carolina bays, a wetland type unique to the and in the Cumberland Plateau Section. Southeastern United States coastal plain, are oval depressions that The Southern Piedmont Section of Georgia lies between the have acidic, commonly peaty soils (Wharton, 1977). The predomi- more mountainous sections and the coastal plain. This section has nant vegetation in these wetlands generally is leathery-leaved, ev- a broad zone of gently rolling hills that are geologically similar to ergreen, or semideciduous shrubs like fetterbush, titi, and zenobia. the Blue Ridge Mountains but have less relief as a result of stream More than 1,000 Carolina bays, occupying an area of about 250,000 erosion (Wharton, 1978). Flood plains are wider and better devel- acres, have been mapped in Georgia (Wharton, 1977). Wet pine oped in the Southern Piedmont Section than in the more mountain- flatwoods forested by old-growth slash or pond pine grow mostly ous Southern Blue Ridge and Southern VAey and Ridge Sections in southeastern Georgia and have soils that are saturated during part to the north. Some depressional wetlands such as gum swamps ex- of the growing season. Small patches of wet pine flatwoods can be ist in the Southern Piedmont Section, but cypress domes are ab- interspersed among upland pine forests. Hydric hammocks are a rare sent. wetland type that exists in some areas of coastal Georgia. Semi- The two physiographic sections that form the coastal plain in evergreen bottom-land hardwood species such as swamp laurel oak southern Georgia are the East Gulf Coastal Plain and Sea Island are the predominant vegetation (Vince and others, 1989). Sections (fig. 2B). These sections lie southeast of the Fall Line and Approximately 17 percent of Georgia's palustrine wetlands are include more than one-half the land area of Georgia. Topographic nonforested (J.M. Hefner, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, oral relief is lower, runoff is slower, and depressional features are more commun., 1993). These nonforested wetlands are primarily fresh common in these two sections than in the Southern Piedmont Sec- marshes associated with streams or isolated water bodies. In these tion. wetlands, emergent vegetation such as giant cutgrass, wild rice, Streams in the East Gulf Coastal Plain Section in southwest- pickerelweed, and arrow arum are the predominant plants (Wharton, ern Georgia trend north-south and drain into the Gulf of Mexico. 1978). More than 20 percent of the Okefenokee Swamp is emergent Karst topography, which is created by dissolution of porous lime- marshes and aquatic beds. Herb bogs occur on sloping ground or stone near the land surface, prevails in parts of this section and is in slight depressions in pine uplands (Wharton, 1978) and have characterized by numerous limesinks and other depressional fea- abundant herbaceous plants, including orchids, insectivorous plants tures. (such as pitcher plants), and a variety of wildflowers, but have few The Sea Island Section contains the greatest extent of wetlands or no trees. The absence of a tree canopy in herb bogs might be due in Georgia. Flood-plain wetlands along rivers are more extensive to the high frequency of fires and the nutrient-poor, shallow soils in this section than in any other physiographic section. A schematic and underlying hardpan clays. cross section of an alluvial flood plain in Georgia is shown in fig- Estuarine and Marine Systems. -Most of Georgia's coastal ure 3. The topographic features shown in the cross section were wetlands are located in estuaries at the mouths of rivers. Salt formed by deposition and removal of sediments by flowing water. marshes in which the predominant emergent plant species is smooth Most areas of an active flood plain are flooded at least annually. The cordgrass are the most common estuarine wetlands (Wiegert and driest part of a flood plain is generally the natural levee adjacent to Freeman, 1990). Smooth cordgrass marshes are flooded daily by the river. Levees and flats, which drain rapidly after floods recede, tides and are exposed to mostly low-energy waves. These marshes are covered by canopies of bottom-land hardwoods such as live oak, fringe the sounds that are between the mainland and offshore bar- water oak, sweetgum, overcup oak, water hickory, and swamp laurel rier islands. The largest area of estuarine wetlands in Georgia sur- oak. The wettest part of the flood plain, the backswamp, commonly rounds St. Andrews and St. Simons Sounds. This wetland has more is farthest from the river and adjacent to the uplands. Backswamps than 110,000 acres of salt marshes (Field and others, 1991). Tidal generally hold water after floods recede and are sometimes perma- flats are estuarine wetlands that are regularly exposed and flooded nently saturated. Tupelo gum and cypress are the dominant trees by tides. These flats generally are devoid of rooted vegetation but because of their ability to tolerate long periods of flooding. are important foraging areas for shorebirds. Georgia's marine wet- Rivers in the Sea Island Section flow southeastward toward the lands comprise the intertidal zone of barrier-island ocean beaches. Atlantic coast, with the exception of the Suwanec River, which flows into the Gulf of Mexico. In their lower reaches, tidal freshwater HYDROLOGIC SETTING swamps are flooded by a combination of tidal fluctuations and high seasonal freshwater flows. Estuaries at the river mouths are fringed The abundance of wetlands in Georgia is primarily due to high by extensive marshes. Georgia's concave coastline, situated between rainfall statewide and relatively flat topography in the southern part the jutting Florida peninsula to the south and the outward-curving of the State. Annual rainfall in the State averages about 50 inches South Carolina coastline to the north, provides coastal wetlands in (Carter and Hopkins, 1986). The largest streams in Georgia origi- this area some protection from tropical storms. A series of large nate in or near the mountainous northeastern part of the State, which barrier islands protects estuaries from high-energy waves and pro- has high precipitation and runoff. Flood-plain wetlands develop vides shallowly inundated shorelines for the development of salt along stream borders in areas of low topographic relief, where stream marshes. Tidal ranges are greater on the Georgia coast than along 164 National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: STATE SUMMARIES the other Southeastern Atlantic coastal States. This large tidal range The Okefenokee Swamp was preserved by its own inhospitable- (6- 9 feet) influences both the inland extent and topography of salt ness for many years. In the 1890's a canal was dug through the ridge marshes (Wiegert and Freeman, 1990). on the eastern border to drain the swamp for logging and develop- The Sea Island Section also contains the largest acreages of ment. Drainage was unsuccessful, but eventually about 90 percent isolated inland wetlands such as wet pine flatwoods, cypress of the marketable cypress was removed (Izlar, 1984b). Some pio- swamps, gum swamps, and Carolina bays. Land-surface slopes are neers managed to establish homesites in the swamp, but it was a gentle in many areas within this section, and ground water is com- place where only a few could make a living. The Okefenokee Na- monly near the land surface. Typically, there is a hardpan layer in tional Wildlife Refuge, created in 1937, includes approximately 85 the subsurface soil that prevents rapid infiltration during rainy pe- percent of the swamp. After devastating fires in the 1950's, an riods, creating seasonally wet soils. During periods of little rain- earthern dam, or sill, was built on the Suwannee River to raise water fall, these same areas can be very dry. Plants adapted to a wide range levels in the swamp. This sill has affected water levels over approxi- of moisture conditions, such as gallberry and saw palmetto, are mately one-fourth of the swamp area. Since the installation of the common in these seasonally wet areas. sill, scientific studies have clarified the role of natural fire in reju- The Okefenokee Swamp, located in the southern part of the venating the swamp, and wildlife managers are now considering Sea Island Section (fig. 2B), covers approximately 440,000 acres allowing the sill to degenerate over time (Yin and Brook, 1992). in Georgia and is one of the largest freshwater wetlands in the United States. The swamp is a unique area containing a mosaic of emer- TRENDS gent marshes, aquatic beds, forested and scrub-shrub wetlands, and forested uplands. The Okefenokee Swamp is located on a large ter- The Fws National Wetlands Inventory recently reported that race that once might have been a shallow marine lagoon. When sea Georgia had about 7.7 million acres of wetlands as of the 1980's level declined, the terrace was isolated by a sand ridge along the (Hefner and others, 1994). This estimate was based on the results eastern edge. The swamp ecosystem appears to have developed in of a sampling procedure that used aerial photography. Another es- the depression within the last 7,000 years (Laerm and Freeman, timate, based on satellite imagery, classified approximately 4.3 mil- 1986). The swamp has few inflowing streams and, therefore, pri- lion acres in Georgia as wetland (J.R. Bozeman, Georgia Depart- marily depends on rainfall for water (Rykiel, 1984). Headwaters of ment of Natural Resources, written commun., 1992). The largest the Suwannee and St. Marys Rivers are in the swamp. Water depths discrepancy between these surveys was in the estimates of palustrine average about 2 feet over an uneven layer of peat composed of plant forested wetlands (J.M. Hefner, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, oral material that has accumulated over thousands of years. Imperme- commun., 1993). The discrepancies between estimates of wetland able sediments underlying the peat keep most of the water from acreages could have resulted from differences in accuracy and reso- percolating into the ground. In severe drought, fires can burn the lution between aerial photography and satellite imagery and in in- exposed peat, lowering the elevation of the swamp floor. terpretive techniques used for each method (Federal Geographic Major fires probably burn large areas of the Okefenokee Swamp Data Committee, 1992). every 25 to 30 years (Izlar, 1984a). When normal hydrologic con- Because estimates of current wetland acreages in Georgia do ditions return, the swamp floor is again inundated, and those areas not agree, estimates of losses are difficult to substantiate. Dahl where the peat was reduced hold deeper water in which aquatic (1990) reported wetland losses of approximately 23 percent for plants such as water lilies grow. If fires are suppressed, swamp-floor Georgia from the 1780's to 1980's, the lowest percentage of loss levels can become high enough to support other types of wetlands among the Southeastern States. Wetland losses throughout the such as an emergent marsh vegetated by maidencane, sedges, iris, Southeast have been caused primarily by drainage for farming and and other plants. Accumulated plant material contributes to the forestry operations (Hefner and Brown, 1985). Palustrine forested buildup of peat until trees like red maple can grow or until fire again wetlands along streams and isolated swamps of the coastal plain reduces the amount of peat on the floor of the swamp. probably have been the most affected. Between the mid-1970's and The Okefenokee Swamp provides habitat for 36 species offish, mid-1980's, more than 100,000 acres offreshwater forested wetlands 37 species of amphibians, 66 species of reptiles, and 48 species of in Georgia were destroyed, mostly because of conversion to land mammals (Laerm and others, 1984). Among the inhabitants of the uses such as agriculture (Dahl and others, 1991). Nearly 500,000 swamp are rare animal and plant species such as round-tailed musk- acres of'palustrine forested wetlands were converted during the same rat, sandhill crane, woodstork, and hooded pitcher plants. A reported time period to scrub-shrub or emergent freshwater wetlands (Hefner 232 species of birds inhabit in the swamp during some part of the and others, 1994). Loss of estuarine marshes has slowed since 1970 year; 120 of these species are permanent residents (Sanders, 1987). when Georgia began protecting those wetlands from development. EXPLANATION PALUSTRINE WETLAND High water Upland Low water RIVERINE WETLAND High flata Backawarnp L- Lowflats Forest vegetation Sand bar High water Low water W-High water' AJIuWum F@gure 3. Schematic cross section of an alluvial river flood plain in Georgia. National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: GEORGIA 165 CONSERVATION posed activity's probable effects on the water quality of a wetland. Most farming, ranching, and silviculture activities are not sub- Many government agencies and private organizations partici- ject to section 404 regulation. However, the "Swampbuster" provi- pate in wetland conservation in Georgia. The most active agencies sion of the 1985 Food Security Act and amendments in the 1990 and organizations and some of their activities are listed in table 1. Food, Agriculture, Conservation, and Trade Act discourage (through Federal wetland activities. -Development activities in Geor- financial disincentives) the draining, filling, or other alteration of gia wetlands are regulated by several Federal statutory prohibitions wetlands for agricultural use. The law allows exemptions from pen- and incentives that are intended to slow wetland losses. Some of the alties in some cases, especially if the farmer agrees to restore the more important of these are contained in the 1899 Rivers and Har- altered wetland or other wetlands that have been converted to agri- bors Act; the 1972 Clean Water Act and amendments; the 1985 Food cultural use. The Wetlands Reserve Program of the 1990 Food, Security Act; the 1990 Food, Agriculture, Conservation, and Trade Agriculture, Conservation, and Trade Act authorizes the Federal Act; the 1986 Emergency Wetlands Resources Act; and the 1972 Government to purchase conservation easements from landowners Coastal Zone Management Act. who agree to protect or restore wetlands. The Consolidated Farm Section 10 of the Rivers and Harbors Act gives the U.S. Army Service Agency (formerly the Agricultural Stabilization and Con- Corps of Engineers (Corps) authority to regulate certain activities servation Service) administers the Swampbuster provisions and Wet- in navigable waters. Regulated activities include diking, deepening, lands Reserve Program. The Natural Resources Conservation filling, excavating, and placing of structures. The related section 404 Service (formerly the Soil Conservation Service) determines com- of the Clean Water Act is the most often-used Federal legislation pliance with Swampbuster provisions and assists farmers in the iden- protecting wetlands. Under section 404 provisions, the Corps issues tification of wetlands and in the development of wetland protection, permits regulating the discharge of dredged or fill material into restoration, or creation plans. wetlands. Permits are subject to review and possible veto by the U.S. The 1986 Emergency Wetlands Resources Act and the 1972 Environmental Protection Agency, and the Fws has review and ad- Coastal Zone Management Act and amendments encourage wetland visory roles. Section 401 of the Clean Water Act grants to States protection through funding incentives. The Emergency Wetland and eligible Indian Tribes the authority to approve, apply conditions Resources Act requires States to address wetland protection in their to, or deny section 404 permit applications on the basis of a pro- Statewide Comprehensive Outdoor Recreation Plans to qualify for Federal funding for State recreational land; the National Park Ser- Table 1. Selected wetland-related activities of government vice provides guidance to States in developing the wetland compo- agencies and private organizations in Georgia, 1993 nent of their plans. Coastal States that adopt coastal-zone manage- [Source: Classification of activities is generalized from information provided ment programs and plans approved by the National Oceanic and by agencies and organizations. 9, agency or organization participates in Atmospheric Administration are eligible for Federal funding and wetland-related activity; ..., agency or organization does not participate in technical assistance through the Coastal Zone Management Act. wetland-related activity. MAN, management; REG, regulation; R&C, resto- State wetland activities. -The Georgia Department of Natu- ration and creation; LAN, land acquisition; R&D, research and data collec- ral Resources is the principal State agency reviewing development tion; D&I, delineation and inventory] activities in wetlands. Georgia has a coastal regulatory program and requires a State permit for development activities in coastal marshes. A similar program for regulating activities in freshwater wetlands Agency or organization \Y does not exist. The Georgia Water Quality Control Act and section FEDERAL 401 of the Federal Clean Water Act provide indirect protection of Department of Agriculture freshwater wetlands in some instances. Under these two acts, the Consolidated Farm Service Agency ........................... ... Environmental Protection Division of the Department of Natural Forest Service ................................................................. Natural Resources Conservation Service ................ Resources must certify, for both freshwater and estuarine areas, that Department of Commerce wetland activities will not degrade water quality (Wagner and oth- National Oceanic and ers, 1989). Atmospheric Administration ........................................ In 1970, Georgia enacted the Coastal Marshlands Protection Department of Defense Act to protect and conserve estuarine marshlands. Since that time, Army Corps of Engineers ..............................................* Military reservations : -...................... .............. permits issued by the Department of Natural Resources' Coastal Department of the Interior Resources Division have allowed less than 600 acres of jurisdictional Fish and Wildlife Service ..............................................* marshlands to be filled by nonexempt activities. Total coastal marsh- Geological Survey .......................................................... ... ... land losses, however, have been much higher as a result of filling National Biological Service ......................................... . ... ... for public works projects, which are exempt. For example, the esti- National Park Service ................................................... Environmental Protection Agency .................................. mated loss of tidal wetlands resulting from the construction of In- STATE terstate 95 through Georgia is approximately 4,000 acres (Georgia Department of Community Affairs .................................. Department of Natural Resources, 1992). Department of Natural Resources Nonregulatory programs include acquisition of wetlands as part Coastal Resources Division ............................... of wildlife-management areas and public fishing areas by the De- Environmental Protection Division ................... Game and Fish Division .................................................0 partment of Natural Resources'Game and Fish Division. Total wet- Parks, Recreation, and land acreage owned by the State is estimated to exceed 57,000 acres. Historic Sites Division ...................................................0 Wetland acquisitions are a priority of the Preservation 2000 pro- Department of Transportation ......................................... gram of 1991. Recent wetland tracts acquired with Preservation Georgia Forestry Commission ......................................... 2000 funds include approximately 7,000 acres of tidal salt marshes REGIONAL, COUNTY, AND LOCAL on two coastal barrier islands and approximately 6,000 acres of Regional Development Centers ....................................... ... Some county and city governments ..............................e flood-plain swamp on the lower Altamaha River. Small areas of PRIVATE ORGANIZATIONS wetlands also have been enhanced, restored, or constructed by the The Nature Conservancy of Georgia .............................0 Department of Natural Resources for mitigation, wastewater treat- Georgia Wildlife Federation ............................................. ment, or waterfowl habitat management (Georgia Department of Trust for Public Lands ............................................... Natural Resources, 1992). 166 National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: STATE SUMMARIES Regional, coun ty, a nd local wetland activities. Growth Andrejko, M.J., and Best, G.R., eds., The Okefenokee Swamp-its Strategies Legislation" adopted in 1989 requires county and local natural history, geology, and geochemistry: Los Alamos, N. Mex., governments to formulate planning and land-use control pro- Wettand Surveys, p. 5-17. grams that include steps to protect wetlands (Georgia Department Katla, P.I., Fassett, Veronica, Rigdon, T.A,, and Bowling, S.M., 1993, Ad- of Natural Resources, 1992). Guidelines for these county and local vance identification of wetlands in Georgia, in Hatcher, K.J., ed., Pro- ceedings of the 1993 Georgia Water Resources Conference, Athens, protection plans are being developed by the Department of Natural Ga., April 20-21, 1993: Athens, The University of Georgia, Institute Resources, the Department of Community Affairs, and Regional De- of Natural Resources, p. 345-348. velopment Centers. Laerm, Joshua, and Freeman, B.J., 1986, Fishes of the Okefenokee Swamp: Private wetland activities. -Many private organizations in Athens, The University of Georgia Press, 118 p. Georgia such as the Georgia Conservancy, the Sierra Club, and the Laerm, Joshua, Freeman, B.J., Vitt, L.J., and Logan, L.E., 1984, Checklist National Wildlife Federation lobby for wetland-protection measures, of vertebrates of the Okefenokee Swamp, in Cohen, A.D., Casagrande, participate in litigation involving wetland issues, and comment on D.J., Andrejko, M.J., and Best, G.R., eds., The Okefenokee Swamp - State and Federal permits allowing wetland alterations. The Nature Its natural history, geology, and geochemistry: Los Alamos, N. Mex., Conservancy of Georgia and the Georgia Wildlife Federation are Wetland Surveys, p. 682-691. Rykiel, E.J., Jr., 1994, General hydrology and mineral budgets for Okefe- acquiring river flood plains for preservation, primarily along the nokee Swamp -Ecological significance, in Cohen, A.D., Casagrande, Altamaha and Alcovy Rivers, respectively. D.J., Andrejko, M.J., and Best, G.R., eds., The Okefenokee Swamp - Its natural history, geology, and geochemistry: Los Alamos, N. Mex., References Cited Weiland Surveys, p. 212-228. Sanders, Sigrid, 1987, Studying the many faces of the Okefenokee Swamp@ Carter, R.F., and Hopkins, E.H., 1986, Georgia surface-water resources, in Athens, The University of Georgia, Research Reporter, v. 15, no. 4, U.S. Geological Survey, National water summary 1985 -Hydrologic p. 7-11. events and surface-water resources: U.S. Geological Survey Water- Teal, John, and Teal, Mildred, 1969, Life and death of the salt marsh: New Supply Paper 2300, p. 195 - 200. York, National Audubon Society and Ballantine Books, Inc., 274 p. Clark, W.Z., Jr., and Zisa, A.C., 1976, Physiographic map of Georgia: At- Tiner, R.W., Jr., 1984, Wetlands of the United States- Current status and lanta, Ga.. Department of Natural Resources, scale 1:2,000,000. recent trends: Washington, D.C., U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 59 p. Cowardin, L.M., Carter, Virginia, Golet, F.C., and LaRoe, E.T., 1979, Clas- U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 1992, Regional wetlands concept plan- sification ofwetlands and deepwater habitats of the United States: U.S. Emergency Wetlands Resources Act, southeast region: Atlanta, Ga., Fish and Wildlife Service Report FWS/OBS-79/31, 131 p. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 259 p. Dahl, T.E., 1990, Wetlands -Losses in the United States, 1780's to 1980's: Vince, S.W., Humphrey, S.R., and Simons, R.W., 1989, The ecology of Washington, D.C., U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Report to Congress, hydric hammocks-A community profile: U.S. Fish and Wildlife 13 p. Service Biological Report 95(7.26), 91 p. Dahl, T.E., Johnson, C.E., and Frazer, W.E., 1991, Wetlands-Status and Wagner, Wendy, Carr, David, and Kellett, Katie, 1989, A citizen's guide to trends in the conterminous United States, mid-1970's to mid-1980s: protecting wetlands in Georgia: Charlottesville, Va., Southern Envi- Washington, D.C., U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Report to Congress, ronmental Law Center, 90 p. 22 p. Wharton, C.H., 1977, The natural environments of Georgia: Georgia De- Federal Geographic Data Committee, 1992, Application of satellite data for partment of Natural Resources Bulletin 114, 227 p@ mapping and monitoring wetlands: U.S. Geological Survey Federal -1978, Physiography and biota of Georgia: BioScience, v. 28, no. 5, Geographic Data Committee Technical Report 1, 44 p. p. 336-339. Field, D.W., Reyer, A.J., Genovese, P.V, and Shearer, B.D., 1991, Coastal Wiegert, R.G., and Freeman, B.J., 1990, Tidal salt marshes of the south- wetlands of the United States: Washington, D.C., National Oceanic and east Atlantic coast-A community profile: U.S. Fish and Wildlife Atmospheric Administration and U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service co- Service Biological Report 85(7.29), 70 p. operative report, 59 p. Yin, Zhi-Yong, and Brook, G.A., 1992, The impact of the Suwannee River Georgia Department of Natural Resources, 1992, Water quality in Georgia, sill on the surface hydrology of Okefenokee Swamp, U.S.A.: Journal 1990-199 1: Atlanta, Georgia Department of Natural Resources, 69 p. of Hydrology, v. 136, no. 1- 4, p. 193-217. Hefner, J.M., and Brown, J.D., 1985, Weiland trends in the southeastern United States: Wetlands, v. 4, p. 1-12. Hefner, J.M., Wilen, B.O., Dahl, T.E., and Frayer, W.E., 1994, Southeast FOR ADDITIONAL INFORMATION: District Chief, U.S. Geological wetlands - Status and trends, mid-1970's to mid-1980's: Atlanta, Ga., Survey, Peachtree Business Center, Suite 130,3099 Amwiler Road, Atlanta, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 32 p. GA 30360; Regional Weiland Coordinator, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, War, R.L., 1984a, Some comments on fire and climate in the Okefenokee 1875 Century Building, Suite 200, Atlanta, GA 30345 swamp-marsh complex, in Cohen, A.D., Casagrande, D.J., Andrejko, M.J., and Best, G.R., eds., The Okefenokee Swamp-Its natural his- Prepared by tory, geotogy, and geochemistry: Los Alamos, N. Mex., Wetland Sur- veys, p. 70-85. Melanie R. Darst and Helen M. Light, _1984b, A history of Okefenokee logging operations -A bourbon U.S. Geological Survey and branch water success story, in Cohen, A.D., Casagrande, D.J., U.S. Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper 2425 National Water Summary-Wetland Resources 11657 Hawaii Wetland Resources Wtlands constitute less than 3 percent of the State of Hawaii but TYPES AND DISTRIBUTION have had a major economic effect on the development of Hawaiian society both before and after European contact. Native Hawaiian Wetlands are lands transitional between terrestrial and communities depended on wetlands for cultivation of taro and other deepwater habitats where the water table usually is at or near the staple food crops and for coastal fisheries, After the arrival of Eu- land surface or the land is covered by shallow water (Cowardin and ropean and Asian immigrants, wetlands were used for rice and wa- others, 1979). The distribution of wetlands and deepwater habitats tercress cultivation. These agricultural uses of wetlands continue to in Hawaii is shown in figure 2A; only wetlands are discussed herein. the present, although their economic importance has declined be- Wetlands can be vegetated or nonvegetated and are classified cause of demographic shifts and increased importation of food. on the basis of their hydrology, vegetation, and substrate. In this Wetlands provide important waterfowl and shorebird habitat. summary, wetlands are classified according to the system proposed Endemic and endangered species that rely on Hawaiian wetlands by Cowardin and others (1979), which is used by the U.S. Fish and include the Hawaiian stilt, Hawaiian coot, Hawaiian gallinule, and Wildlife Service (FWS) to map and inventory the Nation's wetlands. Hawaiian duck (Hawaii Department of Land and Natural Resources, At the most general level of the classification system, wetlands are 1988). Wetlands also are used by migratory shorebirds such as the grouped into five ecological systems: Palustrine, Lacustrine, Riv- Pacific golden plover and waterfowl such as the pintail duck (Ha- erine, Estuarine, and Marine. The Palustrine System includes only waii Department of Land and Natural Resources, 1988). Some en- wetlands, whereas the other systems comprise wetlands and demic Hawaiian plants are found only in wetlands (Vogl and deepwater habitats. Wetlands of the systems that occur in Hawaii Henrickson, 1971; Elliot, 1981). are described below. In recent years, recreational, educational, and scientific uses of wetlands have increased. The Waimanu Valley on the island of System Wetland description Hawaii (figs. I and 2A) is managed as a part of the National Estua- rine Research Reserve system for such purposes. Palustrine .................. Nontidal and tidal-freshwater wetlands in which Wetlands can improve water quality (Hemond and Benoit, vegetation is predominantly trees (forested wet- 1988) and reduce flooding (Carter, 1986). Wetlands in Pearl Har- lands); shrubs (scru b-sh rub wetlands); persistent or noripersistent emergent, erect, rooted herba- bor are being considered for use as sediment traps by the U.S. Navy ceous plants (persistent- and nonpersistent- (Stephanie Aschmann, U.S. Navy, oral commun., 1992). The emergent wetlands); or submersed and (or) Kawainui Marsh is an example of a wetland managed for flood pro- floating plants (aquatic beds). Also, intermit- tently to permanently flooded open-water bod- tection. ies of less than 20 acres in which water is less than 6.6 feet deep. Lacustrine ................. Nontidal and tidal-freshwater wetlands within an intermittently to permanently flooded lake or reservoir larger than 20 acres and (or) deeper than 6.6 feet. Vegetation, when present, is pre- dominantly nonpersistent emergent plants (non- persistent-emergent wetlands), or submersed and (or) floating plants (aquatic beds), or both. Riverine ..................... Nontidal and tidal-freshwater wetlands within a channel. Vegetation, when present, is same as in the Lacustrine System. Estuarine ................... Tidal wetlands in low-wave-energy environments where the salinity of the water is greater than 0.5 part perthousand (ppt) and is variable owing to evaporation and the mixing of seawater and freshwater. Marine ....................... Tidal wetlands that are exposed to waves and cur- rents of the open ocean and to water having a salinity greater than 30 ppt. On the basis of mapping by the Fws National Wetland Inven- tory, wetland area in Hawaii has been estimated to be 110,810acres (Hawaii Department of Land and Natural Resources, 1988). The r '4 estimate includes areas of mixed wetlands and upland rain forest (Dennis Peters, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, written commun., 1993). Almost 90 percent of the wetland areais palustrine wetlands (Hawaii Department of Land and Natural Resources, 1989). The FWS survey did not include marine wetlands, which are small and are not considered in this report. About 70 percent of Hawaiian wet- Figure 1. Estuarine wetland in Waimanu Valley on the lands are 5 acres or less, 20 percent are between 5 and 25 acres, island of Hawaii. (Photograph by B.R. Hill, U.S. Geo- and the remaining 10 percent are larger than 25 acres (Hawaii De- logical Survey.) partment of Land and Natural Resources, 1988). 168 National Water Surnmary-Wetland Resources: STATE SUMMARIES Palustrine wetlands.-The largest wetlands in the State are Lacustrine wetlands.-Only a few facustrine wetlands exist in palustrine wetlands on the windward (northeastern) mountain slopes the Hawaiian Islands. Lake Waiau is a small natural lake near the on the islands of Kauai, Maui, and Hawaii. These are primarily summit of Mauna Kea on the island of Hawaii. A number of small emergent and scrub-shrub wetlands and are known locally as bogs. lakes occupy topographic depressions on Niihau. Several reservoirs Palustrine emergent wetlands also are present upstream from some are located on Kauai, Oahu, Molokai, and Maui. coastal, estuarine wetlands. @*450 50 3 B 200 PRECIPITATION -50- Line of equal annual precipitation- 50 200 400 Interval, in inches, is variable. 15, C 0 Ab"' sw@m*P. Kauai 150 w jirm@t a 22@,p FNiihau 159@ 30, Oahu llf-.h, Boy Heee fishpond Kawainui Marsh P-1 11-b., . Kaau Cmtw 158. + Waikiki Molokai Honolulu A 21 Maui . WETLANDS AND DEEPWATER HABITATS Distribution of wetlands and deepwater habitats- Lanai feakala+ This map shows the approximate distribution of large 166. wetlands in the State. Because of limitations oi scale and source material, some wetlands are not shown Kahootawe Predominantly wetland Waimanu Vailey National Predominantly cleepwater habitat Estuarine Research Preserve A60 Weipio Valley "10116 Hawaii 20. me L.ke W.M. Hilo 0 10 20 30 MILES Mae- Loe 0 10 20 30 KILOMETERS Q200 @@40 ,*KH ea" I or_, Wa.W Figure 2. Wetland distribution and average annual precipitation in Hawaii. A, Distribution of wetlands and deepwater habitats. B, Average annual precipitation. (Sources: A, TE. Dahl, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, unpub. data, 1991. B, Lee and Valenciano, 1986.) National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: HAWAII 169 Riverine wetlands.-Riverine wetlands in the State are in all maximum rainfall is at altitudes of 2,000 to 4,000 feet; on the lower four subsystems of the Fws classification: Tidal, Lower Perennial, mountain ranges, the trade winds move over the mountains, and the Upper Perennial, and Intermittent. A total of 376 perennial streams rainfall maximums are at or near the crests (Blumenstock and Price, and more than 100 intermittent streams were identified in Hawaii 1961). Rainfall gradients on the larger islands are high; average in a recent survey by the Hawaii Cooperative Park Service Unit annual totals can range from greater than 200 inches to as little as (1990). 10 inches within 10 miles (fig. 213). Geographically, evaporation is Estuarine wetlands.-Estuarine emergent wetlands are present inversely proportional to rainfall and is less variable; the maximum at the mouths ofmany rivers, usually along the wet, windward shores annual pan-evaporation rate is about 106 inches, and the minimum of the major islands. Forested estuarine wetlands also have formed is about 17 inches (Hawaii Department of Land and Natural Re- because of the introduction of mangrove in some coastal areas on sources, 1973). Runoff averages about 40 percent of rainfall Oahu and Molokai. (Takasaki, 1978). Ground water on each island occurs primarily as Anchialine pools are a unique type of estuarine wetland. These a basal lens of freshwater floating on denser saltwater (fig. 3) pools form in collapsed lava tubes and have a subsurface connec- (Valenciano, 1985). These floating freshwater lenses are known in tion to the ocean. Therefore, the pools are affected by tidal action, Hawaii as basal ground water. The upper extent of a lens, the basal although they are rarely, if ever, inundated by seawater. These wet- water table, is generally less than 100 feet above sea level (Takasaki, lands pools average about I acre in area (Hawaii Department of Land 1978; Valenciano, 1985). and Natural Resources, 1988) and support populations of endemic Despite large amounts of rainfall in some areas, wetlands are shrimp. Anchialine pools were not included in the Fws National not extensive in the Hawaiian islands because ofthe generally steep Wetlands Inventory maps; the Hawaii Department of Land and topography and the high permeability of bedrock (Elliot, 1981). Natural Resources (1988) estimated that the pools have a total area Most water falling as rain travels rapidly to the ocean as surface- of about 700 acres. water and ground-water flow (Takasaki, 1978). Wetlands form only Fishponds constructed by native Hawaiians along the shores where local hydrologic conditions favor retention of water near the of the islands are another type of estuarine wetland. The ponds are land surface (fig. 3). formed by walls built of stone. Although artificial, these ponds are Water is more likely to accumulate where precipitation is high economically and culturally important and support several plant and and evaporation is low. In Hawaii, extensive bogs are confined to animal species (Hawaii Department of Land and Natural Resources, areas where rainfall exceeds 150 inches annually (fig. 2A and 2B). 1988). Heeia fishpond on Oahu is an example of one such pond that These areas are at altitudes between 1,500 and 5,000 feet on wind- is now preserved because of its cultural importance. ward slopes. On the basis of limited pan-evaporation data, evapo- ration in these areas ranges from 50 to 95 inches annually (Hawaii HYDROLOGIC SETTING Department of Land and Natural Resources, 1973). Wetlands commonly form only where the water table intersects Hydrologic conditions on the Hawaiian islands are largely de- the land surface. Topography and water-table configuration deter- termined by climate and topography. When moisture-laden air mine the extent of areas where the land surface and water table in- masses moving with the trade winds reach the volcanic mountains tersect. Most of the land surface of the islands is many hundreds of that form the islands, the air masses are forced up the slopes, where feet above the basal water table. Therefore, basal ground water sup- they cool in the higher altitudes and release their moisture. Because ports only a narrow zone ofestuarine and palustrine wetlands near of this climatic phenomenon, known as the orographic effect, rain- the shore, where the water table and the land surface intersect (fig. fall is more plentiful on the windward sides of the islands (fig. 2B) 3). (Blumenstock and Price, 1961). On the highest mountains Many of Hawaii's estuarine wetlands have developed over geo- (Haleakala on Maui, maximum altitude of 10,021 feet; Maufia Kea logic time as a result of gradual subsidence of the islands and the and Mauna Loa on Hawaii, maximum altitudes of 13,796 and 13,078 resulting rise in sea level relative to the land surface (Macdonald feet, respectively), the trade winds move around the peaks, and the and others, 1970). The relative rise in sea level reduced the gradi- EXPLANATION LEEWARD PALUSTRINE OR LACUSTRINE WINDWARD WETLAND - - - Basal water table ----- Dike-impounded water Marsh table (above caldera-filling lava) PALUSTRINE WETLANDS IIIillit/ Emergent vegetation RIVERINE WETLAND = Ash bed (intermittent stream) RIVERINE WETLANDS (streams) Alluvium ESTUARINE WETLAND ESTUARINE WETLAND Marsh - - - - - - - - - -- Volcanic rock --------------------- Figure 3. Generalized cross section of a Hawaiian island showing hydrologic and geologic features that affect wetland distribution. (Source: Modified from Takasaki, 1978.) 170 National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: STATE SUMMARIES ent of streams entering the ocean. Sediments carried by the streams the summit of Mount Waialeale. The extensive bogs on Kauai, Maui, were deposited near the stream mouths, and the accumulated de- and Hawaii occupy gently sloping mountainsides where rainfall is posits were colonized by wetland vegetation. Wetlands in Pearl retained at the land surface (Fosberg, 196 1, p. 2 1; van't Woudt and Harbor on Oahu and in Waimanu and Waipio Valleys on the island Nelson, 1963 p. 23; Vogl and Henrickson, 1971, p. 479). of Hawaii are examples of this process. Geologic heterogeneities, including andesitic lava flows, vol- Topography affects the retention of surface runoff during rain- canic dikes, ash beds, soils, and alluvium, can restrict infiltration storms. On the steep, highly eroded slopes of Oahu, runoff is rapid; of rainfall, resulting in surface saturation. The extensive bogs on water does not accumulate at the land surface, and wetlands are rare the islands of Kauai, Maui, and Hawaii have formed on soils, ash (fig. 2A). On the younger islands of Maui and Hawaii, stream ero- layers, or andesitic lava less permeable than the underlying basaltic sion has not progressed to the same extent as on Oahu, and much of lava (Stearns and Macdonald, 1942, 1946; Macdonald and others, the gently sloping surface of the original volcanic domes is still 1960). intact. On Kauai, caldera filling has resulted in nearly flat areas near Low-permeability clay layers underlie many bogs in Hawaii. These clays result from weathering of bedrock in high-rainfall ar- Table 1. Selected wetland-related activities of government eas that have abundant plant remains on the forest floor. The organic agencies and private organizations in Hawaii, 1993 acids derived from decaying plants cause rapid chemical weather- ing of bedrock. Although the characteristic clay layers have been [Source: Ciassification of activities is generalized from information provided considered a factor in bog development (Skottsberg, 1940; Fosberg, by agencies and organizations. e, agency or organization participates in wetland-related activity; ..., agency or organization does not participate in 196 1; van't Woudt and Nelson, 1963; Vogl and Henrickson, 197 1), wetland-related activity. MAN, management; REG, regulation; R&C, restora- the clay might actually be a result rather than a cause of impeded tion and creation; LAN, land acquisition; R&D, research and data collection; drainage (Wentworth and others, 1940). D&I, delineation and inventory] Not much is known concerning the hydrologic functions of Hawaiian wetlands. Coastal wetlands are generally in ground-water C@ discharge zones, and upland bogs are generally in ground-water Agency or organization 0y, *1 recharge zones, but the importance of wetlands in controlling rates FEDERAL of ground-water movement is not known. A study of the Alakai Department of Agriculture Swamp on Kauai indicated that recharge from the swamp to the basal Consolidated Farm Service Agency ............................. ... aquifer was not significant (van't Woudt and Nelson, 1963). Storage Forest Service .................................................................. of surface runoff in bog peat (partially decomposed plant material) Natural Resources Conservation Service .................. ... might supply strearnflow following rains (Skottsberg, 1940; van't Department of Commerce National Oceanic and Woudt and Nelson, 1963). The bog in the Ka'au Crater on Oahu was Atmospheric Administration ..................................... formerly used as a water-supply reservoir (Elliot, 198 1). When bog Department of Defense peat is completely saturated, bogs can act as sources of overland Army Corps of Engineers ............................................... flow during rainstorms and might increase runoff (vaift Woudt and Marine Corps ................................................................... Nelson, 1963). Coastal wetlands can reduce flooding because of Navy ................................................................................... Department ofthe Interior their capacity to store surface runoff. Fish and Wildlife Service ............................................... Geological Survey ........................................................... ... ... National Biological Survey ............................................ ... ... ... TRENDS National Park Service .................................................... The Hawaii Department ofLarid and Natural Resources (1988) Environmental Protection Agency .............................. STATE estimated that total wetland acreage in Hawaii before European Department of Health contact in 1778 was 110,000 acres. Wetland area was about 114,000 Office of Environmental Quality Control ...................... acres in 1900 because of increased wetland agriculture as rice pro- Department of Land and Natural Resources duction became important. Since then, wetland agricultural acre- Commission on Water Resource Management age has declined by about 10,000 acres to a remnant of 420 acres Division of Forestry and Wildlife ................................... Division of Water and Land Development ................... used for taro and watercress production. Division of Land Management ...................................... ... ... According to a recent Fws report (Dahl, 1990), Hawaii has lost Office of Conservation and about 7,000 acres of wetlands since the 1780's. These losses were Environmental Affairs ..................................................... ... in coastal estuarine and palustrine wetlands at altitudes less than Office of State Planning 1,000 feet (Andy Yuen, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, written Coastal Zone Management Program ........................... commun., 1992). Estimates of predevelopment wetland area (58,800 University of Hawaii Environmental Center ..................................................... acres) and recent wetland area (51,800 acres) used by Dahl (1990) Water Resources Research Center ............................. to compute losses are lower than those reported by the Department COUNTY of Land and Natural Resources (1988) because Dahl's (1990) esti- City and County of Honolulu mates do not include some areas of mixed wetland and rain forest Department of Land Utilization ..................................... at altitudes greater than 1,000 feet that were included in the County of Hawaii Planning Department ...................................................... Department's estimates (Andy Yuen, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, County of Kauai written commun., 1992). On the basis of the Department's estimates Planning Department ...................................................... ... of 110,000 original wetland acres and Dahl's (1990) estimate of County of Maui 7,000 acres lost, Hawaii has lost about 6 percent of its original Planning Department ...................................................... ...0 wetlands. PRIVATE ORGANIZATIONS Ducks Unlimited ................................................................... Coastal wetland losses have been greatest on Oahu, where most Hawaii Audubon Society .................................................... . ... ... of the population of the State resides. Maps and aerial photographs National Audubon Society ................................................. ...0.. of the Honolulu area before 1940 show many agricultural and coastal Native Hawaiian Plant Society ......................................... ... ... ... ... wetlands that no longer exist. Much of the resort area of Waikiki Outdoor Circle ...................................................................... ... ... was wetland before the dredging of the Ala Wai Canal. Many other The Nature Conservancy ...................................................* wetlands have been partly or completely filled for industrial and National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: HAWAII 171 residential developments. The Fws has estimated that 58 percent of Several Federal agencies manage wetlands as wildlife refuges wetlands in the Kaneohe Bay area were lost between 1927 and 1978 and other conservation areas. The FWS manages about 1,400 acres (Andy Yuen, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, written commun., of refuge lands in Hawaii. The U.S. Navy and Marine Corps also 1992). manage wetland refuges. Other wetlands are managed by the NPS. The most extensive wetlands in the State are in remote moun- State wetland activities.-Hawaii has no laws specifically re- tainous areas removed from agricultural and urban areas (fig. 2A). lating to wetland protection, but chapter 205A of the Hawaii Re- These wetlands are not presently threatened by human activities but vised Statutes provides for regulation of coastal areas, including are being degraded by trampling and rooting by feral animals, par- wetlands, in conjunction with the Federal Coastal Zone Manage- ticularly pigs, and by the introduction of exotic plants (Elliot, 198 1). ment Act and Clean Water Act. Under the provisions of these and other laws, several State and county agencies regulate the use of CONSERVATION wetlands in Hawaii (table 1). The Office of State Planning's Coastal Zone Management Program provides wetlands policy guidance. Many government agencies and private organizations partici- Policy is enforced through regulation by the county planning de- pate in wetland conservation in Hawaii. The most active agencies partments, which have permitting authority for designated Special and organizations and some of their activities are listed in table 1. Management Areas. These areas generally are within 300 feet of Federal wetland activities.-Development activities in Hawaii the shoreline but can extend much farther inland. The Office ofCon- wetlands are regulated by several Federal statutory prohibitions and servation and Environmental Affairs of the Department of Land and incentives that are intended to slow wetland losses. Some of the more Natural Resources has permitting authority for all designated con- important of these are contained in the 1899 Rivers and Harbors servation lands, which can include upland as well as coastal wet- Act; the 1972 Clean Water Act and amendments; the 1985 Food lands. The Department of Health and the Coastal Zone Manage- Security Act; the 1990 Food, Agriculture, Conservation, and Trade ment Program make determinations of consistency with Federal Act; the 1986 Emergency Wetlands Resources Act; and the 1972 laws for permits issued by the Corps. The Commission on Water Coastal Zone Management Act. Resource Management, a part of the Department of Land and Natu- Section 10 of the Rivers and Harbors Act gives the U.S. Army ral Resources, has authority to regulate channel alterations and Corps of Engineers (Corps) authority to regulate certain activities enforce instream-flow standards. The Office of Hawaiian Affairs in navigable waters. Regulated activities include diking, deepening, acts as an advocate for native Hawaiian concerns relating to wet- filling, excavating, and placing of structures. The related section 404 lands. An effort to review State wetland policies is under way; this of the Clean Water Act is the most often-used Federal legislation effort is being coordinated by the Office of Environmental Quality protecting wetlands. Under section 404 provisions, the Corps issues Control in the Department of Health. permits regulating the discharge of dredged or fill material into The Division of Forestry and Wildlife of the Department of wetlands. Permits are subject to review and possible veto by the U.S. Land and Natural Resources is the principal State wetiand-manage- Environmental Protection Agency, and the FWS has review and ad- ment agency. The Division manages wildlife refuges and other visory roles. Section 401 of the Clean Water Act grants to States wetlands. The wetlands in Waimanu Valley on the island of Hawaii and eligible Indian Tribes the authority to approve, apply conditions are included in the Waimanu National Estuarine Research Reserve, to, or deny section 404 permit applications on the basis of a pro- which is administered by the Department of Land and Natural Re- posed activity's probable effects on the water quality of a wetland. sources in cooperation with the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Most farming, ranching, and silviculture activities are not sub- Administration. Hydrologic data are collected in this reserve by the ject to section 404 regulation. However, the "Swampbuster" provi- U.S. Geological Survey in cooperation with the Department. sion of the 1985 Food Security Act and amendments in the 1990 Private wetland activities- Several private organizations en- Food, Agriculture, Conservation, and Trade Act discourage (through gage in wetland activities (table 1) in Hawaii. The Nature Conser- financial disincentives) the draining, filling, or other alteration of vancy manages wetlands within its preserve system. Other groups, wetlands for agricultural use. The law allows exemptions from pen- including the National and Hawaii Audubon Societies and Ducks alties in some cases, especially if the farmer agrees to restore the Unlimited, are involved in efforts to acquire wetlands for conser- altered wetland or other wetlands that have been converted to agri- vation purposes. In addition, many other organizations take advo- cultural use. The Wetlands Reserve Program of the 1990 Food, cacy roles before government agencies in matters concerning wet- Agriculture, Conservation, and Trade Act authorizes the Federal lands. These include the Native Hawaiian Legal Corporation, the Government to purchase conservation easements from landowners Sierra Club Legal Defense Fund, the Kawainui Heritage Founda- who agree to protect or restore wetlands. The Consolidated Farm tion, and the National, and Hawaii Audubon Societies. Service Agency (formerly the Agricultural Stabilization and Con- servation Service) administers the Swampbuster provisions and Wet- lands Reserve Program. The Natural Resources Conservation References Cited Service (formerly the Soil Conservation Service) determines com- Blumenstock, D.I., and Price, Saul, pliance with Swampbuster provisions and assists farmers in the iden- 1961, Climates of the States-Hawaii: tification of wetlands and in the development of wetland protection, U.S. Department of Commerce, Environmental Science Services Administration, climatography of the States 60-51, 27 p. restoration, or creation plans. Carter, Virginia, 1986, An overview of the hydrologic concerns related to The 1986 Emergency Wetlands Resources Act and the 1972 wetlands in the United States: Canadian Journal of Botany, v. 64, Coastal Zone Management Act and amendments encourage wetland p. 364-374. protection through funding incentives. The Emergency Wetland Cowardin, L.M., Carter, Virginia, Golet, F.C., and LaRoe, E.T., 1979, Clas- Resources Act requires States to address wetland protection in their sification of wetlands and deepwater habitats of the United States: U.S. Statewide Comprehensive Outdoor Recreation Plans to qualify for Fish and Wildlife Service Report FWS/OBS -79/31, 131 p. Federal funding for State recreational land; the National Park Ser- Dahl, T.E., 1990, Wetlands-Losses in the United States, 1780's to 1980's: vice (NPS) provides guidance to States in developing the wetland Washington, D.C., U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Report to Congress, component of their plans. Coastal States that adopt coastal-zone. 13 p. Elliot, M.E., 1981, Wetlands and wetland vegetation ofthe Hawaiian Islands: management programs and plans approved by the National Oceanic Honolulu, University of Hawaii, M.A. thesis, 228 p. and Atmospheric Administration are eligible for Federal funding and Fosberg, F.R., 1961, Guide to excursion III: Honolulu, Tenth Pacific Sci- technical assistance through the Coastal Zone Management Act. ence Congress and University of Hawaii, 207 p. 172 National Water Surnmary-Wetland Resources: STATE SUMMARIES Hawaii Cooperative Park Service Unit, National Park Service, 1990, A pre- - 1946, Geology and ground-water resources of the island of Hawaii: liminary appraisal of Hawaii's stream resources: National Park Ser- Territory of Hawaii Division of Hydrography Bulletin 9, 363 p. vice Report R84, 294 p. Takasaki, K.J., 1978, Summary appraisals of the natiows ground-water re- Hawaii Department of Land and Natural Resources, 1973, Pan evaporation sources -Hawaii region: U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper in Hawaii 1894-1970: Hawaii Department of Land and Natural Re- 813-M, 29 p. sources Report R51, 82 p. Valenciano, Santos, 1985, Hawaii ground-water resources, in U.S. Geologi- -1988, State recreation functional plan technical reference document cal Survey, National water summary 1984-Hydrologic events, se- and State comprehensive outdoor recreation plan, wetlands resources lected water-quality trends, and ground-water resources: U.S. Geo- plan addendum: Honolulu, Hawaii, Department of Land and Natural logical Survey Water-Supply Paper 2275, p. 185 -191. Resources, variously paged. van't Woudt, B.D., and Nelson, R.E., 1963, Hydrology of the Alakai Swamp, Hemord, H.F., and Benoit, Janina, 1988, Cumulative impacts on water Kauai, Hawaii: Hawaii Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin 132, quality functions of wetlands: Environmental Management, v. 12, 30 p. no. 5, p, 636 - 653. Vogl, R.J., and Henrickson, James, 1971, Vegetation of an alpine bog on Lee, Reuben, and Valenciano, Santos, 1986, Hawaii surface-water resources, East Maui, Hawaii: Pacific Science, v. 25, p. 475-483. in U.S. Geological Survey, National water summary 1985-Hydro- Wentworth, C.K., Wells, R.C., and Allen, V.T., 1940, Ceramic clay in Ha- logic events and surface-water resources: U.S. Geological Survey waii: The American Mineralogist, v. 25, no. 1, p. 2-33. Water- Supply Paper 2300, p. 201- 206. Macdonald, G.A., Abbott, A.T., and Peterson, F.L., 1970, Volcanoes in the sea-The geology of Hawaii: Honolulu, University of Hawaii Press, FOR ADDITIONAL INFORMATION: District Chief, U.S. Geological Sur- 517 p. vey, 677 Ala Moana Boulevard, Suite 415, Honolulu, HI 96813; Regional Macdonald, G.A., Davis, D.A., and Cox, D.C., 1960, Geology and ground- Wetland Coordinator, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 911 NE I Ith Avenue, water resources of the island of Kauai, Hawaii: Hawaii Division of Portland, OR 97232 Hydrography Bulletin 13, 212 p. Skottsberg, Carl, 1940, Report on Hawaiian bogs -Proceedings ofthe Sixth Pacific Science Congress, July 24-August 12, 1939, Berkeley, Prepared by Stanford, and San Francisco: Berkeley, University of California Press, B.R. Hill, v. 4, p. 659-661. U.S. Geological Survey Stearns, H.T., and Macdonald, G.A., 1942, Geology and ground-water re- sources of the island of Maui, Hawaii: Territory of Hawaii Division of Hydrography Bulletin 7, 344 p. U.S. Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper 2425 National Water Summary-Wetland Resources 173 Idaho Wetland Resources Although Idaho's wetlands account for less than I percent of the System Wetland description State's area, its many small and isolated wetlands are essential to Palustrine .................. Wetlands in which vegetation is predominantly the functioning of diverse ecosystems in deserts, plains, and moun- trees (forested wetlands); shrubs (scrub-shrub tains (fig. 1). Wetlands provide vital habitat for waterfowl, migra- wetlands); persistent or nonpersistent emergent, tory birds, fish, and other wildlife. More than 75 percent of Idahols erect, rooted, herbaceous plants (persistent- and wildlife depend on wetlands during some part of their life cycle non persi stent-emerg ent wetlands); or sub- mersed and (or) floating plants (aquatic beds). (Idaho Department of Fish and Game, 1990). Wetlands enhance the Also, intermittently to permanently flooded water quality of lakes and streams by removing nutrients and pol- open-water bodies of less than 20 acres in which lutants from influent water. During floods, wetlands store floodwater water is less than 6.6 feet deep. temporarily, slow water velocities, and reduce bank erosion. Lacustrine ................. Wetlands within an intermittently to permanently Cities, small communities, and farms commonly were settled flooded lake or reservoir. Vegetation, when pres- next to or near riparian (streamside) wetlands because of the avail- ent, is predominantly nonpersistent emergent plants (nonpersistent-emergent wetlands), or ability of water and shade. Wetland vegetation generally is more lush submersed and (or) floating plants (aquatic and productive than that in uplands; livestock benefit from shade beds), or both. and forage provided by healthy wetlands. Idaho's development was Riverine ..................... Wetlands within a channel. Vegetation, when pres- enhanced by extracting large quantities of gold and other metals ent, is same as in the Lacustrine System. from streambeds and riparian zones along streams. Idahols wetlands benefit an increasing population and a large tourism industry by providing unique scenery and recreational opportunities. Dahl (1990) estimated that wetlands occupy about 386,000 acres in Idaho. Most of the State's wetlands are in flood plains and riparian areas along streams and other water bodies. These are TYPES AND DISTRIBUTION palustrine wetlands that include swamps (forested wetland); scrub - Wetlands are lands transitional between terrestrial and deep- shrub wetlands that also contain smaller acreages of marsh, wet water habitats where the water table usually is at or near the land meadow, and seeps (emergent wetlands); and a few small ponds. surface or the land is covered by shallow water (Cowardin and oth- Many of the State's wetlands are in National Wildlife Refuges ers, 1979). The distribution of wetlands and deepwater habitats in managed by the Fws. The Bear Lake National Wildlife Refuge (NWR) Idaho is shown in figure 2A; only wetlands are discussed herein. in southeastern Idaho includes about 17,600 acres of wetland-up- Wetlands can be vegetated or nonvegetated and are classified land complex consisting of marsh, open water, and grasslands. Other on the basis of their hydrology, vegetation, and substrate. In this wetlands in southeastern Idaho- Oxford Slough in the Bear River summary, wetlands are classified according to the system proposed Basin and Grays Lake in the Snake River Basin-also have exten- by Cowardin and others (1979), which is used by the U.S. Fish and sive emergent wetlands; about 13,000 acres of the original lakebed Wildlife Service (FWS) to map and inventory the Nation's wetlands. at Grays Lake NWR is being restored to marsh by the FWS. Camas At the most general level of the classification system, wetlands are NwR and State refuges at Market and Mud Lakes in eastern Idaho grouped into five ecological systems: Palustrine, Lacustrine, Riv- also have marshes. Other refuges in the Snake River Basin are erine, Estuarine, and Marine. The Palustrine System includes only Minidoka NwP, which predominantly consists of scrub-shrub wet- wetlands, whereas the other systems comprise wetlands and lands along the shores of Lake Walcott on the Snake River; Deer deepwater habitats. Wetlands of the systems that occur in Idaho are Flat NWR, which includes Lake Lowell Reservoir (about 11,600 acres described below. of wetlands and deepwater habitat); and 109 islands in the Snake River. Notable emergent wetlands are at Camas Prairie Centennial Marsh and C.J. Strike ReservoiL In the northern Rocky Mountains, the Kootenai NWP contains about 2,800 acres of wetlands on the flood plain of the Kootenai River. The mud flats along the Pack River and delta marshes along the Clark Fork are among the larger wet- lands in northern Idaho. Small bogs, which are emergent wetlands that have organic soils and receive moisture only from precipita- tion, also are present in northern Idaho (Bureau of Reclamation, 1992). Wetlands in Idaho's mountains are mostly alpine meadows (emergent wetlands) in flood plains and small shallow lakes and marshes in intermontane basins. In Idaho's plains, most wetlands 77- are associated with river systems, although locally, high water tables sustain small wetlands, and during wet years, playas can be filled by surface-water runoff. Lacustrine wetlands are present in Idaho's lakes and reservoirs; riverine wetlands are present in river channels. HYDROLOGIC SETTING Figure 1. The Tules, a wetland in an abandoned meander channel of the Owyhee River. Tules is a name commonly used for stands of Wetlands are present where there is a persistent water supply bulrush or cattail. (Photograph by RX Moseley, Idaho Department at or near the land surface. The location and persistence of the sup- of Fish and Game.) ply are functions of interdependent climatic, physiographic, and 174 National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: STATE SUMMARIES B PRECIPITATION -16- Line of equal annual precipitation- Interval, in inches, is variable A KLZI , -74' - K- I .. i Ri-, NVVR bU -P,.k Ri-, C (,'I.,k F-.,k FREE-WATER-SURFACE EVAPORATION -40- Line of equal free-water-surface evaporation-interval 5 inches 211 <1 'V1 30 f 20 12 12 46' 30 30 36 40 35 --- 45 4 40 C- e4. 8@ Z' r D ECOREGIONS A. Columbia Basin NWR 44' B. Blue Mountains C Snake River Basin/High Desert D' Northern Basin and Range i-' E.'Northern Rockies j1qo1k1t Lk, F. Middle Rockies G, Wyoming Basin Dear L. t Rat H. Wasatch and Uinta Mountains NWP mt Prairie e -A c P e i Lke A watcou NVVR Bear Rio. Oxford lough NWR B 42@ 114' 112, WETLANDS AND DEEPWATER HABITATS 0 25 50 MILES Distributi n of wetlands and deepwater habitats- 0 0 25 50 KILOMETERS This map shows the approximate distribution of large wetlands in the State. Because of limitations of scale and source material, some wetlands are not shown C Predominantly wetland Predominantly deepwater habitat H Figure 2. Wetland distribution in Idaho and physical, climatological, and ecological features that control wetland distribution in the State. A, Distribution of wetlands and cleepwater habitats. B, Precipitation. C, Annual free-water-surface evaporation. D, Ecoregions. (Sources: A, T.E. Dahl, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, unpub. data, 1997. B, Kjelstrom, 1986. C, Farnsworth and others, 7982. D, Omernik, 1987; landforms data from EROS Data Center) National Water Surnmary-Wetland Resources: IDAHO 175 hydrologic factors such as precipitation and runoff patterns, evapo- creased in the broad river valleys because cropland irrigation re- ration potential, topography, and configuration of the water table. charges aquifers and ground water maintains summer and fall base Surface water collects in topographic lows, which can be either flows in streams and drains. ground-water recharge or discharge areas. Soil composition deter- In the Columbia Basin and Blue Mountains Ecoregions, wet- mines the rate at which water is recharged or discharged. lands receive ground water from glacial outwash and alluvial de- Precipitation is affected by topography and ranges statewide posits along streams. However, these types of deposits commonly from less than 10 inches per year on much of the Snake River Plain are higher in altitude than the water table and thus cannot retain in southern Idaho to more than 60 inches per year in mountainous sufficient moisture for wetland development. Wetlands also could areas that are headwaters of the Clearwater River (fig. 2B). Greater develop where loess and other windblown deposits are present, but precipitation in the mountains accounts in large part for the greater wetland growth is inhibited because the soil is easily eroded. At wetland acreage in the intermontane basins than on the plains in lower altitudes, wetlands are grazed by livestock; wet meadows on southern Idaho. Most of the water that supplies wetlands is from the upper mountain slopes are summer grazing grounds (Pacific spring snowmelt, either as direct runoff or indirectly as recharge to Northwest River Basins Commission, 1969). the ground-water system. The timing and volume of runoff affect The Northern Basin and Range Ecoregion in southeastern the establishment and functions of wetlands. Although mountain- Idaho consists of broad basins between low mountain ranges. Hun- ous areas have sufficient precipitation to supply wetlands, steep dreds of springs throughout the area provide water for many wet- topography and shifting stream channels can prevent wetland de- lands. Large wetland areas along the Bear River and most of its tribu- velopment. Runoff in the Snake River Basin in southern Idaho is taries are generally in direct hydraulic connection with ground water highly regulated by dams; runoff in most other river basins is regu- (Kjelstrom, 1986). Most of the desert shrubland is grazed or cleared lated to some degree (Kjelstrom, 1986). Storage has decreased and used for irrigated agriculture, which has decreased wetland spring floodflows downweam from reservoirs, and wetland veg- vegetation and degraded water quality of nearby wetlands. etation on the flood plain that normally receives moisture during floods must rely mostly on precipitation and shallow ground water TRENDS for moisture. Diversions and scant precipitation deplete streamflow; as a result, water quality could be degraded, possibly resulting in Starting in 1805, explorers, pioneers, and trappers followed the changes in wetland functions and wildlife value (Kjelstrom and waterways through Idaho. The first effects on wetlands occurred others, 1991). between 1818 and 1827 when beaver were virtually eliminated by Evaporation in the State generally increases from north to south trapping (Idaho Department of Fish and Game, 1990). Storage of (fig. 2C). Superimposed on this pattern are topographic complexi- water behind beaver dams creates wetlands, provides water for veg- ties that cause evaporation to decrease with altitude. Evaporation etation during dry periods, and decreases downstream bank erosion. from surface water ranges from 25 to 35 inches during the growing Since about 1860, when mining and farming activities began, wet- season and from 30 to 45 inches annually (Farnsworth and others, lands in Idaho have decreased 56 percent-from about 877,000 1982). In Idaho, except for some high mountainous areas, potential acres to about 386,000 acres (Dahl, 1990). In Idaho, agricultural evaporation exceeds precipitation during the growing season and practices account for most of the human-caused wetland losses; wetland development is inhibited. The moisture deficit generally residential and commercial development accounts for most of the prevents the formation of bogs. remaining losses (Idaho Department of Parks and Recreation, 1987). The hydrologic setting and functions of wetlands in Idaho dif- Of the 19.5 million acres of non-Federal land in Idaho- about one- fer regionally because of differences in climate, soils, geology, veg- third ofthe State- approximately 33 percent is cropland. Cropland etation, and physiography. Omernik (1987) related these character- increased by about 400,000 acres from 1967 to 1982. During that istics in order to develop regional patterns that were used to define time, nearly 10,000 acres of farmland per year were converted to ecoregions (fig. 2D). urban uses (Soil Conservation Service, 1984). Many small wetlands In the Middle and Northern Rockies Ecoregions, mountain within farmlands were filled for urban use. In agricultural areas, ranges are separated by valleys and, in places, broad basins (Pacific conversion to cropland, dewatering for irrigation purposes, contami- Northwest River Basins Commission, 1969; Omernik and Gallant, nation from nutrients in irrigation-return flow, and overgrazing by 1986). The alluvial and outwash deposits in the valleys are porous livestock contributed to wetland loss or degradation. Livestock graz- and permeable and can store and yield large volumes of water. ing in wetlands is a complex issue because most of the public land Wetlands appear where less permeable rocks crop out or trap water is grazed, and, although much of the riparian area on public lands and establish springs and seeps. has been adversely affected, riparian areas are commonly the pri- The Snake River Basin/High Desert Ecoregion (fig. 2D) is a mary and sometimes the only water supply for livestock that graze gently sloping, semiarid plain that contains small wetlands and pla- on and rangeland. Results of an inventory of about 250 miles of yas. Most wetlands are along the banks of the Snake River and its National Forest riparian areas indicated that no single grazing strat- tributaries; many are emergent wetlands vegetated by sedges and egy was effective for all areas (Clary and Webster, 1989). In urban rushes or are forested and scrub-shrub wetlands dominated by al- areas, wetland losses are attributable to encroachment by residen- der, willow, and cottonwood (Omernik and Gallant, 1986). tial and commercial construction, channelization for drainage, and The Snake River and southern tributaries, such as the Bruneau dewatering for municipal and industrial purposes. and Owyhee Rivers, have cut deep canyons into the plain and gen- Loss of wetlands also can be attributed to dam and reservoir erally are at a lower altitude than the regional water table; there- construction, mining activities, ground-water pumping, river chan- fore, the river and its tributaries receive perennial inflow from nelization, erosion and sedimentation, and road and railroad con- ground water (Kjelstrorn, 1992). Small streams are generally at a struction. From 1860 to the 1930's, placer mining along many miles higher altitude than the regional water table and flow intermittently of streambeds damaged adjacent wetlands. Tailings from hard-rock in response to surface runofffrom precipitation and snowmelt. Shrub mining and toxic acidic or alkaline drainage have degraded other and grassland vegetation extends to the banks of intermittent and wetlands. ephemeral streams. Water held near the surface by low-permeabil- Short-term causes of wetland degradation are wildfires, plant ity rock can maintain small wetlands. Where the Snake River first diseases, extremes in weather, and defoliation by cyclic species such crosses the Idaho-Oregon border, broad valleys have developed as jackrabbits, tent caterpillars, and grasshoppers (Thomas, 1986). along the Snake, Boise, and Payette Rivers. Wetland acreage has in- Prolonged droughts, such as the one from 1987 to 1992, have tem- 176 National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: STATE SUMMARIES porarily reduced the area or functions of some wetlands. filling, excavating, and placing of structures. The related section 404 Some land-use practices have created new wetlands or enlarged of the Clean Water Act is the most often-used Federal legislation existing ones. Leaking irrigation ditches, uncapped flowing wells, protecting wetlands. Under section 404 provisions, the Corps issues seeps, irrigation tailwater, and irrigation-return flows have increased permits regulating the discharge of dredged or fill material into wetland acreage and improved wetland habitat, notably in southern wetlands. Permits are subject to review and possible veto by the U.S. Idaho. Excavation of gravel pits and construction of reservoirs also Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), and the Fws has review and have increased wetland acreage. However, such increases are small advisory roles. Section 401 of the Clean Water Act grants to States compared to losses. and eligible Indian Tribes the authority to approve, apply conditions Ratti and Kadlec (1992) estimated that about 9 1,000 acres of to, or deny section 404 permit applications on the basis of a pro- wetlands are protected in the National Wildlife Refuge system or posed activity's probable effects on the water quality of a wetland. by the State. Federal laws and State and local planning and regula- Most farming, ranching, and silviculture -activities are not sub- tory programs are being used to identify and protect the remaining ject to section 404 regulation. However, the "Swampbuster" provi- wetlands. sion of the 1985 Food Security Act and amendments in the 1990 Food, Agriculture, Conservation, and Trade Act discourage (through CONSERVATION financial disincentives) the draining, filling, or other alteration of wetlands for agricultural use. The law allows exemptions from pen- Many government agencies and private organizations partici- alties in some cases, especially if the farmer agrees to restore the pate in wetland conservation in Idaho. The most active agencies and altered wetland or other wetlands that have been converted to agri- organizations and some of their activities are listed in table 1. cultural use. The Wetlands Reserve Program of the 1990 Food, Federal wetland activities.-Development activities in Idaho Agriculture, Conservation, and Trade Act authorizes the Federal wetlands are regulated by several Federal statutory prohibitions and Government to purchase conservation casements from landowners incentives that are intended to slow wetland losses. Some of the more who agree to protect or restore wetlands. The Consolidated Farm important of these are contained in the 1899 Rivers and Harbors Service Agency (formerly the Agricultural Stabilization and Con- Act: the 1972 Clean Water Act and amendments; the 1985 Food servation Service) administers the Swampbuster provisions and Wet- Security Act; the 1990 Food, Agriculture, Conservation, and Trade lands Reserve Program. The Natural Resources Conservation Act; and the 1986 Emergency Wetlands Resources Act. Service (formerly the Soil Conservation Service) (NRCs) determines Section 10 of the Rivers and Harbors Act gives the U.S. Army compliance with Swampbuster provisions and assists farmers in the Corps of Engineers (Corps) authority to regulate certain activities identification of wetlands and in the development of wetland pro- in navigable waters. Regulated activities include diking, deepening, tection, restoration, or creation plans. The 1986 Emergency Wetlands Resources Act encourages wetland protection through funding incentives. The act requires Table 1. Selected wetland-related activities of government States to address wetland protection in their Statewide Comprehen- agencies and private organizations in Idaho, 1993 sive Outdoor Recreation Plans to qualify for Federal funding for State recreational land; the National Park Service (NPS) provides [Sourcei Classification Of 3CtiVitieS is generalized from information provided guidance to States in developing the wetland component of their by agencies and organizations. e, agency or organization participates in wetland-related activity; ..., agency or organization does not participate in plans. wetland-related activity. MAN, management; REG, regulation 'R&C, resto- The U.S. Forest Service manages about 20 million acres of ration and creation; LAN, land acqwsitior; R&D, research and data collec- National Forest in Idaho and is assessing a process to evaluate the tion, 0&1, delineation and inventory] value and function of each wetland (Bureau of Reclamation, 1992). From 1964 to 1980, forested wetlands were further protected by the Agency or organization lqp@' J_ 0y designation of about 4 million acres as wilderness areas. The Bureau of Land Management (BLM) manages about 12 FEDERAL million acres, of which about 69,000 acres are riparian wetlands Department of Agriculture (Bureau of Reclamation, 1992). Waterfowl -habitat management Consolidated Farm Service Agency ........................... areas have been designated on 68 sites within BLM lands, and habi- Forest Service ................................. ............................... Natural Resources Conservation Service ................ tat-improvement projects have been completed on 2,000 acres. In Department of Defense the 1970's, the BLm began protecting riparian areas by fencing Army Corps of Engineers .............................................. o stream segments, planting willows and other woody species, build- Military reservations ..................................................... ing check dams, and introducing beavers (Thomas, 1988). Intensive Department of the Interior inventories of conditions, objectives, plans, and restoration will be Bureau of Land Management ...................................... e o made on 10,400 acres from 1991 to 1995 (Bureau of Land Manage- Bureau of Reclamation ................................................. 0 a Fish and Wildlife Service ... ........................................... . . . ment, 1991). Geological Survey .......................................................... The FWS manages six National Wildlife Refuges and one wa- National Biological Service ......................................... terfowl -production area. The agency is conducting numerous re- National Park Service ...................................................0 search and education projects involving wetland enhancement and Environmental Protection Agency .................................. conservation. STATE Department of Agriculture ............................................... The NPS manages about 85,000 acres in Idaho. To date (1993), Department of Fish and Game ......................................... no estimates of wetland acreage on those lands have been made, Department of Health and Welfare The Bureau of Reclamation (BOR) is carrying out cooperative Division of Environmental Quality ............................... research projects that demonstrate how wetlands and riparian habitat Department of Parks and Recreation ............................ can be preserved and enhanced as part of an overall water-resources Department of Transportation ......................................... Department of Water Resources ...............................00 management plan. Most BOR wed and- restoration and development SOME COUNTY AND LOCAL GOVERNMENTS ............. projects are multipurpose, but all projects enhance, waterfowl habi- PRIVATE ORGANIZATIONS tat in accordance with the North American Waterfowl Management Ducks Unlimited .............................................................. Plan of 1986. Research projects near American Falls Reservoir are The Nature Conservancy ..............................................ooo designed to determine the effectiveness of small wetland-area im- National Water Surnmary-Wetland Resources: IDAHO 177 poundments on wetland plant communities, to improve quality of by construction is not possible; compensation may be made by the irrigation-return flow, and to enhance waterfowl habitat by devel- offsite creation, restoration, or enhancement of wetlands. The Uni- oping a large wetland area on the north side of the reservoir (Bureau versity of Idaho and the Idaho Water Resources Research Institute of Reclamation, 1992). are conducting projects to assess the effectiveness of constructed The NRCS will provide technical assistance to the BOR in the wetlands supplied by irrigation-return flow near Twin Falls and by design and operation of a nutrient and sediment-control system sewer effluent from an aquaculture facility near Moscow. Also, the adjacent to Cascade Reservoir (P.H. Calverley, Soil Conservation institute, in cooperation with the Idaho Bureau of Mines, is con- Service, written commun., 1992). Three shallow, vegetated wetland ducting projects to evaluate wetland design for the reduction of cells and one deepwater pond will be used to improve the water heavy metals in runoff from mine-waste sites. The University of quality of irrigation-return flow. The NRCs Aberdeen Plant Materi- Idaho's Cooperative Extension System is conducting research on als Center, in cooperation with several Federal and State agencies, pollutant and sediment runoff from several small parcels of land on will conduct a long-term project to assemble, evaluate, select, and which different grazing practices are used. release for commercial production several improved varieties of ri- County and local wetland activities. -Most development in parian wetland plant species (P.H. Calverley, Soil Conservation Idaho's wetlands is regulated by Federal and State laws. However, Service, written commun., 1992). some city and county governments have ordinances and planning The National Water Quality Assessment study of the upper and zoning regulations that protect wetland areas and functions. Snake River Basin by the U.S. Geological Survey will address the Guidance and assistance to farmers and other landowners for wet- effects of long-term water use on ground- and surface-water qual- land conservation are provided by the University of Idaho's Coop- ity, Several wetland areas are within the basin. erative Extension System. State wedand activities. -The Idaho State Water Plan states Private wetland activities. -The Nature Conservancy and that, insofar as is possible, the State should assume responsibility Ducks Unlimited have participated in several projects involving for wetland management and protection (Idaho Water Resource acquisition and restoration of wetlands. Other organizations that Board, 1992). Policy plans made by the Idaho Department of Fish participate in wetland-protection activities in the State include The and Game for 1991-2005 focus land-acquisition efforts on wetland National Wetlands Policy Forum, National Wildlife Federation, areas where habitat protection is critical. Some activities adminis- Wildlife Council, National Audubon Society, Pheasants Forever, tered by the department in the last 5 years include (1) the develop- Sierra Club, and Idaho Conservation League. Many other groups ment or protection of about 500 blocks of wetland habitat and nearly have formed to restore and preserve specific wetland areas. For 1,500 waterfowl nesting structures (Habitat Improvement Program); example, the Henrys Lake Foundation was formed by summer (2) mitigation for about 11,000 acres of wetland area lost to con- homeowners, local ranchers, and business owners to restore the fish- struction of several reservoirs (Wildlife Mitigation Program); (3) ery in Henrys Lake. Money was raised to exclude livestock from the acquisition of about 4,300 acres of wetland habitat by use of water- riparian area along a tributary stream (Chancy and others, 1990). fowl-stamp funds (State Duck Stamp Program); (4) identification In 1986, a group of ranchers in south-central Idaho formed the of more than 200 valuable wetlands for protection (Idaho National Beaver Committee with the aim of restoring riparian wetlands, re- Heritage Program); (5) encouragement of local participation and ducing soil erosion, and improving the productivity of land for live- volunteer efforts to address nonpoint sources of pollution stock grazing. About 100 beavers have been relocated to 25 creeks (Antidegradation Program); and (6) the publication and dissemina- (High Country News, Paonia, Colo., August 24,1992, p. 1, 10-12). tion of several leaflets and guides dealing with waterways, riparian In Boise, citizen groups protested the residential development of a areas, wetlands, and aquatic biota (Aquatic Education Program) riparian area in the Boise foothills. As a result, a land exchange (Groen, 1991). between the city of Boise and the developer will preserve 100 acres The Division of Environmental Quality of the Department of of wetlands. Health and Welfare reviews section 404 permit applications to en- sure compliance with State water-quality laws. A permit is not issued References Cited by the Corps without certification of compliance by the division. Pursuant to section 305(b) of the Clean Water Act, the division sub- Bureau of Land Management, 1991, Riparian-wetland initiative for the mits to the EPA and the U.S. Congress a biennial assessment of the 1990's: Bureau of Land Management Report BLMIWO/GI-91/ State's surface-water quality, including that in wetlands. 001+4340, 50 p. Idaho's Statewide Comprehensive Outdoor Recreation Plan was Bureau of Reclamation, 1992, Idaho river systems management study, wet- completed by the Department of Parks and Recreation and adopted lands report: Denver, Bureau of Reclamation, 155 p. Chaney, J.E., Elmore, Wayne, and Plaits, W.S., 1990, Livestock grazing on by the Governor in January 1988. The Department is responsible western riparian areas: Eagle, Idaho, Northwest Resource Informa- for maintaining lists of wetlands and endangered plant species un- tion Center, Inc., 45 p. f2d printing.] der the plan. The Idaho Wetlands Conservation Priority Plan, pre- Clary, W.P., and Webster, B.F., 1989, Managing grazing of riparian areas pared by the Department, calls for the identification of wetlands in the intermountain region: U.S. Forest Service, Intermountain Re- warranting priority consideration for protection (Howard, 1991). search Station General Technical Report INT-263, 11 p. One of the wetlands identified for priority protection is The Tules Cowardin, L.M., Carter, Virginia, Golet, F.C., and LaRoe, E.T., 1979, Clas- (fig. 1), which consists of about 160 acres in an abandoned mean- sification of wetlands and deepwater habitats of the United States: U.S. der channel of the Owyhee River. The Department also manages Fish and Wildlife Service Report FWS/OBS -79/31, 131 p. about 580 miles of nationally designated wild and scenic rivers that Dahl, T.E., 1990, Wetlands -Losses in the United States, 1780's to 1980's: Washington, D.C., U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Report to Congress, include riparian wetland. 13 p. The Idaho Department of Water Resources issues and manages Farnsworth, R.K., Thompson, E.S., and Peck, E.L., 1982, Evaporation at- surface- and ground-water rights and administers diverse activities las for the contiguous 48 United States: National Oceanic and Atmo- that can affect wetlands. The Idaho Department of Transportation spheric Administration Technical Report NWS 33, 27 p. analyzes alternative roadway locations and uses construction tech- Gruen, Cal, 1991, A look at the players-Federal and State roles, Idaho niques to lessen the degradation or loss of wetlands. When loss or Department of Fish and Game role in wetlands protection, in Wetlands degradation occurs, mitigation in the form of restoration or other protection in Idaho-Living with "no net loss": Boise, University of compensation is required. A wetland bank in Idaho (Tiedemarm, Idaho, Idaho Water Resources Research Institute, [about 140] p. 199 1) may be used when mitigation of unavoidable impacts caused Howard, Jake, 1991, The role of the Idaho Department of Parks and Recre- ation in wetlands protection, in Wetlands protection in Idaho-Liv- 178 National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: STATE SUMMARIES ing with "no net loss": Boise, University of Idaho, Idaho Water Re- appendix H-The region: Vancouver, Wash., Pacific Northwest River sources Research Institute, [about 140] p. Basins Commission, 147 p. Idaho Department of Fish and Game, 1990, Between land and water-The Ratti, J.T., and Kadlec, J.A., 1992, Concept plan for the preservation of wetlands of Idaho: Idaho Department of Fish and Game, Nongame wetland habitat of the intermountain west- North American Water- Wildlife Leaflet no. 9, 12 p. fowl Management Plan: Portland, Oreg., U.S. Fish and Wildlife Ser- Idaho Department of Parks and Recreation, 1987, Idaho wetlands conser- vice, 146 p. vation priority plan-An addendum to the 1983 statewide compre- Soil Conservation Service, 1984, Idaho's soil and water-Condition and hensive outdoor recreation plan: Boise, Idaho Department of Parks trends: Boise, Soil Conservation Service, 24 p. and Recreation, 13 p. Thomas, A.E., 1986, Riparian protection/enhancement in Idaho: Range- Idaho Water Resource Board, 1992, Idaho State water plan: Boise, Idaho lands, v. 8, no. 5, p. 224-227. Department of Water Resources, 56 p. -1988, Seen a riparian lately? Good ones are green!: Idaho Wildlife, Kjelstrom, L.C., 1986, Idaho surface-water resources, in U.S. Geological v. 8, no, 5, p. 6-9. Survey, National water summary 1985 -Hydrologic and surface-water Tiedemarm, R.B., 199 1, Development and use of a wetland bank as a miti- resources: U.S. Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper 2300, p. 207 - gation alternative in Idaho, in Wetlands protection in Idaho -Living 214. with "no net loss": Boise, University of Idaho, Idaho Water Resources - 1992, Strearnflow gains and losses in the Snake River and ground- Research Institute, [about 140] p. water budgets for the Snake River Plain, Idaho and eastern Oregon: U.S. Geological Survey Open-File Report 90-172, 71 p. Kjelstrom, L.C., and others, 1991, Idaho floods and droughts, in U.S. Geo- logical Survey, National water summary 1988 - 89 -Hydrologic events FOR ADDITIONAL INFORMATION: District Chief, U.S. Geological and floods and droughts: U.S. Geological Survey Water-Supply Pa- Survey, 230 Collins Road, Boise, ID 83702; Regional Wetland Coordina- per 2375, p. 255 -262. tor, U.S. Fish andWildlife Service, 911 NE llthAvenue, Portland, OR 97232 Omernik, J.M., 1987, Ecoregions of the conterminous United States-Map supplement: Annals of the Association of American Geographers, v. 77, no. 1, scale 1:7,500,000. Prepared by Ornernik, J.M., and Gallant, A.L., 1986, Ecoregions of the Pacific North- L.C. Kjelstrom, west: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency Report EPA/600/3 -86/ U.S. Geological Survey 033, 39 p. Pacific Northwest River Basins Commission, 1969, Columbia-North Pa- cific region comprehensive framework study of water and related lands, U.S. Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper 2425 National Water Summary-Wetland Resources 179 Illinois Wetland Resources The diverse wetlands of Illinois, which cover about 3.5 percent of TYPES AND DISTRIBUTION the State, have resulted from the interaction of geologic events, Wetlands are lands transitional between terrestrial and human activities, and hydrologic conditions. The State contains deepwater habitats where the water table usually is at or near the several ecologically significant wetlands. Two examples are Beall land surface or the land is covered by shallow water (Cowardin and Woods on the Wabash River in eastern Illinois and the swamps along others, 1979). The distribution of wetlands and deepwater habitats the Cache River in the southern part of the State. Beall Woods is in Illinois is shown in figure 2A; only wetlands are discussed herein. one of the last near-virgin stands of wet bottom-land forest in the Wetlands can be vegetated or nonvegetated and are classified State, and the Cache River swamps (fig. 1) are among the few bald on the basis of their hydrology, vegetation, and substrate. In this cypress/tupelo gum swamps remaining in southern Illinois. Core summary, wetlands are classified according to the system proposed samples from some of the larger bald cypress trees indicate ages of by Cowardin and others (1979), which is used by the U.S. Fish and more than 1,000 years. The Cache River swamps also are home to Wildlife Service (FWS) to map and inventory the Natiorfs wetlands. a colony of nesting great blue herons (Barickman, 1992). At the most general level of the classification system, wetlands are Wetlands have many fish and wildlife, environmental-quality, grouped into five ecological systems: Palustrine, Lacustrine, Riv- and socioeconomic values (Tiner, 1984). Illinois wetlands provide erine, Estuarine, and Marine. The Palustrine System includes only feeding, spawning, and nursery grounds for catfish, sunfish, north- wetlands, whereas the other systems comprise wetlands and ern pike, muskie, and walleye. Common birds, such as ducks, tur- deepwater habitats. Wetlands of the systems that occur in Illinois keys, and owls, and threatened or endangered species, such as are described below. American bittern, upland sandpiper, Henslow's sparrow, and north- ern harrier, use Illinois wetlands for feeding and nesting sites (Barickman, 1992). Deer, muskrat, rabbits, beaver, and other fur- System Wetiand description bearers use wetlands as a source of food and shelter. Numerous Palustrine .................. Wetlands in which vegetation is predominantly reptile and amphibian species also live in the wetlands of Illinois. trees (forested wetlands); shrubs (scrub-shrub The environmental quality of aquatic habitats is enhanced by wetlands); persistent or nonpersistent emergent, wetlands. Wetlands absorb nutrients and remove heavy metals and erect, rooted, herbaceous plants (persistent- and other contaminants from waters moving through them. Wetlands nonpersistent-emergent wetlands); or sub- mersed and (or) floating plants (aquatic beds). reduce turbidity and sediment loading and thereby slow the siltation Also, intermittently to permanently flooded of harbors and navigable rivers and streams (Tiner, 1984). open-water bodies of less than 20 acres in which In addition to the habitat and environmental -quality values of water is less than 6.6 feet deep. wetlands, they also have socioeconomic benefits such as flood- and Lacustrine ................. Wetlands within an intermittently to permanently storm-damage protection, erosion control, public water supply, and flooded lake or reservoir. Vegetation, when pres- production of economically important natural species (Tiner, 1984). ent, is predominantly nonpersistent emergent plants (nonpersistent-emergent wetlands), or Illinois is one of five States whose combined production of peat submersed and (or) floating plants (aquatic accounts for over 75 percent of the peat mined in the United States. beds), or both. Wetlands also are the site for many recreational and educational Riverine ..................... Wetlands within a channel. Vegetation, when pres- activities including hunting and fishing, nature study, boating, paint- ent, is same as in the Lacustrine System. ing and drawing, and photography. As of the 1980's, 3.5 percent of Illinois, or about 1.25 million acres, was wetland (Dahl, 1990; Suloway and others, 1992). Most of the State's wetlands are either palustrine emergent wetlands such as marshes and wet prairies or palustrine forested wetlands such as bottom-land hardwood forests and bald cypress swamps. Also, open- water palustrine wetlands -prirnarily farm ponds-are present 'j, throughout the State (Hubbell, 1987). On the basis of frequency of occurrence, the largest concen- tration of wetlands in Illinois is in the northeast. The largest acre- age of wetlands in Illinois is along the State's major river systems (Hubbell, 1987). Marshes, wet prairies, and bogs (palustrine emer- gent, scrub-shrub, or forested wetlands) are most common in the northeastern part of the State, and bottom-land forests (palustrine forested wetlands) and swamps (palustrine scrub -shrub or forested) are present along Illinois rivers. Dominant plants of marshes are sedges, cattails, and bulrushes. 7 Wet prairie dominants include sedges, cordgrass, and blue flag iris. Silver maple, cottonwood, box elder, red maple, black willow, sy- camore, and bald cypress are characteristic of bottom-land hard- Figure 1. Swamp along the Cache River in southern wood forests and swamps in the State. Illinois. (Photograph by Michael R. Jeffords, Illinois Natural Federally listed endangered species of Illinois wetlands include History Survey.) the eastern prairie white-fringed orchid and decurrent false aster. 180 National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: STATE SUMMARIES ly@ 89- G Rockfo 4V Chicago -@7 ac 41 earls cph Daign B SURFICIAL DEPOSITS ringriald Sand and gravel Alluvium %1@ Glacial drift Surficial deposits absent Beal ds Central 38- Lowland 0 25 50 MILES i I -L-@ 0 25 50 KILOMETERS Interior Low Plateaus Ozark A WETLANDS AND DEEPWATER HABITATS Plateaus Distribution of wetlands and deepwater habitats- This map shows the approximate distribution of large wetl ands in the State. Because of limitations of scale Coastal Plain and source material, some weidands are not shown. 6@1 Predominantly wetland C PHYSIOGRAPHIC DIVISIONS Predominantly deepwater habitat Figure 2. Wetland distribution in Illinois, physical and climatic features that control wetland distribution in the State, and trends in development of agricultural land. A, Distribution of wetlands and deepwater habitats. 8, Surficial deposits. C, Physiography. (Sources: A, TE. Dahl, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, unpub. data, 1991. B, Voelker and Clarke, 1988; C, Physiographic divisions from Fenneman, 1946; landforms data from EROS Data Center) National Water Surnmary-Wetland Resources: ILLINOIS 181 In addition, bald eagles and least terns use bottom lands for habitat Ackermann, 1990). The remaining precipitation recharges the (Jerry Bade, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, oral commun., 1993). ground- and surface-water systems. Recharge to the shallow ground- The State of Illinois also maintains a list of endangered species. As water system takes place in interstream areas of the surficial -drain- of February, 1994, the State list contained 415 endangered species age system. Aquifers overlain by confining units composed of silt (E) and 96 threatened species (T)-about 40 percent of which are and clay are recharged by precipitation entering areas where the wetland dependent. Among the State-listed endangered or threat- aquifers crop out and by slow percolation downward through the ened wetland-plant species are white lady's slipper (E), queen-of- the-prairie (T), water elm (E), and marsh speedwell (T). State-listed animal species include the Illinois chorus frog (T), the Illinois mud turtle (E), sandhill crane (E), black tern (E), bluehead shiner (E), and river otter (E) (Susan Lauzon, Illinois Department of Conser- vation, oral commun., 1994). HYDROLOGIC SETTING Wetlands are present where the geohydrology and physiogra- phy favor the retention of water for extended periods. The location of wetlands in Illinois is strongly affected by its geologic history. Aquifers underlying wetlands in the State are composed of sedimen- tary and metamorphic rocks of various ages overlain by glacial drift. Glacial scouring and subsequent glacial melting at the end of the last ice age left depressions in the glacially derived sediments, or drift, deposited by the glaciers. Glacial drift covers a large area of the State (fig. 2,B) and ranges in thickness from a few to several hun- dred feet (Sherrill and others, 1984). The geologic history of the State has significantly shaped its physiography. Most of Illinois lies in the Central Lowland physiographic province (fig. 2C), where the relatively flat topography is due to glaciation. The greatest relief is present where surface drainage has cut into the glacial deposits and, in some locations, into the underlying bedrock. 1850 In Illinois, average annual precipitation (fig. 2D) ranges from about 34 inches per year in the north to 48 inches per year in the extreme south (Wendland and others, 1992). About three-fourths of the precipitation that reaches the land surface is returned to the at- mosphere by evaporation and plant transpiration (LaTbur and 1870 34 036 1900 AO E AGRICULTURAL LAND In percent 42 Missing data 44 25 D PRECIPITATION 46 - 50 -40- Utne of equal average annual 48 - 75 1930 precipitation - interval, in inches, is variable Figure 2. Continued. D, Average annual precipitation, 1961-90. E, Percentage of agricultural land in Illinois counties in 1850, 1870, 1900, and 1930. (Sources: D, Wendiand and others, 1992. E, Data from U.S. Census Office, 1853, 1872, 1901; U.S. Census Bureau, 1932.) 182 National Water Summary-Welland Resources: STATE SUMMARIES confining units. Water returns to the surface as base flow to streams, Some wetland acreage has been added through the construc- ponds, and lakes. Ground water moves through shale and dolomite tion of ponds and reservoirs and through planned welland construc- aquifers in fractures or solution channels. Wetlands develop along tion. In Wadsworth, 35 miles north of Chicago, Wetlands Research, streams and near glacially formed lakes where ground water dis- Inc., a nonprofit corporation, is coordinating the Des Plaines River charges. Wetlands Demonstration Project. Since 1993, 50 acres of wetlands In the Central Lowland, wetlands are associated with ground- have been constructed (Wetlands Research, Inc., 1993). Also, the water discharge into depressions in the extensive glacial drift. In Cache River Wetlands Project, a joint effort of the Illinois Depart- areas of high precipitation, low surface-water gradients coupled with ment of Conservation, the FWS, The Nature Conservancy, and Ducks the low permeability of fine-grained surficial deposits can result in Unlimited, has the primary goal of acquiring and restoring between poor drainage of glacial depressions. The resulting accumulation 55,000 and 60,000 acres of contiguous wetland-upland complexes. of water contributes to wetland formation. Ground-water discharge The impoundment of streams and farm-pond construction, as well to streams in the Central Lowland also provides sites for wetland as natural processes, also can result in the creation of wetlands. establishment. In the Ozark Plateaus, Interior Low Plateaus, and Coastal Plain, CONSERVATION ground water from drift or underlying bedrock discharges primar- ily to streams, as in the Cache River area and the wetlands along Many government agencies and private organizations partici- the Mississippi River. Wetlands also can form where clay or other pate in wetland conservation in Illinois. The most active agencies fine sediments form a poorly permeable layer that holds water at or and organizations and some of their activities are listed in table 1. near the land surface, providing a suitable habitat for wetland veg- Federal wetlandactivities.-Development activities in Illinois etation. wetlands are regulated by several Federal statutory prohibitions and incentives that are intended to slow wetland losses. Some of the more TRENDS important of these are contained in the 1899 Rivers and Harbors Act; the 1972 Clean Water Act and amendments; the 1985 Food Illinois once had vast expanses of wetlands but has lost as much Security Act; the 1990 Food, Agriculture, Conservation, and Trade as 90 percent of them (by area) since the 1780's (Dahl, 1990; S.P. Act; the 1986 Emergency Wetlands Resources Act; and the 1972 Havera, Illinois Natural History Survey, written commun., 1993)- Coastal Management Act. sixth in the Nation in terms of percentage loss. A notable example of this loss is the Great Kankakee Swamp (also known as the Grand Marsh). One of the largest marsh-swamp basins in the United States, in the 1830's, this wetland contained more than I million acres of Table 1. Selected wetland-related activities of government wet prairie and marshes (Mitsch and others, 1979). It is now repre- agencies and private organizations in Illinois, 1993 sented in Illinois by a relatively small tract of wetlands along the [Source: Classification of activities is generalized from information provided Kankakee River near Momence. by agencies and organizations. e, agency or organization participates in Wetlands in the State have been drained and filled since settle- wetland-related activity; ..., agency or organization does not participate in wetland-related activity. MAN, management; REG, regulation; R&C, resto- ment by Europeans began in the 1600's. Of about 8,212,000 acres ration and creation; LAN, land acquisition; R&D, research and data collec- of wetlands that were present in the 1780's (Havera, 1992), only tion; D&I, delineation and inventory] about 1,254,500 acres remained in the 1980's (Dahl, 1990; Suloway and others, 1992). About 6,000 acres remain undisturbed (White, 1978). Rates of loss in the State are estimated to be between 4,000 Agency or organization and 6,000 acres per year (Illinois Department of Conservation, FEDERAL undated). Department of Agriculture In Illinois, the major cause of wetland loss has been artificial Consolidated Farm Service Agency ........................... ... ... ... ... ... drainage- primarily to make lands suitable for crop production. Forest Service ................................................................. 0 0 The number of drained acres in Illinois increased from about Natural Resources Conservation Service ................ 0 e 100,000 in the 1870's to nearly 5 million by 1920. Most of the wet- Department of Commerce land loss occurred between 1890 and 1930 (S.P. Havera, Illinois National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ........................................ Natural History Survey, written commun., 1993). At the end of that Department of Defense period, about 17 percent of land in the State was in drainage dis- Army Corps of Engineers .............................................. tricts (Illinois Tax Commission, 1941), and 27 percent of agricul- Military reservations ..................................................... tural land had been drained either through district activities or by Department ofthe Interior private action (U.S. Census Bureau, 1981). The percentages of ag- Fish and Wildlife Service .............................................. Geological Survey .................................... ..................... ricultural land in each Illinois county for the years 1850,1870, 1900, National Biological Service ................... ..................... . ... ... ... . ... and 1930 are shown in figure 2E. The rapid and substantial growth National Park Service ............................. ..................... in agriculture and the associated expansion of drainage districts in Environmental Protection Agency ............ ..................... the State during that period paralleled the decline in wetland acre- STATE age as more and more land was drained for farming. Department of Agriculture ............................................... Department of Conservation ............ ................... .......... . . . . . Agricultural expansion was not the sole reason for the decline Department of Energy and in wetland acreage. The draining of wetlands for housing, transpor- Natural Resources ............................................................. ... ... tation, industry, and landfills; stream channelization and dredging Department of Mines and Minerals ...............................* for navigation; and reservoir, harbor, and marina construction have Department of Transportation .........................................0a also reduced wetland acreage. In addition to acreage loss caused by Environmental Protection Agency ..................................ee Pollution Control Board ..................................................... ...0 these activities, wetlands have been degraded by point and nonpoint SOME COUNTY AND LOCAL GOVERNMENTS ............. ... e discharges to surface waters. These discharges are associated with PRIVATE agricultural, industrial, municipal, and urban runoff, which add Ducks Unlimited .............................................................0 0 contaminants and sediment to surface waters. The Nature Conservancy ..................................................e e National Water Surnmary-Wetland Resources: ILLINOIS 183 Section l0oftheRivers and Harbors Act gives the U.S. Army wetland banks. These banks have allowed the county to maintain Corps of Engineers (Corps) authority to regulate certain activities no net loss of wetlands within its boundaries and to provide addi- in navigable waters. Regulated activities include diking, deepening, tional alternatives to developers for compliance with the mitigation filling, excavating, and placing of structures. The related section 404 requirements of the section 404 program. Two additional counties of the Clean Water Act is the most often-used Federal legislation are investigating a similar banking concept that requires replace- protecting wetlands. Under section 404 provisions, the Corps issues ment of wetlands lost as a result of filling or dredging with wetlands permits regulating the discharge of dredged or fill material into of like kind and quality. Several municipalities in Illinois have spe- wetlands. Permits are subject to review and possible veto by the U.S. cific ordinances protecting wetlands (M.E. Hubbell, Illinois Depart- Environmental Protection Agency, and the Fws has review and ad- ment of Conservation, oral commun., 1.993). visory roles. Section 401 of the Clean Water Act grants to States and eligible Indian Tribes the authority to approve, apply conditions to, or deny section 404 permit applications on the basis of a pro- References Cited posed activity's probable effects on the water quality of a wetland. Most farn-iing, ranching, and silvicultural activities are not sub- Barickman, Gene, 1992, Illinois wetlands: The Illinois Steward, Spring ject to section 404 regulation. However, the "Swampbuster" provi- 1992,p.1-5. sion of the 1985 Food Security Act and amendments in the 1990 Cowardin, L.M., Carter, Virginia, Golet, F.C., and LaRoe, E.T., 1979, Clas- sification of wetlands and deepwater habitats of the United States: U.S. Food, Agriculture, Conservation, and Trade Act discourage (through Fish and Wildlife Service Report FWS/OBS-79/31, 131 p. financial disincentives) the draining, filling, or other alteration of Dahl, T.E., 1990, Wetlands-Losses in the United States, 1780's to 1980's: wetlands for agricultural use. The law allows exemptions from pen- Washington, D.C., U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Report to Congress, alties in some cases, especially if the farmer agrees to restore the 13 p. altered wetland or other wetlands that have been converted to agri- Fermeman, N.M., 1946, Physical divisions of the United States: U.S. Geo- cultural use. The Wetlands Reserve Program of the 1990 Food, logical Survey special map, scale 1:7,000,000. Agriculture, Conservation, and Trade Act authorizes the Federal Goodwin, R.H., and Niering, W.A., 1975, Inland wetlands of the United Government to purchase conservation easements from landowners States evaluated as potential registered natural landmarks: National who agree to protect or restore wetlands. The Consolidated Farm Park Service Natural History Theme Studies no. 2, 550 p. Havera, S.P., 1992, Waterfowl of Illinois -Status and management, Final Service Agency (formerly the Agricultural Stabilization and Con- Federal aid performance report: Cooperative Waterfowl Research servation Service) administers the Swampbuster provisions and Wet- W-88-R, 1,035 p. lands Reserve Program. The Natural Resources Conservation Ser- Hubbell, M.E., 1987, Inventory of Illinois wetlands -The Illinois wetland vice (formerly the Soil Conservation Service) determines compli- management program, in Singh, KA, Lee, M.T., and Knapp, HX, ance with Swampbuster provisions and assists farmers in the iden- eds,, Proceedings of the American Water Resources Association Illi- tification of wetlands and in the development of wetland protection, nois section annual conference, Champaign, Ill., April 28-29, 1987: restoration, or creation plans. Champaign, III., American Water Resources Association Illinois sec- The 1986 Emergency Wetlands Resources Act and the 1972 tion, p. 199-204. Coastal Zone Management Act and amendments encourage wetland Illinois Department of Conservation, undated, A public guide to Illinois wetlands: Springfield, Illinois Department of Conservation, no pagi- protection through funding incentives. The Emergency Welland nation. Resources Act requires States to address wetland protection in their Illinois Tax Commission, 1941, Drainage district organization and finance, Statewide Comprehensive Outdoor Recreation Plans to qualify for 1879-1937: Springfield, Illinois Tax Commission, 213 p. Federal funding for State recreational land; the National Park Ser- LaTour, J.K., and Ackermann, W.C., 1990, Illinois water supply and use, in vice provides guidance to States in developing the wetland compo- U.S. Geological Survey, National water summary 1987-Hydrologic nent of their plans. Coastal and Great Lakes States that adopt coastal- events and water supply and use: U.S. Geological Survey Water-Sup- zone management programs and plans approved by the National ply Paper 2350, p. 235 -242. Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration are eligible for Federal Mitsch, W.J., Hutchison, M.D., and Paulson, G.A., 1979, The Momence funding and technical assistance through the Coastal Zone Manage- wetlands of the Kankakee River in Illinois -An assessment of their value: Illinois Institute of Natural Resources Document 79/17, 55 p. ment Act. Sherrill, M.G., Lazaro, TA., and Harbison, L.L., 1985, Illinois ground-water Illinois has six National Wildlife Refuges with a combined area resources, in U.S. Geological Survey, National water summary 1984- of nearly 100,000 acres. Goodwin and Niering (1975) evaluated a Hydrologic events, selected water-quality trends, and ground-water number of Illinois wetlands for possible registration as National resources: U.S. Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper 2275, p. 199- Natural Landmarks. Their list includes nine additional wetland ar- 204. eas comprising about 7,000 acres. Suloway, L.B., Hubbell, M.E., and Erickson, Ronald, 1992, Analysis of the State wetland protection- The primary State law governing wetland resources of Illinois, v. I -Overview and general results, wetlands is the Interagency Wetland Policy Act of 1989, which sets Report to the Department of Energy and Natural Resources: Spring- a goal of no net loss of wetlands due to projects funded by the State. field, Ill., Department of Energy and Natural Resources, 35 p. Tiner, R.W., Jr., 1984, Wetlands of the United States -Current status and The act is administered through the Illinois Welland Management trends: Washington, D.C., U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 59 p. Program of the Illinois Department of Conservation. There is also U.S. Census Bureau, 1932, Fifteenth census of the United States: 1930: a Floodplain Management Statute under which the Illinois Depart- Washington, D.C., U.S. Department of Commerce, 1,385 p. ment of Transportation issues permits for developments in the 100- -1981, 1978 Census of Agriculture, v. 1, State and County Data, pt. year flood plain and for dredging and filling public water bodies. 13-Illinois: Washington, D.C., U.S. Department of Commerce, Most regulation of wetlands on private lands takes place at the lo- 717 p. cal level. Wetlands can be owned and protected by the public as U.S. Census Office, 185 3, Seventh census of the United States, taken in the County Forest Preserve Districts. year 1850: Washington, D.C., U.S. Census Office, 1,022 p. County and local wetlandprotection. - Counties and munici- -1872, Ninth census of the United States, taken in the year 1870, 3 palities can protect wetlands and other sensitive natural areas ei- volumes: Washington, D.C., U.S. Census Office, 2,326 p. - 1901, Twelfth census of the United States, taken in the year 1900: ther by acquiring them or by enacting ordinances for their protec- Washington, D.C., U.S. Census Office, 1,006 p. tion. Protection and acquisition are carried out to protect public Welker, D.C., and Clarke, R.P., 1988, Illinois ground-water quality, in U.S. health, safety, and welfare. One Illinois county has established two Geological Survey, National water summary 1986-Hydrologic events 184 National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: STATE SUMMARIES and ground-water quality: U.S. Geological Survey Water-Supply Pa- per 2325, p. 237 - 244. Wendland, W.M., Kunkel, K.E., Conner, Glen, and others, 1992, Mean 1961-1990 temperature and precipitation over the upper midwest: Illinois State Water Survey Research Report 92-01, 27 p. Wetlands Research, Inc., 1993, "Living laboratory" offers unique research opportunities to improve environmental quality: Chicago, Ill., Wet- lands Research, Inc., I I p. White, John, 1978, Illinois Natural Areas Inventory -Survey methods and results: Urbana, Ill., Illinois Natural Areas Inventory Technical Report v. 1, 426 p. FOR ADDITIONAL INFORMATION: District Chief, U.S. Geological Survey, 102 East Main Street, 4th Floor, Urbana, IL 61801; Regional Wet- land Coordinator, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, BHW Federal Building, I Federal Drive, Fort Snelling, MN 55112 Prepared by Thomas H. Barringer and Gary 0. Balding, U.S. Geological Survey U.S. Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper 2425 National Water Summary-Wetland Resources 185 Indiana Wetland Resources Wtlands cover about 8 13,000 acres of Indiana (Rolley, 199 1) summary, wetlands are classified according to the system proposed about 3.5 percent of the State. These wetlands support rich biotic by Cowardin and others (1979), which is used by the U.S. Fish and communities in freshwater settings across the State, especially in Wildlife Service (FWS) to map and inventory the Natiorfs wetlands. the north and southwest (fig. 1). At the most general level of the classification system, wetlands are Wetlands have many chemical, physical, and biological func- grouped into five ecological systems: Palustrine, Lacustrine, Riv- tions. Wetlands trap waterborne sediments, nutrients, and toxic erine, Estuarine, and Marine. The Palustrine System includes only chemicals by filtering them out of inflowing water and storing or wetlands, whereas the other systems comprise wetlands and transforming them. The capacity of wetlands to trap sediment is deepwater habitats. Wetlands of the systems that occur in Indiana particularly important in Indiana because surface erosion is a per- are described below. sistent, long-term result of intensive agricultural activity. Riparian (streamside) wetlands lessen the severity of floods by storing water System Wetland description temporarily and releasing it gradually, thus reducing flow velocity and delaying and attenuating flood peaks. Vegetation in riparian Palustrine .................. Wetlands in which vegetation is predominantly wetlands helps to maintain stream channels by stabilizing the land trees (forested wetlands); shrubs (scrub-shrub wetlands); persistent or nonpersistent emergent, surface, and wetlands around lakes act as buffers to erosion from erect, rooted, herbaceous plants Jpersistent- and waves. nonpersistent-emergent wetlands); or sub- Wetlands provide habitat for waterfowl, fish, other terrestrial mersed and (or) floating plants (aquatic beds). and aquatic animals, and a wide variety of plant life. Wetlands pro- Also, intermittently to permanently flooded vide resting and feeding places on migration routes, as well as food, open-water bodies of less than 20 acres in which shelter, breeding areas, and nurseries for many animals, including water is less than 6.6 feet deep. species of economic interest in Indiana such as muskrat, fish, ducks, Lacustrine ................. Wetlands within an intermittently to permanently flooded lake or reservoir. Vegetation, when pres-' and geese. The State has listed 128 wetland- dependent plant spe- ent, is predominantly nonpersistent emergent cies and over 60 wetland- dependent animal species as endangered, plants (nonpersistent-emergent wetlands), or threatened, or of special concern (Indiana Department of Natural submersed and (or) floating plants (aquatic Resources, 1989). beds), or both. In Indiana, wetlands have considerable recreational, educa- Riverine ..................... Wetlandswithin a channel. Vegetation, when pres- tional, and economic value. Common activities in and surrounding ent, is same as in the Lacustrine System. wetlands are bird-watching, hiking, fishing, hunting, swimming, and Most Indiana wetlands have been filled or drained. Palustrine boating. Wetlands are important to the fur trapping, lumbering, and wetlands, which are the most abundant wetlands remaining in the tourist industries, which benefit the economy of the State. State, are distributed throughout Indiana in topographic depressions, between agricultural fields, and in riparian zones along rivers, TYPES AND DISTRIBUTION streams, and lakes. Palustrine forested wetlands are the most com- Wetlands are lands transitional between terrestrial and deep- mon wetlands in Indiana. water habitats where the water table usually is at or near the land In the early to mid-I 980's, palustrine forested wetlands covered surface or the land is covered by shallow water (Cowardin and oth- about 504,000 acres, or approximately 62 percent of the wetland ers, 1979). The distribution of wetlands and deepwater habitats in area of the State (Rolley, 1991). Palustrine emergent wetlands cov- Indiana is shown in figure 2A; only wetlands are discussed herein. ered about 143,000 acres (18 percent of total wetland area), and Wetlands can be vegetated or nonvegetated and are classified scrub-shrub wetlands covered about 42,000 acres (5 percent). on the basis of their hydrology, vegetation, and substrate. In this Lacustrine and riverine wetlands covered about 99,000 acres (12 percent). The remaining 3 percent of the wetland area in the State contained mixed or undetermined types of wetland. Most of the wetlands in Indiana are in the north and along river flood plains in the south, particularly the southwest (Rolley, 199 1). The northeastern part of the State contains most of Indiana's natu- ral lakes and numerous small, isolated wetlands. The northwestern part of the State includes the Indiana Dunes National Lakeshore, which is on the southern shore of Lake Michigan. Most streams and rivers in Indiana flow to the southwest, where many wetlands are J W located in the river flood plains of the largest river systems (Indi- ana Department of Natural Resources, written commun., 1993). Wetlands in the rest of the State consist of small, widely scattered wetlands and narrow wetland bands along rivers and streams and around reservoirs (Indiana Department of Environmental Manage- ment, 1991). Indiana has many types of wetlands, most of which are veg- etated. The plant composition of vegetated wetlands is determined Figure 1. Cowles Bog in the Great Marsh, Indiana Dunes by factors such as climate, soil type, ground- and surface-water National Lakeshore. (Photograph by R.J. Shedlock, U.S. Geo- chemistry, and the extent and duration of flooding. The predomi- logical Survey) nant vegetation or specific location of a wetland frequently deter- 186 National Water Surnmary-Wetland Resources: STATE SUMMARIES mines its common name. Familiar common names for some Indiana HYDROLOGIC SETTING wetlands include marsh, wet prairie, swamp, slough, bottom-land hardwood forest, flatwood, bog, fen, kettle, pothole, dune Swale, The wetlands of Indiana are formed and maintained by water muck flat, and sinkhole pond. Marshes and wet prairies are palus- from precipitation, surface-water runoff, and local and regional trine emergent wetlands that contain grasses, sedges, or cattails. ground-water flow systems. Wetlands generally are in topographic Swamps, sloughs, and bottom-land hardwood forests are palustrine lows, where water from surface runoff collects and where ground forested and scrub-shrub wetlands typically found along rivers. water commonly discharges after periods of heavy precipitation. Flatwoods are palustrine forested wetlands that form on level, poorly Fluctuations in local precipitation and evapotranspiration rates com- drained soils where the water table is shallow. Bogs and fens are bined with local differences in geology, topography, and soil palustrine wetlands that are generally located in depressions in once- characteristics cause transient or seasonal changes in the way that glaciated areas of Indiana; these wetlands generally contain grasses, ground water and surface water interact in a wetland (Meyboom, other soft-stemmed plants, and peat deposits. Kettles and potholes 1966; Wilcox, 1986; Winter, 1992; Phillips and Shedlock, 1993). are emergent and scrub-shrub wetlands that formed in depressions Precipitation in Indiana varies seasonally and geographically. left after large blocks of ice that were embedded in glacially depos- Precipitation falls throughout the year but is greatest from March ited sediments melted. Dune swales are topographic depressions through July (Crompton, 1986). Annual average precipitation ranges among sand dunes near Lake Michigan that contain palustrine from about 36 inches in the northeastern part of the State to about emergent or scrub-shrub wetlands. Sinkhole ponds are lacustrine 44 inches in the south-central part. Combined loss from evapora- wetlands located in plugged sinkholes in areas where limestone tion and transpiration is nearly uniform across the State and aver- bedrock is at or near the surface. ages 26 inches annually. Annual surface-water runoff averages about LAKE Indiana Dunes Navonal Ld(eshore Fown RWr Spi- Lctk@ Fen Nrsh Ltrk@ Dilk MICHICAN w1as Bo sty P'nhook 1,h A jatp@u Sri 0 Way a WETLANDS AND DEEPWATER HABITATS Fish 8 Ij go 41 Distribution of wetlands and deepwater habitats- r a Lalaigin Be This map shows the approximate distribution of large J_ wetlands in the State. Because of limitations of scale and source material, some wetlands are not shown Predominantly wetland *L ette Predominantly deepwater habitat uncle Area typified by a high density of small wetlands In ion olis D Terre Ha its E A two PHYSIOGRAPHIC REGIONS Pro , Northern Zone Grou d F A. Calumet Lacustrine Plain B. Valparaiso Morainal Area C. Kankakee Outwash and Lacustrine %V It. W@4 Plain 85. D. Steuben Morainal Lake Area E. Maumee Lacustrine Plain k.st M Central Zone j L F. Tipton Till Plain K Southern Zone G H G. Wabash Lowland 8 Pigeon kl-p* I H. Crawford Upland lay land rn Ar L. Mitchell Plain J Norman Upland Twi Slou h K. Scattsburg Lowland Swamps E L. Muscatatuck Regional Slope AV Pond 87, M. Dearborn Upland Cypress Slough 0 25 50 MILES i I I I _j 0 25 50 KILOMETERS Figure 2. Wetland distribution in Indiana and physiography of the State. A, Distribution of wetlands and cleepwater habitats. B, Physiography. (Sources: A, TE. Dahl, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, unpub. data, 1997. B, Physiographic divisions modified from Schneider, 1966; landforms data from EROS Data Center.) National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: INDIANA 187 A. Glaciated areas of northern Indiana 9.0 inches, and about 3.5 inches recharges the ground- PALUSTRINE WETLANDS water system (Clark, 1980). The abundant precipita- tion is conducive to the formation and maintenance RIVERINE WETLANDS LACUSTRINE WETLANDS PALUSTRINE WETLANDS of wetlands, which were once extensive in Indiana. E However, agricultural tile drains, ditches, and straight- ened drainages have substantially reduced the reten- 7-" tion of water and, hence, reduced wetland area in many parts of the State. ---------- Indiana can be divided into three broad physi- ographic zones based on surficial and bedrock geol- ogy (fig. 2B). The northern zone consists of glacial Sand and gravel moraine and areas reworked by water from ancient and present Lake Michigan. The central zone is a flat depositional plain of low relief. The physiography of Glacial till the southern zone varies and is largely controlled by underlying bedrock. Wetland hydrology differs among and within these zones. 0. Calumet Lacustrine Plain, northwestern Indiana In the northern physiographic zone, different NORTH SOUTH local depositional conditions during glacial advances RIVERINE WETLANDS and retreats have resulted in a complex surficial aqui- PALUSTRINE WETLANDS fer largely composed of till. Till is a heterogeneous a o o mixture of clay, silt, sand, gravel, and boulders that .L. Dunes is deposited directly by and underneath a glacier. The cc surficial aquifer in the northern zone is connected to deeper aquifer systems in places where the till is thin Sand and gravel or missing (Shedlock and others, 1993). Wetlands in this zone generally are in low, poorly drained areas that have standing water (fig. 3A). lacial till The northern zone has five physiographic units: the Valparaiso Morainal Area, the Steuben Morainal Lake Area, the Calumet Lacustrine Plain, the Shats and carbonate Kankakee Outwash and Lacustrine Plain, and the bedrock Maumee Lacustrine Plain (fig. 2B). Most of the wet- lands that remain in Indiana are in the Valparaiso Morainal Area and the Steuben Morainal Lake Area. These physiographic units have irregular topography C. Riparian wetlands in southern Indiana and as much as 200 feet of relief; numerous small, PALUSTRINE WETLANDS PALUSTRINE WETLANDS poorly integrated streams; and many closed depres- sions containing lakes and wetlands, including kettles, RIVERINE WETLANDS fens, and bogs. Water is supplied to these wet areas by precipitation, surface-water runoff and, except in Bottom-land hardwood forest bogs, shallow ground-water flow (fig. 3A). Notable wetlands in these areas are Spicer Lake, Marsh Lake, Laketon Bog, Pinhook Bog, and Fawn River Fen. ------------ The Calumet Lacustrine Plain, Kankakee ---------- ------------ Clutwash and Lacustrine Plain, and Maumee Lacus- Sand, gravel,.nd bo.lders trine Plain have flat terrain and once contained ex- tensive wetlands in glacial lakes and outwash plains. Land in these physiographic units has been nearly Bedrock completely ditched and drained. Remaining wetlands in these units are mainly in riparian areas. The ex- ception is the Calumet Lacustrine Plain, which con- EXPLANATION tains extensive wetlands in and around the Indiana Direction of ground-water C@ Scrub-shrub vegetation Dunes National Lakeshore (fig. 3B). In the Calumet flow Lacustrine Plain, major changes in the level of Lake Average water table k111//Il Emergent vegetation Michigan occurred as the glaciers receded. Shoreline J;@m Farmed crops dune complexes formed sequentially approximately parallel to the modern lakeshore. Each new dune line Forest vegetation Organic deposits prevented drainage from the south from reaching the Note: Vertical scale greatly exaggerated lake directly, resulting in the development of a com- plex wetland system. The wetland system includes Figure 3. Generalized geohydrologic setting of common wetland types in Cowles Bog (fig. 1), the largest peatland in Indiana. Indiana. A, Wetlands in glaciated areas of northern Indiana. B, Wetlands in the Peatlands form in depressions where there is poor Calumet Lacustrine Plain of northwestern Indiana, C, Riparian wetlands in drainage, standing water, and water chemistry not bedrock areas of southern Indiana. @Sources: A, Modified from Hartke and others, conducive to plant decay. Plant remains eventually fill 1975. B, Modified from Shedlock and others, 1993. C, Modified from Gallaher the original depression and sometimes rise above the and Price, 1966.) surrounding land surface, forming a peat mound. 188 National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: STATE SUMMARIES Cowles Bog, which is sustained in part by ground water and there- ing, filling, diking, dredging, and damming of wetlands. In addi- fore is by definition a fen, is an example of this process (Wilcox and tion to the direct loss of wetlands, the biological value of many natu- others, 1986; Shedlock and others, 1993). The wetlands in the In- ral wetlands has been degraded by contamination by excess nutri- diana Dunes are the only wetlands in the State where a detailed long- ents, sediments, and toxic chemicals as well as by the spread of term study (Shedlock and others, 1993) has been completed. The normative plant species that can eliminate native species. The loss hydrology of both the riparian and the sand-dune wetlands in the and degradation of wetlands and resulting adverse effects on fish Calumet Lacustrine Plain is controlled by precipitation and ground- and wildlife populations have reduced recreational opportunities and water flow, primarily in shallow flow systems. the economic benefits that outdoor recreation can bring to local The central physiographic zone (fig. 2B) consists of one unit- communities (Indiana Department of Natural Resources, written the Tipton Till Plain, which is a nearly flat to gently rolling glacial commun., 1993). plain of sandy and silty outwash sediments. At the extreme western About I to 3 percent of Indiana's remaining wetlands are lost edge of the plain, the Wabash River and its tributaries have cut as each year, primarily because of drainage for agricultural purposes deep as 150 feet through the glacial deposits into bedrock. The (Indiana Division of Fish and Wildlife, written commun., 1993). A Tipton Till Plain has been almost entirely drained for agricultural survey of wetlands in the northern one-third of Indiana indicated purposes. Remaining wetlands are in stream channels, along the that by 1987, more than 10 percent of the wetlands in aerial photo- edges of reservoirs, and in small, shallow depressions between ag- graphs taken between 1981 and 1984 of the northern physiographic ricultural fields. These wetlands are maintained by precipitation and zone and Wabash River watershed had been drained (Indiana De- local and regional ground-water flow. partment of Natural Resources, 1989). The southern physiographic zone (fig. 2B) was partly covered Construction of flood-control reservoirs in the 1960's and by glaciers. There, the surficial aquifer consists of regolith and sedi- 1970's doubled the acreage of open water by permanently flooding mentary deposits of glacial origin. Regolith is unconsolidated, riparian zones along rivers. Lacustrine wetlands replaced the natu- mostly fine-grained material composed of fragmental, weathered rally occurring riverine and palustrine wetlands in the process. In bedrock and alluvium overlying unweathered bedrock. The south- fact, approximately 70 percent of existing lacustrine wetlands and ern zone has seven physiographic units: the Wabash Lowland, the 13 percent of palustrine wetlands in Indiana developed as the re- Crawford Upland, the Mitchell Plain, the Norman Upland, the sult of damniing or excavation (Rolley, 199 1). In addition, some new Scottsburg Lowland, the Muscatatuck Regional Slope, and the wetlands have formed in reclaimed and unreclaimed spoil areas in Dearborn Upland. Topography and soils differ considerably among coal-mining zones. However, wetland losses in Indiana have been the units and are primarily controlled by the type of underlying far greater than wetland gains. bedrock. To slow the rate of wetland loss, recent State and Federal laws Most of the wetlands in the southern physiographic zone are require or encourage wetland protection or creation. For example, in riparian areas along streams and rivers. These wetlands are main- wetlands have been created by the establishment of compensatory tained by precipitation and local shallow flow systems (fig. 3C). wetland mitigation sites, especially for transportation-related Some of the largest remaining wetlands in Indiana are in the Wabash projects. Regulations require that 3 acres be created for each acre and Scottsburg Lowlands and on the Muscatatuck Regional Slope. destroyed, but the actual success rate is probably much lower (In- These wetlands are in the flood plains, confluences, and backwater diana Department of Natural Resources, 1989). The Indiana tax areas of the Wabash, Patoka, White, and Ohio Rivers and their tribu- code encourages wetland protection for sites larger than 10 acres. taries. Notable among these are the flatwoods in the tributaries of Some farmers have used provisions in Federal wetlands -related leg- the East Fork of the White River, located in the Jefferson Proving islation to consolidate existing wetlands and create new ones (Indi- Grounds; Little Pigeon Creek Weiland Conservation Area; Twin ana Department of Natural Resources, 1989). Some municipalities Swamps; and the Gray Estate and Goose Pond Cypress Sloughs. are invoking waste- and stormwater-management regulations to Unusual wetlands in this zone include those in the Wabash Low- encourage the protection and development of wetlands. River Basin land that have formed in long, narrow surface depressions between Commissions, notably those of the Kankakee, Maumee, and St. spoil piles in areas mined for coal. Also unusual are the sinkhole Joseph Rivers, are encouraging or pursuing wetland restoration as wetlands and ponds in the Mitchell Plain, formed where vertical a flood-control measure that would have the added benefit of recre- solution zones in the carbonate bedrock have become plugged with ation potential; In addition, the Indiana Department of Natural soil and other debris, and water from precipitation and surface runoff Resources, FWS, and the Natural Resources Conservation Service has collected. Additionally, the Jasper-Pulaski Fish and Wildlife (NRCS; formerly known as the Soil Conservation Service) have re- Area is a congregating area and migratory rest stop for eastern stored more than 600 wetlands totaling 3,000 acres and constructed greater sandhill cranes. many other wetlands under the Partners for Wildlife program. Wet- land protection efforts are adversely affected by limited public un- TRENDS derstanding of wetland values, lack of information on wetland dis- tribution and abundance in the State, and insufficient and unen- In the 1780's, before settlement by Europeans, wetlands cov- forced legislation (Indiana Department of Natural Resources, wri t- ered about 5.6 million acres (24 percent) of Indiana (Indiana De- ten commun., 1993). partment of Natural Resources, 1989). At that time, and continuing to the present in some communities, wetlands were categorized as CONSERVATION wastelands that could be made more useful by filling and draining. Federal and State laws encouraged these activities (Read, 1993). By Many government agencies and private organizations partici- the early 1980's, more than 85 percent of the original wetlands in pate in wetland conservation in Indiana. The most active agencies Indiana had been destroyed, and only about 813,000 acres of wet- and organizations and some of their activities are listed in table 1. lands remained (Rolley, 199 1). About 85 percent of vegetated-wet- Federal wetland activities. -Development activities in Indi- land losses resulted from conversion of wetlands for agricultural ana wetlands are regulated by several Federal statutory prohibitions purposes (Indiana Department of Natural Resources, 1989). and incentives that are intended to slow wetland losses. Some of the Agricultural, industrial, and residential-development interests more important of these are contained in the 1899 Rivers and Har- in Indiana still encourage stream channelization and ditching, drain- bors Act; the 1972 Clean Water Act and amendments; the 1985 Food National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: INDIANA 189 Table 1. Selected wetland-related activities of government cultural use. The Wetlands Reserve Program of the 1990 Food, agencies and private organizations in Indiana, 1993 Agriculture, Conservation, and Trade Act authorizes the Federal [Source: Classification of activities is generalized from information provided Government to purchase conservation easements from landowners by agencies and organizations. e, agency or organization participates in who agree to protect or restore wetlands. The Consolidated Farm wetland-related activity; ..., agency or organization does not participate in Service Agency (formerly the Agricultural Stabilization and Con- wetland-related activity. MAN, management; REG, regulation; R&C, resto- servation Service) administers the Swampbuster provisions and ration and creation; LAN, land acquisition; R&D, research and data collec- tion: 0&1, delineation and inventory] Wetlands Reserve Program. The NRCs determines compliance with Swampbuster provisions and assists farmers in the identification of wetlands and in the development of wetland protection, restoration, Agency or organization ;@P 0' 0' 1@' or creation plans. FEDERAL The 1986 Emergency Wetlands Resources Act and the 1972 Department of Agriculture Coastal Zone Management Act and amendments encourage wetland Consolidated Farm Service Agency ........................... ...* protection through funding incentives. The Emergency Wetland Natural Resources Conservation Service ......... ... a Resources Act requires States to address wetland protection in their Department of Commerce Statewide Comprehensive Outdoor Recreation Plans to qualify for National Oceanic and Atmospheric Federal funding for State recreational land; the National Park Ser- Administration ................................................................. ...e Department of Defense vice provides guidance to States in developing the wetland compo- Army Corps of Engineers .............................................. ...9 nent of their plans. Coastal and Great Lakes States that adopt coastal- Department of the Interior zone management programs and plans approved by the National Fish and Wildlife Service .............................................. Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration are eligible for Federal Geological Survey .......................................................... . ... ... 9 funding and technical assistance through the Coastal Zone Manage- National Biological Service ............................... ......... ... ... ... ... * National Park Service ......................................... 0 0 0 0 0 ment Act. Environmental Protection Agency .................................. ... State wetland activities. -Currently (1993), no Indiana law STATE specifically regulates activities in wetlands, although the Depart- Department of Environmental Management ................* ment of Natural Resources is developing a State wetland conserva- Department of Natural Resources .................................a tion plan under a grant from the EPA. The scheduled completion date Indiana Geological Survey ............................... ............... ... ... ... ... for the plan is mid-1995. Regulation and management of Indiana Indiana University School of Public and Environmental Affairs ............. ... ... wetlands are performed under the Indiana Water Pollution Control Purdue University Law, sections 401 and 404 of the Federal Clean Water Act, the In- Department of Forestry and Natural Resources . ... ... diana Flood Control Act, the Indiana Preservation of Lakes Stat- State Highway Administration ......................................... ... ute, the Indiana Nature Preserves Act, and the Indiana Wetland SOME COUNTY AND LOCAL GOVERNMENTS .............* Conservation Program. The Indiana Department of Environmental PRIVATE ORGANIZATIONS Ducks Unlimited ..................... ........................................0 Management and the Indiana Department of Natural Resources are Hoosier Environmental Council ...................................e... ... ... ... ... the principal State agencies that administer the laws and associated Izaak Walton League ..................................................... permit programs. Save the Dunes Council ................................................ The Indiana Water Pollution Control Law gives the Department Sierra Club ....................................................................... ... ... of Environmental Management authority to protect wetlands, which The Nature Conservancy .............................................. are defined as "waters of the State" for this purpose. Section 401 of the Federal Clean Water Act authorizes the Department of Environ- mental Management's water-quality certification program. Corps section 404 dredge-and-fill applications are reviewed both by the Security Act; the 1990 Food, Agriculture, Conservation, and Trade Department of Environmental Management to determine whether Act; the 1986 Emergency Wetlands Resources Act; and the 1972 the proposed activities will adversely affect water quality and by Coastal Zone Management Act. the Department of Natural Resources for comment on potential Section 10 of the Rivers and Harbors Act gives the U.S. Army environmental impacts and habitat disturbance. The Indiana Flood Corps of Engineers (Corps) authority to regulate certain activities Control Act requires a Construction in the Floodway Permit from in navigable waters. Regulated activities include diking, deepening, the Department of Natural Resources in order to construct within filling, excavating, and placing of structures. The related section 404 the floodway of a river or stream and its adjacent wetlands. The of the Clean Water Act is the most often-used Federal legislation Indiana Preservation of Lakes Statute requires a permit from the protecting wetlands. Under section 404 provisions, the Corps issues Department of Natural Resources to change the water level or alter permits regulating the discharge of dredged or fill material into the shoreline or bed of a public freshwater lake. The Indiana Na- wetlands. Permits are subject to review and possible veto by the U.S. ture Preserves Act established the Division of Nature Preserves Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), and the Fws has review and within the Department of Natural Resources; the Division is respon- advisory roles. Section 401 of the Clean Water Act grants to States sible for the inventory, acquisition, dedication, management, and and eligible Indian Tribes the authority to approve, apply conditions protection of significant natural areas throughout the State, includ- to, or deny section 404 permit applications on the basis of a pro- ing wetlands, but the program's strict criteria eliminate many wet- posed activity's probable effects on the water quality of a wetland. lands from consideration. The Division of Fish and Wildlife of the Most farming, ranching, and silviculture activities are not sub- Department of Natural Resources administers the Indiana Wetland ject to section 404 regulation. However, the "Swampbuster" provi- Conservation Program, which also protects and manages "signifi- sion of the 1985 Food Security Act and amendments in the 1990 cant" wetlands in 20 areas (totaling 5,409 acres) acquired by dona- Food, Agriculture, Conservation, and Trade Act discourage (through tion, by purchase, or as compensation for loss resulting from per- financial disincentives) the draining, filling, or other alteration of mit violation. wetlands for agricultural use. The law allows exemptions from pen- Other State wetland-management activities of the Division of alties in some cases, especially if the farmer agrees to restore the Fish and Wildlife include several projects in partnership with Fed- altered wetland or other wetlands that have been converted to agri- eral, other State, and private agencies to conserve and restore wet- 190 National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: STATE SUMMARIES lands for wildlife habitat. In addition, the Division administers rec- Indiana Department of Natural Resources, 1989, Wetlands ... Indiana's en- reation and conservation areas directly and performs management dangered natural resource, an appendix to Indiana outdoor recreation activities in about 364,000 acres, mostly lakes and rivers. 1989-An assessment and policy plan: Indianapolis, Ind., Department County and local wetland activities. -Several counties are of Natural Resources, Division of Outdoor Recreation, 19 p. developing wetland programs. For example, LaGrange County in Meyboom, Peter, 1966, Unsteady groundwater flow near a willow ring in northeastern Indiana is developing a water-treatment process that hummocky moraine: Journal of Hydrology, v. 4, p. 38 -62. , Phillips, P.J., and Shedlock, R.J., 1993, Hydrology and chemistry of ground- uses created wetlands to protect its natural lakes and streams. water and seasonal ponds in the Atlantic Coastal Plain in Delaware, Private wetland organization activities. -Several private or- U.S.A.: Journal of Hydrology, v. 141, p. 157-179. ganizations in Indiana are active in the development of wetland regu- Read, C.J., 1993, Swamped, in Werner, P., ed., The wetlander: Indianapo- lations, policy planning, advocacy, land acquisition and manage- lis, Ind., Sierra Club Wetlands Project, v. 2, no. 1, p. 5. ment, environmental education, and research. A few of the many Rolley, R.E., 1991, Indiana's wetland inventory: Department of Natural private organizations active in wetlands issues in the State are The Resources, Division of Fish and Wildlife, Wildlife Management and Nature Conservancy, whose primary wetland activities are acqui- Research Notes 532, 6 p. sition, preservation, and management of wetland areas and associ - Schneider, A.F., 1966, Physiography, in Lindsey, A.A., ed., Natural features of Indiana: Indianapolis, Indiana Academy of Science, p. 40-56. ated watersheds; the Sierra Club, which has established the Wet- Shedlock, R.J., Wilcox, D.A., Thompson, T.A., and Cohen, D.A., 1993, lands Project, an information network to connect individuals, Interactions between ground water and wetlands, southern shore of groups, and agencies working on wetland conservation and resto- Lake Michigan, USA: Journal of Hydrology, v. 141, p. 127-155. ration; Ducks Unlimited, which supports the conservation and cre- Wilcox, D.A., 1986, The effects of deicing salts of water chemistry in ation of waterfowl habitat; and the Izaak Walton League, the Save Pinhook Bog, Indiana: Water Resources Bulletin, v. 22, no. 1, p. 57- the Dunes Council, and the Hoosier Environmental Council, which 65. support public education and efforts to enact wetland protection Wilcox, D.A., Shedlock, R.J., and Hendrickson, W.H., 1986, Hydrology, legislation. water chemistry and ecological relations in the raised mound of Cowles Bog: Journal of Ecology, v. 74, p. 1, 103 -1,117. Winter, T.C., 1992, A @hysiographic and climatic framework for hydrologic References Cited studies of wetlands, in Robarts, R.D., and Bothwell, M.L., eds., Pro- ceedings of the Symposium on Aquatic Ecosystems in Semi-Arid Clark, G.D., ed., 1980, The Indiana water resource: Indianapolis, Indiana Regions, 1990: Saskatoon, Saskatchewan, Environment Canada, The Department of Natural Resources, v. 1, 508 p.; v. 11, 94 p. National Hydrology Research Institute Symposium Series 7. Cowardin, L.M., Carter, Virginia, Golet, F.C., and LaRoe, E.T., 1979, Clas- sification of wetlands and deepwater habitats of the United States: U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Report FWS/OBS -79/31, 131 p. Crompton, E.J., 1986, Indiana surface-water resources, in U.S. Geological FOR ADDITIONAL INFORMATION: District Chief, U.S. Geological Sur- Survey, National water summary 1985 -Hydrologic events and sur- vey, 5957 Lakeside Boulevard, Indianapolis, IN 46278; Regional Wetland face-water resources: U.S. Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper Coordinator, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, BHW Federal Building, 1 2300, p. 223-228. Federal Drive, Fort Snelling, MN 55111 Gallaher, J.T., and Price, W.E., Jr., 1966, Hydrology of the alluvial deposits in the Ohio River valley in Kentucky: U.S. Geological Survey Water- Supply Paper 1818, 80 p. Prepared by Hartke, E.J., Hill, J.R., and Reshkin, Mark, 1975, Environmental geology Martha A. Hayes, of Lake and Porter Counties, Indiana -An aid to planning: Indiana U.S. Geological Survey Department of Natural Resources, Indiana Geological Survey Special Report 11, Environmental Study 8, 57 p. Indiana Department of Environmental Management, 199 1, Indiana 305(b) report, 1990-199 1: Indianapolis, Ind., Office of Water Management, p. 1-20. U.S. Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper 2425 National Water Summary-Wetland Resources 191 Iowa We fland Resources Wtlands provide many benefits, such as attenuating flood-peak Prairie-pothole marshes are a familiar type of Iowa wetland. discharges, stabilizing streambanks, and improving water quality These wetlands occur in the area of latest glaciation of Iowa (fig. by trapping suspended sediment and accumulating or transforming 2B). Most of the naturally occurring lakes in Iowa also are in this some types of chemical contaminants. Wetlands also are valuable area. Bishop (1981) estimated that there are about 36,500 acres of for fish and wildlife habitat. Publicly owned wetland areas provide natural and artificial prairie-pothole marshes in Iowa. ' diverse recreational opportunities. Other wetlands in Iowa are associated with rivers in the inte- Wetlands cover about 1.2 percent of Iowa. However, about 200 rior and on the eastern and western borders of the State. The wet- years ago more than 11 percent of the State was wetlands (Dahl, lands formerly associated with the Missouri River are examples of 1990), and they were once a conspicuous feature on the prairie land- wetlands that have been lost due to channelization, whereas many scape (fig. 1). Fertile soils and abundant wildlife associated with of the wetlands along the Mississippi River were created as a result the prairie and its wetlands were attractions for early settlers. How- of lock and dam construction (Iowa Department of Natural Re- ever, when farming became a way of life for the settlers, wetlands sources, 1988). About 380,000 acres of wetlands are associated with came to be considered obstacles. Today, wetlands are considered by the rivers and streams of Iowa; most, about 324,785 acres, are along many residents to be valuable resources and important reminders the rivers that border the State (Bishop, 1981). Small wetlands oc- of Iowa's natural heritage. cur in scattered areas throughout Iowa where ground-water dis- charge maintains a supply of water that allows wetland vegetation TYPES AND DISTRIBUTION to develop or where poor surface drainage results in ponding of water. Wetlands are lands transitional between terrestrial and deepwater habitats where the water table usually is at or near the HYDROLOGIC SETTING land surface or the land is covered by shallow water (Cowardin and others, t979). The distribution of wetlands and deepwater habitats Wetlands form in areas where there is persistent water at or in Iowa is shown in figure 2A; only wetlands are discussed herein. near the land surface. Palustrine wetlands in Iowa occur mainly in Wetlands can be vegetated or nonvegetated and are classified shallow depressions on the land surface. Lacustrine and riverine on the basis of their hydrology, vegetation, and substrate. In this wetlands occur within deeper water lakes or within the channels of summary, wetlands are classified according to the system proposed streams, respectively. by Cowardin and others (1979), which is used by the U.S. Fish and The interaction between surface water and ground water within Wildlife Service (Fws) to map and inventory the Natiorfs wetlands. palustrine wetlands is complex. Winter (1989) describes several At the most general level of the classification system, wetlands are hydrologic settings of wetlands in the northern prairie, including grouped into five ecological systems: Palustrine, Lacustrine, Riv- wetlands in the area of the most recent glaciation in Iowa (fig. 2B). erine, Estuarine, and Marine. The Palustrine System includes only Most of the northern-prairie wetlands occur in depressions on the wetlands, whereas the other systems comprise wetlands and land surface. These depressions, which occur at various positions deepwater habitats. Wetlands of the systems that occur in Iowa are on the landscape (fig. 3), were formed by processes related to gla- described below. cial advances and deposition, slumping, deformation, and collapse as ice melted (Prior, 199 1). The landscape where these depressions System Weiland description occur is characterized by glacial deposits that are low in permeabil- ity and that have a gradual regional land-surface slope. The depres- Palustrine .................. Wetlands in which vegetation is predominantly sions do not contribute to surface runoff unless the water they con- trees (forested wetlands); shrubs (scrub-shrub tain breaches local drainage divides separating them from adjacent wetlands); persistent or nonpersistent emergent, depressions (Winter, 1989). erect, rooted, herbaceous plants (persistent- and non persistent-e mergent wetlands); or sub- mersed and (or) floating plants (aquatic beds). Also, intermittently to permanently flooded open-water bodies of less than 20 acres in which water is less than 6.6 feet deep. Lacustrine ................. Wetlands within an intermittently to permanently flooded lake or reservoir. Vegetation, when pres- ent, is predominantly nonpersistent emergent plants @nonpersistent-emergent wetlands), or submersed and (or) floating plants (aquatic beds), or both. Riverine ..................... Wetlands within a channel. Vegetation, when pres- ent, is same as in the Lacustrine System. Dahl (1990) estimated that Iowa has about 421,900 wetland acres. Several types of wetlands are present throughout Iowa Prairie-pothole marshes (emergent wetlands), swamps (forested wet- lands), sloughs, bogs (emergent wetlands), wet meadows (emergent wetlands), fens (emergent and scrub-shrub wetlands), and small ponds are examples of palustrine wetlands. The Lacustrine System Figure 1. Prairie-pothole marsh at Freda Haffner Kettlehole State includes large oxbows, natural lakes, and reservoirs. The Riverine Preserve, Iowa. (Photograph by lean Prior Iowa Department of System includes streams and rivers. Natural Resources.) 192 National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: STATE SUMMARIES Ponded water in northern-prairie wetlands usually is continu- occur in depressions and other low-lying areas, such as meander ous with the water table in the glacial deposits (fig. 3). Wetlands in scars and stream channels. Water sources for these wetlands include relatively high topographic positions (fig. 3) recharge ground wa- precipitation, ground-water discharge, and stream overflows. Wa- ter through the infiltration of rainfall, snowmelt, and local surface ter loss from these wetlands is by evapotranspiration and ground- runoff. Discharge is through evapotranspiration and lateral and water flow. downward ground-water flow. These topographically higher wet- Fens and seeps are wetlands that form on hillslopes where lands depend on adequate precipitation to maintain their supply of ground-water discharge maintains a source of water to wetland veg- water and are among the first wetland areas to dry up during drought. etation (Prior, 1991). These wetlands form at the hillside exposures Ground water from elevated sources can discharge to lower of permeable materials that transmit ground water to the land sur- areas (fig. 3). The lower depressions also can receive surface run- face (Thompson and others, 1992). Fens and seeps are similar to off. Water in these depressions occurs either as ponded water or as springs except that the small flow rates do not result in surface run- ground water just below the land surface. Discharge typically is by off. evapotranspiration. Topographically low wetlands are less susceptible to short-term drought because ground water can continue to flow to them as long as the adja- B cent water table is higher. Some depressions occur at intermediate positions on the landscape (fig. 3). Ground water can enter these depressions from higher areas and exit by reinfiltrating to ground water. In some wetlands on level land that normally receive ground-water discharge, an increase in water level to above the water table results in re- charge to the ground-water system until evapotranspi- ration lowers the water level in the wetland and ground- GLACIATION water discharge resumes. P@@M Glacial extent during Palustrine wetlands in the flood plains of rivers most recent glacial maximum 96. 94* 92@ N Upper Mississippi K s Wildlife and Fish State R fuge 43' J R! J o C V C" Du U- 40 cb" R Upper Mississippi Wildlife and Fish YJ C@ Idil. Refuge D OWTO 8 N Walnut N Mark Twain N R. L 0 25 50 MILES i I . I WETLANDS AND DEEPWATER HABITATS 0 25 50 KILOMETERS Distribution of wetlands and cleepwater habitats- This map shows the approximate distribution of large wetlands in the State. Because of limitations of scale and source material, some wetlands are not shown Predominantly welland Predominantly deepwater habitat Area typified by a high density of small wetlands Figure 2. Wetland distribution in Iowa and extent of most recent glaciation. A, Distribution of wetlands and deepwater habitats. B, Extent of most recent glaciation. (Sources: A, TE. Dahl, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, unpub. data, 1991. B, Prior, 1991.) National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: IOWA 193 TRENDS was created to purchase easements on private land to protect wet- lands that otherwise can be lost to agricultural development. The Fws has estimated that Iowa lost 89 percent of its wetland Additional increases in wetland area are occurring as a result area-more than 3.5 million acres-between the 1780's and the of reservoir construction in Iowa. Small soil-conservation structures 1980's (Dahl, 1990). This percentage ranks third in the Nation for and recreational reservoirs have been constructed in steep, typically loss of wetlands; only California and Ohio have had greater percent- well-drained terrain that originally might not have contained wet- age losses. The number of acres lost during the same time period lands. The impoundment of water behind these structures can lead was exceeded by 15 other States. to increases in palustrine and lacustrine wetlands. However, the The Iowa Department of Natural Resources estimates that number of additional acres resulting from impoundment is expected about 97.5 percent of Iowa's presettlement wetlands has been lost; to be small compared to the potential additions under the Wetlands 36,852 acres remain (Iowa Department of Natural Resources, 1990). Reserve Program (Jim Ayen, Soil Conservation Service, oral com- The large difference in the wetland-area estimates by different agen- mun., 1992). cies probably is due, in part, to differences in classification crite-, ria. However, both estimates indicate the large magnitude of wet- CONSERVATION land loss that has occurred in Iowa during the past 200 years. The primary cause of wetland loss has been agricultural de- Many government agencies and private organizations partici- velopment (Iowa Department of Natural Resources, 1990). Prairie pate in wetland conservation in Iowa. The most active agencies and potholes have been converted to farmland by draining. The drain- organizations and some of their activities are listed in table 1. age has been accomplished by constructing ditches to remove Federal wetland activities.-Development activities in Iowa ponded water and installing subsurface drainage tile to lower the wetlands are regulated by several Federal statutory prohibitions and water table (Bishop, 198 1). Some drained wetlands can be restored incentives that are intended to slow wetland losses. Some of the more by removal or modification of the drainage system. important of these are contained in the 1899 Rivers and Harbors Wetland losses on flood plains are the result of stream Act; the 1972 Clean Water Act and amendments; the 1985 Food channelization, flood control, and filling. Channelization can pro- Security Act; the 1990 Food, Agriculture, Conservation, and Trade duce shorter, higher gradient stream segments, which results in a Act; and the 1986 Emergency Wetlands Resources Act. declining water table beneath the flood plain. Flood control, either Section 10 of the Rivers and Harbors Act gives the U.S. Army by construction of reservoirs or dikes, reduces the potential for Corps of Engineers (Corps) authority to regulate certain activities streams to overflow and recharge flood-plain depressions. Filling in navigable waters. Regulated activities include diking, deepening, eliminates the depressions in which water accumulates. The Mis- filling, excavating, and placing of structures. The related section 404 souri River near Sioux City, Iowa, is an example of a stream seg- of the Clean Water Act is the most often-used Federal legislation ment that has been channelized and straightened. At Sioux City, the protecting wetlands. Under section 404 provisions, the Corps issues stream-water level has been lowered about 9 feet by channelization permits regulating the discharge of dredged or fill material into and construction of a reservoir on the Missouri River about 60 miles wetlands. Permits are subject to review and possible veto by the U.S. 4 upstream. Buchmiller (1986) showed that water levels in wetlands Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), and the Fws has review and on the flood plain responded directly to changes in the water level advisory roles. Section 401 of the Clean Water Act grants to States of the Missouri River. and eligible Indian Tribes the authority to approve, apply conditions The trend in wetland loss might be reversing. The Iowa De- to, or deny section 404 permit applications on the basis of a pro- partment of Natural Resources reported an increase of 1,852 wet- posed activity's probable effects on the water quality of a wetland. land acres between 1987 and 1990 as a result of a five-State joint Most farming, ranching, and silviculture activities are not sub- Federal, State, county, and private-organization program (Iowa ject to section 404 regulation. However, the "Swampbuster" provi- Department of Natural Resources, 1990). The program, Prairie sion of the 1985 Food Security Act and amendments in the 1990 Pothole Joint Venture, hopes to acquire 2,000 acres of land in Iowa Food, Agriculture, Conservation, and Trade Act discourages and restore 150 wetland areas per year (Iowa Department of Natu- (through financial disincentives) the draining, filling, or other al- ral Resources, 1992). Many wetland acres are potential additions teration of wetlands for agricultural use. The law allows exemptions under the Wetlands Reserve Program of the 1990 Food, Agricul- from penalties in some cases, especially if the farmer agrees to re- ture, Conservation, and Trade Act. The Wetlands Reserve Program store the altered wetland or other wetlands that have been converted to agricultural use. The Wetlands Reserve Program of the 1990 Food, Agriculture, Conservation, and Trade Act authorizes the Federal Government to purchase RECHARGE RECHARGE conservation easements from landowners who agree WETILAND FLOW-THROUGH WETLAND FLOW-THROUGH DISCHARGE to protect or restore wetlands. The Consolidated Farm WETLAND DISCHARGE WETLAND WETLAND WETLAND Service Agency (formerly the Agricultural Stabiliza- tion and Conservation Service) administers the 0C.1 flow Local fl Swampbuster provisions and Wetlands Reserve Pro- grain. The Natural Resources Conservation Service Intermediate flow Intermediate flow (formerly the Soil Conservation Service) determines compliance with Swampbuster provisions and assists farmers in the identification of wetlands and in the development of wetland protec tion, res toration, or cre- ation plans. ow The 1986 Emergency Wetlands Resources Act EXPLANATION encourages wetland protection through funding incen- tives. The act requires States to address wetland pro- Direction of ground-water Average water table tection in their Statewide Comprehensive Outdoor flow Recreation Plans to qualify for Federal funding for Figure 3. Subsurface hydrology of northern-prairie wetlands. (Source: Modified State recreational land; the National Park Service pro- from Winter 7 992.) vides guidance to States in developingthe wetland 194 National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: STATE SUMMARIES Table 1. Selected wetiand-related activities of government tion manages small areas of wetlands within highway rights-of-way. agencies and private organizations in Iowa, 1993 The Department also identifies wetland areas that might be affected [Source: Classification of activities is generalized from information provided by construction projects and can acquire land and create additional by agencies and organizations. e, agency or organization participates in wetlands to mitigate wetland loss resulting from construction wetland-related activity; agency or organization does not participate 'in projects. wetland-related activity. MAN, management; REG, regulation; R&C, restora- tion and creation; LAN, land acquisition; R&D, research and data collection; County and local wetland activities.-Wetland management, 0&1, delineation and inventory] restoration and creation, land acquisition, and delineation and in- ventory are being conducted by some county and local governments. 'g, The principal agencies involved are the county conservation boards. Agency or organization 0 4@ Y <@@ The extent of activity differs from one county to another. FEDERAL Private wetland activities- Several nonprofit private organi- Department of Agriculture zations are involved in wetland activities in Iowa. Ducks Unlimited, Consolidated Farm Service Agency ........................... the Iowa Natural Heritage Foundation, and Pheasants Forever are Natural Resources Conservation Service ................ partners with Federal, State, and local governments in raising funds Department of Defense for wetland acquisition and restoration. Although land is acquired Army Corps of Engineers .............................................. by these organizations, typically it is sold or transferred to public Department of the Interior Fish and Wildlife Service .............................................. agencies for management purposes. The Nature Conservancy also Geological Survey .......................................................... is active in acquiring land for preservation of endangered plant and National Biological Service ......................................... animal species as well as ecologically unique habitats. Some of these National Park Service ................................ .................. land acquisitions contain wetlands. Environmental Protection Agency ............... .................. STATE Department of Natural Resources References Cited Energy and Geological Resources Division .............. Environmental Protection Division .......... .................. Bishop, R.A., 198 1, Iowa's wetlands: Proceedings of the Iowa Academy of Fish and Wildlife Division ........................................... Science, v. 88, no. 1, p. 11-16. Parks, Recreation, and Preserves Division ..............e . ... ... Buchmiller, R.C., 1986, Hydrologic reconnaissance and summary of exist- Department of Transportation .........................................* ing data on surface and ground-water resources in the Missouri River Iowa State University valley in Woodbury and Monona Counties, Iowa, 1985: U.S. Geologi- Leopold Center for Sustainable Agriculture ............. ... cal Survey Open-File Report 86-144, 21 p. University of Iowa Cowardin, L.M., Carter, Virginia, Golet, F.C., and LaRoe, E.T., 1979, Clas- Hygienic Laboratory .................................... ................ sification of wetlands and deepwater habitats of the United States: SOME COUNTY AND LOCAL GOVERNMENTS ........... Washin ton, D.C., U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Report, FWS/OBS- PRIVATE ORGANIZATIONS 9 Ducks Unlimited .................................................................. 79/31, 131 p. Iowa Natural Heritage Foundation ................................. Dahl, T.E., 1990, Wetlands-Losses in the United States, 1780's to 1980's: Pheasants Forever ......................... ................................... Washington, D.C., U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Report to Congress, The Nature Conservancy .............................................. 13 p. Iowa Department of Natural Resources, 1988, Iowa wetlands protection plan-A supplement to the Iowa statewide comprehensive outdoor component of their plans. recreation plan: Des Moines, Iowa Department of Natural Resources, In addition to its regulatory responsibilities, EPA provides fi- 11 P. nancial assistance for special studies, development of wetland in- 1990, Water quality in Iowa during 1988 and 1989: Des Moines, Iowa ventories, and other resource-management tools. Technical assis- Department of Natural Resources, p. 3 -69 and 3 -70. tance is available to agencies and the public for wetland-delineation 1992, Iowa prairie pothole joint venture 1991 status report: Des training, project consultation, and public education. The EPA over- Moines, Iowa Department of Natural Resources, 4 p. sees the State's development and implementation of water-quality Prior, J.C., 199 1, Landforms of Iowa: Iowa City. University of Iowa Press, standards that apply to surface waters, including wetlands. Two 153 p. agencies have responsibilities for management of most Federal Thompson, C.A., Bettis 111, E.A., and Baker, R.G., 1992, Geology of Iowa wetlands in Iowa. The Corps has responsibility for about 217,000 fens: Journal of Iowa Academy of Science, v. 99, no. 2-3, p. 53 -59. Winter, T.C., 1989, Hydrologic studies of wetlands in the northern prairie, acres of land that includes wetlands in areas of Federal flood-con- in van der Valk, Arnold, ed., Northern prairie wetlands: Ames, Iowa trol projects. The principal areas of these wetlands are along the State University Press, p. 16-54. Mississippi River and the four interior flood-control reservoirs in Winter, T.C., 1992, A physiographic and climatic framework for hydrologic Iowa (Lake Red Rock, Saylorville Lake, Coralville Lake, and studies of wetlands, in Robarts, R.D., and Bothwell, M.L., eds., Pro- Rathbun Lake). The FWS manages land at five National Wildlife ceedings of the Symposium on Aquatic Ecosystems in Semi-arid Refuges (NWR) that contain wetlands: Upper Mississippi River Wild- Regions -Implications for resource management: Saskatoon, life and Fish Refuge, Mark Twain NWR, Union Slough NWR, Desoto Saskatchewan, Environment Canada, The National Hydrology Re- Bend NWR, and Walnut Creek NwR. The NPS manages a small amount search Institute Symposium Series 7, p. 127-148. of wetland area at Effigy Mounds National Monument. State wetland activities. - The principal wetlands-management FOR ADDITIONAL INFORMATION: District Chief, U.S. Geological agency in Iowa is the Iowa Department of Natural Resources. The Survey, P.O. Box MO, Iowa City, IA 52244; Regional Wetland Coordina- Department manages more than 250,000 acres of public and some tor, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, BHW Building, I Federal Drive, Fort privately owned wetlands. The Department also is responsible for Snelling,, MN 55 111 implementing Federal wetlands initiatives, such as the North Ameri- can Waterfowl Management Plan. The Environmental Protection Prepared by Division of the Department ofNatural Resources is responsible for Robert C. Buchmiller, State regulatory actions. The State directly regulates wetlands un- U.S. Geological Survey der provisions of section 401 of the Clean Water Act, and some wetlands are protected for certain uses of water (Iowa Department of Natural Resources, 1990). The Iowa Department of Transporta- U.S. Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper 2425 National Water Summary-Welland Resources 195 Kansas Wetland Resources Kansas once was covered by an estimated 841,000 acres of wet- System Wetland description lands; of that area about 435,400 acres, or 0. 8 percent of the State's Palustrine .................. Wetlands in which vegetation is predominantly area, remain (Dahl, 1990). Wetlands in Kansas represent some of trees (forested wetlands); shrubs (scrub-shrub the last aquatic areas available for wildlife and plants. Wetlands wetlands); persistent or nonpersistent emergent, provide habitat for many species of birds, fish, mammals, reptiles, erect, rooted, herbaceous plants (persistent- and and invertebrates. Kansas wetlands are particularly important to nonpersistent-emergent wetlands); or sub- mersed and (or) floating plants (aquatic beds). migratory waterfowl and shorebirds, which depend on the few re- Also, intermittently to permanently flooded maining wetlands in the Central Flyway for food, water, and cover open-water bodies of lessthan 20 acres in which during their seasonal migrations. Cheyenne Bottoms (fig. 1), a large water is less than 6.6 feet deep. freshwater marsh in central Kansas, is considered the most impor- Lacustrine ................. Wetlands within an intermittently to permanently tant migration staging point for shorebirds in North America (Wentz, flooded lake or reservoir. Vegetation, when pres- 1988). Cheyenne Bottoms also provides habitat for five nationally ent, is predominantly nonpersistent emergent plants (nonpersistent-emergent wetlands), or threatened or endangered species-bald eagle, peregrine falcon, submersed and (or) floating plants (aquatic least tern, piping plover, and whooping crane (Kansas Biological beds), or both. Survey and Kansas Geological Survey, 1987). Riverine ..................... Wetlands within a channel. Vegetation, when pres- Kansas wetlands are valuable for their hydrologic functions. ent, is same as in the Lacustrine System. By attenuating flood peaks and storing floodwaters, wetlands can protect adjacent and downstream property from flood damage and Palustrine wetlands in Kansas include ephemeral wetlands; help control erosion. Wetlands also have important water-quality marshes; emergent wetlands in ground-water seeps, prairies, and functions, including silt removal, mineral uptake, and nutrient trans- oxbows; and forested wetlands in riparian areas. Ephemeral wet- formation. Kansas wetlands also are important for recreation, tour- lands typically are flooded only seasonally; examples are sandhill ism, and esthetic and educational benefits. pools located in the Arkansas River Valley in south-central Kansas and playa lakes scattered throughout the southwestern part of the State. Marshes occur in low-lying areas associated with river sys- TYPES AND DISTRIBUTION tems, terraces, and valley basins. Examples of fresh marshes are the Wetlands are lands transitional between terrestrial and deep- Marais des Cygnes Wildlife Area in east-central Kansas, Jamestown water habitats where the water table usually is at or near the land Wildlife Area in north-central Kansas, and Cheyenne Bottoms. Salt surface or the land is covered by shallow water (Cowardin and oth- marshes generally are limited to central Kansas. The largest salt ers, 1979). The distribution of wetlands and deepwater habitats in marsh in the State is Quivira National Wildlife Refuge, which is Kansas is shown in figure 2A; only wetlands are discussed herein. located along Rattlesnake Creek. Areas saturated by fresh ground- water seepage are discontinuously distributed throughout the State. An example of an emergent wetland in a ground-water seep is the I I-acre Muscotah Marsh in northeastern Kansas. Prairie wetlands occur on nearly level soils on flood plains along rivers, streams, and creeks throughout most of the State. The Ninnescah River Basin wetlands, associated with the North and South Forks Ninnescah Rivers in south-central Kansas, include examples of prairie wetlands as well as riparian woodlands. Forested wetlands are located within riparian woodlands and forests along major rivers in both the east- ern and western parts of the State (Lauver, 1989; Monda, 1992a). 45=52-rb __-_ Lacustrine wetlands in Kansas are primarily in impoundments. The Flint Hills National Wildlife Refuge at John Redmond Reser- voir and Kirwin National Wildlife Refuge at Kirwin Reservoir are wetlands that have developed around lake headwater areas. These Figurell. Blue-winged teal at Cheyenne Bottoms in central areas include both lacustrine wetlands and palustrine wetlands (per- Kansas. (Photograph by Mike Blair Kansas Department of Wildlife sistent emergent, scrub-shrub, and forested wetlands along the shore and Parks.) or in backwater areas). Riverine wetlands are most common in the eastern and cen- Wetlands can be vegetated or nonvegetated and are classified tral parts of the State. They include the beds of shallow, intermit- on the basis of their hydrology, vegetation, and substrate. In this tent streams and areas less than 6.6 feet deep in perennial streams. summary, wetlands are classified according to the system proposed by Cowardin and others (1979), which is used by the U.S. Fish and HYDROLOGIC SETTING Wildlife Service (FWS) to map and inventory the Nation's wetlands. At the most general level of the classification system, wetlands are The availability of water to sustain wetlands depends on cli- grouped into five ecological systems: Palustrine, Lacustrine, Riv- matic, hydrologic, and physiographic factors as well as historic and erine, Estuarine, and Marine. The Palustrine System includes only present land use. Moisture is unevenly distributed across the State. wetlands, whereas the other systems comprise wetlands and Average annual precipitation in Kansas ranges from less than 16 deepwater habitats. Wetlands of the systems that occur in Kansas inches in the west to more than 40 inches in the southeast (Jordan, are described below. 1986). In contrast, average annual evaporation potential increases 196 National Water Surnmary-Wetland Resources: STATE SUMMARIES from east to west, ranging from less than 44 inches in the northeast dant rainfall and high humidity create conditions favorable to wet- to more than 68 inches in the southwest (Farnsworth and others, lands (Spanbauer, 1988). 1982). Runoff is poorly sustained in the western and central parts Wetlands in Kansas are temporarily, seasonally, semiperma- of Kansas because of sparse precipitation, conservation practices, nently, or permanently flooded, depending on moisture availabil- and withdrawals of water from streams and associated alluvial aqui- ity. The playa lakes in southwestern Kansas are among the most fers, primarily for irrigation. As a result, water deficits can occur temporary of palustrine wetlands, occurring in areas of low precipi- during many seasons and years in these parts of the State. tation and high evaporation. Playas are sustained entirely by pre- Differences in topography and geology separate Kansas into cipitation and surface drainage. These shallow basins drain areas broad physiographic divisions (fig. 2B). In the Great Plains of west- as large as 2,000 acres but are flooded only after heavy rainfall or ern Kansas, surface-water resources are scarce. Wetlands in these snowmelt in the spring. The clay soils of the playas tend to prevent areas depend on water from precipitation and, in some areas, seepage losses; most water loss is due to evaporation. strearnflow or shallow ground water. In the Central Lowland of Sinks and shallow basins are other types of temporarily flooded eastern Kansas, surface water is more dependable. Water in streams, wetlands in Kansas; they are mostly in the Great Plains region. The flood plains, and alluvial aquifers sustains many prairie wetlands McPherson Valley Wetlands, a series of shallow lakes that histori- and riparian woodlands and forests. In the Ozark Plateaus, one of cally covered a 126-square-mile area south of McPherson, are sinks the wettest and most densely forested areas in Kansas, the abun- caused by dissolution of underlying salt formations. The McPherson Valley Wetlands originally included several large, and many small, shallow marshes and two natural lakes (Wilson, 1992). Only one permanently flooded lake remains, along with a few shallow pools and marshes that were not drained. These areas are important for Great migratory waterfowl. Ongoing restoration of the McPherson Val- Plains ley Wetlands is intended to reestablish and protect the seasonally Central and permanently flooded pools (Wilson, 1992). Lowland Sandhill pools - depressions between the low dunes along the Arkansas River northeast of Hutchinson -become filled with wa- ter during the rainy season (Schoewe, 1949). Sandhill pools are poorly drained because of their nearly impervious subsoil. These wetlands can remain flooded, given a seasonally high water table, Ozark Plateaus or can vanish during years of low precipitation (Lauver, 1989). B PHYSIOGRAPHIC DIVISIONS 101. 991, 97. a esiown i Area scatah 'j marsh +1. L_ Kansas City 39@ ce Hill d- Cheyenne BAD Jch. ira R ktphqson Valley Fl' N R d #ildh kea Garde City @R Hutch, Dbdg@ Ci S F Ninn'. J wic@i Cinnarroa Nell 37' Gras*nds A WETLANDS AND DEEPWATER HABITATS 0 25 50 MILES Distribution of wertlands and deepwater habitats- i I I This map shows the approximate distribution of large 0 25 50 KILOMETERS wetlands in the State. Because of limitations of scale and source material, some wetlands are not shown Predominantly wetland al ]d Predominantly cleepwater habitat Area typified by a high density of small wetlands Figure 2. Wetland distribution in Kansas and physiography of the State. A, Distribution of wetlands and cleepwater habitats. 8, Physio- graphy. (Sources: A, TE Dahl, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, unpub. data, 199 1. B, Physiographic divisions from Fenneman, 1946; landforms data from EROS Data Center.) National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: KANSAS 197 Wetlands associated with riparian woodlands and forests can ian wetland on the flood plain of the Cimarron River is sustained be flooded temporarily or seasonally, depending on the character- by moisture from ground-water storage when the river is not flow- istics of streams with which they are associated. Riparian forested ing. The Cimarron River rarely flows, but when floods occur, the wetlands are located primarily along the Missouri, Kansas, Marais riparian areas are recharged and support new growth of woody des Cygnes, and Neosho Rivers in the Central Lowland, where pre- vegetation. Controlled grazing on the Cimarron National Grass- cipitation and runoff are sufficient to sustain streamflows and evapo- lands, which is managed by the U.S. Forest Service, ensures that ration rates are relatively low. In prairie wetlands, drainage is poor, some trees will remain among the sagebrush and grasses. and the deep, alluvial soils remain saturated for most of the grow- The disappearance of nearly one-half of the State's wetlands ing season (Monda, 1992a). In some years, prairie wetlands along has increased the importance of those that remain. Migratory birds flood plains in eastern Kansas may be inundated for several days at formerly had access to many wetlands as well as to shallow, braided a time (Lauver, 1989). river channels throughout central Kansas for foraging and resting. Salt flats are seasonally inundated wetlands occurring on Draining of these wetlands and the depletion of streamflows in major nearly level ground or within slight depressions. Salinity is high streams such as the Arkansas River have left only Cheyenne Bot- because of saline ground-water discharge or concentration of dis- toms and Quivira National Wildlife Refuge as major stopover places solved constituents by evaporation. S a] t flats are located in central in Kansas. Keeping those areas viable requires manipulation of the Kansas, where naturally saline ground water discharges to surface hydrologic system to ensure a consistent water supply. streams and pools. Soils in salt flats are saturated but contain stand- The Kansas Department of Wildlife and Parks manages the ing water only after heavy precipitation (Monda, 1992a). 19,857-acre Cheyenne Bottoms Wildlife Area (fig. 3). Several ad- Fresh and salt marshes form in low-lying areas that have deep, verse hydrologic conditions have had to be overcome to maintain poorly drained soils. Marshes range from sernipermanently to per- shallow water in Cheyenne Bottoms -inadequate precipitation, manently flooded (Monda, 1992a). Salt marshes are restricted to declining flows in streams flowing into the area, periodic flooding, salty seepage areas that often contain brackish or stagnant water and high evaporation and transpiration losses. Evaporation and tran- (Lauver, 1989). Quivira National Wildlife Refuge is sustained by spiration account for about 95 percent of the water lost from the water from Rattlesnake Creek. Downstream reaches of the stream wetland (Kansas Biological Survey and Kansas Geological Survey, and the marsh itself are natural ground-water discharge areas for 1987). In some years, losses can exceed the amount of water enter- underlying saltwater-bearing formations (Sophocleous, 1992). ing the basin and result in an overall deficit and increased salinity Ground-water discharge is a vital source of moisture for some (Zimmerman, 1990). wetlands in Kansas. Localized artesian conditions cause soils in the The management strategy addressing these problems has fo- Muscotah Marsh to be saturated by ground-water seepage. Within cused on water storage, supplementation, and drainage. In the the Cimarron National Grasslands in southwestern Kansas, a ripar- 1950's, diked pools were constructed to enhance storage, and dams 98'52'30" 98'45'00" 98' 37'30' Deception "'Hoisington IC k 38'30'00" - 3 __J 4 2 5 Cheyenne Bottoms 96 Wildlife Area Lit,% -J'enn' St 41t W12/, Creek nut 38'22'30"- Great i Send 16 6 Ellinwood Ar 5 EXPLANATION Flow direction in canal 81 3 Pool number 0 1 2 MILES .V. 0 1 2 KILOMETERS Figure 3. Hydrologic features of Cheyenne Bottoms. (Source: Laurel Yasui, Kansas Department of Wildlife and Parks, written commun., 1992.) 198 National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: STATE SUMMARIES and ditches were built to divert water from the Arkansas River GroundwaterUse ControlAream the Walnut Creek Basin, thus lim- through Dry Walnut and Walnut Creeks to supplement natural flows iting water withdrawals by all irrigators, municipalities, and indus- from Blood and Deception Creeks. Ongoing activities at Cheyenne tries therein. The intent of the restrictions is to restore aquifer re- Bottoms include construction of additional dikes in pool I to cre- charge and base flow to Walnut Creek. ate a deeper pool that will decrease evaporation relative to the vol- ume of water stored; installation of pumping stations to facilitate TRENDS water transfer among pools; level ditches dug through dense stands of cattails in silted areas of pool 4 to decrease water depth, provide According to FWS estimates, Kansas lost 405,600 acres, or 48 varied habitat, and allow access to inner waters; and improvements percent, of its wetlands between the 1780's and 1980's (Dahl, 1990). to the canal from the Arkansas River to the marsh to reduce evapo- In 1890, the State sold 12 major salt marshes in central Kansas, some ration and seepage losses (Grover, 1992). more than 1,000 acres in size. Many of these wetlands were drained The Kansas Department of Wildlife and Parks holds water and converted to agricultural uses shortly thereafter (Monda, rights for 20,000 acre-feet per year from Walnut Creek and 30,000 1992b). Draining and conversion to cropland have caused most of acre-feet per year from the Arkansas River, but by the 1980's less the wetland losses in Kansas; 40 percent of the losses occurred than 20 percent of the legally protected amount of water was avail- between 1955 and 1978 (Tiner, 1984). Most areas drained were able (Karl Grover, Kansas Department of Wildlife and Parks, written shallow, palustrine wetlands such as the McPherson Valley Wetlands commun., 1993). Declining flows in the Arkansas River and Wal- and the playa lakes. Only about 500 acres remain of the original nut Creek have resulted from lower water tables caused primarily 9,000-plus acres in the McPherson Valley Wetlands (Wilson, 1992), by ground-water withdrawals for irrigation, and from decreased and about 70 percent of the original playa lakes are gone (Kansas runoff due to soil and water conservation practices such as terrac- Department of Wildlife and Parks, 1992a). Remaining wetlands, ing, construction of water impoundments, and conservation tillage despite regulations protecting them, continue to be adversely af- (Kansas Biological Survey and Kansas Geological Survey, 1987; fected by agricultural runoff of chemicals and sediment from sur- Zimmerman, 1990). rounding croplands (Kansas Department of Wildlife and Parks, Recognition of the dependence of Cheyenne Bottoms on a 199 1). Other causes of wetland loss include depletion of surface and managed hydrologic system resulted in legal action to protect the ground water, primarily as a result of irrigation withdrawals. Con- senior water right on Walnut Creek. In 1992, the Chief Engineer of struction of flood-control structures and modifications to stream the State Division of Water Resources established an Intensive channels can result in drainage of wetlands or alteration of streamflows entering wetlands. Urban, industrial, and transporta- Table 1. Selected wetland-related activities of government tion-system development also can be detrimental to wetlands (Kan- agencies and private organizations in Kansas, 1993 sas Department of Wildlife and Parks, 199 1). [Source: Classification of activities is generalized from information provided by agencies and organizations. e, agency or organization participates in CONSERVATION wetland-related activity; ..., agency or organization does not participate in wetland-related activity. MAN, management; REG, regulation; R&C, resto- Many government agencies and private organizations partici- ration and creation; LAN, land acquisition; R&D, research and data collec- tion; D&I, delineation and inventory] pate in wetland conservation in Kansas. The most active agencies and organizations and some of their activities are listed in table 1. Federal wetland activities.-Development activities in Kan- Agency or organization 4P 01 1Y sas wetlands are regulated by several Federal statutory prohibitions FEDERAL and incentives that are intended to slow wetland losses. Some of the Department of Agriculture more important of these are contained in the 1899 Rivers and Har- Consolidated Farm Service Agency ........................... ... bors Act; the 1972 Clean Water Act and amendments; the 1985 Food Forest Service .................................................................000 0 Security Act; the 1990 Food, Agriculture, Conservation, and Trade Natural Resources Conservation Service ................ ... Act; and the 1986 Emergency Wetlands Resources Act. Department of Defense Section 10 of the Rivers and Harbors Act gives the U.S. Army Army Corps of Engineers ..............................................* Corps of Engineers (Corps) authority to regulate certain activities Military reservations .....................................................0 Department of the Interior in navigable waters. Regulated activities include diking, deepening, Bureau of Land Management ......................................* filling, excavating, and placing of structures. The related section 404 Fish and Wildlife Service ..............................................* of the Clean Water Act is the most often-used Federal legislation Geological Survey .......................................................... ... ... ... ... protecting wetlands. Under section 404 provi Isions, the Corps issues National Biological Service ......................................... ... ... permits regulating the discharge of dredged or fill material into Environmental Protection Agency .................................. ...0 STATE wetlands. Permits are subject to review and possible veto by the U.S. Biological Survey ............................................................... ... ... ... ... Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), and the Fws has review and Conservation Commission ................................................ ...0 advisory roles. Section 401 of the Clean Water Act grants to States Corporation Commission .................................................. ...0... ... ... ... and eligible Indian Tribes the authority to approve, apply conditions Department of Agriculture to, or deny section 404 permit applications on the basis of a pro- Division of Water Resources ....................................... ...0 posed activity's probable effects on the water quality of a wetland. Department of Health and Environment ........................ ...9 0 0 Department of Wildlife and Parks ..................................*0* 0 0 0 Most farming, ranching, and silviculture activities are not sub- Geological Survey .............................................................. ... ... ... ...0ject to section 404 regulation. However, the "Swampbuster" provi- Water Office ........................................................................0... ... ... ... sion of the 1985 Food Security Act and amendments in the 1990 PRIVATE Food, Agriculture, Conservation, and Trade Act discourages Baker University .................................................................. (through financial disincentives) the draining, filling, or other al- Ducks Unlimited ..................................................................0 Kansas Wildscape Federation ........................................ ... ... ... ... teration of wetlands for agricultural use. The law allows exemptions Kansas Wildlife Foundation .............................................0a a from penalties in some cases, especially if the farmer agrees to re- National Audubon Society ............................................... ... .. store the altered wetland or other wetlands that have been converted Sierra Club ........................................................................... ... ... ... ... to agricultural use. The Wetlands Reserve Program of the 1990 Food, The Nature Conservancy ..................................................000 Agriculture, Conservation, and Trade Act authorizes the Federal National Water Surnmary-Wetland Resources: KANSAS 199 Government to purchase conservation easements from landowners and approval of flood-plain zoning ordinances. The Division also who agree to protect or restore wetlands. The Consolidated Farm regulates placement offill and construction oflevees within the 100- Service Agency (formerly the Agricultural Stabilization and Con- year flood plain, dam construction, stream obstruction, and chan- servation Service) (CFsA) administers the Swampbuster provisions nel modifications. The State Water Project's Environmental Coor- and Wetlands Reserve Program. The Natural Resources Conserva- dination Act requires that various State agencies, including the tion Service (formerly the Soil Conservation Service) (NRCS) de- Department of Wildlife and Parks, State and Extension Forestry, the termines compliance with Swamp-buster provisions and assists Kansas Corporation Commission, and the State Historical Society, farmers in the identification of wetlands and in the development of review applications to the Division of Water Resources for modifi- wetland protection, restoration, or creation plans. cation of streams and flood plains to determine potential adverse The 1986 Emergency Wetlands Resources Act encourages effects on wetlands, fish, and wildlife. These agencies may recom- wetland protection through funding incentives. The act requires mend acceptable alternatives to proposed modifications. The Kan- States to address wetland protection in their Statewide Comprehen- sas Water Office coordinates the manipulation of lake levels in Fed- sive Outdoor Recreation Plans to qualify for Federal funding for eral reservoirs through its Pool Level Management program, which State recreational land; the National Park Service provides guidance can benefit waterfowl by controlling habitat access. The Kansas to States in developing the wetland component of their plans. Water Office monitors minimum desirable strearnflows established Several Federal agencies provide technical and financial assis- for 23 Kansas streams through the Minimum Desirable Streamflow tance for efforts to restore, enhance, or create wetlands and to edu- program, thus protecting fish, wildlife, and water quality. The Kan- cate the public about wetlands. The CFSA, through the Wetland Re- sas Water Office also oversees water-resource planning and man- serve Program, pays for easements on land where the owners are agement in Kansas through its administration of the State Water restoring and protecting wetlands. The Corps provides assistance Plan. The Kansas Corporation Commission protects the State's fresh for infrastructure restoration that affects wetlands and for some fish and other usable waters through regulation of drilling operations, and wildlife habitat-restoration activities. The Corps also supports surface-pond construction, and oil-and-gas spill cleanup. educational efforts through its interpretive programs and video li- The Kansas Biological Survey is involved in wetland activities brary. The EPA provides financial and technical assistance for de- through research on aquatic ecosystems, identification of Kansas velopment of wetland inventories, project consultation, and public Natural and Scientific areas, and development of models to evalu- education. The EPA also oversees the development and implementa- ate the health of rivers, streams, and wetlands. The Kansas Geologi- tion of State water-quality regulations that apply to surface waters, cal Survey conducts geohydrologic studies related to wetlands in the including wetlands. The Fws, through the Partners for Wildlife Pro- State, such as the evaluation of the stream-aquifer system in the grain, offers technical advice and partial compensation to landown- Rattlesnake Creek Basin, which includes Quivira National Wildlife ers who restore, enhance, or create wetlands. Refuge. State wettand activities. - State wetlands programs are distrib- The State Conservation Commission administers the Riparian uted among many agencies. The Weiland and Riparian Areas Project and Weiland Protection Program, in which county conservation is a cooperative effort that coordinates State programs for wetland districts develop comprehensive plans to protect and restore ripar- and riparian areas, assists land managers, and promotes public ian and wetland areas. Assistance from the Commission and the awareness of wetland vaues and functions (Monda, 1992b). The Department of Wildlife and Parks, along with funding from exist- project is coordinated through the Kansas Water Office as a multi- ing local, State, and Federal programs, is used to demonstrate the agency effort with grant funding from the EPA. water-quality and flood-prevention benefits of riparian and wetland The Department of Wildlife and Parks manages most of the areas to landowners. 22,265 acres of State-owned wetlands in Kansas. The agency has The Kansas State and Extension Forestry, through the Forestry acquired, by purchase or lease, additional acreage in the playa-lakes Stewardship Program, provides technical assistance to landowners region and the McPherson Valley Wetlands through Federal funding in proper management of riparian forests. Forest Stewardship Plans from Fws and, as part of the five-State Playa Lakes Joint Venture, are developed by District Foresters, with participation by landown- from the North American Waterfowl Management Plan (Kansas ers, the Department of Wildlife and Parks, and the NRCS. Landown- Department of Wildlife and Parks, 1992b). The North American ers who follow the plan are eligible for financial assistance through Waterfowl Management Plan is a multinational program for restor- the Stewardship Incentive Program, which provides cost-share fund- ing waterfowl breeding populations by habitat acquisition and en- ing for riparian and wetland protection and improvements such as hancement. Through its Wildlife Habitat Improvement Program, the tree planting and maintenance, streambank stabilization, and pres- Department of Wildlife and Parks provides financial and technical ervation offish and wildlife habitat. assistance to landowners who improve or develop wildlife habitat Private wetland activities.-The Kansas chapter of Ducks on private lands. Unlimited is involved in wetland-habitat conservation. Through its The Kansas Department of Health and Environment addresses Matching Aid to Restore States Habitat program, Ducks Unlimited wetland protection through its nonpoint-source pollution-control has provided the Department of Wildlife and Parks with matching programs, Clean Lakes projects, and Lake and Wetland Monitor- funds that have been used, as of 1993, to purchase or lease 1,926 ing Program. Water-quality regulations for wetlands are included acres for wetland-habitat development. Another 916 acres of exist- within antidegradation policies and are used to protect wetlands ing wetlands have benefited from additional development and res- through Clean Water Act section 401 water-quality certification and toration. section 404 permit review (Kansas Department of Health and En- Baker University is involved in preservation and research at vironment, 1992).Any action involving a discharge of dredged or three natural areas in northeastern Kansas that contain wetland and fill material into a wetland in Kansas must receive a section 401 riparian areas. The Nature Conservancy has cooperated with the water-quality certification from the Department of Health and En- FWS in the acquisition of 6,000 acres adjacent to the Marais des vironment as well as a section 404 permit from the Corps. The Cygnes Wildlife Area., and is building a 5,437-acre preserve near Department may approve, make its approval conditional, or deny Cheyenne Bottoms. certification on the basis of water-quality criteria. Education and advocacy are as important to wetland protec- Several State agencies administer programs that affect wetlands tion as are regulation and land acquisition. The Kansas Wildlife through regulation of State waters. The Kansas Department of Federation influences wetland activities in Kansas through educa- Agriculture's Division of Water Resources is responsible for review tion of its members and the public and lobbying of state legislators. 200 National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: STATE SUMMARIES The Kansas Wildlife Federation was instrumental in securing fund- _1992a, The playa-Oasis of the plains: Pratt, Kansas Department ing for the Kansas Biological Survey and Kansas Geological Sur- of Wildlife and Parks video, running time 14:23. vey study of Cheyenn 'e Bottoms and contributed financially to the _102b, Playa Lakes Management Plan forthe Playa Lakes Joint Ven- lawsuit concerning enforcement of State water laws in the Walnut ture of the North American Waterfowl Management Plan: Pratt, Kan- Creek Basin. The Kansas chapters of the Sierra Club and the Na- sas Department of Wildlife and Parks, 12 p. Lauver, C.L., 1989, Preliminary classification of the natural communities tional Audubon Society also are involved in education and advo- of Kansas: Kansas Biological Survey Report 50, 21 p. cacy regarding wetland issues. Monda, M.J., ed., 1992a, Classification of wetland and riparian areas in Kansas: Topeka, Kansas Department of Wildlife and Parks, 30 p. ReferencesCited 1992b, Weiland and riparian areas in Kansas -Resources in need of conservation: Topeka, Kansas Department of Wildlife and Parks, Carney, Edward, 1992, Water quality values, in Monda, M.J., ed., Wetland 63 p. and riparian areas in Kansas -Resources in need of conservation: Schoewe, W.H., 1949, The geography of Kansas -Part 11, physical geog- Topeka, Kansas Department of Wildlife and Parks, p. 24 -25. raphy: Transactions of Kansas Academy of Sciences, v. 52, no. 3, Cowardin, L.M, Carter, Virginia, Golet, F.C., and LaRoe, E.T., 1979, Clas- p. 261-333. sification ofwetlands and deepwater habitats oftheUnited States: U.S. Sophocleous, Marios, 1992, Stream-aquifer modeling of the lower Rattle- Fish and Wildlife Service Report FWS/OBS-79/31, 131 p. snake Creek basin with emphasis on the Quivira National Wildlife Dahl, T.E., 1990, Wetlands-Losses in the United States, 1780's to 1980's: Refuge: Kansas Geological Survey Open-File Report 92-10, 29 p. Washington, D.C., U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 13 p. Spanbauer, M.K., 1988, Little Balkans: Kansas Wildlife and Parks, v. 45, Farnsworth, R.K., Thompson, E.S., and Peck, E.L., 1982, Evaporation at- no. 4, p. 6- 10. las for the contiguous 48 United States: National Oceanographic and Titter, R.W., Jr., 1984, Wetlands of the United States-Current status and Atmospheric Administration Technical Report NWS 33, 27 p. recent trends: Washington, D.C., U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 59 p. Fermeman, N.M., 1946, Physical divisions of the United States: Washing- Wentz, W.A., 1988, An introduction to Cheyenne Bottoms: Kansas Wild- ton, D.C., U.S. Geological Survey special map, scale 1:7,000,000. life and Parks, v. 45, no. 4, p. 30- 3 1. Grover, Karl, 1992, Cheyenne Bottoms renovation: Kansas Wildlife and Wilson, Bert, 1992, McPherson Valley Wetlands: Kansas Wildlife and Parks, Parks, v. 49, no. 2, p. 28 - 32. v. 49, no. 6, p. 21-25. Jordan, P.R., 1986, Kansas surface-water resources, in U.S. Geological Zimmerman, J.L., 1990, Cheyenne Bottoms-Wetland in jeopardy: Survey, National water summary 1985-Hydrologic events and sur- Lawrence, University Press of Kansas, 197 p. face-water resources: U.S. Geological Survey Water- Supply Paper 2300, p. 237-244. Kansas Biological Survey and Kansas Geological Survey, 1987, Cheyenne FOR ADDITIONAL INFORMATION: District Chief, U.S. Geological Bottoms -An environmental assessment: Kansas Geological Survey Survey, 4821 Quail Crest Place, Lawrence, KS 66049; Regional Weiland Open-File Report 87-5, 719 p. Coordinator, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Fish and Wildlife Enhance- Kansas Department of Health and Environment, 1992, Kansas water qual- ment, P.O. Box 25486, Denver Federal Center, Denver, CO 80225 ity assessment (305(b) report): Topeka, Kansas Department of Health and Environment, 58 p. Kansas Department of Wildlife andParks, 1991,Aplan forKansas wildlife Prepared by and parks -Strategic plan: Topeka, Kansas Department of Wildlife Joan F. Kenny, and Parks, 158 p. U.S. Geological Survey U.S. Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper 2425 National Water Summary-Wetiand Resources 201 Kentucky Wetland Resources WtIands compose less than 2.5 percent of the surface area of TYPES AND DISTRIBUTION Kentucky, but these fragile and finite ecosystems have considerable Wetlands are lands transitional between terrestrial and environmental, socioeconomic, and esthetic value. Axe Lake Swamp deepwater habitats where the water table usually is at or near the (fig. 1) is an example of a scenic wetland in the western part of the land surface or the land is covered by shallow water (Cowardin and State. others, 1979). The distribution of wetlands and deepwater habitats Wetlands contribute to the maintenance of good water quality in Kentucky is shown in figure 2A; only wetlands are discussed and can improve degraded waters by reducing suspended- sediment herein. concentrations, removing nutrients, and processing various organic Wetlands can be vegetated or nonvegetated and are classified and inorganic compounds (Tiner, 1984). A wetland can attenuate on the basis of their hydrology, vegetation, and substrate. In this flood peaks and then release the stored water slowly, reducing the summary, wetlands are classified according to the system proposed environmental impacts of floods and, in some parts of the State, by Cowardin and others (1979), which is used by the U.S. Fish and increasing ground-water recharge. Wetlands are among the world's Wildlife Service (FWS) to map and inventory the Natiorfs wetlands. most productive ecosystems, efficiently converting solar energy and At the most general level of the classification system, wetlands are inorganic nutrients to biomass that supports many terrestrial and grouped into five ecological systems: Palustrine, Lacustrine, Riv- aquatic food webs. Wetlands in Kentucky support a diverse com- erine, Estuarine, and Marine. The Palustrine System includes only munity of aquatic plants (Beal and Thieret, 1986), including rare wetlands, whereas the other systems comprise wetlands and and endangered species that do not exist elsewhere. Wetlands are deepwater habitats. Wetlands of the systems that occur in Kentucky vital habitat for many species of waterfowl and other migratory birds are described below. and are spawning and nursery grounds for many species of game and nongame fishes. Wetlands are home for many amphibian and reptile species, as well as for several game and nongame mammals. System Wetland description Recreational opportunities such as hunting, fishing, hiking, Palustrine .................. Wetlands in which vegetation is predominantly nature observation and photography, camping, and canoeing abound trees iforested wetlands); shrubs (scrub-shrub in Kentucky wetlands, affording enjoyment to State residents and wetlands); persistentor nonpersistent emergent, visitors. Recent research on the ecological function of wetlands has erect, rooted, herbaceous plants (persistent- and led to several innovative programs in the State for the use of con- nonpersistent-emergent wetlands); or sub- mersed and (or) floating plants (aquatic beds). structed wetlands to treat residential, agricultural, and acidic mine Also, intermittently to permanently flooded wastewaters. open-water bodies of less than 20 acres in which water is less than 6.6 feet deep. Lacustrine ................. Wetlands within an intermittently to permanently flooded lake or reservoir. Vegetation, when pres- ent, is predominantly nonpersistent emergent plants (non persistent-emergent wetlands), or submersed and (or) floating plants (aquatic beds), or both. Riverine ..................... Wetlands within a channel. Vegetation, when pres- ent, is same as in the Lacustrine System. eas ly- A Most Kentucky wetlands are palustrine and include at in g shoreward of rivers and lakes, such as bald cypress swamps, bottom-land hardwood forests,emergent wetlands, and small ponds. The alluvial flood plains of the Ohio and Mississippi Rivers and their tributaries in the Western Kentucky Coal Field and Mississippi Embayment physiographic regions (fig. 2B) contain most of the State's wetlands. Welland vegetation in those regions is mostly bot- tom-land hardwood forest associated with scrub-shrub and emer- gent species. Lacustrine wetlands in Kentucky are limited to reser- voirs and a few small natural lakes such as Metropolis Lake and Swan Lake and are the least abundant type in the State. Riverine wetlands also are not abundant in Kentucky, but they are particularly impor- tant in the eastern part of the State, where they provide habitat for rare and endangered species, protect against shoreline erosion, and convey floodwaters (Kentucky Division of Water, 1990). The greatest areal extent of wetlands of all types in Kentucky is in the Western Kentucky Coal Field. The Clear Creek wetlands, located in the Tradewater River Basin, are the largest in this area Figure 1. Axe Lake Swamp, a forested wetland and are the most disturbed by human activities. Clear Creek forms in western Kentucky. (Photograph courtesy of intermittent channels through marshes of cattail and other emergent the Kentucky State Nature Preserves Commis- plants, bottom-land hardwood forests, bald cypress swamps, and sion.) scattered dead forests. Submersed peat-moss mats can be found in 202 National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: STATE SUMMARIES the deeper waters (Hill, 1983). The Clear Creek Basin also contains where else in the State. Axe Lake Swamp State Nature Preserve the only vegetated riverine wetlands in the Western Kentucky Coal consists of a bald cypress swamp and bottom-land hardwood forest Field, including both aquatic-bed and nonpersistent-emergent wet- within the Ohio River flood plain and constitutes a part of the larg- lands. Pondweed, coontail, and water milfoil grow on or below the est contiguous swamp in Kentucky. The swamp supports eight plant water surface, along with emergent species such as lizard's tail and and animal species that are rare in the State and provides wintering smartweed (Mitsch and others, 1983). The extensive wetlands of habitat for thousands of waterfowl. Also located in the Mississippi Cypress Creek, which are adjacent to the creek channel, are com- Embayment are Metropolis Lake, Murphy's Pond, and Swan Lake, posed of well-developed stands of bald cypress, bottom-land hard- three wetlands that are classified as "Outstanding Resource Waters" wood forests, and cattail communities (Taylor, 1985). The area sup- by the Kentucky Natural Resources and Environmental Protection ports a diverse plant and animal community, including waterfowl Cabinet. and many nongame species such as the bald eagle. The Pond Creek- Wetlands in the central and eastern parts of the State are sparse Henderson Sloughs wetland system lies in the northern part of the and scattered. Swamp forests occur on poorly drained flats and in Western Kentucky Coal Field and has been adversely affected by shallow depressions in the upper Green River Basin in the Missis- oil-well brines. This area is characterized by a mosaic of bald cy- sippian Plateaus. Vegetation includes swamp white oak, buttonbush, press swamps and bottom-land hardwood forests, scrub-shrub veg- lizard's tail, and sedges (Hoagland and Jones, 1992). At least a dozen etation, and open-water emergent vegetation. Wetlands in this area swamps associated with abandoned river channels or sinking creeks lie within the Mississippi flyway and provide valuable habitat and (creeks that disappear through a "swallow hole" into solution chan- feeding grounds for migratory waterfowl. nels in the underground limestone bedrock) are located in the In- In the Mississippi Embayment, there are extensive areas of ner and Outer Bluegrass regions and the Knobs (Bryant, 1978; wetlands dominated by bald cypress swamps or bottom-land hard- Meijer and others, 198 1). This type of forested wetland, which oc- wood forests. Terrapin Creek State Nature Preserve is a temporarily curs on moderately wet upland flats, is now rare in the Bluegrass to permanently flooded cypress swamp that contains several peren- and the Knobs. Another example of Bluegrass-region wetlands is nial springs. The area supports a number of fish species found no- in the Sinking Creek Basin (Meijer, 1976). Vegetation includes stands of bald cypress, swamp white oak, sedges, and rushes. The karst area near Mammoth Cave in the Mississippian Plateaus has Inner Bluegrass depressional wetlands on sandstone ridges that contain water for 9 to 10 months during most years. There are also scattered emergent B PHYSIOGRAPHIC DIVISIONS wetlands with organic soils in the Cumberland Plateau. Sphagnum moss is present at many of these sites in dense mats as much as a foot thick, in association with shrubs, sedges, and ferns (Mark to Z& Evans, Kentucky State Nature Preserves Commission, oral Western commun., 1992). Common or characteristic plant species include Kentucky -veined chain-fern. Coal Field spicebush, common alder, cinnamon fern, and net Covington 39' Mississippi Embayment A WETLANDS AND DEEPWATER HABITATS Distribution of wetlands and deepwater habitats- This map shows the approximate distribution of large V wetlands in the State. Because of limitations of scale and source material, some wetlands are not shown Predominantly wetland Louis e Predominantly deepwater habitat iW Cr xingto Ft Knox Pond Creek- ites one inn Henderson S g Lick C- Alrd,op.h, Lokv B dhemd'-' 1@4 Cled Tr 300 mp le Axe Lale Svvamp moth Cav For State Nature Prese own. _a'. 37- Y 83. Cumberland Gap ffive h, lag- - National Historic Park Fort Campbell 87- 85. miiinary neservation 13.9.. d. Chi-/ 89@ Terrapin Creek State Nature Preserve 0 25 50 MILES 0 25 50 KILOMETERS Figure 2. Weiland distribution in Kentucky and physiography of the State. A, Distribution of wetlands and deepwater habitats. B, Physio- graphy. (Sources: A, TE. Dahl, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, unpub. data, 1991. B, Physiographic divisions modified from McDowell, 1986; landforms data from EROS Data Center.) National Water Surnmary-Wetland Resources: KENTUCKY 203 HYDROLOGIC SETTING The greatest areal extent of wetlands in Kentucky is in the Western Kentucky Coal Field. The region grades from rolling hills The types and distribution of wetlands in Kentucky are deter- in the south and east to flat flood plains in the northern areas near mined principally by factors that include climate, topography, hy- the Ohio River. Extensive bottom-land hardwood wetlands in this drology, geology, and soil type. Wetlands occur most commonly in part of the State are the result of a shallow water table, poorly drained areas where precipitation exceeds evapotranspiration and runoff or soils, and frequent overbank flooding following seasonal precipita- where there are perennial sources of ground water. Seasonally, pre- tion (Harker and others, 1981). Bottom-land hardwood forest, either cipitation is least from August through October; during these seasonally flooded or temporarily flooded, is the major wetland type months, ground-water inflows help to maintain saturation in wet- (Mitsch and others, 1983). Valleys of major streams and their tribu- land soils. taries are wide, flat, and filled with thick alluvium or glacial de- A. Western Kentucky Coal Field EXPLANATION Generalized direction of PERCHED WETLANDS ground-water flow PALUSTRINE WETLANDS MINED-AREA WETLAND PALUSTRINEWETLAND FLOOD-PLAIN WETLANDS Generalized water table Abandoned PALUSTRINE WETLANDS coal-mine C@ Scrub-shrub vegetation C2 strip bench Mine-spoil Q. pile RIVERINE WETLANDS Forest vegetation lf,110,1111\@tl thb 11 I - --------- Emergent vegetation ----- -------- Solution conduit 11101 Allu@ium Fracture Shale and efttone F171- Spoil Silt and clay B. Bluegrass and Knobs UPLAND FLUVIAL TERRACE posits (fig. 3A). The associated flood plains contain PLATEAU PAL IUSTRINE WETLAND many riparian wetlands. Soils near the Green, Pond, Tradewater, and Rough Rivers are thick and not well FLOOD-PLAIN WETLANDS drained. The gentle slope of the Tradewater River and ---- -- PALLISTRINE WETLANDS many of its tributaries (less than I foot per mile) re- r- sults in floods that peak and subside slowly, fostering T_ le RIVERINE WETLANDS storage in associated alluvial wetlands. Base flow in streams and water in wetlands commonly are sustained Shale by discharge of ground water from permeable lime- stone (Quinones and others, 1983). Many areas within Limestone the Wes te rn Kentucky Coal Field have been altered by strip mining, Which has changed drainage character- istics. Swamp forests are left as stands of dead timber following disruption of the natural hydrology. Many of these areas are in transition to persi stent- emergent C. Mississippian Plateaus or aquatic-bed wetlands. Abandoned coal-mine strip PAILLISTRINE WETLAND benches typically contain topographic depressions in which small wetlands form, and seepage through I S;nkinsr creek Karst Valley mine-spoil piles commonly supports wetlands on or below the piles. Far western Kentucky is in the Mississippi SinkWes, Embayment. The region has low relief and is charac- Alt" Reg.kh terized by gently rolling uplands and wide, shallow All valleys. Extensive bottom-land hardwood forests are found along Mayfield and Obion Creeks and Bayou de vv/ 444 Chien. Much of the. flood plain of these streams is composed of unconsolidated alluvium underlain by saturated sand and gravel. Other areas within the Mis- sissippi Embayment have extensive deposits of loess or glacially derived outwash. The water table gener- .11y - shallow, and the region has some of the most Unnest ne productive aquifers in the State (Davis and others, Figure 3. Generalized geohydrologic setting of representative wetlands in 1973). Much of western Kentucky is subject to flood- Kentucky. A, Western Kentucky Coal Field. B, Fractured bedrock and terrace ing by the Mississippi and Ohio Rivers, sometimes for deposits in the Inner and Outer Bluegrass regions and the Knobs. C, Karst terrane prolonged periods. This periodic inundation is a pri- in the Mississippian Plateaus. mary source of water for riparian wetlands. 204 National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: STATE SUMMARIES Wetlands in the central and eastern parts of the State gener- conflicts of interest arise between advocates of wetland protection ally are associated with karst terrane or are located on poorly and advocates of resource development. In addition to loss, wetlands drained flood plain or upland soils. Swamp forests in the Knobs and also can be degraded by water pollution. Acidic mine drainage from the Bluegrass region grow along the Green, Licking, Dix, and Ken- coal-mining activities is common in the Western Kentucky Coal tucky Rivers and also occur on high-level terrace deposits at eleva- Field region, and water having low pH and high sulphur or iron tions of 600 to 1,000 feet (fig. 3B). Forested wetlands in the Knobs concentrations causes severe damage to plant and animal commu- have formed on alluvium or low-permeability shale, whereas Blue- nities (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 1992). In the Mississippi grass-region forested wetlands typicafly are in alluvium underlain Embayment, nonpoint-source inputs of nutrients, pesticides, and by limestone and shale. Brodhead Swamp Forest, located in the sediments can exceed the capacity of wetlands to absorb, filter, and Mississippian Plateaus, is in a sinkhole basin underlain by limestone transform those pollutants to less harmful forms, resulting in deg- and drained in the subsurface. The wetland is fed by several inter- radation or loss of wetlands. Other pollutants such as industrial mittent springs as well as by surface runoff (Hannan and Lassetter, wastewater and pesticides have deleterious short-term and long-term 1982) and typically contains surface water for I I months of the year. effects on wetlands. At other locations in the Mississippian Plateaus, wetlands form in sinkholes and karst valleys that are subject to flooding (fig. 3C). In CONSERVATION the karst area surrounding Mammoth Cave, shallow depressional wetlands are sustained by the surficial aquifer on the tops of sand- Many government agencies and private organizations partici- stone ridges. An underlying layer of compact, poorly permeable soil pate in wetland conservation in Kentucky. The most active agen- holds water in the soil at the surface. Scattered emergent wetlands cies and organizations and some of their activities are listed in with organic soils form at the base of gentle to steep slopes in val- table 1. leys, ravines, and canyons in the southeastern Cumberland Plateau. Federal wetland activities. -Development activities in Ken- These midelevation wetlands are fed by acidic ground-water seep- tucky wetlands are regulated by several Federal statutory prohibi- age from stratified and fractured bedrock aquifers. tions and incentives that are intended to slow wetland losses. Some of the more important of these are contained in the 1899 Rivers and TRENDS Harbors Act; the 1972 Clean Water Act and amendments; the 1985 Wetlands are sensitive to changes in normal patterns of water Table 1. Selected wetland-related activities of overnment storage and movement (Mitsch and Gosselink, 1996). Changes in 9 hydrologic conditions, such as those associated with resource de- agencies and private organizations in Kentucky, 1993 velopment or other human activities, commonly result in wetland [Source: Classification of activities is generalized from information provided by agencies and organizations. o, agency or organization participates in loss or degradation. On the basis of the distribution of hydric soils wetland-related activity; ..., agency or organization does not participate in as described by the Kentucky Division of Conservation (1982), wetland-related activity. MAN, management; REG, regulation; R&C, resto- Kentucky once had more than 1.6 million acres of wetlands. By ration and creation; LAN, land acquisition; R&D, research and data collec- 1977, about 929,000 acres (58 percent) of the State's original wet- tion; D&I, delineation and inventory] lands had been lost, primarily through drainage and subsequent conversion to cropland and pastureland. Losses were greatest in western Kentucky, amounting to 52 percent of the State's bottom- Agency or organization 0@ 0@1 13@ 40' 1@11& land hardwood forests. By 1990, Kentucky's remaining wetland FEDERAL acreage was estimated to be between 387,000 acres (John Hefner, Department of Agriculture U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, written commun., 1993) and 650,000 Consolidated Farm Service Agency ........................... ... acres (Kentucky Division of Water, 1992), representing a total State Forest Service .................................................................0 Natural Resources Conservation Service ................ ... loss of about 60 to 76 percent since predevelopment times. Department of Defense Only 20 percent of the remaining naturally occurring wetlands Army Corps of Engineers ............. ___ .................. in Kentucky are forested. In addition to losses from logging and Military reservations .....................................................0 conversion to agricultural land, the disproportionate loss of bottom- Department of the Interior land hardwoods might have been due to stream channelization. As Fish and Wildlife Service ..............................................* Geological Survey .......................................................... . ... ... flood frequency and duration are reduced, long-term changes in National Biological Survey ..................... ............. species composition occur; typically, riparian species are lost. National Park Service ................................................... ... ... ... ... The FwS estimated that, as of 1983, losses of wetlands in Ken- Office of Surface Mining .............................................. tucky were continuing at a rate of about 3,600 acres annually (Tiller, Environmental Protection Agency .................................. 1984). The primary cause of wetland loss in the State has been Tennessee Valley Authority .............................................. STATE conversion of bottom-land hardwood forests for agricultural use. Geological Survey .............................................................. ... ... Although loss due to agricultural conversion continues, the rate has Natural Resources and Environmental declined because of changes in government subsidy programs, de- Protection Cabinet clining agricultural-commodity prices, and the overall scarcity of Division of Conservation ............................................... ... ... ... remaining forested wetlands. Other hydrologic alterations, such as Division of Water ............................................................ ... channelization for flood control, highway construction, and modi- Surface Mining Reclamation and Enforcement .................................................................... ... fications associated with industrial and commercial development, State Nature Preserves Commission .........................* continue to adversely affect wetland resources in Kentucky. How- Tourism Cabinet ever, the loss due to those causes also is declining in response to Fish and Wildlife Resources ........................................a expansion and enforcement of regulations. Transportation Cabinet ..................................................0 Surface coal mining disturbs as much as 4,000 acres per year Water Resources Research institute ......................... ... .. PRIVATE ORGANIZATIONS of the more than 2.9 million acres of land in the Western Kentucky Ducks Unlimited .................................................................. Coal Field region (Mitsch and others, 1983). More than 114,000 Kentucky Resources Council ........................................... ... ... acres of wetlands, principally bottom-land hardwood forests, could The Nature Conservancy ..................................................0 eventually be affected. Owing to the economic importance of coal, Riverfields ............................................................................0 National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: KENTUCKY 205 Food Security Act; the 1990 Food, Agriculture, Conservation, and waterfowl and has constructed approximately 100 acres of new Trade Act; and the 1986 Emergency Wetlands Resources Act. wetlands as a part of their nationwide "Taking Wings Initiative." The Section 10 of the Rivers and Harbors Act gives the U.S. Army Department of Defense has asked the FWS to identify all wetlands Corps of Engineers (Corps) authority to regulate certain activities on Fort Knox and Fort Campbell Military Reservations and to con- in navigable waters. Regulated activities include diking, deepening, duct a survey of threatened and endangered species in wetlands on filling, excavating, and placing of structures. The related section 404 these properties. The NPs has inventoried wetlands in the four NPS of the Clean Water Act is the most often-used Federal legislation properties in Kentucky. Cumberland Gap National Historic Park is protecting wetlands. Under section 404 provisions, the Corps issues working with the Kentucky State Nature Preserves Commission to permits regulating the discharge of dredged or fill material into study midelevation peatlands that are located within park bound- wetlands. Perinits are subject to review and possible veto by the U.S. aries, Fed by acidic seeps, these wetlands support a mixed commu- Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), and the Fws has review and nity of shrub and emergent plants as well as scattered dense mats advisory roles. Section 401 of the Clean Water Act grants to States of sphagnum moss. and eligible Indian Tribes the authority to approve, apply conditions State wetland activities. -Kentucky has not adopted specific to, or deny section 404 permit applications on the basis of a pro- wetland regulations (Aldy, 1992). Wetlands are specifically defined posed activity's probable effects on the water quality of a wetland. in State water-quality standards and regulatory statutes. The State Most farming, ranching, and silviculture activities are not sub- administers the Clean Water Act section 401 water-quality certifi- ject to section 404 regulation. However, the "Swampbuster" provi- cation program, and wetlands are included in the definition of sur- sion of the 1985 Food Security Act and amendments in the 1990 face waters. The Kentucky Division of Water is the point of contact Food, Agriculture, Conservation, and Trade Act discourages for administering the State water-quality certification review proc- (through financial disincentives) the draining, filling, or other al- ess of section 404 permit applications (Hannan and others, 1986). teration of wetlands for agricultural use. The law allows exemptions The Kentucky Natural Resources and Environmental Protection from penalties in some cases, especially if the farmer agrees to re- Cabinet has assembled an interagency working group to explore store the altered wetland or other wetlands that have been converted mitigation options to curtail the loss of Kentucky's bottom-land to agricultural use. The Wetlands Reserve Program of the 1990 Food, hardwood forests. Agriculture, Conservation, and Trade Act authorizes the Federal Although the Fws has not yet completed its inventory of Government to purchase conservation easements from landowners Kentucky's wetlands, under a Memorandum ofAgreement, the Ken- who agree to protect or restore wetlands. The Consolidated Farm tucky Department of Fish and Wildlife Resources has provided Service Agency (formerly the Agricultural Stabilization and Con- funds to the Kentucky Division of Water to digitize all the FWS servation Service) adn-iinisters the Swampbuster provisions and Wet- National Wetlands Inventory maps for Kentucky. The digitized in- lands Reserve Program. The Natural Resources Conservation formation will become a part of the Kentucky Natural Resources Service (formerly the Soil Conservation Service) determines com- and Environmental Protection Cabinet's geographic information pliance with Swampbuster provisions and assists farmers in the iden- system. In addition to having an active wetlands-acquisition pro- tification of wetlands and in the development of wetland protection, gram, the Kentucky Department of Fish and Wildlife Resources restoration, or creation plans. offers technical guidance in wetland identification and restoration The 1986 Emergency Wetlands Resources Act encourages to landowners and developers. The Department also participates in wetland protection through funding incentives. The act requires the New Madrid Wetlands Project, a four-State initiative to protect States to address wetland protection in their Statewide Comprehen- important waterfowl habitat in the lower Mississippi River valley. sive Outdoor Recreation Plans to qualify for Federal funding for The proposal, developed to further the goals of the North Ameri- State recreational land; the National Park Service (NPS) provides can Waterfowl Management Plan, includes acquisition and manage- guidance to States in developing the wetland component of their ment of 39,000 acres of wetlands in Kentucky. plans. The Kentucky State Nature Preserves Commission has recom- The EPA Wetlands Planning Unit has initiated an Advance Iden- mended several wetlands for conservation and protection (Hannan tification project in the Western Kentucky Coal Field. The project and others, 1986). These areas were chosen on the basis of the pres- is a joint initiative between the EPA, the Corps, and the State and ence of threatened or endangered species, the presence of critical includes wetlands in four counties. The goals of the project are to habitat or an Outstanding Resource Water (as designated by the increase public and industry awareness of wetland values and to Kentucky Natural Resources and Environmental Protection Cabi- generate information on wetland resources for regulatory agencies net), and the imminence of destruction or alteration. They also making permit decisions. The EPA has also awarded the Kentucky manage a number of existing wetland preserves and foster the pro- Natural Resources and Environmental Protection Cabinet, Division tection of other wetlands in the State through a system of registry of Water, a project funded by the EPA State/Tribal Wetland Develop- and dedication agreements with private individuals. ment Grant Program. The goal of this project is to collect biologi- Private welland activities. -Most of Kentuckys wetlands are cal, chemical, and physical data from minimally degraded wetland privately owned. The Nature Conservancy is active in land acqui- sites to develop biological standards for the assessment of wetland sition and stewardship of wetlands in Kentucky. The group also health. participates in joint management, along with various State agencies The Fws Regional Wetlands Concept Plan (U.S. Fish and Wild- and private individuals, of several wetlands in the Mississippi life Service, 1992) identified areas of wetlands in Kentucky that Embayment as well as the Horse Lick Creek wetland system in the warrant protection because of their resource value, vulnerability, and Knobs. The Kentucky Resources Council is an environmental ad- scarcity. Among them are approximately 6,000 acres in the Cypress vocacy organization that provides legal and technical support to local Creek area of the Western Kentucky Coal Field. This tract is recog- government and public interest groups to ensure the full and fair nized as habitat for several State-listed threatened or endangered implementation of the Clean Water Act with respect to wetlands in species, contains five archeological sites, and is recognized as an the State. Riverfields is a group of concerned private citizens that important wetland area by the Kentucky State Nature Preserves owns and manages two wetland areas, including bottom-land hard- Commission. wood forest in the alluvial flood plain of the Ohio River near Lou- Several other Federal agencies conduct wetland-related activi- isville. They strongly emphasize public education in their activities. ties in the State. The Forest Service (FS) is inventorying wetlands in the Daniel Boone National Forest. The FS manages wetlands for 206 National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: STATE SUMMARIES References Cited Kentucky Division of Conservation, 1982, Kentucky soil and water conser- vation program, Part I -Overview and appraisal of soil and water re- Aldy, J.E., Jr., 1992, Trends in wetland regulation and the future of sources: Frankfort, Kentucky Natural Resources and Environmental Kentucky's wetlands program: Frankfort, Kentucky Natural Resources Protection Cabinet, Division of Conservation, 46 p. and Environmental Protection Cabinet, 115 p. McDowell, R.C., 1986, The Geology of Kentucky -A text to accompany Beal, E.O., and Thieret, J.W., 1986, Aquatic and wetland plants of Kentucky: the geologic map of Kentucky: U.S. Geological Survey Professional Kentucky Nature Preserves Commission, Scientific and Technical Paper 115 I-H, 76 p. Series 5, 314 p. Meijer, Willem, 1976, Notes on the flora of the Sinking Creek system and Bryant, W.S., 1978, Unusual forest type, hydro-mesophytic, for the Inner Elkhorn source areas in the Inner Bluegrass region of Kentucky: Trans- Bluegrass Region of Kentucky: Castanea, v. 43, p. 129-137. actions of the Kentucky Academy of Science, v. 37, p. 77- 84. Cowardin, L.M., Carter, Virginia, Golet, F.C., and LaRoe, E.T., 1979, Clas- Meijer, Willem, Campbell, J.J.N., Setser, Howard, and Meade, L.E., 198 1, sification of wetlands and deepwater habitats of the United States: U.S. Swamp forests on high terrace deposits in the Bluegrass and Knobs Fish and Wildlife Service Report FWS/OBS -79/31, 131 p. Regions of Kentucky: Castanea, v. 46, p. 122 -135. Davis, R.W., Lambert, T.W., and Hansen, A.J., Jr., 1973, Subsurface geol- Mitsch, W.J., and Gosselink, J.G., 1986, Wetlands: New York, Van Nostrand ogy and ground-water resources of the Jackson Purchase region, Ken- Reinhold, 539 p. tucky: U.S. Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper 1987, 66 p. Mitsch, W.J., Taylor, J.R., Benson, K.B., and Hill, P.L., Jr., 1983, Atlas of Hannan, R.R., Fisher, W.L., Justis, Catherine, and Cicerello, R.R., 1986, wetlands in the principal coal surface mining region of western Ken- Wetland protection strategies for Kentucky: Frankfort, Technical Re- tucky: U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Report FWS/OBS - 82n2, 134 p. port of the Kentucky Nature Preserves Commission, 146 p. Quinones, Fred, York, K.L., and Plebuch, R.O., 1983, Hydrology of Area Hannan, R.R., and Lassetter, J.S., 1982, The vascular flora ofthe Brodhead 34, Eastern region, Interior Coal Province, Kentucky, Indiana, and Swamp Forest, Rockcastle County, Kentucky: Transactions of the Illinois: U.S. Geological Survey Water-Resources Investigations Re- Kentucky Academy of Science, v. 43, p. 43 - 49. port 82-638, 32 p. Harker, D.F., Jr., Warren, M.L., Camburn, K.E., and Cicerello, R.R., 198 1, Taylor, J.R., 1985, Community structure and primary productivity of for- Aquatic biota and water-quality survey of the Western Kentucky ested wetlands in western Kentucky: Louisville, Kentucky, University Coalfield: Frankfort, Technical Report of the Kentucky Nature Pre- of Louisville, Ph.D. dissertation, p. 11-39. serves Commission, 896 p. Tiner, R.W., Jr., 1984, Wetlands of the United States -Current status and Hill, P.L., Jr., 1983, Wetland-stream ecosystems of the Western Kentucky recent trends: Washington, D.C., U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 59 p. Coalfield-Environmental disturbance and the shaping of aquatic U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 1992, Regional wetlands concept plan - community structure: Louisville, Kentucky, University of Louisville, Emergency Wetlands Resources Act, Southeast Region: U.S. Fish and Ph.D. dissertation, 290 p. Wildlife Service, 259 p. Hoagland, B.W., and Jones, R.L., 1992, Wetland and riparian flora of the upper Green River basin, south-central Kentucky: Transactions of the Kentucky Academy of Science, v. 53, p. 141-153. FOR ADDITIONAL INFORMATION: District Chief, U.S. Geological Kentucky Division of Water, 1990, 1990 Kentucky report to Congress on Survey, 2301 Bradley Avenue, Louisville, KY 40217; Regional Wetland water quality: Frankfort, Kentucky Natural Resources and Environ- Coordinator, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 1875 Century Building, Suite mental Protection Cabinet, 187 p. 200, Atlanta, GA 80845 -1992, 1992 Kentucky report to Congress on water quality: Frank- fort, Kentucky Natural Resources and Environmental Protection Cabi- Prepared by net, 187 p. Kim H. Haag and Charles J. Taylor, Kentucky Environmental Quality Commission, 1992, State of Kentucky's environment- A report of progress and problems: Frankfort, Ken- U.S. Geological Survey tucky Environmental Quality Commission, 332 p. U.S. Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper 2425 National Water Summary-Wetland Resources 207 Louisiana Wetland Resources Wetlands contribute to the economic, cultural, and ecological the Nation. State wetlands provide year-round habitat for eight en- diversity of Louisiana. Presently, wetlands cover less than one-third dangered species and four threatened species. Many species of of the State but are estimated to have covered about one-half of the neotropical songbirds use Louisiana wetlands for resting and feed- State before the arrival of Europeans (Dahl, 1990). Wetlands have ing habitat during migration. The State's wetlands provide winter greatly influenced the cultural development of the State's inhabi- habitat for many other species of birds, including the Arctic per- tants. American Indians occupied villages along these highly pro- egrine falcon and about one-half of the ducks, geese, and other ductive lands, as evidenced by the many shell mounds in these areas. waterfowl that use the Mississippi Flyway. Large numbers of wa- Traditional Indian cultures still exist in Louisiana near the wetlands terfowl from the Central Flyway winter in the southwestern part of that influenced the development of their traditions. The Acadian the State. (Cajun) culture developed in the isolation of southern Louisiana Wetlands in Louisiana are important in flood control and re- wetlands, and the popularity of Cajun cuisine today is directly re- duce the effects of storm surges associated with hurricanes. Wendell lated to the foods available from those areas. Major cities and towns Curole of the Lafourche Parish Levee District has stated that I mile such as New Orleans, Houma, Morgan City, and Lake Charles de- of marsh reduces a storm surge by 1 foot (The Advocate, Baton veloped close to wetlands because of the wealth of natural resources Rouge, April 18, 1993). As coastal wetlands are lost, this natural available. wetland function commonly is replaced by expensive storm surge Wetlands are a major source of income for the people of Loui- projects (levees and gated structures) to protect coastal communi- siana. Shellfish and finfish revenues from coastal and inland wa- ties such as New Orleans and Houma. Wetlands also are being used ters are estimated at $680 million annually (Keithly, 199 1). In 1984, as tertiary wastewater-treatment alternatives for small municipali- Louisiana was ranked first in the Nation in fisheries landings and ties such as Thibodaux and, in general, serve as filters or traps for second in fisheries value. In 1986, 28.6 percent of the commercial sediment, nutrients, and pollutants carried by water passing through fish harvested in the Nation came from Louisiana; in 1991, that them. number dropped to 10.9 percent (The Advocate, Baton Rouge, April 18, 1993). The decline in Louisiana's commercial landings is be- TYPES AND DISTRIBUTION lieved to be related to coastal-wetland losses in the State. All of the commercially valuable fish species spend all or part of their life cycle Wetlands are lands transitional between terrestrial and deep- in wetlands. Further, as recently as 1984, 40 percent of the Natiorfs water habitats where the water table usually is at or near the land wild furs and bides came from Louisiana wetlands (Louisiana De- surface or the land is covered by shallow water (Cowardin and oth- partment of Wildlife and Fisheries, written commun., 1984). Loui- ers, 1979). The distribution of wetlands and deepwater habitats in siana wetlands also generate funds from recreational uses such as Louisiana is shown in figure 2A; only wetlands are discussed herein. hunting, fishing, and bird watching. There are 17 National Wildlife Wetlands can be vegetated or nonvegetated and are classified Refuges, 28 State Wildlife Management and Refuge Areas, 7 State on the basis of their hydrology, vegetation, and substrate. In this Parks, I National Park, and numerous State commemorative sites summary, wetlands are classified according to the system proposed located entirely or partly within wetlands. In addition to these ar- by Cowardin and others (1979), which is used by the U.S. Fish and eas, The Nature Conservancy has two coastal preserves and five Wildlife Service (FWS) to map and inventory the Natior@s wetlands. forested preserves in wetland areas (David Pashley, The Nature At the most general level of the classification system, wetlands are Conservancy, oral commun., 1993). grouped into five ecological systems: Palustrine, Lacustrine, Riv- Ecologically, the rich diversity of plant and animal life in Loui- erine, Estuarine, and Marine. The Palustrine System includes only siana wetlands is a priceless natural heritage for both the State and wetlands, whereas the other systems comprise wetlands and deepwater habitats. Wetlands of the systems that occur in Louisi- ana are described below. System Weiland description Palustrine .............. Nontidal and tidal-freshwater wetlands in which -law vegetation is predominantly trees (forestedwet- lands); shrubs (scrub-shrub wetlands); persistent or nonpersistent emergent, erect, rooted herba- ceous plants (persistent- and nonpersistent- emergent wetlands); or submersed and (or) floating plants (aquatic beds). Also, intermit- tently to permanently flooded open-water bod- ies of less than 20 acres in which water is less than 6.6 feet deep. Lacustrine ................. Nontidal and tidal-freshwater wetlands within an intermittently to permanently flooded lake or reservoir larger than 20 acres and (or) deeper than 6.6 feet. Vegetation, when present, is pre- dominantly nonpersistent emergent plants (non- Figure 1. A freshwater forested wetland on the shore of persistent-emergent wetlands), or submersed Lake Pontchartrain near La Branche. This wetland, which and (or) floating plants (aquatic beds), or both. is near the New Orleans metropolitan area, is threatened Riverine ..................... Nontidal and tidal-freshwater wetlands within a by urban encroachment and runoff. (Photograph by channel. Vegetation, when present, is same as Dennis K. Demcheck, U.S. Geofogical Survey) in the Lacustrine System. 208 National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: STATE SUMMARIES Estuarine ................... Tidal wetlands in low-wave-energy environments associated with natural levees and spoil banks statewide. This type where the salinity ofthe water is greater than 0.5 of wetland also has developed on some floating marshes in South- part per thousand (ppt) and is variable owing to evaporation and the mixing of seawater and ern Louisiana. Nontidal and tidal fresh marshes are most common freshwater. in southern Louisiana. Marine ....................... Tidal wetlands that are exposed to waves and cur- Coastal wetlands, mostly salt marshes (estuarine emergent rents of the open ocean and to water having a wetlands), include about 2.5 million acres in Louisiana. About 40 salinity greater than 30 ppt. percent of the State's coastal marshes are classified as fresh/inter- mediate (salinity 0.5-8.3 ppt, average 3.3 ppt), about 38 percent Palustrine wetlands, which include swamps, scrub -shrub wet- as brackish (salinity 1.0 - 18.4 ppt, average 8.0 ppt), and about 22 lands, nontidal and tidal fresh marshes, and ponds, are the most percent as saline (salinity greater than 18.4 ppo (Louisiana Depart- common wetlands in Louisiana. Palustrine wetlands accounted for ment of Culture, Recreation and Tourism, 1988; S.N. Gagliano, approximately 78 percent of the wetlands in Louisiana in the 1970 s Coastal Environments, Inc., written commun. 199 1). In the 1970's, and are distributed statewide. The most common palustrine wetlands coastal wetlands accounted for approximately 22 percent of the are swamps (forested wetlands) which contribute about 59 percent wetlands in Louisiana. Louisiana coastal marshes represent an es- of the State's wetlands. Swamps in Louisiana are mostly cypress- timated 35 to 40 percent of the coastal marshes and about 25 per- tupelo gum swamps along the major rivers, bayous, and streams. In cent of all coastal wetlands in the conterminous United States. the 1970's, swamps had an area of between 5.6 and 6.8 million acres Coastal wetlands in Louisiana are in the Western Gulf Coastal Plain, statewide, 3.0 million acres of which were in the Mississippi Allu- Mississippi Alluvial Plain, and the Southern Coastal Plain ecore- vial Plain (fig. 2B) (Louisiana Department of Culture, Recreation gions. and Tourism, 1988). Palustrine scrub-shrub wetlands are typically 94' 92' oA, ECOREGIONS J A. Western Gulf Coastal Plain B B. South Central Plains C. Sout heastern Plains issippi Alluvial Plain D. Miss E. Mississippi Valley Loess Plains qf F. Southern Coastal Plain 32@ %V E C A D 41 90 > X 4 0 25 50 MILES a ug i I 0 25 50 KILOMETERS Lake Lafa a Li@3 A.- M 3 41. A WETLANDS AND DEEPWATER HABITATS Distribution of wetlands and cleepwater habitats- 0 This map shows the approximate distribution of large wetlands in the State. Because of limitations of scale and source material, some wetlands are not shown M E X I C 0 Predominantly welland F-7 Predominantly cleepwater habitat I @ Figure 2. Welland distribution in Louisiana and ecoregions of the State. A, Distribution of wetlands and deepwater habitats. 9, Ecoregions. (Sources: A, TE. Dahl, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, unpub. data, 199 1. B, Omernik, 1987.) National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: LOUISIANA 209 HYDROLOGIC SETTING bottom-land hardwood forests dominated by oak, hickory, and other hardwoods. Conversely, increased flooding or higher water tables Wetland hydrology is affected by regional and local geology, can result in the conversion of bottom-land hardwood-forest wet- topography, soil characteristics, and climate. Water in wetlands can lands to cypress-tupelo gum swamps. Excessive flooding, either in come from either surface- or ground-water sources or from both. depth or duration, can result in the conversion of swamp to open- Wetlands can function as storage reservoirs for streams or sources water, emergent, or scrub-shrub wetlands because of the lack of of recharge for ground-water systems. Water in small nontidal wet- growth of new trees and the drowning of existing trees. The flood lands is typically supplied by local shallow ground-water flow sys- plain of the Atchafalaya River, the largest distributary of the Mis- tems and localized runoff. Larger wetlands can receive discharge sissippi River, contains the best known example of a forested wet- from or provide recharge to regional as well as local ground-water land in Louisiana. The Atchafalaya River swamp is the largest hard- systems. Soils that underlie wetlands determine the rate at which wood swamp in the country. The delta developing at the mouth of water percolates downward to recharge the ground-water system or the Atchafalaya River is one of the few areas of the State where the discharges from it. Precipitation in Louisiana, which averages be- shoreline (and associated marshland) is expanding. tween 50 to 60 inches per year (Newton, 1972), provides much of The types of coastal wetlands (fresh, intermediate, brackish, the surface-water runoff that maintains the State's wetlands. and saline) and their distribution are dependent upon the availabil- Most wetlands in Louisiana are closely associated with the ity of freshwater, frequency of storm-induced salinity maximums, State's major rivers, bayous, and streams (fig. 2A). The Mississippi and alterations to local hydrology caused by construction of oil- and River and its shifting delta have created most of the State's estua- gas-well access canals. All of these variables contribute to a con- rine and palustrine wetlands. The Mississippi River drains about tinual advance and retreat of wetlands in the coastal areas of Loui- 40 percent of the conterminous 48 States and parts of Canada (Craig siana. and others, 1979). Large quantities of sediment were deposited annually in the Mississippi River flood plain and along coastal TRENDS Louisiana before the installation of flood-control levees along the main channel of the river. The deposition of this sediment has re- Louisiana has lost about 46 percent of its wetlands (about 7.4 sulted in the largest deltaic land mass in North America (Louisiana million acres) since the 1700's, when Europeans first began modi- Department of Culture, Recreation and Tourism, 1988). Deltaic fying the continent's geographic features (Dahl, 1990). Palustrine deposition at the mouth of the Mississippi River has been a dynamic wetlands, primarily swamps, have decreased from an estimated 11.3 process; several deltas have formed over the last 5,000 years (fig. 3). million acres to as little as 5.6 million acres in the 1970's. In the Older deltas have eroded and deteriorated as the next delta was Mississippi Alluvial Plain, there has been a decline in palustrine formed (Coleman and Gagliano, 1964; Frazier, 1967). wetlands from about 4.3 million acres in 1957 to about 3.0 million The hydrology of swamps along rivers, bayous, and streams is acres in 1977 (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 1992). The decline characterized by annual cycles of flooding and dewatering. Plant in palustrine wetlands was due, in large part, to land clearing for communities in these swamps typically are dominated by cypress agricultural purposes. Other causes of wetland loss include flood- and tupelo gum trees. The value of these swamps to fish popula- control projects, oil and gas exploration, lignite and gravel mining, tions and overall aquatic productivity depends upon the renewal of construction of catfish and crawfish ponds, dredging and filling for nutrients and oxygenated water that takes place during these annual residential and commercial development, solid-waste disposal, and cycles. Reduced flooding can result in a conversion of swamps into highway construction. The rate of loss of palustrine wetlands is BY 92' 91o 90, 891 louses 1-$ 1 11 1 Baton Rouge MISSISSIPPI '&=port@`1--@- LOUISIANA Crowley .1- ette =q ne Lake Pontchartrain Abb ri Is onvill e r Fran lin 30' Ini White Lake oum Breton Soundj I Atchafalaya Bay EXPLANATION Mississippi River Delta Complexes = Maringouin Teche G-fof1qe.ic- I /A 29* =St. Bernard Lafourche Placluernines (most recent) 0 10 20 30 MILES i I I I ''I 1 0 10 20 30 KILOMETERS Figure 3. Prehistoric and present-day Mississippi River Delta complexes. (Source: Kolb and Van Lopik, 1966.) 210 National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: STATE SUMMARIES thought to have been slowed by the "Swampbuster" provisions of disrupted historic north-south sheet-flow runoff in coastal areas. the Food Security Act of 1985 and the 1990 Food, Agriculture, Use of the Atchafalaya River Basin as a floodway and the ex- Conservation, and Trade Act, which provides for the purchase of tensive construction of access canals (and associated spoil banks) wetlands from farmers. However, although palustrine wetland loss have resulted in the conversion of parts of the cypress-tupelo gum has slowed, it is still considered to be substantial. swamp in the basin to other types of wetlands, Wetlands created by Major causes ofcoastal wetland loss in Louisiana are a decrease these changes in the hydrologic system include bottom-land forests in suspended- sediment load in the major streams due to dams and in areas of rapid deposition, scrub-shrub wetlands along spoil banks, channelization and leveeing of the Mississippi River (Kesel, 1988, and emergent wetlands at the mouth of the Atchafalaya and in open- 1989); dredging of canals for oil and gas exploration, navigation, water areas of the basin that have filled by sediment. and pipeline installation; dredging, filling, and drainage for devel- Coastal-wetland loss in Louisiana is a critical issue within the opment; drainage for conversion to crop production or pasture; State. About 4 million acres of coastal wetlands existed in the State subsidence; erosion; marsh "eat-outs" by nutria; and hurricanes. at the beginning of the 1900's (Dunbar and others, 1992). Since that About 8 percent of the State's coastal marshes have been dredged, time, the Fws estimates that more than 900,000 acres of these coastal creating canals and associated spoil banks. About one-half of the wetlands have been lost (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 1992). State's coastal marsh losses can be attributed to or related to canal Seventy-three percent (654,000 acres) of the loss Occurred between construction (Scaife and others, 1983). the 1950's and 1970's. The U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (Corps) The overall balance between land gain (shoreline accretion) and has estimated that since 1930, 17.8 percent of the land in the south- land loss (shoreline erosion) in Louisiana has been one of net gain ern coastal plain has been lost. (Dunbar and others, 1992). The in wetland area over most of the last 5,000 years (Coleman and highest coastal land-loss rates occurred from 1956 to 1974 (fig. 4), Gagliano, 1964) because of the abandonment of existing deltas and and the largest loss occurred along the present-day Mississippi River creation of new deltas by the Mississippi River. In the last 100 years, Delta (Dunbar and others, 1992). Estimated land-loss rates for the however, this trend has been reversed because of human alteration Louisiana coast during 1978 to 1987 range from about 40 to 64.5 of the Mississippi River and the Louisiana coastal ecosystems. square miles per year (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 1992; Tem- Construction of flood-control levees along the Mississippi River and plet and Meyer-Arendt, 1986). Recent estimates indicate a slight its major tributaries and the dredging of canals in the Mississippi- decrease in erosion rates, which were estimated to be between M Atchafalaya River Delta have deprived flood-plain and delta wet- and 40 square miles per year in 1990. However, this decrease might lands of sediment needed to prevent wetland loss caused by erosion be a result of the decreased availability of highly erodable organic or submergence. sediments relative to more erosion-resistant soils that have a higher Levee construction began as early as the 1700's in and near percentage of clays and silts, rather than to restoration efforts (S.M. New Orleans; however, construction of levees on a large scale did Gagliano, Coastal Environments, Inc., oral commun., 199 1). Dunbar not begin until after the disastrous flood of 1927. Dams constructed and others (1992) reached similar conclusions and predicted that on the Missouri River and its tributaries in the mid-1950's trapped natural land-loss rates will continue to decrease slowly until a back- sediment and further reduced the sediment available to wetlands in ground rate of approximately 0. 17 percent per year is reached. southern Louisiana. Wetland loss was further accelerated by con- Loss of coastal wetlands is closely associated with the loss of struction of navigation and oil - and gas-well access canals that ex- fisheries productivity and revenue. The conversion of wetlands to posed fresh and intermediate wetlands to more saline water and open water also represents a threat to oil and gas wells now located 930 92' 91, 90, 89, MISSISSIPPI 31' LO _77 UISIANA 0 Baton Roug 0 Lake Charles 0Crowley 0 Lafayette _- ;6/ Po tc artr in onal onvillEP 30o .40 Ab eville New I rl- :ranklin -i-Whif 'Hourn i EXPLANATION Rate of land loss in square miles per year 29* 0.0 - 1.0 1.0 - 2.0 2.0 - 3.0 0.1f of M.Xiro 3.0 - 4.0 0 10 20 30 MILES I 1 11 11 1 0 10 20 30 KILOMETERS J E7 t@Ab Figure 4. Average coastal land-loss rates in Louisiana, 1956 to 1974. (Source: Dunbar and others, 1992.) National Water Su mmary-Wetland Resources: LOUISIANA 211 in the coastal wetlands. The State and Federal governments have of structures. The related section 404 of the Clean Water Act is the recognized the problems associated with the loss of wetlands and most often-used Federal legislation protecting wetlands. Under have dedicated as much as $30 million annually for the mitigation section 404 provisions, the Corps issues permits regulating the dis- of coastal wetland loss through the State Coastal Restoration Pro- charge of dredged or fill material into wetlands, Permits are sub- gram and the Federal Coastal Wetlands, Planning, Protection, and ject to review and possible veto by the U.S. Environmental Protec- Restoration Act of 1990. tion Agency, and the Fws has review and advisory roles. Section 401 of the Clean Water Act grants to States and eligible Indian Tribes CONSERVATION the authority to approve, apply conditions to, or deny section 404 permit applications on the basis of a proposed activity's probable Many government agencies and private organizations partici- effects on the water quality of a wetland. pate in wetland conservation in Louisiana. The most active agen- Most farming, ranching, and silviculture activities are not sub- cies and organizations and some of their activities are listed in table ject to section 404 regulation. However, the "Swampbuster" provi- I . sion of the 1985 Food Security Act and amendments in the 1990 Federal wetland activities. -Development activities in Loui- Food, Agriculture, Conservation, and Trade Act discourage (through siana wetlands are regulated by several Federal statutory prohibi- financial disincentives) the draining, filling, or other alteration of tions and incentives that are intended to slow wetland losses. Some wetlands for agricultural use. The law allows exemptions from pen- of the more important of these are contained in the 1899 Rivers and alties in some cases, especially if the farmer agrees to restore the Harbors Act; the 1972 Clean Water Act and amendments; the 1985 altered wetland or other wetlands that have been converted to agri- Food Security Act; the 1990 Food, Agriculture, Conservation, and cultural use. The Wetlands Reserve Program of the 1990 Food, Trade Act; the 1986 Emergency Wetlands Resources Act; and the Agriculture, Conservation, and Trade Act authorizes the Federal 1972 Coastal Zone Management Act. Government to purchase conservation easements from landowners Section 10 of the Rivers and Harbors Act gives the Corps au- who agree to protect or restore wetlands. The Consolidated Farm thority to regulate certain activities in navigable waters. Regulated Service Agency (formerly the Agricultural Stabilization and Conser- activities include diking, deepening, filling, excavating, and placing vation Service) administers the Swampbuster provisions and Wet- lands Reserve Program. The Natural Resources Conservation Table 1. Selected wetland-related activities of government Service (formerly the Soil Conservation Service) determines com- agencies and private organizations in Louisiana, 1993 pliance with Swampbuster provisions and assists farmers in the iden- tification of wetlands and in the development of wetland protection, [Source: Classification of activities is generalized from information provided restoration, or creation plans. by agencies and organizations. 9, agency or organization participates in The 1986 Emergency Wetlands Resources Act and the 1972 wetland-related activity; agency or organization does not participate in wetland-related activity. MAN, management; REG, regulation; R&C, res- Coastal Zone Management Act and amendments encourage wetland toration and creation; LAN, land acquisition; R&D, research and data col- protection through funding incentives. The Emergency Wetland lection; D&I, delineation and inventory] Resources Act requires States to address wetland protection in their Statewide Comprehensive Outdoor Recreation Plans to qualify for q> C@ Federal funding for State recreational land; the National Park Ser- Agency or organization 0 o' '0' vice (NPS) provides guidance to States in developing the wetland FEDERAL component of their plans. Coastal States that adopt coastal-zone Department ofAgriculture management programs and plans approved by the National Oceanic Consolidated Farm Service Agency ........................... ... and Atmospheric Administration are eligible for Federal funding and Forest Service ......................... ..............................* technical assistance through the Coastal Zone Management Act. Natural Resources Conservation Service ................ ... Department of Commerce The Federal Government has been involved with wetlands in National Oceanic and Atmospheric Louisiana dating back to the Swamp Land Act of 1849. This act Administration ......................... ....................................... granted to Louisiana all swamp and overflow lands then unfit for Department of Defense cultivation to help in controlling floods in the Mississippi River Army Corps of Engineers .............................................. ... Valley by construction of levees and drains (Shaw and Fredine, Department of the Interior Fish and Wildlife Service .............................................. 197 1). Massive flooding by the Mississippi River in 1927 resulted Geological Survey .......................................................... ... ... ... ... in the Flood Control Act of 1928. This act provides comprehensive Minerals Management Service ...................................*0 flood control for the lower Mississippi River Valley below Cairo, National Biological Service .........................................-. ... ... - Ill., by authorizing the Corps to construct and maintain levees, flood- National Park Service ........... ....................................... 0 0 ways, channel modifications, and various control structures. A]- Environmental Protection Agency .................................. - a STATE though the act provided much-needed relief from flooding, it has Department of Agriculture ............................................... adversely affected the wetland resources in the Louisiana coastal Department of Environmental Quality ........................... ... 0 zone. Department of Health and Human Resources ............. ... ... ... ... In November 1990, Congress passed Public Law 101-646, the Department of Natural Resources ................................. ...0 Coastal Wetlands Planning, Protection, and Restoration Act, which Department of Transportation and Development ........ ... 0 Department of Wildlife and Fisheries ............................ provides Federal funding (matched by State funding) for the plan- Governor's Office of Coastal Activities ............... ning and implementation of projects for the protection and restora- REGIONAL, PARISH, AND LOCAL tion of coastal wetlands. The act directs the development of an an- Levee boards ....................................................................... nual priority-project list, ranked in order of cost effectiveness and Some parish governments ..................................... consisting of small-scale projects that can be substantially com- PRIVATE ORGANIZATIONS pleted within 5 years. The act also requires development of a com- Coalition to Restore Coastal Louisiana ......................... ... ... ... ... ... Gulf Coast Conservation Association ............................ ... ... ... prehensive restoration plan for the entire Louisiana coast. Lake Pontchartrain Basin Foundation ........................... ... ... Large tracts of land, many containing wetlands, are managed Louisiana Wildlife Federation .......................................... ... .. by the FWS, U.S. Department of Defense, and the NPS. The plans National Audubon Society ...............................................0 for these lands are subject to a review process that allows local The Nature Conservancy ..................................................0 groups and individuals to have input into the planning process that 212 National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: STATE SUMMARIES determines the future direction management agencies pursue for References Cited economic, ecological, and recreational development of these lands. Coleman, J.M., and Gagliano, S.M., 1964, Cyclic sedimentation in the State wetland activities. -The Louisiana Department of Wild- Mississippi River deltaic plain: Transactions of the Gulf Coast Asso- life and Fisheries Land Acquisition Program is funded primarily by ciation of Geological Societies, v. 14, p. 67 - 80. duck-stamp and hunting-license revenues. Wetlands are given high Cowardin, L.M., Carter, Virginia, Golet, F.C., and LaRoe, E.T., 1979, Clas- priority in the acquisition of lands. The Department's Refuge Divi- sification of wetlands and deepwater habitats of the United States: U.S. sion manages almost 200,000 acres of coastal wetlands in four sepa- Fish and Wildlife Report FWS/OBS-79/31, 131 p. rate refuges. Providing waterfowl habitat is the primary purpose for Craig, N.J., Turner, R.E., and Day, J.W., 1979, Land loss in coastal Louisi- these refuges. The Department's Natural Heritage Program's primary ana (USA): Environmental Management, v. 3, no. 2, p. 133-134. mission is the identification and indexing of unique natural habi- Dahl, T.E., 1990, Wetlands -Losses in the United States, 1780's to 1980 s: tats in Louisiana, which includes many wetlands. The Department Washington D.C., U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Report to Congress, 13 p. also administers the Statewide Environmental Investigation pro- Dunbar, J.B., Britsch, L.D., and Kemp, E.B., 111, 1992, Land loss rates- gram, which encourages mitigation offish and wildlife habitat loss Report 3, Louisiana Coastal Plain: U,S. Army Corps of Engineers caused by local, State, or Federal development projects. Technical Report GL - 90 - 2, 65 p. The Louisiana Department of Natural Resources' Coastal Frazier, D.E., 1967, Recent deltaic deposits of the Mississippi River: Their Management Division administers the Coastal Use Permitting Pro- development and chronology: Transactions of the Gulf Coast Asso- gram. This program provides guidelines for the permitting of ciation of Geological Societies, v. 17, p. 287- 315. coastal-zone developmental activities in the least environmentally Keithly, Walter, 1991, Louisiana seafood industry study-A summary: damaging manner. Coastal-use permits are required for any activ- Louisiana Seafood Promotions and Marketing Board, 32 p. Kesel, R.H., 1988, The decline in the suspended load of the lower Missis- ity in the coastal zone except those specifically exempted by the sippi River and its influence on adjacent wetlands: Environmental Louisiana State Legislature. The Coastal Management Division Geology and Water Sciences, v. H, no. 3, p. 271-28 1. Coastal Zone Program reviews Federal activities in the coastal zone 1989, The role of the Mississippi River in wetland loss in south- to ensure consistency with State coastal -management plans. eastern Louisiana, U.S.A.: Environmental Geology and Water Sci- The Louisiana Coastal Wetlands Conservation and Restoration ences, v. 13, no. 3, p. 183 -193. Program is administered by the Office of Coastal Restoration and Kolb, C.R., and Van Lopik, J.R., 1966, Depositional environments of the Management within the Department of Natural Resources. The pro- Mississippi River deltaic plain, southeastern Louisiana, in Shirley, gram implements specific projects that are designed to conserve, M.L. and Ragsdale, J.A., eds., Deltas: Houston Geological Society, enhance, restore, and create coastal vegetated wetlands through an p. 16-62. annually updated priority plan approved by the Louisiana State Leg- Louisiana Department of Culture, Recreation and Tourism, 1988, Louisi- ana wetlands priority conservation plan: Baton Rouge, Louisiana islature. The program is funded from State oil and gas severance Department ofCulture, Recreation and Tourism, Office of State Parks, taxes placed in a Coastal Wetlands Conservation and Restoration Division of Outdoor Recreation, 64 p. Trust Fund. Newton, M.B., Jr., 1972, Atlas of Louisiana: Louisiana State University, Other State agencies actively involved in regulation or data School of Geoscience Miscellaneous Publication 72-1, p. 10. collection in the coastal zone include the Department of Environ- Omernik, J.M., 1986, Ecoregions ofthe United States-Map supplement: mental Quality, Department of Agriculture, Department of Health Annals ofthe Association ofAmerican Geographers, v. 77, no. 1, scale and Human Resources, and the Department of Transportation and 1:7,500,000. Development. For example, the Department of Environmental Qual- Scaffe, W.W., Turner, R.E., and Costanza, R,, 1983, Coastal Louisiana re- ity is responsible for the enforcement of water-quality standards cent land loss and canal impacts: Environmental Management, v. 7, p. 433-442. within the State's wetlands. Shaw, S.P. and Fredine, C.G., 197 1, Wetlands of the United States, their Regional, parish, and local wetland activities. -Parish gov- extent and their value to waterfowl and other wildlife: U.S. Fish and ernments in the Louisiana coastal zone have an interest in preserv- Wildlife Service Circular 39, 67 p. ing and restoring wetlands. The Terrebonne Parish government Templet, P.H., and Meyer-Arendt, K.J., 1996, Louisiana wetland loss and (which contains Houma), for example, has a coastal-wetlands res- sea level rise -A regional management approach to the problem, in toration program. Vermilion Parish (which contains Abbeville) has Kusler, J.A., Quarnmen, M.L., and Brooks, Gail, eds., Proceedings a Coastal Restoration Advisory Committee that participates in the of the National Weiland Symposium -Mitigation and Impacts and Coastal Wetlands Planning, Protection, and Restoration Act process Losses, Oct. 8-10, 1986, New Orleans: Berne, N.Y., Association of Some city and parish governments have strong regulatory or land' State Wettand Managers, p. 230-237. U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 1992, Regional wetlands concept plan; acquisition programs that provide wetlands protection beyond that Emergency Wetlands Resources Act, Southeast Region: Atlanta, Ga., which is required by the State. Others are less able to develop strong U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 249 p. local protection programs, owing to budgetary constraints. Private wetland activities. -Private organizations in Louisi- ana are important as advocates of wetland conservation and pro- FOR ADDITIONAL INFORMATION: District Chief, U.S. Geological tection. Louisiana has many private-interest groups that keep the Survey, 3535 S. Sherwood Forest Boulevard, Suite 120, Baton Rouge, LA public informed on wetland issues, organize citizen networks, and 70816; Regional Weiland Coordinator, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 1875 lobby for wetland-protection measures. The National Audubon So- Century Building, Suite 200, Atlanta, GA 30345 ciety and The Nature Conservancy have purchased wetlands in Louisiana for preservation. Prepared by Charles R. Demas and Dennis K. Demcheck, U.S. Geological Survey U.S. Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper 2425 National Water Summary-Wetland Resources 213 Maine Wetland Resources Maine is rich in wetland resources. About 5 million acres, or one- System Wetland description fourth of the State, is wetland. Maine has a wide variety of wetlands, Palustrine .................. Nontidal and tidal-freshwater wetlands in which ranging from immense inland peatlands to salt marshes and mud vegetation is predominantly trees (forested wet- flats along the coast. lands); shrubs (scrub-shrub wetlands); persistent Wetlands are an integral part of Maine's natural resources. or nonpersistent emergent, erect, rooted herba- Wetlands provide essential habitat for certain types of wildlife and ceous plants (persistent- and nonpersistent- emergent wetlands); or submersed and (or) vegetation, including rare and endangered species. They are used floating plants (aquatic beds). Also, intermit- for timber and peat; hunting, fishing, and shellfishing; education tently to permanently flooded open-water bod- and research; and bird, wildlife and plant observation, all of which ies of less than 20 acres in which water is less boost tourism and the general economy. Wetlands also provide flood than 6.6 feet deep. control, bank and shoreline- erosion control, sediment retention, Lacustrine ................. Nonticial and tidal -f reshwate r wetlands within an water filtration, and nutrient uptake. In recognition of the impor- intermittently to permanently flooded lake or reservoir larger than 20 acres and (or) deeper tance of wetlands, many government and private organizations have than 6.6 feet. Vegetation, when present, is pre- worked to preserve wetlands and educate the public about wetland dominantly nonpersistent emergent plants (non- values. For example, the Maine Department of Conservation owns persistent-emergent wetlands), or submersed most of Maine's largest bog -the Great Heath (fig. 1), and wetlands and (or) floating plants (aquatic beds), or both. in Acadia National Park and Rachel Carson National Wildlife Ref- Riverine ..................... Nontidal and tidal-freshwater wetlands within a uge are visited by thousands of people each year. channel. Vegetation, when present, is same as in the Lacustrine System. Estuarine ................... Tidal wetlands in low-wave-energy environments where the salinity of the water is greater than 0.5 part per thousand (ppt) and is variable owing to evaporation and the mixing of seawater and freshwater. Marine ....................... Tidal wetlands that are exposed to waves and cur- rents of the open ocean and to water having a salinity greater than 30 ppt. Widoff (1988) estimated Maine's wetland area to be about 5,199,200 acres, whereas Tiner and Veneman (1989) classified 6,460,000 acres as wetland. The estimate by Tiner and Veneman (1989) was calculated from Natural Resources Conservation Ser- vice (NRCS, formerly the Soil Conservation Service) estimates of the distribution of hydric (wet) soils, and is considered high because Figure 1. Fall foliage in an extensive dwarf-shrub community in it includes drained soils and hydric soils that occur in somewhat Maine's Great Heath. A raised bog that has a coalesced dome, the poorly drained areas that are not wetland. The estimate by Widoff Great Heath is Maine's largest continuous open bog. (Photograph (1988) is a compilation of earlier inventories. It estimates that wet- by Bob Johnston, Maine Geological Survey) lands in Maine comprise about 5,041,700 acres of palustrine, 87,500 acres of marine, and 70,000 acres of estuarine wetlands. Acreage for riverine and lacustrine wetlands is unknown. TYPES AND DISTRIBUTION The distribution of wetlands in Maine is influenced by physi- ography (fig. 2B). Many large wetlands occur in the Seaboard Low- Wetlands are lands transitional between terrestrial and deep- land of eastern Maine. In the White Mountain Section of western water habitats where the water table usually is at or near the land Maine, wetlands occur primarily in narrow valleys separating moun- surface or the land is covered by shallow water (Cowardin and oth- tains and foothills. Wetlands are distributed throughout the New ers, 1979). The distribution of wetlands and deepwater habitats in England Upland of central and northern Maine but occur mainly in Maine is shown in figure 2A; only wetlands are discussed herein. broad valleys between uplands of moderate relief. In many areas of Wetlands can be vegetated or nonvegetated and are classified the State, small wetlands are interrelated and form large wetland on the basis of their hydrology, vegetation, and substrate. In this complexes. summary, wetlands are classified according to the system proposed Palustrine forested wetlands that have organic-rich mineral by Cowardin and others (1979), which is used by the U.S. Fish and soils are commonly referred to as swamps, whereas wetlands that Wildlife Service (FWS) to map and inventory the Natiorfs wetlands. have organic soils over mineral soils are called peatlands. Widoff At the most general level of the classification system, wetlands are (1988) estimated that Maine contains at least 3,000,000 acres of grouped into five ecological systems: Palustrine, Lacustrine, Riv- wooded swamp. Swamps in southern Maine are dominated by hard- erine, Estuarine, and Marine. The Palustrine System includes only wood communities similar to those in southern New England wet- wetlands, whereas the other systems comprise wetlands and lands. Silver maple and black ash are characteristic in flood plains deepwater habitats. Wetlands of the systems that occur in Maine are of major rivers, red maple swamps typically occur in poorly drained described below. basins and along small streams, and black willow-alder swamps tend 214 National Water Surnmary-Wetland Resources: STATE SUMMARIES to dominate small watercourses and swales (Maine Natural Heri- Peatlands (palustrine forested, scrub-shrub, emergent, and tagelProgram, 1991). A few wetlands in southern Maine contain spe- moss-lichen wetlands) occur throughout Maine and have been esti- cies at the northern extent oftheir range, such as Atlantic white cedar mated to comprise about 700,000 acres (Widoff, 1988). The terms and black gum. Forested wetlands in northern Maine are dominated bog and fen are used to define peatland types in some classifica- by communities similar to those in Canadian wetlands. For example, tion systems (Davis and Anderson, 199 1). Bogs are acidic, nutrient red spruce-balsam fir swamps typically occur in poorly'drained poor, and have a low species diversity, whereas fens are less acidic basins and borders of streams; northern white cedar swamps occur and have higher nutrient levels and species diversity. Typically, the in similar settings that have higher alkalinity; and black spruce, herbaceous layer in bogs is dominated by sphagnum moss, whereas larch, and northern white cedar predominate in forested peatlands. in fens it is dominated by sedges and mosses. Maine has numerous Palustrine scrub-shrub vegetation grows in most wetlands, peatland types, including some that have a restricted distribution generally as a transitional community to open water or upland, or in the State (fig. 2C). For example, ribbed fens (fens that have lin- between emergent wetlands and forested wetlands. Alder, willow, and sweet gale are characteristic of shrub swamps. Scrub-shrub veg- etation in peatlands comprises predominantly broad-leaved ever- green shrubs such as leatherleaf, bog laurel, and labrador tea as well B as stunted black spruce and larch. Peatlands that have large expanses of dwarf shrubs are referred to locally as heaths (Worley, 198 1). PHYSIOGRAPHIC DIVISIONS 'A A. New England Upland Section B. White Mountain Section A C. Seaboard Lowland Section B Ir 70'@ c % ass C c 46" A hitk. t, .. ic4 rest dia National Park CIO, 44' P-.t-., 0 215 50 MILES PEATLANDS Acai@Zational Park Q 0 25 50 KILOMETERS Fens 7_71 Unpatterned forest and M-rv open fens C-. M@e B-Y [email protected]` WETLANDS AND DEEPWATER HABITATS Ribbed fens S.- Distribution of wetlands and deepwater habitats- Bogs Rachel rson B-Y This map shows the approximate distribution of large Well. wetlands in the State. Because of limitations of scale Flat bogs Wells Nall uli* and source material, some wetlands are not shown Research a& Domed bogs Concentric bogs Predominantly wetland M Eccentric bogs Predominantly deepwater habitat = Coastal bogs Figure 2. Wetland distribution, physiography, and distribution of peatland types in Maine. A, Distribution of wetlands and deepwater habitats. B, Physiography. C, Distribution of peatland types. (Sources: A, TE. Dahl, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, unpub. data, 1991. B, Physiographic divisions (rom Fenneman, 1946; landforms data from EROS Data Center C, Davis and Anderson, 7991.) National Water Surnmary-Wetland Resources: MAINE 215 ear patterns created by ridges of peat and vegetation separated by timing and duration of the presence of water affects water chemis- elongate hollows or shallow pools) occur in northern and northwest- try, soil development, and plant communities in wetlands. Although ern Maine (Sorenson, 1986); flat bogs occur in all but southwest- wetness plays a large role in the determination of wetland type, many ern and southeastern Maine; and domed bogs (bogs that have raised ecologic functions of wetlands depend upon other characteristics surface profiles) occur in eastern Maine (Worley, 198 1). Domed such as size, position of the wetland in a drainage network, or bogs exhibit different landforms, including concentric bogs (domed sources of water (Brinson, 1993). The type of wetland that devel- bogs that have ringing crescent-shaped pools), eccentric bogs ops in any particular setting is determined by complex interactions (domed bogs on valley slopes), and coastal-plateau bogs (domed between hydrology and other factors such as climate, physiography, bogs that have flattened raised surfaces and steep margins). Coastal - geology, biology, and site history. plateau bogs and eccentric bogs are rare in the United States and Maine's climate provides moisture necessary for wetland for- reach their southern limit for the Northeastern United States in mation and cool temperatures that allow peat to accumulate. Pre- Maine (Davis and Anderson, 1991). cipitation and fog are frequent. Most climatic variables that affect Palustrine emergent wetlands, commonly referred to as fresh- vegetation differ greatly across Maine, largely owing to the south- water marshes, cover a small area in Maine relative to forested and west-northeast orientation of mountains and coastline. For example, scrub-shrub wetlands. In southern and central Maine, marshes are mean annual precipitation, potential evapotranspiration, mean an- typically associated with lakes or slow streams. In general, cattails nual temperature, and the frost-free period decrease from the coast are characteristic of deeper water or permanently flooded marshes; to northwestern Maine (McMahon, 1990). Climatic conditions play grasses predominate in areas that have permanently saturated min- a role in the unusual diversity of peatland types in Maine. For ex- eral soils, such as swales; and sedges typically occur in permanently ample, coastal-plateau bogs exist only in areas along Maine's north- saturated or seasonally flooded peatlands or areas that have muck ern coast where precipitation is high, fog is frequent, and tempera- soils. ture is moderate. Most of Maine's rivers and lakes have some areas that have slow The distribution of wetlands in Maine is partly determined by reaches or shallow water where submersed, floating, or emergent physiography, glacial deposits, and the underlying bedrock. Areas aquatic vegetation is established. These wetlands are very impor- of steep topography do not retain water long enough for wetlands tant to the biological productivity of rivers and lakes. As a result of to develop. Given favorable hydrologic conditions, wetlands form recent increases in beaver populations, many riverine and riparian on drainage divides and near mountain tops. For example, several palustrine wetlands have been flooded behind beaver dams. This ridge-top subalpine bogs occur in the Mahoosuc Range (Johnson, flooding can be detrimental to existing wetlands but also can cre- 1985). Most of Maine's wetlands, however, are in lowlands, valleys, ate wetlands that have high value to some wildlife, such as water- and depressions that have more favorable hydrologic conditions for fowl. wetlands. Along Maine's coast the predominant wetlands are mud flats, Much of the low-lying area of Maine is covered by stratified rocky shores, beaches and bars, reefs, and aquatic beds (marine and clay, silt, sand, and gravel deposited during periods of glaciation by estuarine wetlands). These habitats total about 125,500 acres glacial meltwater in streams and lakes (Cameron, 1989). Most up- (Widoff, 1988). Maine also has about 34,000 acres of salt and brack- lands are composed of bedrock mantled by glacial till, an unstrati- ish marshes (estuarine emergent wetlands) (Widoff, 1988). Many fied mixture of clay, silt, sand, gravel, and boulders. Both till and salt and brackish marshes are small, and fringe creeks and indenta- fine-grained sediments (clay and silt) can restrict drainage and re- tions in the rocky coast. Jacobson and others (1987) divided Maine s tain surface water. Thus, wetlands occur over till in central and coast into four physiographic subsections in which salt marshes northern Maine and at higher altitudes; over fine-grained glacial lake differ in character and distribution. The southwestern coast is char- deposits in portions of some valleys of central Maine, such as the acterized by bays having sandy beaches behind which large salt West Branch of the Penobscot; and over fine-grained marine depos- marshes have developed, such as those of the Wells Embayment and its in the lowlands of coastal Maine and areas reaching inland along Saco Bay. These are generally irregularly flooded marsh commu- major river valleys. nities dominated by saltmeadow cordgrass and black grass. The Some Maine valleys contain deposits of coarse-grained strati- south-central coast is characterized by fluvial marshes in the upper fied drift (sand and gravel). These coarse-grained deposits can trans- parts of narrow embayments, such as those of the Damariscotta and mit ground water to overlying wetlands. Some glacial landforms, Sheepscot Rivers. This area of the coast also contains some tidally such as ridges (eskers), hills (drumlins, kames, and moraines), de- influenced freshwater wetlands (palustrine and riverine wetlands), pressions (kettles), and terraces and plains (outwash) can create such as those in Merry Meeting Bay at the confluence of the conditions favorable for wetlands by disrupting drainage patterns, Kennebec and Androscoggin Rivers. The north-central coast, includ- attenuating runoff, or retaining water. For example, in east-central ing Penobscot Bay, is a high-energy environment where marshes Maine, numerous wetlands are found in kettles that formed when exist only as fringes bordering a few protected coves. The north- ice blocks buried by glacial outwash melted (Timson and Pickart, eastern coast is characterized by narrow marshes that form along 1992). These kettles either filled with water to form kettle ponds or the base of coastal bluffs. These are generally regularly flooded passed through several successional stages of infilling to become marsh communities dominated by saltmarsh cordgrass. kettle-hole bogs. In other areas, eskers may block drainage and cre- ate areas of swampy terrain. On occasion, roads without adequate HYDROLOGIC SETTING culverts can have similar effects. Interactions between hydrology and vegetation can be illus- Wetlands are hydrologic features that occur wherever climate trated by peatlands and coastal wetlands. In peatlands, vegetation and physiography favor the retention of water (Winter, 1992). Wet- patterns are determined largely by water chemistry and movement lands are found along rivers, lakes, and estuaries where flooding is (Damman and French, 1987). For instance, bogs receive little in- likely to occur; in isolated depressions surrounded by upland where put from runoff or ground water and rely on precipitation (includ- surface water collects; and on slopes and surface drainageways or ing fog) and windblown dust as sources for water, nutrients, and where ground water discharges to the land surface in spring or seep- minerals. Vegetation in bogs commonly occurs in concentric zones age areas. Soil saturation favors the growth of wetland plants and caused by the scarcity of nutrients and minerals available in the the development of wetland soils. Water can be either present on center of the bog and the increased availability of nutrients and the surface of wetlands, or it can keep underlying soils saturated minerals along bog margins. Fens also receive water from precipi- near the surface with no surface water present (Tiner, 1991). The tation but rely on ground water and runoff for input of minerals and 216 National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: STATE SUMMARIES nutrients. Vegetation patterns in coastal wetlands respond to a wide Table 1. Selected wetland-related activities of government range of'physiographic, chemical, and biological processes that are agencies and private organizations in Maine, 1993 influenced by tidal energy (Mitsch and Gosselink, 1986). For in- [Source: Classification of activities is generalized from information provided stance, the tidal range in Maine doubles from south to north, where by agencies and organizations. e, agency or organization participates in it has a range of about 20 feet. In northeastern Maine, tidal flood- wetiand-related activity; .., agency or organization does not participate in vvetland-related activity. MAN, management; REG, regulation; R&C, res- ing creates a sharp contrast between subtidal and terrestrial habi- toration and creation; LAN, land acquisition; R&D, research and data col- tats and tends to compact and enhance the zonation of vegetation lection; D&I, delineation and inventory] in Maine's salt marshes (Fefer and Shettig, 1980). As a result of high tidal energy, a shortage of sediment, and a steep, rocky coast, many coastal environments that are colonized by vegetation in other States Agency or organization ly- occur as rocky shores and extensive mud flats in Maine. FEDERAL Department of Agriculture Consolidated Farm Service Agency ........................... ... TRENDS Forest Service .................................................................0 Dahl (1990) estimated that Maine has lost about 20 percent of Natural Resources Conservation Service ................ ... Department of Commerce its wetlands since about the 1780's. However, this may be an over- National Oceanic and estimate because it was based on hydric soil mapping units (R.W. Atmospheric Administration ........................................0 Tiner, Fish and Wildlife Service, written commun., 1993). Changes Department of Defense in land use have led to losses of both wetlands and contiguous up- Army Corps of Engineers ..............................................0 land fringes. The history of wetland loss in Maine is largely a his- Military reservations .....................................................0 tory of the State's urban and agricultural development. Early in Department ofthe Interior Fish and Wildlife Service ..............................................9 0 0 0 0 Maine's history, expansion of fishing and farming communities Geological Survey .......................................................... ... .. ... ...a ... along the coast resulted in the filling of many coastal wetlands. Later, National Biological Service ......................................... ... ... ... .. 0 many flood-plain wetlands were filled or converted to agricultural National Park Service ...................................................oo 0 * 0 use as development spread upstate along inland waterways. In the Environmental Protection Agency .................................. ... 0 0 past few decades, most losses have been a consequence of develo STATE p- Department of Agriculture ...............................................0 ment and urbanization (Widoff, 1988). Other factors that can de- Department of Conservation stroy wetlands or affect wetland functions include road building, Bureau of Parks and Recreation .................................* creation of reservoirs, agricultural activities, peat harvesting, tim- Bureau of Public Lands ................................................. ... ... ... ber harvesting, hydropower releases, inadequate bridge and culvert Forest Bureau ... .................................................. ............* sizing, navigation improvements, and air or water pollution. Most Land Use Regulation Commission ..............................e Maine Geological Survey ............................................. ... ... Federal and State regulations focus on minimizing wetland losses Department of Economics and from these and other sources. The cumulative effect of loss or al- Community Development teration of wetlands in Maine is likely to be an important issue in Natural Areas Program ................................................. the future. Department of Environmental Protection ..................... 0 0 0 0 0 Department of Inland Fisheries and Wildlife ...............o * * * * 0 State Planning Office .......................: ................................ .. ...0 ... CONSERVATION State university programs ................................................ ... ... ... ... 0 0 LOCAL Many government agencies and private organizations partici- Soil and Water Conservation Districts .......................... ... ... pate in wetland conservation in Maine. The most active agencies Some county, town, and city governments .................. and organizations and some of their activities are listed in table 1. PRIVATE ORGANIZATIONS Federal wetland activities. -Development activities in Maine Maine Coast Heritage Trust .................................... ... The Nature Conservancy ..................................................0 wetlands are regulated by several Federal statutory prohibitions and Private colleges and universities ............ ................ ... ... ... ... incentives that are intended to slow wetland losses. Some of the more important of these are contained in the 1899 Rivers and Harbors Act; the 1972 Clean Water Act and amendments; the 1985 Food wetlands for agricultural use. The law allows exemptions from pen- Security Act; the 1990 Food, Agriculture, Conservation, and Trade alties in some cases, especially if the farmer agrees to restore the Act; and the 1986 Emergency Wetlands Resources Act. altered wetland or other wetlands that have been converted to agri- Section 10 of the Rivers and Harbors Act gives the U. S. Army cultural use. The Wetlands Reserve Program of the 1990 Food, Corps of Engineers (Corps) authority to regulate certain activities Agriculture, Conservation, and Trade Act authorizes the Federal in navigable waters. Regulated activities include diking, deepening, Government to purchase conservation casements from landowners filling, excavating, and placing of structures. The related section 404 who agree to protect or restore wetlands. The Consolidated Farm of the Clean Water Act is the most often-used Federal legislation Service Agency (formerly the Agricultural Stabilization and Con- protecting wetlands. Under section 404 provisions, the Corps issues servation Service) administers the Swampbuster provisions and Wet- permits regulating the discharge of dredged or fill material into lands Reserve Program. The NRCs determines compliance with wetlands. Permits are subject to review and possible veto by the U.S. Swampbuster provisions and assists farmers in the identification of Environmental Protection Agency, and the Fws has review and ad- wetlands and in the development of wetland protection, restoration, visory roles. Section 401 of the Clean Water Act grants to States or creation plans. and eligible Indian Tribes the authority to approve, apply conditions The 1986 Emergency Wetlands Resources Act and the 1972 to, or deny section 404 permit applications on the basis of a pro- Coastal Zone Management Act and amendments encourage wet] and posed activity's probable effects on the water quality of a wetland. protection through funding incentives. The Emergency Wetland Most farming, ranching, and silviculture activities are not sub- Resources Act requires States to address wetland protection in their ject to section 404 regulation. However, the "Swampbuster" provi- Statewide Comprehensive Outdoor Recreation Plans to qualify for sion of the 1985 Food Security Act and amendments in the 1990 Federal funding for State recreational land; the National Park Ser- Food, Agriculture, Conservation, and Trade Act discourage (through vice (NPS) provides guidance to States in developing the wetland financial disincentives) the draining, filling, or other alteration of component of their plans. Coastal States that adopt coastal-zone National Water Surnmary-Wetland Resources: MAINE 217 management programs and plans approved by the National Oceanic riculture, Bureau of Production and Marketing, assists by setting and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) are eligible for Federal up best-management practices and reviewing permits for farming funding and technical assistance through the Coastal Zone Manage- activities near great ponds and wetlands. ment Act. The Department of Environmental Protection also administers Federal agencies manage many wetlands in Maine. The FWS sections 305(b) and 401 of the Clean Water Act. Section 305(b) manages wetlands in Waterfowl-Protection Areas, National Fish requires States to submit biennial water-quality-assessment reports Hatcheries, and National Wildlife Refuges. Also, the Fws adminis- to Congress and the EPA, a part of which specifically addresses water ters wetland-acquisition programs such as the Partners for Wildlife quality in wetlands. Section 401 requires State water-quality certi- Program, which helps restore wetlands on private lands, and the fication before a section 404 permit may be issued. Other laws ad- North American Waterfowl Management Plan, a cooperative pro- ministered by the Department that protect wetlands include the Dam gram that provides funding for purchasing wetlands and contigu- Registration, Abandonment and Water Level Act and the Site Loca- ous uplands. The NPS manages wetlands in Acadia National Park and tion of Development Law. The Department also works closely with along the Appalachian Trail and the Allagash River. The Nps has other State and Federal agencies. For example, wetland losses due designated 15 sites as National Natural Landmarks in Maine, sev- to road building are minimized through cooperation between the eral of which are entirely wetland. Some of these are protected by Maine Department of Transportation and the Department of Envi- the State, and others are protected voluntarily by individual land- ronmental Protection. The Corps has issued a Maine State Program- owners. Wetlands also are managed by the U.S. Forest Service in matic General Permit which allows permit work that would have the White Mountain National Forest, and by NOAA at the Wells otherwise required a Corps permit to be approved through the De- National Estuarine Research Reserve. partment of Environmental ProtectioWs permitting process. Federal agencies provide funding for research and inventory Other State agencies manage, research, and inventory wetlands. of Maine wetlands. The Fws has funded research on peatland ecol- The Department of Inland Fisheries and Wildlife may designate ogy (Damman and French, 1987) and is funding a study of wetland buffers around wetlands of high value, such as emergent wetlands, trends in selected coastal areas in cooperation with the Gulf of and around features such as deer yards or eagle nests, many of which Maine Council. The NPS is inventorying wetlands in Acadia National are in or contiguous to wetland areas. The Department of Environ- Park. The EPA funds the Casco Bay Estuary Project with the goal of mental Conservation, Maine Geological Survey, has inventoried minimizing adverse environmental impacts from the use and devel- Maine's peatland resources (Cameron and others, 1984) and coastal opment of land and marine resources. The Wells National Estua- wetlands, has served as the lead agency for cooperative projects with rine Research Reserve is available for Federal, State, public, and the USGS, investigates surficial geology and coastal processes in private research projects. The U.S. Geological Survey (Usos), with wetland areas, and furnishes information such as Fws National Wet- cooperative funding from State agencies, has inventoried peatlands land Inventory maps to the public. The Maine Department of Eco- in Maine (Cameron, 1989) and studied the hydrology of Denbow nomic and Community Development, Natural Areas Program, con- Heath and the Great Heath (Nichols, 1983). ducts an inventory and information-management program focused State wetland activities. -Maine protects wetlands primarily on endangered and rare plants and exemplary natural communities through administration of the Natural Resources Protection Act and and has an official register of Maine Critical Areas and a mandate the Mandatory Shoreland Zoning Act by the Maine Department of to effect voluntary conservation of these areas, more than 100 of Environmental Protection and through activities of the Department which are wetlands. The program has published reports describing of Conservation, Land Use Regulation Commission. The Natural many of these critical areas. Resources Protection Act protects freshwater and coastal wetlands, State land acquisition is coordinated for all agencies by the great ponds, rivers and streams, and other significant wildlife habi- Maine State Planning Office. In the last 5 years, the State Planning tats. Any proposed alteration in or within 100 feet of protected ax- Office has purchased about 48,000 acres of land with a $35 million eas requires a permit from the Department of Environmental Pro- bond from the Land for Maine's Future Program funded by Maine tection. Regulated wetlands include freshwater wetlands of 10 or voters in 1987. Several purchases were entirely wetland. Ownership more acres and coastal and flood-plain wetlands regardless of size. of State lands is divided among three agencies- the Bureau ofParks For regulatory purposes, the act establishes three classes of wetlands and Recreation, the Bureau of Public Lands, and the Department (Maine Department of Environmental Protection, 1990). Each class of Inland Fisheries and Wildlife. The Bureau of Public Lands ad- is assigned a value based on the wetland's functions. Class I wet- ministers 450,000 acres of Public Reserved Lands, an estimated 5 lands receive the greatest protection owing to their biological func- percent ofwhich are wetlands (Widoff, 1988). The Bureau ofParks tions. These are wetlands such as coastal wetlands; great ponds; and and Recreation owns a few thousand acres of wetland within State wetlands that provide habitat for endangered or threatened plants parks and the Allagash Wilderness Waterway. Inland Fisheries and and animals, unique natural communities, or significant wildlife Wildlife manages about 32 major Wildlife Management Areas, many habitat as defined by the Maine Department of Inland Fisheries and of which contain wetlands as their primary feature. Wildlife and the Atlantic Sea Run Salmon Commission. Class 11 County and local wetland activities. -Municipalities are ac- wetlands are rated largely by hydrologic functions. These are wet- tive in wetland protection in Maine. Under the Mandatory Shore- lands such as large emergent marshes, (nonforested) peatlands, line Zoning Act, every municipality is empowered to adopt, admin- flood-plain wetlands, and wetlands within 250 feet of rivers, streams, ister, and enforce its own shoreland zoning ordinance and map. Some lakes, or coastal wetlands. Class III wetlands include forested wet- towns have imposed stricter regulations than the act requires. On lands and wet meadows not located near open water. The act does the local level, town code enforcement officers often have first con- not regulate the cutting of most forested wetlands. tact with individuals and developers whose activities in wetlands The Mandatory Shoreline Zoning Act, administered by the areas are regulated under the Natural Resources Protection Act and Department of Environmental Protection, requires municipalities Mandatory Shoreline Zoning Act. The Department of Economics in coastal areas to establish land-use controls for all land areas within and Community Development, Office of Community Development, set distances of rivers, ponds, and wetlands. Land-use controls in runs a Code Enforcement, Training, and Certification Program to the unorganized territories of northern Maine are established by the train local code enforcement officers on State wetland rules and Land Use Regulation Commission. Zoning maps produced by the regulations. commission set buffers around scrub -shrub and emergent wetlands Private wetland activities. -Private organizations perform and also around streams and lakes. The Maine Department ofAg- complementary functions that cannot readily be accomplished by 218 National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: STATE SUMMARIES governmental agencies. For example, wetlands research is conducted Johnson, C.W., 1985, Bogs of the northeast: Hanover, N.H., University Press in several academic departments at the University of Maine and at of New England, 269 p. other colleges and universities in the State. Private organizations Maine Department of Environmental Protection, 1990, Natural Resources such as The Nature Conservancy can provide rapid action in put- Protection Act Wetland Protection Rules-Chapter 310: Augusta, Maine Department of Environmental Protection, 13 p. chase of property. The Maine Chapter of The Nature Conservancy Maine Natural Heritage Program, 199 1, Natural landscapes of Maine - A owns 83 preserves, many which are entirely wetlands. The Maine classification of ecosystems and natural communities: Augusta, De- Coast Heritage Trust is a land-conservation organization that facili- partment of Economic and Community Development, 77 p. tates donation of easements and land transactions for conservation McMahon, J.S., 1990, The biophysical regions of Maine: Orono, Univer- purposes. Through their activities, some important natural areas that sity of Maine, M.S. thesis, 119 p. include wetlands have been designated as "forever wild." Other Mitsch, W.J., and Gosselink, J.G., 1986, Wetlands: New York, Van Nostrand organizations involved with protection of Maine's wetlands or with Reinhold, 539 p. some wettand holdings include 73 local land trusts, the Maine Nicho .Is, W.J., Jr., 1983, Hydrologic data for the Great and Denbow Heaths Audubon Society, the National Audubon Society, the Society for the in eastern Maine, October 198 1- October 1982: U.S. Geological Sur- Protection of New Hampshire Forests, the New England Wildflower vey Open-File Report 83 - 865, 34 p. Sorenson, E.R., 1986, Ecology and distribution of ribbed fens in Maine: Society, Ducks Unlimited, the Izaak Walton League, and many oth- Augusta, Maine State Planning Office, Critical Areas Program, Plan- ers. Individuals, timber companies, and other private landowners ning Report 81, 171 p. own most of Maines wetlands, and many actively pursue wetland Timson, B.S., and Pickart, G., 1992, Inventory of glacial kettles, kettle-hole conservation. ponds, and kettle-hole bogs: Augusta, Maine State Planning Office, Critical Areas Program, 240 p. Tiner, R.W., 199 1, Maine wetlands and their boundaries-A guide for code References Cited enforcement officers: Augusta, Maine Department of Economic and Brinson, M.M., 1993, Changes in the functioning of wetlands along envi- Community Development, Office of Comprehensive Planning, 72 p. ronmental gradients: Wetlands, v. 13, no. 2, p. 65-74. Tiner, R.W., and Veneman, P.L., 1989, Hydric soils of New England: Cameron, C.C., 1989, Peat and its occurrence as a resource in Maine, in Amherst, Mass., University of Massachusetts Cooperative Extension, Tucker, R.D., and Marvinney, R.G., eds., Studies in Maine geology, Revised Bulletin C-183R, 27 p. v. 5: Augusta, Maine Department of Conservation, Maine Geological Widoff, Lissa, 1988, Maine Wetlands Conservation Priority Plan: Augusta, Survey, p. 125 -146@ Maine State Planning Office, Bureau of Parks and Recreation, 117 p. Cameron, C.C., Mullen, M.K., Lepage, C.A., and Anderson, W.A., 1984, Winter, T.C., 1992, A physiographic and climatic framework for hydrologic Peat resources of Maine: Maine Geological Survey Bulletins 28-32. studies of wetlands, in Robarts, R.D., and Bothwell, M.L., eds., Aquatic Cowardin, L.M., Carter, Virginia, Golet, F.C., and LaRoe, E.T., 1979, Clas- ecosystems in semi-arid regions -Implications for resource manage- sification of wetlands and deepwater habitats of the United States: U.S. ment, 1992: Saskatoon, Saskatchewan, The National Hydrology Re- Fish and Wildlife Service Report FWS/OBS - 79/31, 131 p. search Institute Symposium Series 7, Environment Canada, p. 127- Dahl, T.E., 1990, Wetlands-Losses in the United States, 1780's to 1980's: 148. Washington D.C., U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Report to Congress, Worley, I.A., 1981, Maine Peatlands: Augusta, Maine State Planning Of- 13 p. fice, Critical Areas Program, Planning Report 73, 387 p. Damman, A.W.H., and French, T.W., 1987, The ecology of peat bogs of the glaciated northeastern United States-A community profile: U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Biological Report 85(7.16), 114 p. FOR ADDITIONAL INFORMATION: District Chief, U.S. Geological Sur- Davis, R.B., and Anderson, D.S., 1991, The eccentric bogs of Maine-A vey, 26 Ganneston Drive, Augusta, ME 04330; Regional Weiland Coordi- rare wetland type in the United States: Maine State Planning Office, nator, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 300 Westgate Center Drive, Hadley, Critical Areas Program, Planning Report 93, 169 p. MA01035 Fefer, S.I., and Shettig, P.A. (principal investigators), 1980, An ecological characterization of coastal Maine (north and cast of Cape Elizabeth): Prepared by U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Report FWS/OBS-80/29, v. 1-6, David S. Armstrong, Fermeman, N.M., 1946, Physical divisions of the United States: Washing- U.S. Geological Survey ton D.C., U.S. Geological Survey special map, scale 1:7,000,000. Jacobson, H.A., Jacobson, G.L., and Kelley, J.T., 1987, Distribution and abundance of tidal marshes along the coast of Maine: Estuaries, v. 10, no. 2, p. 126 -13 1. U.S. Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper 2425 National Water Summary-Watland Resources 219 Maryland and the District of Columbia Wetiand Resources Wands cover about 9.3 percent of Maryland and the District by Cowardin and others (1979), which is used by the U.S. Fish and of Columbia. Many of these wetlands harbor unique and endangered Wildlife Service (Fws) to map and inventory the Natiorfs wetlands. species of plants and animals, and life is abundant in all of them. At the most general level of the classification system, wetlands are Some the most familiar wetlands in the region are the tidal marshes grouped into five ecological systems: Palustrine, Lacustrine, Riv- of the Chesapeake Bay (fig. 1). erine, Estuarine, and Marine. The Palustrine System includes only Wetlands have many physical, chemical, and biological func- wetlands, whereas the other systems comprise wetlands and tions. For example, wetlands trap waterborne sediments, nutrients, deepwater habitats. Wetlands of the systems that occur in Maryland and toxic chemicals by filtering them out of inflowing water and and the District of Columbia are described below. either storing or transforming them. Coastal-zone and flood-plain wetlands mitigate the effects of flooding from runoff and tides by System Wetland description reducing flow velocity, storing water temporarily, and releasing it gradually. Vegetation in riparian wetlands maintains stream chan- Palustrine .................. Nontidal and tidal-freshwater wetlands in which nels by stabilizing the banks, and tidal wetlands impede erosion by vegetation is predominantly trees (forested wet- storm surges and waves. One of the most important functions of wet- lands); shrubs (scrub-shrub wetlands); persistent or noripersistent emergent, erect, rooted herba- lands is as habitat for waterfowl, wildlife, and a wide variety of plant ceous plants (persistent- and nonpersistent- life. Wetlands provide food, shelter, resting places on migration emergent wetlands); or submersed and (or) routes, breeding areas, and nurseries for many animals including floating plants (aquatic beds). Also, intermit- tently to permanently flooded open-water bod- species of economic importance in Maryland such as ducks, geese, ies of less than 20 acres in which water is less oysters, blue crabs, and several kinds of finfish. Many rare and en- than 6.6 feet deep. dangered plant species are adapted to conditions present only irl Lacustrine ................. Nontidal and tidal-freshwater wetlands within an wetlands. intermittently to permanently flooded lake or Maryland's wetlands have considerable historic and economic reservoir larger than 20 acres and (or) deeper value. Humans have inhabited Maryland's coastal wetlands for thou- than 6.6 feet. Vegetation, when present, is pre- dominantly nonpersistent emergent plants (non- sands of years, and unique cultures have developed there. Wetlands persistent-emergent wetlands), or submersed provide outdoor educational, recreational, and financial opportu- and (or) floating plants (aquatic beds), or both. nities -hunting, commercial and sport fishing, bird watching, and Riverine ..................... Nontidal and tidal-freshwater wetlands within a tourism- all benefit Maryland's economy. channel. Vegetation, when present, is same as in the Lacustrine System. TYPES AND DISTRIBUTION Estuarine ................... Tidal wetlands in low-wave-energy environments where the salinity of the water is greater than 0.5 Wetlands are lands transitional between terrestrial and deep- part per thousand (ppt) and is variable owing to water habitats where the water table usually is at or near the land evaporation and the mixing of seawater and surface or the land is covered by shallow water (Cowardin and oth- freshwater. ers, 1979). The distribution of wetlands and deepwater habitats in Marine ....................... Tidal wetlands that are exposed to waves and cur- rents of the open ocean and to water having a Maryland and the District of Columbia is shown in figure 2A; only salinity greater than 30 ppt. wetlands are discussed herein. Wetlands can be vegetated or notivegetated and are classified Palustrine wetlands comprise most (57 percent) of the wetlands on the basis of their hydrology, vegetation, and substrate. In this in Maryland and the District of Columbia, followed by estuarine summary, wetlands are classified according to the system proposed wetlands (42 percent). Ninety percent of wetlands in Maryland and the District of Columbia are vegetated. The predominant vegetation or specific location of a wetland frequently determines its common name. Dune slacks are topographic depressions among sand dunes on the Eastern Shore (the part of Maryland on the Delmarva Pen- insula) that contain palustrine emergent or scrub-shrub wetlands. Delmarva bays are topographic depressions on the Delmarva Pen- insula that often contain seasonally flooded palustrine emergent, ub, or forested wetlands. Swamps or swamp forests are palustrine tidal or nontidal forested wetlands. Seeps are small palustrine wetlands formed around springs; the pH of the water can be neutral, acidic (in sandstone), or alkaline (in carbonate rocks). Peatlands are palustrine emergent, scrub-shrub, or forested wetlands that have organic soils. A type of peatland called a bog in Maryland is permanently saturated by ground water and is, therefore, actu- ally a fen. Seasonal sinkhole wetlands are seasonally wet palustrine Figure 1. Wetlands on the Eastern Shore of the Chesa- emergent wetlands that form in sinkholes in areas underlain by lime- peake Bay. Local variation in topography, soil char- stone. Wet meadows are spring-fed palustrine emergent wetlands. acteristics, and hydrology are reflected in the vegeta- Seagrass beds are estuarine aquatic-bed wetlands in which eelgrass tion patterns. (Photograph by David F Usher, U.S. commonly is the predominant vegetation. Riverine and lacustrine Geological Survey.) aquatic-bed wetlands, in which submersed aquatic vegetation such 220 National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: STATE SUMMARIES as wild celery and hydrilla. predominate, are known locally as SAV HYDROLOGIC SETTING wetlands (for "submersed aquatic vegetation"). Salt and brackish marshes are estuarine emergent wetlands in which the predominant Maryland and the District of Columbia can be divided into vegetation is tolerant of water that ranges from brackish to salty. three geohydrologic regions for purposes of discussing wetland Small scrub-shrub wetlands commonly are associated with salt hydrology: the Coastal Plain; a central region consisting of the Pied- marshes. mont, Blue Ridge, and Valley and Ridge physiographic provinces; Maryland covers an area that extends from the Atlantic Ocean and the Appalachian Plateaus (fig. 2B). into the Appalachian Mountains. About 590,800 acres (9.3 percent) Coastal Plain.-The relatively flat Coastal Plain physiographic of Maryland's land area is wetland (R.W. Tiner, U.S. Fish and Wild- province rises from below sea level to about 100 feet above sea level life Service, oral commun., 1992). Tidal and nontidal wetlands each on the Delmarva Peninsula east of the Chesapeake Bay and to about comprise about one-half of the wetland acreage. The size and dis- 200 feet above sea level in southern Maryland west of the Chesa- tribution of tidal wetlands are determined primarily by local topog- peake Bay (James, 1986). The Coastal Plain is underlain by uncon- raphy and tidal range. The distribution of nontidal wetlands is de- solidated sediments. More than 90 percent of Maryland's total wet- termined by local topography, soil characteristics, and geohydro- land area, including all of its estuarine wetlands, is in this province logic conditions. Tidal wetlands occur in or near the Chesapeake (Tiner, 1987). Bay and its tributaries or behind barrier islands on the Atlantic coast, Recharge of the ground-water system in this region is mainly whereas nontidal wetlands occur throughout the State. The most by infiltration of precipitation and occurs in interstrearn, areas. Dis- abundant wetland type in Maryland is palustrine forested wetland, charge occurs by seepage to streams, estuaries, and the ocean. Many which covers about 286,300 acres, nearly one-half the total wetland Coastal Plain wetlands are in discharge areas of coastal and ripar- area in the State. Next most abundant is estuarine emergent wet- ian zones. The low-lying areas of the Coastal Plain contain exten- land, covering about 203,400 acres. Maryland also has about 2,000 sive wetlands in the form of seagrass beds, salt marshes, and tidal acres of riverine, 1,400 acres of lacustrine, and 700 acres of ma- and nontidal freshwater marshes and swamps. These wetlands have rine wetlands (mostly beaches and sand bars). complex hydrology; streamflow, ground-water flow, and tidal flow The District of Columbia has about 840 acres of wetlands all are components. The many rivers and streams of the Coastal Plain (Guerrero, 1993); most are in the Coastal Plain along the Chesa- have forested wetlands in the bottom lands along the channels. These peake and Ohio (c&o) Canal and the tidal reaches of the Potomac wetlands are sustained by local and regional ground-water flow and Anacostia Rivers. Only a few acres of the District's wetlands systems and overbank flooding during storms. The width of forested are in the Piedmont Province, About 62 percent of the District's wetlands in streamside areas often is reduced by artificial draining wetlands are riverine aquatic beds. Most of those are in the Anacostia and conversion of the land for agricultural use. River and the C&O Canal. About 34 percent of the District's wetlands The Coastal Plain can be divided into two subregions of dif- are palustrine and are located along the Potomac and Anacostia fering hydrology: the Eastern Shore and the area of the Coastal Plain Rivers and Rock Creek and on Theodore Roosevelt Island. Sixty per- west of the Chesapeake Bay. Inland, the Eastern Shore is poorly cent of these palustrine wetlands are emergent, 16 percent are scrub- drained and has small depressional palustrine wetlands (Delmarva shrub, and 24 percent are forested. About 4 percent of the Districts bays) and narrow bands of palustrine wetlands along ditches, wetlands are hicustrine. streams, and rivers that drain areas from inland to the coasts (fig. 79- Fin-zel Swamp 77 76- cranesville -71 Swamp @[email protected] . Za&H Pa A _v WETLANDS AND DEEPWATER 0 10 20 30 MILES HABITATS 0 10 20 30 KILOMETERS imor Distribution of wetlands and deepwater habitats- Because of I imitations of scale and source material, the mcKee uesner miam distribution is approximate, and ManagemeIArea 39' some wetlands are not shown Ch-.p-k,, ..d Ohi. C-1 Predominantly wetland Washington D.Ca B Predominantly deepwater A C habitat D B PHYSIOGRAPHIC DIVISIONS E Province E AT1,ANTfC A. Appalachian Plateaus OCEAN B. Valley an, C. Blue Ridge D. Piedmont E. Coastal Plain Figure 2. Weiland distribution in Maryland and the District of Columbia and physiography of the State and District. A, Distribution of wetlands and cleepwater habitats. H, Physiography. (Sources: A, TE. Dahl, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, unpub. data, 1991. B, Physi- ographic divisions from Fenneman, 1946; landforms data from EROS Data Center) National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: MARYLAND AND THE DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA 221 A. Coastal Plain-Eastern Shore EXPLANATION PALUSTRINE WETLANDS Direction of ground-water C@ Scrub-shrub vegetation r___1 flow PALUSTFINE WETLANDS Average water table F Forest vegetartion RIVERINE WETLANDS E Water table near Delm r-1 - arva ESTUARINE WETLANDS bays in wet season r-------- I Emergent vegetation Water table near Delmarva iE bays in dry season Farmed crops Surficial send - Direction of ground-water Submersed aquatic -------- quifer flow near Delmarva bays vegetation in wet season Organic deposits Fine-grained - Direction of ground-water Sal star ,, deposits Aquifer flow near Delmarva bays in dry season 00offnifto lrlw Aquifer Note: Vertical scale greatly exaggerated Figure 3. Generalized geohydrologic setting of B. Coastal Plain-West of the Chesapeake Bay wetlands in three regions of Maryland and the Dis- trict of Columbia. A, Coastal Plain- Eastern Shore. PALUSTRINE WETLANDS 8, Coastal Plain -west of the Chesapeake Bay. PALUSTRINE WETLANDS C, Central region. D, Appalachian Plateaus. Flood-plain swamps ESTUARINE WETLANDS RIVERINE WETLANDS r@ 3A). Extensive estuarine marshes occur along the western shore of the peninsula and in the inland bays 2 on the eastern shore of the peninsula. ------- 12 Delmarva bays occur in several different settings, Surficial sand 6 most commonly in the poorly drained center of the aquifer ------ Delmarva Peninsula. Delmarva bays are connected to local shallow ground-water systems, which differ in Freshwater '11, areal extent, hydrochemistry, and degree of fluctuation confined aquifer /Saltwater of the water table (Hall and Malcom, 1990). Local flow patterns can vary seasonally because the depth of the water table around and below Delmarva bays is directly C. Central region related to seasonal rainfall. Areas of ground-water dis- charge during wet seasons can be areas of ground- PALUSTRINr WETLAND water recharge during dry seasons (fig. 3A) (Phillips and Shedlock, 1993). West of the Chesapeake Bay, the geohydrology Regolith PALU .STRINE WETLAND PALUSTRINE WETLANDS of the surficial aquifer is complex, and the local pat- r= terns of ground-water flow are not well understood. Flood-plain wamps Patterns of ground-water flow shown in figure 3B are Crystalline or based on general geohydrologic principles described sedimentary RIVERINE WETLAND b.drock by Winter (1988, 1992). West of the bay, flood-plain swamps are abundant along rivers and streams. These E wetlands are maintained by local and regional ground- and surface-water flow systems. In a few areas, peatlands, locally called bogs, occur in topographic Bedrock lows. These wetlands are hydraulically connected to the local ground-water flow network. Seep wetlands occur along the Fall Line (fig. 2B), which marks the D. Appalachian Plateaus boundary between the sediments of the Coastal Plain PALUSTRINE WETLANDS and the higher altitude crystalline rocks of the Pied- mont Province. Maryland's Coastal Plain has many notable wet- PALUSTRINE WETLANDS lands. The Pocomoke River swamp has extensive $andston. stands ofbald cypress trees. In the Blackwatter National PALUSTRINE WETLANDS Wildlife Refuge, brackish marshes grade into tidal state I & Flood-plain swamps" freshwater marshes. Zekiah Swamp is a forested wet- Sandstone land that adjoins a freshwater emergent marsh along RIVERINEWETLAND the Wicornico River. In the Jug Bay wetlands on the E Patuxent River, tidal freshwater marshes grade into Shale urne. P tidal and nontidal forested wetlands. Central region.-The central region has consid- erably more topographic relief than the Coastal Plain. Sandstone The gently rolling hills of the Piedmont Province are as much as 800 feet above sea level, and the mountains 222 National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: STATE SUMMARIES of the Blue Ridge Province rise to more than 1,600 feet. Altitudes wetland types in the region include seeps and flood-plain swamps. in the Valley and Ridge Province range from about 400 feet in the The peatlands generally are spring fed and have acidic water, al- valleys to about 1,500 feet on ridges (James, 1986). The central though some are buffered by limestone. The predominant vegeta- region is underlain by crystalline and consolidated sedimentary tion in many peatlands is shrubs and grasses, but some have open bedrock that has been subjected to considerable folding and fault- sphagnum mats. Notable wetlands in the Appalachian Plateaus are ing and that is overlain by a regolith of variable thickness. Regolith, large peatlands such as Finzel Swamp, The Glades, and Cranesville which forms the land surface nearly everywhere, is a layer of un- Swamp, which is a classic northern peatland. consolidated, mostly fine-grained material composed of fragmen- tal, weathered bedrock and alluvium overlying unweathered bed- TRENDS rock. Recharge of the ground-water system in the central region is In the 1780's, about 1,650,000 acres, or 24 percent, of Mary- by infiltration of precipitation, mostly in the forested uplands. Most land (Dahl, 1990) and about 8,700 acres, or 20 percent, of the Dis- of the precipitation seeps into a thick, permeable soil layer, and most trict of Columbia (Department of Consumer and Regulatory Affairs, of that water moves laterally through the soil to surface depressions 1990) were wetland. At that time, and for 2 centuries thereafter, or streams. Water that moves below the soil zone enters the regolith, wetlands were regarded as a public nuisance -a source of disease and much of that water seeps into the underlying bedrock. Ground and useful only if they could be turned into dry land (Maryland water discharges from the regolith or bedrock by evapotranspira- Conservation Commission, 1909). The influence of agricultural, tion, as seeps or springs, or directly into streams (fig. 3Q. Much of tourism, recreational, and industrial interests led to the draining, the ground water available to wetlands in the region is held in the dredging, filling, diking, and damming of wetland areas and to ex- regolith (Metzgar, 1973). tensive stream channelization. These practices -in combination Most of the wetlands in the central region are in valleys or other with other human activities such as forestry; mining; crop tillage; surface depressions. These topographic lows often indicate the pres- increased pesticide, herbicide, nutrient, and sediment loading from ence of fracture zones in the bedrock. Fracture zones are more sus- upland activities; urban development and pollution; natural impacts ceptible than unfractured zones to weathering and erosion, which such as saltwater intrusion caused by sea-level rise and ground sub- allows the evolution of topographic depressions, and they are the sidence; wave-generated erosion; and hurricanes -have contributed major pathways of ground-water movement through bedrock (Heath, to widespread wetland loss or degradation. About 590,800 wetland 1984). Water is more likely to be discharged into depressions than acres, or about 9.3 percent of the land surface, remain in Maryland into other areas. For example, the source of water in the Germantown (R.W. Tiner, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, oral commun., 1992) Bog is primarily ground water and, although no streams flow into a loss of about 64 percent since the 1780's. this peatland, a stream flows out of it. Wetlands in the Piedmont When the District of Columbia was established in the 1790's, Province include peatlands; flood-plain emergent marshes; chemi- dredging and filling of wetlands to control disease and flooding cally neutral, acidic, and alkaline seeps; seasonal sinkholes; and began immediately. By the 1920's, most of the streams and springs farm ponds. Wetlands in the Blue Ridge Province include isolated that once drained into the Potomac and Anacostia Rivers were dry peatlands and forested wetlands in seepage areas smaller than I acre or enclosed in pipes (Williams, 1989). Most of the palustrine wet- and surrounded by forest. Wetlands are rare in the Valley and Ridge lands that those springs and streams supported have been covered Province, but those that are there include seeps, forested flood-plain by monuments, buildings, and parks. By 1992, only about 840 acres wetlands, and wet meadows. of wetlands, or about 10 percent of the wetland area in the 1780's, Notable wetlands in the Piedmont Province include the remained. The Department of Public Works and the U.S. Army Germantown Bog (a fen rather than a true bog) and flood-plain Corps of Engineers (Corps) are directing wetl and- restoration marshes such as those in the McKee Beshers Wildlife Management projects in the Anacostia River basin, where most of the District's Area. The isolated wetlands in the Blue Ridge Province, such as the remaining tidal wetlands are located. acidic seeps in Catoctin Mountain National Park, are essential habi- tats for rare and endangered plants. Wetlands also provide impor- CONSERVATION tant habitat in the Valley and Ridge Province, where the major wet- lands are flood-plain swamps of the Potomac River and its tributar- Many government agencies and private organizations partici- ies and wet meadows in the area around Hagerstown. pate in wetland conservation in Maryland and the District of Co- Appalachian Plateaus.-The valleys and mountains of the lumbia. The most active agencies and organizations and some of Appalachian Plateaus range from 1,500 to 3,000 feet above sea level their activities are listed in table 1. (James, 1986). The Appalachian Plateaus are characterized by se- Federal wetland activities.-Development activities in Mary- verely eroded, flat-lying to gently folded shale, sandstone, coal, and land and the District of Columbia wetlands are regulated by several limestone. The landscape consists of mountain crests, ridges, and Federal statutory prohibitions and incentives that are intended to hilltops that are formed of or capped by sandstone; wide, elongated slow wetland losses. Some of the more important of these are con- valleys of intermediate altitude; and narrow, steep-sided valleys tained in the 1899 Rivers and Harbors Act; the 1972 Clean Water (Abbe, 1902). Act and amendments; the 1985 Food Security Act; the 1990 Food, Recharge of the ground-water system in this region is by infil- Agriculture, Conservation, and Trade Act; the 1986 Emergency tration of precipitation. Recharge primarily occurs in outcrop ar- Wetlands Resources Act; and the 1972 Coastal Zone Management eas of sandstone formations in the uplands between streams (Heath, Act. 1984). Discharge from the ground-water system is through seeps, Section 10 of the Rivers and Harbors Act gives the Corps au- springs, and streams (fig. 3D). thority to regulate certain activities in navigable waters. Regulated Most of the wetlands in this region are in wide valleys and to- activities include diking, deepening, filling, excavating, and plac- pographic lows in shale beds and along contacts and bedding planes ing of structures. The related section 404 of the Clean Water Act is in the bedrock. Small wetlands are isolated from the surface-water the most often-used Federal legislation protecting wetlands. Under system, but large wetlands drain into streams. For example, streams section 404 provisions, the Corps issues permits regulating the dis- draining from Finzel Swamp (also known as Cranberry Swamp), a charge of dredged or fill material into wetlands. Permits are subject large peatland, are the headwaters for the Savage River. Peatlands to review and possible veto by the U.S. Environmental Protection are the largest wetland complexes in the Appalachian Plateaus; other Agency (EPA), and the Fws has review and advisory roles. Section National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: MARYLAND AND THE DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA 223 Table 1. Selected wetland-related activities of government agencies pliance with Swampbuster provisions and assists farmers in the iden- and private organizations in Maryland, 1993 tification of wetlands and in the development of wetland protection, [Source: Classification of activities is generalized from information provided restoration, or creation plans. by agencies and organizations. e, agency or organization participates in The 1986 Emergency Wetlands Resources Act and the 1972 wetiand-related activity; ..., agency or organization does not participate in Coastal Zone Management Act and amendments encourage wetland wetland-related activity. MAN, management; REG, regulation; R&C, resto- ration and creation; LAN, land acquisition; R&D, research and data collec- protection through funding incentives. The Emergency Wetland tion; D&I, delineation and inventoryl Resources Act requires States to address wetland protection in their Statewide Comprehensive Outdoor Recreation Plans to qualify for Federal funding for State recreational land; the National Park Ser- Agency or organization 10'0 11Y 4@ 41 vice (NPS) provides guidance to States in developing the wetland FEDERAL component of their plans. Coastal States that adopt coastal-zone Department of Agriculture management programs and plans approved by the National Oceanic Consolidated Farm Service Agency ........................... ...* and Atmospheric Administration are eligible for Federal funding and Natural Resources Conservation Service ................ ... * technical assistance through the Coastal Zone Management Act. Department of Commerce State wetland activities- Maryland's Wetlands and Riparian National Oceanic and Rights Act and Non-Tidal Wetlands Protection Act and Chapters 20 Atmospheric Administration ........................................00 Department of Defense and 21 ofthe District ofColumbia Code contain State-level require- Army Corps of Engineers ..............................................** ments for construction activities in wetlands. To obtain permits for Department of the Interior altering wetlands in Maryland, a joint State-Federal application must Fish and Wildlife Service ..............................................0 be submitted to the Maryland Department of the Environment's Geological Survey .......................................................... Water Resources Administration, which will route it to the appro- National Biological Survey .......................................... ... ... ... ... National Park Service ...................................................00 a priate regulatory agencies. The Department of the Environment ad- Environmental Protection Agency .......... ....................... ... ministers the Maryland wetland-protection acts and is responsible STATE for State compliance with section 305(b) of the Clean Water Act, Department of the Environment which requires States to submit water-quality-assessment reports to Water Management Administration ...........................* Congress and the EPA biennially. These reports must specifically ad- Department of Natural Resources dress water quality in wetlands. The Department of the Environ- Chesapeake Bay and Watershed Programs .............s Natural Heritage Program ............................................9 ment also administers section 401 of the Clean Water Act, which Program Open Space ..................................................... .. .. ... requires State water-quality certification before a section 404 per- Office of State Planning ............. ...................................... mit may be issued. State Highway Administration ......................................... Other regulatory activities are conducted by the Department University of Maryland ...................................................... ... ... ... ... of Natural Resources, the Office of State Planning, and the State DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA - Department of Consumer and Highway Administration. All activities in tidal wetlands are con- Regulatory Affairs .............................................................. ... ... ... ... ... ducted under the Department of Chesapeake Bay and Watershed Department of Public Works ............................................* a Programs; other activities are conducted by the Department's Natu- Metropolitan Council of Governments .......................... ... ral Heritage and Greenways and Resource Planning Programs, by Soil and Water Conservation District ............................* the Greenways Commission, by the Department of the Environ- SOME COUNTY AND LOCAL GOVERNMENTS .............* PRIVATE ORGANIZATIONS ment's Mining Program, and by the University of Maryland. The Chesapeake Bay Foundation ........................................... ...0... ... ... ... Maryland Natural Heritage Program supervises wetland manage- Environmental Concern, Inc . ........................................... ... ... ment on State-owned lands and administers land-acquisition pro- Maryland Land Trust Alliance ..........................................0 grams. The Department of Natural Resources'Greenways Program The Nature Conservancy ..................................................a and the Greenways Commission work to maintain the integrity of natural areas and to integrate them with recreational use. The Mining Program has a small wetlands mitigation and restoration program in the Appalachian Plateaus region. Several academic departments and the Center for Environmental and Estuarine Studies at the Uni- 401 of the Clean Water Act grants to States and eligible Indian Tribes versity of Maryland conduct wetlands research. the authority to approve, apply conditions to, or deny section 404 Most wetlands in the District of Columbia are owned by the permit applications on the basis of a proposed activity's probable NPS, which maintains them and monitors wetland restoration and effects on the water quality of a wetland. creation efforts along the Anacostia River. Permits for wetland al- Most farming, ranching, and silviculture activities are not sub- teration in the District ofColumbia must be obtained from the Corps ject to section 404 regulation. However, the "Swampbuster" provi- and the Department of Consumer and Regulatory Affairs. sion of the 1985 Food Security Act and amendments in the 1990 County and local wetland activities- County and local gov- Food, Agriculture, Conservation, and Trade Act discourage (through ernments have enacted zoning restrictions on development in wet- financial disincentives) the draining, filling, or other alteration of lands and created many conservation programs. Some counties wetlands for agricultural use. The law allows exemptions from pen- (Baltimore, Harford, and Anne Arundel) have wetland programs. alties in some cases, especially if the farmer agrees to restore the Prince Georges County has received partial authority from the State altered wetland or other wetlands that have been converted to agri- to implement the State Nontidal Wetland program. Other coopera- cultural use. The Wetlands Reserve Program of the 1990 Food, tive programs among State and local government agencies and pri- Agriculture, Conservation, and Trade Act authorizes the Federal vate organizations coordinate regional programs and management Government to purchase conservation easements from landowners and protection efforts, particularly around the District of Colum- who agree to protect or restore wetlands. The Consolidated Farm bia and the Chesapeake Bay. Service Agency (formerly the Agricultural Stabilization and Con- Private wetland activities- Private organizations with inter- servation Service) administers the Swampbuster provisions and ests in wetlands in Maryland and the District of Columbia are ac- Wetlands Reserve Program. The Natural Resources Conservation tive primarily in regulation and policy planning, land acquisition Service (formerly the Soil Conservation Service) determines com- and management, research, and adult and professional education. 224 National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: STATE SUMMARIES A few of the many organizations in the region are the Chesapeake Maryland Conservation Commission, 1909, Reclamation of swamps, in Bay Foundation (regulation and policy planning), the Maryland Report for 1908-1909: Baltimore, Maryland Conservation Commis- Land Trust Alliance and The Nature Conservancy (land acquisition sion, p. 137-144. and management), Environmental Concern, Inc. (research and adult Metzgar, R.G., 1973, Wetlands in Maryland: Annapolis, Maryland Depart- and professional education), and Alliance for the Chesapeake B ment of State Planning Publication 157, 80 p. ay Phillips, P.J., and Shedlock, R.J., 1993, Hydrology and chemistry of ground (adult and professional education). water and seasonal ponds in the Atlantic coastal plain in Delaware, U.S.A.: Journal of Hydrology, v. 141, p. 157 -178. References Cited Tiner, R.W., 1987, Mid-Atlantic wetlands-A disappearing natural trea- sure: Newton Corner, Mass., U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service and U.S. Abbe, Cleveland, Jr., 1902, The physiography of Garrett County, in Mary- Environmental Protection Agency cooperative publication, 28 p. land Geological Survey, Garrett County: Baltimore, Maryland Geo- Williams, G.P., 1989, Washington, D.C.'s vanishing springs and waterways, logical Survey, p. 27-54. in Moore, J.E., and Jackson, J.S., eds., Geology, hydrology, and his- Cowardin, L.M., Carter, Virginia, Golet, F.C., and LaRoe, E.T., 1979, Clas- tory of the Washington, D.C., area: Alexandria, Va., American Geo- sification of wetlands and deepwater habitats ofthe United States: U.S. logical Institute, p. 76-94. Fish and Wildlife Service Report FWS/OBS-79/31, 131 p. Winter, T.C., 1988, A conceptual framework for assessing cumulative im- Dahl, T.E., 1990, Wetlands -Losses in the United States, 1780's to 1980's: pacts on the hydrology of nontidal wetlands: Environmental Manage- Washington, D.C., U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Report to Congress, ment, v. 12, no. 5, p. 605 - 620. 13 p. -1992, Aphysiographic and climatic framework for hydrologic stud- Department of Consumer and Regulatory Affairs, 1990, 1990 Report to the ies of wetlands, in Robarts, R.D., and Bothwell, M.L., eds., Proceed- U.S. Environmental Protection Agency and U.S. Congress pursuant ings of the Symposium on Aquatic Ecosystems in Semi-Arid Re- to Section 305(b) Clean Water Act (P.L. 97-117): Washington, D.C., gions -Implications for resource management, 1990: Saskatoon, Sas- Department of Consumer and Regulatory Affairs, 123 p. katchewan, Environment Canada, The National Hydrology Research Fenneman, N.M., 1946, Physical divisions of the United States: Washing- Institute Symposium Series 7, p. 127-147. ton, D.C., U.S. Geological Survey special map, scale 1:7,000,000. Guerrero, V.C., 1993, Inventory and status of wetlands in the District of Columbia: Washington, D.C., District of Columbia Department of FOR ADDITIONAL INFORMATION: District Chief, U.S. Geological Consumer and Regulatory affairs, 80 p. Survey, 208 Carroll Building, 8600 LaSalle Road, Towson, MD 21204; Hall, Tom, and Malcom, Hope, 1990, Inventory of natural resource areas Regional Welland Coordinator, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 300 Westgate within the Chesapeake Bay region, v. I-Maryland: Annapolis, Md., Center Drive, Hadley, MA 01035 U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 24 p. Heath, R.C., 1984, Ground-water regions of the United States: U.S. Geo- logical Survey Water-Supply Paper 2242, 78 p. Prepared by James, R.W., Jr., 1986, Maryland and the District of Columbia surface-water Martha A. Hayes, resources, in U.S. Geological Survey, National water summary 1985 - U.S. Geological Survey Hydrologic events and surface-water resources: U.S. Geological Sur- vey Water-Supply Paper 2300, p. 265-270. U.S. Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper 2425 National Water Summary-Wetland Resources 2-25 Massachusetts Wetland Resources Wflands cover about I I percent of Massachusetts (Dahl, 1990) deepwater habitats. Wetlands of the systems that occur in Massa- and are an important component of the State's water resources. chusetts are described below. Wetlands are valued and protected by the State for the environmen- tal and economic benefits they provide, such as flood control, miti- System Wetland description gation of storm damage, water-quality improvement, maintenance of ground-water supplies, wildlife habitat, and spawning and nurs- Palustrine .................. Nontidaf and tidal-freshwater wetlands in which ery habitat for many of the estuarine and marine fish and shellfish vegetation is predominantly trees (forested wet- that support the State's sport-fishing and seafood industries (fig. 1). lands); shrubs (scrub-shrub wetlands); persistent or noripersistent emergent, erect, rooted herba- Most wetland functions are tied to the presence, movement, qual- ceous plants (persistent- and nonpersistent- ity, and quantity of water in wetlands (Carter and others, 1979). For emergent wetlands); or submersed and (or) example, flood-plain wetlands along the Charles River provide natu- floating plants (aquatic beds). Also, intermit- ral storage and a reduction of floodwaters such that the least-cost tently to permanently flooded open-water bod- ies of less than 20 acres in which water is less solution to prevent future flooding was to acquire and protect the than 6.6 feet deep. wetlands (U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, 1971). Massachusetts Lacustrine ................. Nontidal and tidal-freshwater wetlands within an wetlands provide not only the functions and values for which they intermittently to permanently flooded lake or are protected by the State but other benefits such as scenic beauty reservoir larger than 20 acres and (or) deeper and recreational opportunities. The benefits that Massachusetts' than 6.6 feet. Vegetation, when present, is pre- wetlands provide are a reflection of the diversity of the State's wet- dominantly nonpersistent emergent plants (non- persistent-emergent wetlands), or submersed land resources. and (or) floating plants (aquatic beds), or both. Riverine ..................... Nontidal and tidal-freshwater wetlands within a TYPES AND DISTRIBUTION channel. Vegetation, when present, is same as in the Lacustrine System. Wetlands are lands transitional between terrestrial and deep- Estuarine ................... Tidal wetlands in low-wave-energy environments water habitats where the water table usually is at or near the land where the salinity of the water is greater than 0.5 surface or the land is covered by shallow water (Cowardin and oth- part per thousand (ppt) and is variable owing to evaporation and the mixing of seawater and ers, 1979). The distribution of wetlands and deepwater habitats in freshwater. Massachusetts is shown in figure 2A; only wetlands are discussed Marine ....................... Tidal wetlands that are exposed to waves and cur- herein. rents of the open ocean and to water having a Wetlands can be vegetated or nonvegetated and are classified salinity greater than 30 ppt. on the basis of their hydrology, vegetation, and substrate. In this summary, wetlands are classified according to the system proposed The most recent inventory of Massachusetts wetlands, per- by Cowardin and others (1979), which is used by the U.S. Fish and formed during 1975-77 by the Fws National Wetlands Inventory Wildlife Service (Fws) to map and inventory the Nation's wetlands. Project, mapped about 590,000 acres of wetlands in the State (Tiner, At the most general level of the classification system, wetlands are 1992). According to Metzler and Tiner (1992), the maps are at least grouped into five ecological systems: Palustrine, Lacustrine, Riv- 95 percent accurate. Palustrine wetlands are the most common erine, Estuarine, and Marine. The Palustrine System includes only wetland type in the State, followed by estuarine and marine wet- wetlands, whereas the other systems comprise wetlands and lands (fig. 2B); all together, they constitute about 99 percent, by area, of the State's wetlands. The combined area of lacustrine and river- ine wetlands makes up the remaining less than 1 percent of wetland @@7,,! acreage. A description of Massachusetts' Most common wetland types follows. Falustrine wetlands.-Vegetated palustrine wetlands in Mas- sachusetts include ponds and shallow lakes in which the dominant vegetation is floating or submersed (aquatic-bed wetlands); fresh- water marshes, fens, and bogs dominated by herbaceous plants (emergent wetlands); and bogs and swamps dominated by shrubs or trees (scrub-shrub or forested wetlands). Vernal pools are small, ally flooded wetlands that occur throughout Massachusetts. season Because most vernal pools dry up, they are devoid of fish and thus provide a safe breeding habitat for many amphibian and invertebrate species. Palustrine forested wetlands constitute 56 percent of the State's wetlands (Tiner, 1992) and consist primarily of red maple swamps Figure 1. Namskaket Marsh on Cape Cod. This with some evergreen forested wetlands. Red maple grows in most wetland is the site of U.S. Geological Survey studies inland wetlands because it tolerates a wide range of flooding and that monitor the development and fate of a wastewater soil-saturation conditions (Metzler and Tiner, 1992). The vegeta- plume moving toward this tidal wetland. (Photograph tion found with red maple, in the understory and intermixed or courtesy of Kelsey-Kennard Photographers, Chatham, codominating in the canopy, differs according to nutrient conditions Mass.) and water regime. Atlantic white cedar wetlands, the most common 226 National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: STATE SUMMARIES 71' Parlef River WR 73' L; to 0 10 20 30 MILES 42 j I I je4p Pitt A d Minu7w oric I I I -93 0 10 20 30 KILOMETERS Bdat b ar. 0 S n field H rn 42' in Cape Cod A WETLANDS AND DEEPWATER HABITATS Nandalke National Seashore D b Lb istri ution of wetlands and deepwaterr habitats This map shows the approximate distribution of large In of wetl:nds in the State. Because of limitations of scale and ource material, some wetlands are not shown 9 a%FP 41 Predominantly wetland Bedfo .4 aquoh Bay Monornoy Island NWR National Estuarine Predominantly deepwater habitat Research Reserve d> IZ3 @6;' "C@ d Martha's 4@- Marine wetlands Vineyard 6.6 percent (38,700) Estuarine wetlands 13.4 percent (79,300) Green Mountain Section Lacustrine and II I Connecticut I riverine wetlands I 4alley Lowland 0.7 percent (4,270 acres) Palustrine wetlands 79.3 percent I New England 1468,000 acres) rac- P-1 New England RELATIVE AND ACTUAL ACREAGE Upland Section OF WETLAND TYPES IN MASSACHUSETTS D Coasted Plain % PHYS OGRAPHIC I( DIVISIONS 63 'P 00 C STRATIFIED-DRIFT DEPOSITS Stratified-d rift deposits Figure 2. Wetland distribution and types in Massachusetts and physical features that control wetland distribution in the State. A, Distribution of wetlands and deepwater habitats. B, Relative area of wetland types in the mid-I 970's. C, Area covered by stratified -drift deposits. D, Physiography. (Sources: A, TE. Dahl, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, unpub. data, 199 1. B, Tiner 1992. C, B. D. Stone, U.S. Geological Survey, written commun., 1991. D, Physiographic divisions from Fenneman, 1946; landforms data from EROS Data Center) National Water Surnmary-Wetland Resources: MASSACHUSETTS 227 evergreen forested wetlands, are concentrated south of Boston and lands are adapted to low-nutrient conditions. Kettle ponds in the form isolated wetlands in western and north-central Massachusetts Coastal Plain provide a habitat for plants that grow only on the ex- and in the Connecticut River Valley (Sorrie and Woolsey, 1987). posed, sandy shores of nutrient-poor, acidic ponds and require sea- Lacustrine and riverine Wetlands.-Although present through- sonal water-table fluctuations (Henry Woolsey, Natural Heritage and out the State, lacustrine and riverine wetlands comprise only a small Endangered Species Program, written commun., 1993). percentage of Massachusetts' wetland area. These freshwater wet- Glacial lakes occupied the Connecticut Valley Lowland and lands generally are restricted to the littoral zone between the shore Seaboard Lowland of Massachusetts, depositing extensive areas of and deepwater habitat and, if vegetated, have only aquatic-bed or flat, nearly impermeable stratified drift (Schafer and Hartshorn, nonpersistent emergent vegetation. The majority ofriverine wetlands 1965). Impermeable stratified drift that was deposited in a marine occur adjacent to the Connecticut River (Tiner, 1992). Wetlands in environment underlies areas of the Seaboard Lowland to the north the shallows of rivers or lakes are classified as palustrine wetlands of and surrounding Boston (Stone and Peper, 1982). These coastal if there is persistent emergent vegetation present. areas were depressed by the weight of glacial ice to beneath even Estuarine and marine wetlands.-Estuarine and marine wet- the lowered sea level but rose rapidly after deglaciation to expose lands account for 20 percent of the State's total wetland acreage. In marine sediments. The low relief and impermeable materials of these Massachusetts, marine wetlands consist of exposed intertidal flats areas slow the drainage of surface-water, promoting the formation and beaches and minor acreages of rocky shores and aquatic beds. and maintenance of wetlands. Sources of water for these wetlands Estuarine wetlands consist of salt and brackish marshes (emergent include precipitation, ground-water discharge, and river overflow. and scrub-shrub wetlands) that have developed behind coastal dunes Slow drainage leads to acidic, low-nutrient conditions through the and in protected coves and embayments along the coast and estuar- accumulation of plant metabolic wastes and through the gradual ies. These wetlands are commonly vegetated by grasses and aquatic depletion of nutrients as water flows through the wetland. Because plants. Sparsely vegetated estuarine flats and beaches, alternately of the low slope, small drainage obstructions can form large wet- flooded by tide or exposed to air, also are present. lands-such as the 6,000-acre Hockomock Swamp near Taunton, the 1,500-acre Cedar Swamp near Westborough, and the 1,000-acre HYDROLOGIC SETTING Acushnet Cedar Swamp near New Bedford. Within the bedrock and till-covered hills of the New England Wetlands form in geologic, topographic, and hydrologic set- Upland and Taconic Sections, wetlands occur primarily in depres- tings that enhance the accumulation and retention of ground water, sions where surface runoff and ground-water discharge collect. The surface water, or both for a period of time. Hydrologic processes depressions have no outflow or have drainage controlled by bedrock are the primary factor determining the existence of wetlands; even sills, stratified drift, beaver dams, or manmade structures. Seepage if the geologic and topographic settings are favorable for wetland wetlands can form where the ground-water table intersects or is close formation, unfavorable hydrologic conditions can inhibit wetland to the land surface - on concave slopes and at breaks in slope. How- formation (Winter, 1988). On an annual basis, precipitation exceeds ever, these wetlands are permanently saturated only if ground-water evapotranspiration losses in Massachusetts, resulting in an annual discharge is perennial; otherwise, the wetlands are seasonally satu- moisture surplus. Hydrology, therefore, favors the formation and rated for varying periods of time (Winter, 1988). Wetlands also form maintenance of wetlands throughout the State, and wetland loca- in river valleys, where they occupy kettle holes in stratified drift or tion is determined primarily by geologic and topographic controls. areas modified by the erosion and deposition of rivers-in aban- Massachusetts was almost completely covered by ice during doned river channels, behind levees and overbank sediments adja- the last glaciation; the ice margin reached its maximum extent at cent to rivers, and in backswamp areas. As water moves through soil Martha's Vineyard and Nantucket Island. Large quantities of gla- and surficial materials, it is enriched in nutrients for plant growth. cial drift were deposited over bedrock throughout the State. This The longer the flowpath beneath the surface, the more the water is sediment was left in place as deposited from the ice as till or was enriched. Wetlands in upland till and bedrock depressions are pri- eroded and reworked by glacial meltwater and deposited as strati- marily areas of discharge from nutrient-poor, local to intermediate fied drift. Till is exposed at the land surface, primarily on upland ground-water flow systems, whereas wetlands in lowland valleys hilltops and slopes. Stratified drift was deposited in topographically receive discharge from nutrient-ertriched, intermediate and regional low areas where glacial meltwater collected-major lowlands such ground-water flow systems. as the Coastal Plain Province, the Seaboard Lowland and Connecti- As vegetation became established after ice retreat and devel- cut Valley Lowland Sections, and in stream and river valleys through- oped in response to the warming of climate, open-water areas filled out the New England Upland, Green Mountain, and Taconic Sec- with sediment and organic matter to become wetlands or remained tions (fig. 2C and 2D). Although stratified drift covers only 44 per- lakes with wetland habitats fringing open water. Studies of upland cent of Massachusetts, 68 percent of wetlands are underlain by this wetlands in Connecticut have shown that wetlands developed over deposit (Motts and O'Brien, 1981). In general, the percentage of many divergent paths in the time since glaciation; however, all wet- land containing wetlands decreases from east to west in the State; lands have been strongly affected by postsettlement agricultural and this decrease can be directly attributed to the distribution of strati- industrial practices (Thorson, 1990; Thorson and Harris, 1991). fied drift. Many wetlands resulted from colonial agricultural practices and the Inland wetlands.- Surficial materials of the Coastal Plain, creation of ice ponds and mill ponds for water-powered industries. which encompasses Cape Cod, Martha's Vineyard, and Nantucket Beavers have created many wetlands in Massachusetts by Island, consist primarily of permeable stratified drift characterized flooding uplands and narrow river valleys. Beaver populations in by low relief. Despite the low relief, surface water does not collect Massachusetts have been successfully reestablished and now occupy in these areas because of the rapid infiltration of precipitation. all suitable habitats in the State (Thomas Decker, Massachusetts Wetlands occur in the numerous kettle holes that intersect the Division of Fisheries and Wildlife, oral commun., 1993). Beaver- ground-water table and receive water from ground-water discharge created wetlands have many of the positive aspects associated with and precipitation. Kettle holes, closed topographic depressions, were wetlands - including habitat for waterfowl and other wildlife, flood created by the melting of stagnant ice blocks that were embedded control, sediment control, fish production, and recreational and in glacial sediments. Kettle holes pit the surface of stratified drift esthetic values -but the property damage beaver ponds may cause throughout the State. Because ground water moves relatively rap- can result in conflict between beavers and humans (Decker and idly through the surficial materials of this area, plants in these wet- Cooper, 1991). 228 National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: STATE SUMMARIES Tidal wetlands.-Tidal wetlands are present along coastal ar- Table 1. Selected wetland-related activities of government eas of the State in the Coastal Plain and the Seaboard Lowland. Tidal agencies and private organizations in Massachusetts, 1993 wetlands form a broad continuum from marine to estuarine, river- [Source: Classification of activities is generalized from information provided ine, and palustrine wetlands. The effects of wave energy and salin- by agencies and organizations. o, agency or organization participates in ity on the wetlands diminish along this continuum. Tidal wetlands wetland-related activity; agency or organization does not participate in wetland-related activity. MAN, management; REG, regulation; R&C, res- receive freshwater from upland areas through ground-water dis- toration and creation; LAN, land acquisition; R&D, research and data col- charge, stream overflow, and hillslope runoff. Regional ground-water lection; D&I, delineation and inventory] discharge is greatest near the break in slope between upland and coastal areas, and intermediate and local ground-water flow systems increase in importance in areas that have less topographic relief Agency or organization ;0 0- J. Z@@ (Winter, 1988). Floodwater resulting from high tides or stormflows FEDERAL maybe temporarily stored in the wetland. The drainage of flood- Department of Agriculture water and hillslope runoff from the wetland surface is slowed by Consolidated Farm Service Agency ........................... ... 0 ... ... ... ... the low slope of coastal areas. Forest Service ................................................................. ... ... ... ... ... The major factors affecting the development and persistence Natural Resources Conservation Service ................ ... Department of Commerce of tidal wetlands are the rate of sea-level rise, the tidal regime, the National Oceanic and supply of sediments to the wetland, and the ability of plants to Sur- Atmospheric Administration ........................................0 vive submergence by saltwater (Redfield, 1972). Unless the submer- Department of Defense gence of tidal wetlands by rising sea level is counteracted by the Army Corps of Engineers ..............................................0 vertical accretion of the wetland by sediment deposition and plant Military reservations .....................................................0 . ... ... Department of the Interior accumulation, the wetland will drown and become a deepwater Fish and Wildlife Service ..............................................0 0 0 0 0 habitat. As the last glacial ice melted and water was returned to the Geological Survey .......................................................... ... ... sea, sea level rose, encroaching upon land and submerging many National Biological Service ......................................... ... ... stream and river valleys to form estuaries. Tidal wetlands either have National Park Service ...................................................0 migrated inland along estuaries, river valleys, and coastal slopes, Environmental Protection Agency .................................. ... or the wetlands have been completely submerged. Most existing STATE Department of Environmental Management ................9 saltwater wetlands in New England are younger than 4,000 years Department of Environmental Protection and might have thick freshwater deposits below saltwater peat Division of Water Pollution Control ............................* (Redfield, 1972). Presently, tidal wetlands exist in a narrow setting Division of Water Supply ...............................................0 between rising sea level and expanding coastal development. The Division of Wetlands and Waterways ........................ ... migration of these wetlands inland, as sea level continues to rise, is Department of Fisheries, Wildlife and Environmental Law Enforcement .................................... hindered by the previous destruction of coastal-margin wetlands and Massachusetts Environmental Policy Act Unit ........... ... by present development in low-lying uplands. Metropolitan District Commission ..................................0 University of Massachusetts ........................................... ... ... ... ... TOWN AND CITY CONSERVATION COMMISSIONS TRENDS PRIVATE ORGANIZATIONS Ducks Unlimited ................... .............................................. ... ... The Fws estimates that Massachusetts has lost 28 percent of Massachusetts Audubon Society ...................................0 its original wetlands over the 200-year period between the 1780's The Nature Conservancy ..................................................0 and the 1980's (Dahl, 1990). Agricultural and urban expansion in The Trustees of Reservations ..........................................0 the Boston, Cape Cod, and Connecticut River Valley areas have caused many wetland losses (Motts and O'Brien, 198 1). There are no statewide estimates of recent wetland losses or alteration; how- ever, wetland losses and alterations continue in Massachusetts de- Some of the more important of these are contained in the 1899 spite Federal and State regulation. In southeastern Massachusetts, Rivers and Harbors Act; the 1972 Clean Water Act and amendments; about 1,300 acres of vegetated wetlands were either lost or altered the 1985 Food Security Act; the 1990 Food, Agriculture, Conser- from 1977 to 1986 through agriculture, development, and conver- vation, and Trade Act; and the 1986 Emergency Wetlands Resources sion of vegetated wetlands to open water (Tiner and Zinni, 1988). Act. Since 1978 there have been more than 51,000 permit applica- Section 10 of the Rivers and Harbors Act gives the U.S. Army tions submitted to the Department of Environmental Protection for Corps of Engineers (Corps) authority to regulate certain activities work proposed in or near wetlands in the State. More than 9,000 in navigable waters. Regulated activities include diking, deepening, applications were submitted in 1991; about one-third of these ap- filling, excavating, and placing of structures. The related section 404 plications were from Cape Cod and the southeastern part of the of the Clean Water Act is the most often-used Federal legislation State, one-third were for projects proposed in and around metro- protecting wetlands. Under section 404 provisions, the Corps issues politan Boston, and the remaining one-third were for projects in permits regulating the discharge of dredged or fill material into central and western Massachusetts (Massachusetts Division of wetlands. Permits are subject to review and possible veto by the U.S. Wetlands and Waterways, 1991). Environmental Protection Agency, and the Fws has review and ad- visory roles. Section 401 of the Clean Water Act grants to States CONSERVATION and eligible Indian Tribes the authority to approve, apply conditions to, or deny section 404 permit applications on the basis of a pro- Many government agencies and private organizations partici- posed activity's probable effects on the water quality of a wetland. pate in wetland conservation in Massachusetts. The most active Most farming, ranching, and silviculture activities are not sub- agencies and organizations and some of their activities are listed in ject to section 404 regulation. However, the "Swampbuster" provi- table 1. sion of the 1985 Food Security Act and amendments in the 1990 Federal wetland activities.-Development activities in Mas- Food, Agriculture, Conservation, and Trade Act discourage (through sachusetts wetlands are regulated by several Federal statutory pro- financial disincentives) the draining, filling, or other alteration of hibitions and incentives that are intended to slow wetland losses. wetlands for agricultural use. The law allows exemptions from pen- National Water Surnmary-Wetland Resources: MASSACHUSETTS 229 alties in some cases, especially if the farmer agrees to restore the of 1:5,000. The wetland maps will provide a detailed inventory of altered wetland or other wetlands that have been converted to agri- the extent and condition of the State's wetlands to be used to iden- cultural use. The Wetlands Reserve Program of the 1990 Food, tify illegal wetland alterations and quantify wetland losses. In ad- Agriculture, Conservation, and Trade Act authorizes the Federal dition, important wetlands are selected for permanent deed restric- Government to purchase conservation easements from landowners tions prohibiting activities that impair wetland functions. At present who agree to protect or restore wetlands. The Consolidated Farm (1993), 46,000 acres of coastal wetlands and 8,000 acres of inland Service Agency (formerly the Agricultural Stabilization and Con- wetlands are protected by deed restrictions. servation Service) administers the Swampbuster provisions and Wet- The Department of Environmental Protection is integrating the lands Reserve Program. The Natural Resources Conservation 401 water-quality certification program with wetland permitting Service (formerly the Soil Conservation Service) determines com- under the State's Wetland Protection Act. Under section 401 of the pliance with Swampbuster provisions and assists farmers in the iden- Federal Clean Water Act, any activity that results in a discharge, tification of wetlands and in the development of wetland protection, including that of fill into wetlands or State waters, that also requires restoration, or creation plans. a Federal permit must obtain a 401 water-quality certification stat- The 1986 Emergency Wetlands Resources Act and the 1972 ing that the activity will not result in violation of State surface-water- Coastal Zone Management Act and amendments encourage wetland quality standards. Many activities exempted under the Wetland Pro- protection through funding incentives. The Emergency Wetland tection Act will be in the Department of Environmental Protection's Resources Act requires States to address wetland protection in their jurisdiction under the 401 certification program. Use of the anti- Statewide Comprehensive Outdoor Recreation Plans to qualify for degradation provisions of State surface-water-quality standards on Federal funding for State recreational land; the National Park Ser- wetlands defined as "waters of the Commonwealth" provides en- vice (NPS) provides guidance to States in developing the wetland hanced wetland protection. Antidegradation provisions provide for component of their plans. Coastal States that adopt coastal-zone the protection of existing uses in wetlands and the level of water management programs and plans approved by the National Oceanic quality necessary to maintain those uses. No degradation is allowed and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) are eligible for Federal in areas designated as Outstanding National Resource Waters, such funding and technical assistance through the Coastal Zone Manage- as National Wil 'dlife Refuges, National Parks, State parks, wildlife ment Act. areas, and other areas of ecological significance. Vernal pools that Federal agencies are responsible for the proper management have been certified by the State are designated as Outstanding Re- of wetlands on public lands under their jurisdiction. The FWs pro- source Waters and therefore have added protection through section tects and manages wetlands in four National Wildlife Refuges in 401 and its antidegradation provisions. Massachusetts: approximately 3,300 acres of salt marsh and fresh- The Department of Environmental Management is the primary water wetlands in the Parker River National Wildlife Refuge, 1,000 land-management and natural -resource planning agency in the State. acres of flood-plain wetlands along the Nashua River within the The Department is the largest landholder in Massachusetts, having Oxbow National Wildlife Refuge, flood-plain wetlands along 12 270,000 acres of State forests, parks, beaches, and wildlife areas miles of the Concord and Sudbury Rivers of the Great Meadows that include wetlands. As a part of its land- stewardship plans, the National Wildlife Refuge, and 2,750 acres of marine, estuarine, and Department oversees many activities and programs including re- palustrine wetlands in the Monomoy Island National Wildlife Ref- search and data collection, land-resource inventory, coastal-dune uge. The NPS protects, manages, and studies many diverse wetlands restoration, and natural area programs. The Wildlands Program sets in the Minuteman National Historic Park and the Cape Cod National aside areas of State forests and parks that contain examples of unique Seashore. The Corps manages about 1,000 acres of wetlands at dams plant communities or geologic formations in the State. The Office and reservoirs located throughout the State and 8,000 acres of wet- of Water Resources, within the Department of Environmental Man- lands in the Charles River Natural Valley Storage Project. agement, is involved in two significant programs related to wet- State wetland activities.-All State agencies that have respon- lands -the river-basin planning program and the watershed-pro- sibilities for wetland protection, management, and planning are tection and flood-prevention facilities program (Michael Gildes- managed by the Executive Office of Environmental Affairs chaired game, Office of Water Resources, written commun., 1993). The by the Secretary of Environmental Affairs. The principal authority river-basin planning program analyzes the water resources of each of this office is to implement and oversee State policies that pre- basin and develops recommendations for regional and community serve, protect, and regulate natural resources and the environmen- water-resources management that balance the consumptive needs tal integrity of the Commonwealth of Massachusetts. The Water of municipal, industrial, and commercial water withdrawals with the Resources Commission establishes statewide water-resources poli- instrearn flow needed to maintain natural resources such as wet- cies for agencies within the Executive Office of Environmental lands, wildlife, and fisheries. The 35-year-old cooperative Federal Affairs. In 1990, the Water Resources Commission adopted a policy and State watershed-protection and flood-prevention facilities pro- of no net short-term loss of wetlands and a net long-term gain of gram maintains and preserves about 5,000 acres of open space as- wetlands; the policy incorporates the principles of avoidance or sociated with 32 flood-prevention facilities across the State. Instal- minimization of adverse impacts on wetlands and full compensa- lation of these structures has promoted the development of new tory mitigation for unavoidable wetland losses (Massachusetts Di- wetlands and has enhanced wildlife habitat, public recreation, and vision of Wetlands and Waterways, 1991). Primary responsibility water supply. The Waquoit Bay National Estuarine Research Re- to implement this policy was delegated to the Department of Envi- serve, located on the southern coast of Cape Cod, is cooperatively ronmental Protection. managed by the Department of Environmental Management and The Department of Environmental Protection's Division of NOAAS Sanctuaries and Reserves Division. The 2,250-acre reserve Wetlands and Waterways implements two complementary programs was created under section 315 of the Federal Coastal Zone Man- for wetland protection-the Wetlands Protection Program and the agement Act and has barrier beach, salt pond, salt marsh, and open- Wetlands Conservancy Program. The Wetlands Protection Program water habitats. The reserve serves as a natural laboratory and is the functions primarily through permitting and enforcement by local site of several interagency research projects. conservation commissions. The program handles appeals and pro- The Department of Fisheries, Wildlife and Environmental Law vides training, technical assistance, and enforcement support to Enforcement protects and manages the State's wild and living natu- conservation commissions. The Wetlands Conservancy Program is ral resources, including rare and endangered plant and animal spe- mapping the State's wetlands through aerial photography at a scale cies. Wetland protection is part of the overall mission of the De- 230 National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: STATE SUMMARIES partment-the protection of natural ecosystems. Critical wildlife Metzler, K.J., and Tiner, R.W., 1992, Wetlands of Connecticut: Corinecti- habitats are protected by an aggressive land-acquisition program that cut State Geological and Natural History Survey Report of Investiga- emphasizes the natural corridors formed by rivers, streams, and their tions No. 13, 115 p. associated wetlands. The Natural Heritage and Endangered Species Motts, W.S., and O'Brien, A.L., 198 1, Geology and hydrology of wetlands Program, which is funded primarily through voluntary income tax in Massachusetts: University of Massachusetts, Water Resources Re- search Center Publication 123, 147 p. contributions, inventories rare- and endangered-species habitats in Redfield, A.C., 1972, Development of a New England salt marsh: Ecologi- the State. cal Monographs, v. 42, p. 201-237. Local wetland activities.-The local conservation commissions Schafer, J.P., and Hartshorn, J.H., 1965, The Quaternary of New England, of the 351 cities and towns in Massachusetts implement the State's in Wright, H.E., Jr., and Frey, D.G., eds., The Quaternary of the United Welland Protection Act with jurisdiction over any work in, over, or States: Princeton, N.J., Princeton University Press, p. 113-128. adjacent to water bodies, wetlands, rivers, and streams within each Sortie, B.A., and Woolsey, H.L., 1987, The status and distribution of At- municipality. No person may dredge, fill, or alter wetlands without lantic white cedar in Massachusetts, in Laderman, A.D., Atlantic white notifying the local conservation commission in writing to explain cedar wetlands: Boulder, Colo., Westview Press, p. 135 -137. the proposed work. In addition, cities and towns may enact local Stone, B.D., and Peper, J.D., 1982, Topographic control of the deglaciation of eastern Massachusetts -Ice lobation and the marine incursion, in wetland bylaws, which can provide more stringent wetland and re- Larson, G.J., and Stone, B.D., eds., Late Wisconsinan glaciation of source protection than that specified in the State's Welland Protec- New England: Dubuque, Iowa, Kendall/Hunt Publishing Company, tion Act. Commissions consist of three to seven volunteer members p. 145 -163. appointed directly by local elected authorities. Thorson, R.M., 1990, Development of small upland wetlands-A strati- Private wetland activities.-Private organizations in Massa- graphic study in northeastern Connecticut: University of Connecti- chusetts are active in land acquisition and management, research, cut, School of Engineering Final Report JHR 90 -191, 285 p. education, and policy review and planning. The Massachusetts Thorson, R.M., and Harris, S.L., 1991, How "natural" are inland wetlands? Audubon Society owns 22,000 acres of land containing wetlands. An example from the Trail Wood Audubon Sanctuary in Connecticut, The Trustees of Reservations owns and manages 18,000 acres of land USA: Environmental Management, v. 15, p. 675 - 687. Tiner, R.W., Jr., 1992, Preliminary national wetland inventory report on in the State with historic, scenic, or ecological value. Ducks Unlim- Massachusetts'wetland acreage: Newton Corner, Mass., U.S. Fish and ited provides technical and financial assistance to Federal and State Wildlife Service National Wetlands Inventory Project, 5 p. agencies in order to protect waterfowl habitat in Massachusetts. Tiner, R.W., Jr. and Zinni, William, Jr., 1988, Recent wetlands trends in southeastern Massachusetts: Newton Corner, Mass., U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service National Wetlands Inventory Project, 9 p. References Cited U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, 197 1, Charles River study, appendix H- Carter, Virginia, Bedinger, M.S., Novitzki, R.P., and Wilen, W.O., 1979, Flood management plan formulation: Waltham, Mass., U.S. Army Water resources and wetlands, in Greeson, P.E., Clark, J.R., and Clark, Corps of Engineers, 32 p. J.E., eds., Wetlands functions and values -The state of our under- Winter, T.C., 1988, A conceptual framework for assessing cumulative im- standing -Proceedings of the National Symposium on Wetlands, No- pacts on the hydrology of nontidal wetlands: Environmental Manage- vember 1978: Minneapolis, Minn., American Water Resources Asso- ment, v. 12, p. 605-620. ciation, p. 344-376. Cowardin, L.M., Carter, Virginia, Golet, F.C., and LaRoe, E.T., 1979, Clas- sification of wetlands and deepwater habitats ofthe United States: U.S. FOR ADDITIONAL INFORMATION: District Chief, U.S. Geological Fish and Wildlife Service Report FWS/OBS-79/31, 131 p. Survey, 28 Lord Rd., Suite 280, Marlborough, MA 01752; Regional Wet- Dahl, T.E., 1990, Wetlands-Losses in the United States, 1780's to 1980's: lands Coordinator, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 300 Westgate Center, Washington, D.C., U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Report to Congress, Hadley, MA 01035 13 p. Decker, Thomas, and Cooper, Jeanne, 199 1, Evaluation of damage by bea- vers to highways and the economic costs to cities and towns in Mas- Prepared by sachusetts: Westboro, Massachusetts Division of Fisheries and Wild- Sandra L. Harris, life Technical Report, 14 p. U.S. Geological Survey Fenneman, N.M., 1938, Physiography of Eastern United States: New York, McGraw-Hill, 714 p. Massachusetts Division of Wetlands and Waterways, 199 1, Wetlands white paper: Boston, Massachusetts Department of Environmental Protec- tion, 64 p. U.S. Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper 2425 National Water Summary-Wetland Resources 231 Michigan Wetland Resources Wtiands cover about 15 percent of Michigan. They are ecologi- There is no current (1993) estimate of statewide wetland acre- cally and economically valuable to the State. Wetlands provide shore- age in each of the systems. However, the Michigan Department of line protection as well as temporary flood storage. Wetlands pro- Natural Resources has inventoried land cover and land use; the re- tect water quality by removing excess nutrients and sediments from sult is the Michigan Resource Inventory System (MIRIS). Wetland surface and ground water. Michigan's wetlands, such as Tobico classifications were developed specifically for this inventory sys- Marsh shown in figure 1, provide important wildlife habitat and have tem. Classes of wetlands under this scheme are lowland conifers, a significant role in maintaining a high level of biological diversity. 1,826,402 acres; lowland hardwoods, 2,484,430 acres; wooded Most freshwater fish depend on wetlands at some stage in their life wetland, 263,684 acres (palustrine forested wetlands under the cycle. Birds use wetlands as migratory resting places, for breeding Cowardin and others [1979] classification system); shrub/scrub wet- and feeding grounds, and as cover from predators. Wetlands, such land, 1,186,150 acres (palustrine scrub-shrub wetlands); aquatic- as those in Seney National Wildlife Refuge, are a preferred habitat bed wetland, 60,863 acres (rooted and floating vascular aquatic-bed for muskrat, beaver, otter, mink, and raccoon. Some rare or threat- wetlands); emergent wetland, 419,061 acres (persistent- and non- ened animals rely on wetlands, and 91 of 238 plant species listed as persistent-emergent wetlands; and unvegetated flats, 3,926 acres threatened or endangered by the State grow in wetland habitats (unconsolidated- shore wetlands). The results of the MIRIS inventory (Cwikiel, 1992). Wetlands benefit the State's tourist and outdoor are similar to the 1953 U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service inventory recreation industries by providing opportunities for activities such (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 1955); wooded and scrub/shrub as hunting, fishing, trapping, hiking, canoeing, birdwatching, na- wetlands are the most common wetland types in Michigan. Emer- ture photography, and viewing wildflowers. Blueberries and wild gent wetlands make up a relatively small percentage of the State's rice are produced commercially in Michigan wetlands. In the early total wetlands. 1980's, Michigan was one of five States that together produced 75 Wetlands were estimated by Dahl (1990) to occupy about 5.6 percent of the peat mined in the United States. million acres of Michigan in the mid-1980's. There are more than 6.2 million acres of wetlands classified under MIRIS. However, under TYPES AND DISTRIBUTION the classification scheme for mims, lowland conifers and lowland hardwoods are primarily wetlands but may also include some areas Wetlands are lands transitional between terrestrial and deep- that would be defined as uplands based on regulatory definitions water habitats where the water table usually is at or near the land (Michigan Department of Natural Resources, 1992). surface or the land is covered by shallow water (Cowardin and oth- In 1972, the Department of Natural Resources conducted a ers, 1979). The distribution of wetlands and deepwater habitats in shorelands inventory and identified 105,855 acres of Great Lakes Michigan is shown in figure 2A; only wetlands are discussed herein. coastal wetlands (Michigan Department of Natural Resources, Wetlands can be vegetated or nonvegetated and are classified 1973). It has been estimated that coastal wetland acreage in Michi- on the basis of their hydrology, vegetation, and substrate. In this gan has been as much as 369,000 acres in the past (Jaworski and summary, wetlands are classified according to the system proposed Raphael, 1978). Michigan coastal wetlands are distributed among by Cowardin and others (1979), which is used by the U.S. Fish and the Great Lakes in the following proportions: 37 percent along Lake Wildlife Service (Fws) to map and inventory the Nationlis wetlands. Huron; 28 percent along Lake Michigan; 16 percent along the St. At the most general level of the classification system, wetlands are Clair River, Lake St. Clair, and the Detroit River area; 13 percent grouped into five ecological systems: Palustrine, Lacustrine, Riv- along Lake Superior; and 6 percent along Lake Erie (Michigan erine, Estuarine, and Marine. The Palustrine System includes only Department of Natural Resources, 1992). wetlands, whereas the other systems comprise wetlands and deep- water habitats. Wetlands of the systems that occur in Michigan are described below. System Wetland description 7 Palustrine .................. Wetlands in which vegetation is predominantly trees (forested wetlands); shrubs (scrub-shrub wetlands); persistent or nonpersistent emergent, erect, rooted, herbaceous plants (persistent- and nonpersistent-emergent wetlands); or sub- mersed and (or) floating plants (aquatic beds). Also, intermittently to permanently flooded open-water bodies of less than 20 acres in which water is less than 6.6 feet deep. Lacustrine ................. Wetlands within an intermittently to permanently flooded lake or reservoir. Vegetation, when pres- n ent, is predominantly nonpersistent emergent plants (nonpersistent-emergent wetlands), or submersed and (or) floating plants (aquatic beds), or both. Figure 1. Tobico Marsh, a coastal wetland along the shore Riverine ..................... Wetlands within a channel. Vegetation, when pres- of Saginaw Bay. (Photograph by Erin A. Lynch, U.S. Geo- ent, is same as in the Lacustrine System. logical Survey.) 232 National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: STATE SUMMARIES Along Lake Michigan from Muskegon north to Empire, wet- lands are associated with wide, low-gradient tributary mouths that extend inland for several miles. Beaver Island has extensive wetlands. The shoreline from Empire to the Straits of Mackinac contains few wetlands. The Upper Peninsula shoreline of Lake Michigan is com- Is Royale posed of rocky points and headlands with sandy or marshy bay heads National Park (Herdendorf and others, 1981). Isle Royale Along the Lake Superior shoreline of Michigan, wetlands are most common along the Keweenaw Bay waterway and at tributary mouths in Marquette and Chippewa Counties. The Isle Royale shore- line and islands and the mainland shores of the St. Marys River contain wetlands (Herdendorf and others, 1981). The Michigan shoreline of western Lake Erie consists of low- lying marshes (emergent wetland) and sand beaches (unconsoli- I A K E S IJ PER 10 R Pictured Rocks National 86 Lakeshore St M- River Drummond 84' Island 46' raft-fM-khrunc. Beaverlslandl@ Sleeping Bear Ounes National Lakeshore C' Einrpiir. _Z e% it A. urcri lorial@orest 0 25 50 MILES 44' rtH pe To Mars 0 25 50 KILOMETERS d in 0 0 era E t t pids A L'using Ita WETLANDS AND DEEPWATER HABITATS st cl.h Distribution of wetlands and deepwater habitarts- This map shows the approximate distribution of large wetlands Detroit in the State. Because of limitations of scale and source material, watl some ands are not shown Predominantly wetland 42- Predominantly deepwater habitat LAKE ERIE Area typified by a high density of small wetlands Figure 2. Wetland distribution and climatological features in Michigan. A, Distribution of wetlands and deepwater habitats. (Source: A, TE. Dahl, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, unpub. data, 1991.) National Water Surnmary-Wetland Resources: MICHIGAN 233 dated-shore wetland). The shoreline of Lake Huron from the Straits a function of climatic, physiographic, and hydrologic factors such of Mackinac to Drummond Island generally consists of plains al- as precipitation and runoff patterns, evaporation potential, topog- ternating with outcrops of limestone and dolomite. These plains are raphy, and configuration of the water table. In Michigan, a favor- generally composed of clays and contain marshes. The beaches able water budget coupled with impeded drainage promot6 ample along the northern part of the Saginaw Bay are occasionally inter- soil moisture for wetland development in depressions, many of which rupted by wetlands. Most of the southeastern part of Saginaw Bay were formed by glaciation. Precipitation (fig. 2B) in the form of is marshy with shallow water inshore. From Sand Point to Port rain and snow averages approximately 31 inches annually. Lake- Austin the shore is composed of sand beaches with a bluff of un- effect precipitation is prevalent in near-shore areas but also affects even sand ridges. The sand ridges parallel the shoreline and alter- areas farther inland. Surface waters, including wetlands, are con- nate with wetlands. The area from Port Hope to the St. Clair River stantly replenished by precipitation. Runoff (fig. 2C) varies geo- contains few wetlands. Along Lake St. Clair, the St. Clair River, and graphically and seasonally. It is greatest in areas where snowfall the Detroit River, the only extensive natural areas that have not been accumulation is heaviest (Miller and Twenter, 1986). developed are the St. Clair River Delta wetlands and wetlands on The topographic character of Michigan was largely determined islands at the mouth of the Detroit River (Herdendorf and others, by glaciation. Glacial lobes channeled through parts of the Great 1981). Lakes and deposited thick layers of drift material. The bulk of this Approximately 18,000 acres of wetlands line Saginaw Bay (15 drift accumulation may have been developed before the latest gla- percent of the drainage basin) and comprise the largest remaining cial period. Areas bordering the Lower Peninsula and in a broad belt freshwater coastal wetland system in the Nation. Tobico Marsh (fig. extending southwest from the Saginaw River Basin beyond Lansing 1) is an enclosed lagoon bordered on the east by a narrow coastal consist of flat drift deposits. Glacial lake waters covered much of barrier at Saginaw Bay and on the west by sand ridges. Emergent these areas. There are more than 35,000 mapped lakes and ponds, wetlands occupy approximately 1,260 acres of Tobico Marsh. They and 36,350 miles of rivers and streams in Michigan (Sweat and Van contain many bird species and are attractive to waterfowl during Til, 1987). Nearly all of the lakes and associated wetlands in the migration. The Tuscola County Wetlands also are a part of the lower peninsula occupy depressions in the surface of the glacial Saginaw Bay shoreline. They lie south of the Tobico Marsh and are deposits. The Escanaba River Basin, in the center of the Upper confined to a relatively thin coastal and nearshore zone. In contrast Peninsula of Michigan, covers an area of 925 square miles. As much to the Tobico Marsh, the Tuscola County Wetlands are open to wave as 400 square miles of the southern part of the basin is covered by action from Saginaw Bay. The wetlands occupy depressions within wetlands (Miller and Twenter, 1986). These wetlands are the rem- the premodern shoreline, clay flats, and lagoons at present lake level, nants of an old glacial lake. and sandbars in the nearshore zone (Michigan Department of Natu- Kettle lake wetlands are common in upland areas within the ral Resources, 1993). Great Lakes Basin. Kettle lakes are formed by the incorporation of ice blocks in material that washed out from a melting glacial ice HYDROLOGIC SETTING front. Where the melting ice block left a basin in the drift that pen- etrated the water table, kettle lakes were formed. These lakes differ Wetlands form where there is a persistent water supply at or in shape and size. In general, depth does not exceed 165 feet. The near the land surface. The location and persistence of the supply is most common wetlands in kettle lakes are bogs. Kettle lakes can 32 74 32 Z* j6 B C PRECIPITATION RUNOFF 10 -28- Line of equal annual -12- Line of equal annual runoff- precipitation- Interval, in Interval, in inches, is inches, is variable 40 variable Figure 2. Continued. Wetland distribution and climatological features in Michigan. 8, Annual precipitation. C, Runoff. (Sources: B and C, Miller and Twenter 1986; landforms data from EROS Data Center.) 234 National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: STATE SUMMARIES eventually become bog lakes through a series of steps. First, the lake ral Resources, 1993). Since the 1850's, 9,420 acres of wetlands have is fringed by floating mats of sedges that grow inward and encroach been lost on the southeast coast of Saginaw Bay (Herdendorf and upon the open water. Eventually the mat covers the entire lake sur- others, 1981). face, and sphagnum moss and shrubs of the heath family become established. When growth exceeds decomposition, the lake basin CONSERVATION begins to fill and peat deposits form. Ultimately, a succession of vegetation types may lead to a climax terrestrial forest (Herdendorf Many government agencies and private organizations partici- and others, 198 1). pate in wetland conservation in Michigan. The most active agen- Freshwater coastal wetlands are extensive in Michigan. The cies and organizations and some of their activities are listed in table occurrence, distribution, and diversity of coastal wetlands is, in part, I . determined by the morphology of the Great Lakes shoreline. Most Federal wetland activities. -Development activities in Michi- Great Lakes wetlands develop in lagoons or flood ponds that form gan wetlands are regulated by several Federal statutory prohibitions just landward of the shoreline. Glacial drift generally forms the and incentives that are intended to slow wetland losses. Some of the upland boundaries, whereas barriers are created by water-laid sand, more important of these are contained in the 1899 Rivers and Har- gravel, or cobble. Upland peninsulas formed by bedrock outcrops bors Act; the 1972 Clean Water Act and amendments; the 1985 Food or resistant soil provide protection for shallow water areas cut into Security Act; the 1990 Food, Agriculture, Conservation, and Trade the shoreline. Riparian (streamside) wetlands extend inland along Act; the 1986 Emergency Wetlands Resources Act; and the 1972 the flood plains and banks of tributary streams entering the lake Coastal Zone Management Act. basin. Their extent is a function of flood-plain width, which is great- Section 10 of the Rivers and Harbors Act gives the U.S. Army est along larger streams with broad flood plains and least where Corps of Engineers (Corps) authority to regulate certain activities streambanks are steep. It is difficult to distinguish between some in navigable waters. Regulated activities include diking, deepening, riparian wetlands and those of embayed or barrier-lagoon systems filling, excavating, and placing of structures. The related section 404 because most tributary streams enter the lakes through lagoons and of the Clean Water Act is the most often-used Federal legislation bays (Geis, 1985). protecting wetlands. Under section 404 provisions, the Corps issues Sediments in the lagoon of the Tobico Marsh where emergent and submergent wetlands are present are composed of peats of vari- Table 1. Selected wetland-related activities of government able consistency or a mixture of peat with fine sand. Tobico Marsh agencies and private organizations in Michigan, 1993 has one outlet -a small creek at the southern end of the marsh. [Source: Classification of activities is generalized from information provided During low water levels the lagoon is effectively sealed from Sag- by agencies and organizations. e, agency or organization participates in inaw Bay. Because the lagoon becomes sealed arid, therefore, lacks wetland-related activity; agency or organization does not participate in wetland-related activity. MAN, management; REG, regulation; R&C, restora- the flushing action that occurs in more open coastal wetlands, it tion and creation; LAN, land acquisition; R&D, research and data collection; could evolve into a peat bog (Herdendorf and others, 1981). D&I, delineation and inventory] Coastal wetlands are, in general, younger than inland wetlands in Michigan because glacial ice receded from most of the Lower Peninsula approximately 12,000 years ago and the Great Lakes Agency or organization 4@ reached their present water levels less than 3,000 years ago. There- FEDERAL fore, coastal wetlands are at most 3,000 years old, whereas inland Department of Agriculture wetlands can be as old as 12,000 years. Coastal wetlands do not Consolidated Farm Service Agency ........................... ... mature to the same extent as inland wetlands. Short-term, tempo- Forest Service ................................................................. rary water-level fluctuations and long-term, cyclic water-level Natural Resources Conservation Service ................ ... changes can cause vegetation dieback, wetlands erosion, or lateral Department of Defense Army Corps of Engineers .............................................. displacements of vegetative zones. These changes result in constant Marine Reserve .............................................................. ... ... rejuvenation of coastal wetlands (Herdendorf and others, 198 1). National Guard ................................................................ ... ... Department ofthe Interior Fish and Wildlife Service .............................................. TRENDS Geological Survey .......................................................... National Biological Service ......................................... ... .. ... ... The Fws has estimated that, from the 1780's to the 1980's, National Park Service ...................................................0..a 0 wetland area in Michigan decreased by 50 percent-from about Environmental Protection Agency .................................. ... 11.2 million to about 5.6 million acres (Dahl, 1990, p. 6). Most STATE wetland loss in Michigan has been caused by drainage for agricul- Department of Natural Resources tural purposes. Most drainage occurred before 1930. However, from Fisheries Division ...........................................................0 Forest Management Division .......................................9 1934 through 1940, the Works Progress Administration and Fed- Land and Water Management Division .....................e eral Relief Agencies drained parts of Michigan to control malaria- Surface Water Quality Division ...................................9 carrying mosquitoes. Most drainage occurred in the southern one- Wildlife Division .............................................................. third of the State -the area containing most of the important agri- Department of Transportation ......................................... cultural lands. Notations of bogs of 50 to 100 acres along Elk Creek SOME COUNTY AND LOCAL GOVERNMENTS ............. ... PRIVATE ORGANIZATIONS and a swamp as far as the eye could see were in an 1852 diary entry Clinton River Watershed Council .................................... ... ... of O.H. Perry describing a trip across the "thumb district" of east- Detroit Audubon Society .................................................. ... ... ern Michigan; most of these bogs have been drained. Industrializa- Dow Chemical Company . .................................................. ... ... tion has damaged wetlands along the Saginaw River and from the Ducks Unlimited .................................................................. .. . .00 St. Clair River to Lake Erie. The moraine-till plain area of the cen- Future Farmers of America .............................................. ... ...0 tral Lower Peninsula is the only other major area significantly dam- General Motors ................................................................... Michigan Duck Hunters Association ............................. aged by drainage (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 1955). Michigan Wildlife Habitat Foundation ........................... Approximately 37,000 acres of emergent marsh are thought to The Nature Conservancy .................................................. have existed around Saginaw Bay prior to development in the area. Tipp of the Mitt Watershed Council ............................... More than one-half of the basin's original wetlands have been Waterfowl USA ................................................................... ... ... drained, filled, altered, or destroyed (Michigan Department of Natu- Wetlands Conservation Association .................... ........ National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: MICHIGAN 235 permits regulating the discharge of dredged or fill material into value could be significantly reduced. The Corps retains jurisdiction wetlands. Permits are subject to review and possible veto by the U.S. over Rivers and Harbors Act and section 404 permitting in Great Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), and the Fws has review and Lakes coastal areas, their connecting waterways, and major tribu- advisory roles. Section 401 of the Clean Water Act grants to States taries to the upstream limit of Federal navigability In these areas,, and eligible Indian Tribes the authority to approve, apply conditions both a Corps and a Michigan Department of Natural Resources to, or deny section 404 permit applications on the basis of a pro- permit are required for activities in wetlands (Cwikiel, 1992). posed activity's probable effects on the water quality of a wetland. Michigan currently (1993) is developing a Wetland Conserva- Most farming, ranching, and silviculture activities are not sub- tion Strategy. The strategy will focus on nonregulatory efforts ject to section 404 regulation. However, the "Swampbuster" provi- throughout the State by (1) wetland education and outreach, (2) rec- sion of the 1985 Food Security Act and amendments in the 1990 lamation of wetlands to restore lost public benefits, (3) attention to Food, Agriculture, Conservation, and Trade Act discourage (through wetland water-quality concerns, (4) coordination of existing wet- financial disincentives) the draining, filling, or other alteration of land-management practices (including support of the North Ameri- wetlands for agricultural use. The law allows exemptions from can Waterfowl Management Plan), and (5) identification and pro- penalties in some cases, especially if the farmer agrees to restore tection of Michigatfs rare and unique wetlands. The strategy is due the altered wetland or other wetlands that have been converted to to be completed by January 1995. agricultural use. The Wetlands Reserve Program of the 1990 Food, County and local wetland activities. -In addition to their usual Agriculture, Conservation, and Trade Act authorizes the Federal planning and zoning responsibilities, several municipalities in the Government to purchase conservation easements from landowners following Michigan counties have adopted ordinances or guidelines who agree to protect or restore wetlands. The Consolidated Farm to protect wetlands or to mitigate unavoidable wetland losses: Service Agency (formerly the Agricultural Stabilization and Conser- Allegan, Antrim, Charlevoix, Cheboygan, Genesee, Grand Traverse, vation Service) administers the Swampbuster provisions and Wet- Ingham, Kalamazoo, Livingston, Monroe, Oakland, St. Clair, Wash- lands Reserve Program. The Natural Resources Conservation tenaw, and Wayne Counties. Service (formerly the Soil Conservation Service) determines com- Private wetland activities. -The Tipp of the Mitt Watershed pliance with Swampbuster provisions and assists farmers in the iden- Council offers a wetland- delineation service and a planning and tification of wetlands and in the development of wetland protection, zoning program to promote water-quality protection. The Wetlands restoration, or creation plans. Conservation Association is actively pursuing wetland restoration The 1986 Emergency Wetlands Resources Act and the 1972 projects. The Wetlands Foundation of West Michigan assists with Coastal Zone Management Act and amendments encourage wetland the design, funding, and permitting of projects that restore, enhance, protection through funding incentives. The Emergency Wetlands or create wetlands primarily for habitat values. Resources Act requires States to address werland protection in their Other organizations and industries that participate in wetland- Statewide Comprehensive Outdoor Recreation Plans to qualify for protection activities in the State include Citizens for Alternatives Federal funding for State recreational land; the National Park Ser- to Chemical Contamination, Clean Water Action, Clinton River vice (NPS) provides guidance to States in developing the wetland Watershed Council, Detroit Audubon Society, Dow Chemical Com- component of their plans. Coastal and Great Lakes States that adopt pany, East Michigan Environmental Action Council, Environmen- coastal-zone management programs and plans approved by the tal Protection Council of Oakland County, Friends of Rose Town- National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration are eligible for ship, Friends of the Crystal River, Friends of the Rouge, Galien River Federal funding and technical assistance through the Coastal Zone Watershed Council, General Motors, Grand River Preservation Management Act. Coalition, Huron River Watershed Council, Lake Michigan Federa- Federal agencies are responsible for the proper management tion, League of Women Voters of Michigan, Leelanau Conservancy of wetlands on public land under their jurisdiction. The U.S. Forest Watershed Council, Michigan Audubon Society, Michigan Lake and Service manages as much as 588,000 acres of wetlands in three Stream Associations Inc., Michigan United Conservation Clubs, National Forests in Michigan: Huron-Manistee (65,000 acres), Northern Michigan Environmental Action Council, Sierra Club Hiawatha (as much as 423,000 acres), and Ottawa National Forests Mackinac Chapter, Upper Peninsula Environmental Coalition, Water (as much as 100,000 acres). The NPS manages approximately 3,600 and Air Team for Charlevoix, and West Michigan Environmental acres of wetlands in Sleeping Bear Dunes National Lakeshore, as Action Council. The activities of these groups are diverse and in- well as wetland acreage in Isle Royale National Park and Pictured clude participating in the planning and zoning process, s .erving as Rocks National Lakeshore. information clearinghouses, commenting on or assisting citizens in State wetland activities. - The Michigan Department of Natu- commenting on dredge and fill applications, engaging in or provid- ral Resources assumed administration of the section 404 wetlands ing expert witnesses for wetland litigation, restoring wetlands, ob- program in October 1984. The principal statutory authority for the taining conservation easements, and many others. Michigan wetlands program is Public Act 203, the Goemaere-Ander- son Weiland Protection Act of 1980. This act, in conjunction with References Cited several other State statutes and regulations, is the basis for Michigaifs wetland conservation program. The act requires persons involved Cowardin, L.M., Carter, Virginia, Golet, F.C., and LaRoe, E.T., 1979, Clas- in the following activities to obtain a permit from the Michigan sification of wetlands and deepwater habitats of the United States: U.S. Department of Natural Resources: placing fill in a wetland; dredg- Fish and Wildlife Service Report FWS/OBS-79/31, 131 p. ing or removal of soil or minerals from a wetland; constructing, Cwikiel, Wilfred, 1992, Michigan wetlands-Yours to protect (2d ed.): operating, or maintaining any use or development in a wetland; and Conway, Mich., Tipp of the Mitt Watershed Council, 84 p. draining surface water from a wetland. The act also authorizes regu- Dahl, T.E., 1990, Wetlands -Losses in the United States, 1780's to 1980's: Washington D.C., U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 13 p. lation of wetlands by local governments through wetland ordinances Geis, JW., 1985, Environmental influences on the distribution and com- (Warbuch and others, 1990). position of wetlands in the Great Lakes Basin, in Prince, H.H, and The EPA maintains Federal oversight of the State program, in- D'Itri, F.M., eds., Coastal wetlands: Chelsea, Mich., Lewis Publish- cluding veto authority. The EPA routinely reviews Public Notices for ers, Inc., p. 15 - 3 1. permit applications for "major discharges." Major discharges are Herdendorf, C.E., Hartley, S.M., and Barnes, M.D., 198 1, Fish and wild- defined, in part, as (1) greater than 10,000 cubic yards of fill; (2) life resources of the Great Lakes coastal wetlands within the United discharges that contain toxic materials; and (3) discharges into ar- States-Volume one, Overview: Washington, D.C., Biological Ser- eas determined to be unique, or where the waterway's commercial 236 National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: STATE SUMMARIES vices Program, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Report FWS/OBS-81/ U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 1955, Wetlands inventory of Michigan: 02-v. 1, 469 p. Minneapolis, Minn., U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 41 p. Jaworski, Eugene, and Raphael, C.N., 1978, Fish, wildlife, and recreational Warbuch, J.D., Wyckoff, M.A., and Williams, Kristine, 1990, Protecting values of Michigarfs coastal wetlands: Lansing, Michigan Department inland lakes-A watershed management guidebook: Lansing, Mich., of Natural Resources report, 209 p. Planning and Zoning Center, Inc., in cooperation with Clinton River Michigan Department of Natural Resources, 1973, Shoreland inventory: Watershed Council and the Michigan Department of Natural Re- Lansing, Mich., Division of Land and Resource Programs, 18 p. sources, 192 p. - 1992, Water quality and pollution control in Michigan, 1992 report: Lansing, Michigan Department of Natural Resources, Surface Water Quality Division, Michigan 305(b) Report, v. 12, 307 p. -1993, Saginaw Bay national watershed initiative, Saginaw Bay water- FOR ADDITIONAL INFORMATION: District Chief, U.S. Geological shed wetland facts: Lansing, Michigan Department of Natural Re- Survey, 6520 Mercantile Way, Suite 5, Lansing, MI 48911; Regional Coor- sources Communication Fact Sheet. dinator, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, BHW Building, I Federal Drive, Miller, J.B., and Twenter, F.R., 1986, Michigan surface-water resources, in Fort Snelling, MN 55 111 U.S. Geological Survey, National water summary 1985 -Hydrologic events and surface-water resources: U.S. Geological Survey Water- Supply Paper 2300, p. 277 -284. Prepared by Sweat, MJ., and Van Til, R.L., 1987, Michigan water supply and use, in Erin A. Lynch and Marcus C. Waldron, U.S. Geological Survey, National water summary 1987-Hydrologic U.S. Geological Survey events and water supply and use: U.S. Geological Survey Water- Sup- ply Paper 2350, p. 305-312. U.S. Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper 2425 National Water Summary-Wetland Resources 237 Minnesota Wetland Resources Minnesota is famous for its many takes; wetlands in the State, of Natural Resources, 1984), although estimates range from about however, cover more than three times the area of lakes. About one- 5.2 million acres (Anderson and Craig, 1984) to about 7.2 million fifth of Minnesota is wetland. These wetlands provide numerous acres (Minnesota Department of Natural Resources, 1978) and de- benefits to the people and wildlife of the State. Wetlands provide pend on the definition chosen for organic soil and on data compila- flood control by temporarily retaining stormwater runoff, and they tion methods. Palustrine wetlands on mineral soil cover about 3.5 reduce erosion of lakeshores and streambanks. Wetlands improve million acres (Anderson and Craig, 1984). The total acreage of downstream water quality by capturing suspended particulates, dis- palustrine wetlands in Minnesota, both peatlands and mineral-soil solved nutrients, and contaminants such as heavy metals and agri- wetlands, is thus about 9.5 million acres. cultural pesticides. Wetlands provide essential habitat for waterfowl, Peatlands can be categorized as either fens or bogs. Sometimes furbearers, and other wildlife (Carter and others, 1979). Minnesota's the word "bog" is informally applied to peatlands in general, but wetlands also are especially valuable for their vegetation. Many of most peatlands in Minnesota are more properly called fens. Fens the State's rarest plant species and most distinctive plant communi- are peatlands that receive nutrients from ground water or runoff that ties are found only in wetlands (Coffin and Pfarmmuller, 1988). has contacted mineral soil. Fens exist statewide but are more com- Probably the rarest type of wetland in the State is a type of peatland mon in the north, where conditions are more favorable for peat ac- called a calcareous fen (fig. 1). cumulation. There are many different types of fens, corresponding to the wide range of possible hydrologic, climatic, and nutrient con- TYPES AND DISTRIBUTION ditions. Open fens (persistent-emergent wetlands) in the conifer- hardwood forest zone (fig. 2B) commonly have sedge-dominated Wetlands are lands transitional between terrestrial and deep- communities. Swamp-forest fens (forested or scrub-shrub wetlands) water habitats where the water table usually is at or near the land in this zone typically are covered by larch, black spruce, or north- surface or the land is covered by shallow water (Cowardin and oth- ern white cedar, with an understory of low shrubs, sedges, and ers, 1979). The distribution of wetlands and deepwater habitats in mosses (Glaser, 1992; Minnesota Department of Natural Resources, Minnesota is shown in figure 2A; only wetlands are discussed herein. 1993). Fens in the prairie and deciduous forest-woodland zones Wetlands can be vegetated or nonvegetated and are classified typically have a scattered cover of shrubs such as willow and dog- on the basis of their hydrology, vegetation, and substrate. In this sum- wood and a continuous ground cover of various sedges, grasses, and mary, wetlands are classified according to the system proposed by forbs (scrub-shrub or persistent-emergent wetlands). A rare type of Cowardin and others (1979), which is used by the U.S. Fish and these fens is a calcareous fen (fig. 1), which receives upwelling Wildlife Service (Fws) to map and inventory the Natiorfs wetlands. ground water rich in calcium carbonate. At the most general level of the classification system, wetlands are Bogs are peatlands that receive nutrients only from precipita- grouped into five ecological systems: Palustrine, Lacustrine, Riv- tion and windblown dust. Consequently, bog water has low nutrient erine, Estuarine, and Marine. The Palustrine System includes only concentrations, and a continuous mat of sphagnum moss acidifies wetlands, whereas the other systems comprise wetlands and the water (Gorham and others, 1985). Bogs have a low diversity of deepwater habitats. Wetlands of the systems that occur in Minne- species because few plants are adapted to these low-nutrient, acid sota are described below. conditions (Glaser and others, 1981; Glaser, 1992). Bogs in Min- nesota typically are peat mounds covered by black spruce with an System Wetland description understory of broad-leaved evergreen shrubs and sphagnum moss Palustrine .................. Wetlands in which vegetation is predominantly (forested wetlands). Some bogs have a stunted tree and shrub com- trees (forested wetlands); shrubs (scrub-shrub munity (scrub-scrub wetland) near the center. Nonforested patches wetlands); persistent or nonpersistent emergent, of bog dominated by sedge (persistent-emergent wetlands) are less erect, rooted, herbaceous plants (persistent- and common but can occur where the peat is too wet for black spruce nonpersistent-emergent wetlands); or sub- mersed and (or) floating plants (aquatic beds). Also, intermittently to permanently flooded open-water bodies of less than 20 acres in which water is less than 6.6 feet deep. Lacustrine ................. Wetlands within an intermittently to permanently flooded lake or reservoir. Vegetation, when pres- ent, is predominantly nonpersistent emergent plants (n onpersistent-e merge nt wetlands), or submersed and (or) floating plants (aquatic 7 beds), or both. Riverine ..................... Wetlands within a channel. Vegetation, when pres- ent, is same as in the Lacustrine System. t 7 Most Minnesota wetlands are categorized as palustrine because they have vegetation that remains standing all year. Most of these wetlands have an organic soil and are thus peatlands. A simplified definition of organic soil is one with an upper layer of partly de- Figure 1. Sioux Nation Fen. This type of wetland, composed plant material (peat) at least 12 inches (Wright and oth- a patterned calcareous fen, is rare in Minnesota. ers, 1992) to 16 inches (Cowardin and others, 1979) thick. Peadands (Photograph byjames E. Almendinger U.S. Geo- cover about 6 million acres in Minnesota (Minnesota Department logical Survey) 238 National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: STATE SUMMARIES A Glacial Lake Agassiz area B A VEGETATION ZONES A. Conifer-hardwood forest zone B. Deciduous forest-woodland zone A C. Prairie zone C C PHYSIOGRAPHY B A. Flat terrain (glacial-lake plains B and outwash plains) A B. Rolling to hilly terrain (mostly glacial-till plains and end Alexandri moraines) Moraine area C. Dissected terrain (areas not covered by most recent 96' B glacial aclvance@ so, 92@ Rd 48" 411 Z ir MP es Ibn ob WETLANDS AND DEEPWATER HABITATS of I0. Distribution of wetlands and deepwater habitats- p This me shows the approximate distribution of large wetlands in the State. Because of limitations of scale and source material, some wetlands are not shown t" Predominantly wetland Predominantly cleepwater habitat ux q-t JR Area typified by a high density of small wetlands r Ro a 44' 477 1 0 25 50 MILES Albert Le 0 25 50 KILOMETERS Figure 2. Wetland distribution and related biotic and physical features in Minnesota. A, Distribution of wetlands and cleepwater habitats. 8, Vegetation zones. C, Physiography. (Sources: A, TE Dahl, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, unpub. data, 1991. B, Minnesota Department of Natural Resources, 1993. C, Adapted from Wright, 1972.) National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: MINNESOTA 239 to grow, or where fire has removed the black spruce (Glaser, 1992; HYDROLOGIC SETTING Minnesota Department of Natural Resources, 1993). Palustrine wetlands on mineral soil are present statewide. In The hydrology of wetlands is determined by climate, vegeta- the western and southern parts of Minnesota, these wetlands com- tion, physiography, and geology. Climate determines the net mois- monly are called prairie potholes. These shallow depressions may ture supply, which is the difference between input of precipitation have open water near the center surrounded by emergent marsh or and loss by evaporation and plant transpiration. Physiography and wet meadow (persistent emergent wetland) in which broad-leaved geology influences not only the movement of water on and below sedges, grasses, and bulrushes predominate. In the eastern and the land surface but also the dissolved mineral content of the water. northern parts of Minnesota, palustrine wetlands on mineral soil Differences in climate across Minnesota cause differences in commonly are swamps (forested or scrub-shrub wetlands) in which vegetation and moisture supply. Average annual temperature, which either hardwood or conifer trees or shrubs predominate (Minnesota influences evaporation and transpiration, ranges from about 36 *F Department of Natural Resources, 1993). (degrees Fahrenheit) in the north to about 46 'F in the south (Baker Lacustrine and riverine wetlands commonly have beds of non- and Strub, 1965). Average annual precipitation ranges from about persistent- emergent, submersed, or floating aquatic plants. Most of 20 inches in the west to about 30 inches in the east (Baker and oth- the 3 million acres of Minnesota lakes are in the central and north- ers, 1967). These climatic gradients contribute to a diagonal zona- eastern parts of the State. Probably the best known lacustrine wet- tion of major vegetation types and effective moisture, from the lands are wild rice beds (nonpersistent-emergent wetlands), which warm, dry prairie zone in the south and west to the cool, moist occupy about 150,000 to 200,000 acres of shallow lakes (John conifer-hardwood forest zone in the northeast (fig. 2B). Peatlands Persell, Minnesota Chippewa Tribe, written commun., 1993). are more common in the conifer-hardwood forest zone than else- where in Minnesota, because the relatively cool and wet conditions help preserve the peat. A Seasonal and year-to-year changes in climate cause changes in UPGRADIENT DOWNGRADIENT the moisture supply. Some prairie potholes receive different amounts PALUSTRINE WETLAND of snowmelt runoff and ground-water inputs from year to year and consequently change from shallow emergent marshes to open-wa- Area of 'D Area of ter ponds persisting for several years (Eisenlohr and others, 1972; ground-water discharge ground-water recharge LaBaugh and others, 1987). Drought hinders peat accumulation --------- because drying allows rapid microbial decomposition of the peat and makes it susceptible to fire. Peatlands consequently tend to be Wetland or pond sediment more common in the northeastern part of the State, which usually escapes severe drought (Borchert and Yaeger, 1968). Physiography (fig. 2C) influences surface-water drainage and, consequently, wetland type and distribution. The last glacial advance did not cover the extreme southeastern and southwestern corners of the State. Wetlands are less common in these older areas because the naturally dissected terrain has few basins remaining. Most ter- 0 500FEET L I rains in the State, however, were formed during the last glacial ad- VERTICAL SCALE EXAGGERATED vance. Glacial-till plains and end moraines are gently rolling to hilly B terrains that cover much of the State. The low infiltration capacity of the clayey soil of these terrains in west-central and southern Bluff Minnesota enhances overland runoff, which can collect in prairie potholes. The Alexandria Moraine area (fig. 2C) coincides with the ----- - PALUSTRINE WIETLAN.DS statewide diagonal climate-vegetation zonation and forms the core Calcareous Fen of a region with a high density of wetlands intermixed with uplands RIVERINE WETLAND (fig. 2A). Glacial-lake plains and outwash plains are relatively flat terrains where large peatlands can develop if the water table is high Feet and the moisture supply is sufficiently large and constant. The lack Glacial drift --- - - - -- of large peatlands on the western part of the Glacial Lake Agassiz area (fig. 2C) may be caused by the moisture supply being insuffi- cient or variable. Geology affects ground-water flow and chemistry. Ground- Bedrock Bedrock water discharge occurs where ground water seeps out of an aquifer into the wetland; ground-water recharge occurs where water from 0 10,00 FEET the wetland percolates into an aquifer (fig. 3A). Wetlands in the State VERTICAL SCALE EXAGGERATED commonly receive ground-water discharge, the amount and qual- ity of which can affect the vegetation. Some prairie potholes are sites EXPLANATION of naturally focused ground-water recharge, where overland runoff Ground-water flow Bulrush from the surrounding upland basin collects in the pothole before Water table Grass percolating into the surficial aquifer (LaBaugh and others, 1987). The influence of hydrology, particularly grourid-water hydrol- IRV Cattail MW Sedge ogy, on wetlands is demonstrated by two examples. The first example Spill. Rush is the Red Lake peatland in northwestern Minnesota. This peatland is a complex of fens and bogs with distinctive shapes and internal Figure 3. Hydrologic interaction between wetlands and ground patterns related to slight differences in water chemistry and flow water. A, Conceptual ground-water discharge and recharge in a (Heinselman, 1963; Glaser and others, 1981; Glaser, 1992). Fens wetland. B, Conceptual ground-water flow under a calcareous fen develop where upwelling ground water reaches the peatland surface in the Minnesota River Valley. and flows laterally through the upper layer of fibrous peat. A pat- 240 National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: STATE SUMMARIES terned fen sometimes develops in which the vegetation structure the western boundary of the Red Lake peatland is apparently con- forms alternating ridges and troughs oriented at right angles to the trolled by the climatic moisture supply, the peatiand might be di- direction of this slow surface flow. The ridges and troughs may be minished by warmer and drier climates resulting from natural cli- 10 to 50 feet wide (Heinselman, 1963), with the ridges occupied by mate cycles or, hypothetically, human-induced global warming. Such low shrubs and the troughs by sedges or pools. The vast fens of the drier climates also could desiccate shallow prairie potholes, as in Red Lake peatland provide the regional setting atop which bogs can the past. develop. Bogs in the Red Lake peatland have formed on peat mounds raised above the influence of upwelling ground water (Siegel and CONSERVATION Glaser, 1987; Glaser, 1992; Siegel, 1992). The flow of fen water around the bogs can cause them to have a streamlined shape, Many government agencies and private organizations partici- rounded on the upgradient margin and extended to a long tail on pate in wetland conservation in Minnesota. The most active agen- the downgradient margin. cies and organizations and some of their activities are listed in table The second example of the influence of ground-water hydrol- I . ogy on wetlands is calcareous fens (fig. 3B), which are rare in Min- Federal wetland activities. -Development activities in Min- nesota. Calcareous fens typically have significant amounts of up- nesota. wetlands are regulated by several Federal statutory prohibi- welling ground water rich in calcium carbonate and surface slopes tions and incentives that are intended to slow wetland losses. Some that drain excess water (Curtis, 1971; Eggers and Reed, 1987; of the more important of these are contained in the 1899 Rivers and Thompson and others, 1992). These wetlands can be found in the Harbors Act; the 1972 Clean Water Act and amendments; the 1985 Minnesota River Valley on terraces at the base of the bluffs that form Food Security Act; the 1990 Food, Agriculture, Conservation, and the valley wall. The high water table in the bluffs provides the nec- essary hydraulic pressure to force ground water to upwell at the fen. The fens generally lie above flood stages of the Minnesota River Table 1. Selected wetiand-related activities of government and slope toward the river, protecting against inundation from the agencies and private organizations in Minnesota, 1993 river and providing drainage of excess water from the fen. As much [Source: Classification of activities is generalized from information provided as 25 feet of peat can accumulate over the zone of upwelling ground by agencies and organizations. e, agency or organization participates in wetland-related activity; ..., agency or organization does not participate in water. Calcareous fens are sensitive not only to activities such as wetland-related activity. MAN, management; REG, regulation; R&C, res- ditching or filling but also to more subtle causes of degradation. For toration and creation; LAN, land acquisition; R&D, research and data col- example, pumping nearby wells could lower the natural hydraulic lection; D&I, delineation and inventory] pressures under the fen and reduce the amount of upwelling ground water, and changing the land use in the ground-water recharge area upgradient from the fen could change both the quantity and quality Agency or organization 1001 of the water available to the fen. Calcareous fens demonstrate that FEDERAL simply protecting the area of the wetland itself is not enough to Department of Agriculture ensure that the wetland will remain undamaged. Consolidated Farm Service Agency ........................... ... ... ... ... ... Forest Service ................................................................. Natural Resources Conservation Service ................ TRENDS Department of Commerce National Oceanic and Atmospheric Most changes in Minnesota wetlands during the last 150 years Administration ................................................................. ... ... ... ... ... have been caused by human activities. Estimates of wetland acre- Department of Defense ages before settlement of the area by Europeans in the mid-1800's Army Corps of Engineers ..............................................0 Department ofthe Interior range from about 15 to 18 million acres; as much as one-half (by Fish and Wildlife Service ..............................................0 area) of Minnesota's original wetlands might have been lost since Geological Survey .......................................................... ... ... ... ...0 presettlement times (Anderson and Craig, 1984; Tirier, 1984; Dahl, National Biological Service ......................................... ... ... ... ... 0 1990). Most of the wetland loss has been the result of drainage for National Park Service ...................................................00 0 0 agriculture. By the early 1980's, more than 70 percent of Minnesota's Environmental Protection Agency .................................. ...* STATE originally poorly drained mineral soils in the prairie zone had been Board of Water and Soil Resources ............................... ...0 drained (Anderson and Craig, 1984). The loss of wetlands in the Department of Military Affairs ........................................* largely agricultural basin of the Minnesota River may cause in- Department of Natural Resources creased flushing of water, nutrients, and soil from the uplands into Division of Fish and Wildlife .........................................0 the river ecosystem. The northern peatlands also have been affected Division of Forestry ................... ....................................0 Division of Minerals .......................................................* by human activities. During the early 1900's, several northern coun- Division of Waters .......................................................... ... ties went bankrupt as a result of funding the ditching of peatlands Office of Planning ........................................................... ... ... ... ... ... on the Glacial Lake Agassiz plain. Because of the flat landscape, Department of Transportation ......................................... . . . 0 . 0 the ditches were largely ineffective in draining the peatlands; how- Environmental Duality Board ........................................... ...0... ... ... ... ever, ditching might have altered peatland vegetation hundreds of Pollution Control Agency ................................... .............. ...0... ... 0 ... University of Minnesota .................................................... ... ... ... ...0 feet from the ditches (Glaser and others, 198 1; Bradof, 1992). Small COUNTY AND LOCAL areas of peatland have been mined for horticultural purposes, logged Counties and cities ............................................................ for black spruce, or cultivated for specialty crops. The use of peat Soil and water conservation districts ........................... ...0 0 as a fuel, however, has not been economical to date (Keirstead, Townships ............................................................................ ...0* 1992). Watershed districts ............................................................ ...00 Wetlands are sensitive to climate change also. About 7,000 SOVEREIGN NATIONS Native American tribes ..................................................... years ago the water table in parts of Minnesota was as much as 20 PRIVATE ORGANIZATIONS feet lower than at present, and many prairie potholes were probably Ducks Unlimited .................................................................. ... ...* dry (Digerfeldt and others, 1992). The climate then became increas- Izaak Walton League ......................................................... ... ...0 ingly moist, and by 4,500 years ago peat began to form in the rem- National Audubon Society ...............................................* 0 nant Glacial Lake Agassiz plain (Glaser and others, 198 1). Because The Nature Conservancy ..................................................0* National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: MINNESOTA 241 Trade Act; the 1986 Emergency Wetlands Resources Act; and the manent easements to some privately owned wetlands and for pub- 1972 Coastal Zone Management Act. lie education. The law promotes wetland preservation by allowing Section 10 of the Rivers and Harbors Act gives the U.S. Army tax-exempt status for wetlands of high value. The law essentially Corps of Engineers (Corps) authority to regulate certain activities fills the gap in wetland protection between larger, deepwater habi- in navigable waters. Regulated activities include diking, deepening, tats, which are already protected by Minnesota statute, and agri- filling, excavating, and placing of structures. The related section 404 cultural wetlands that are already covered by the Federal "Swamp- of the Clean Water Act is the most often-used Federal legislation buster" provisions. The Board of Water and Soil Resources is the protecting wetlands. Under section 404 provisions, the Corps issues State agency responsible for promulgating rules to determine wet- permits regulating the discharge of dredged or fill material into wet- land value and to mitigate wetland losses, and local governmental lands. Permits are subject to review and possible veto by the U.S. units are responsible for carrying out the rules (table 1). Also in- Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), and the Fws has review and cluded in the legislation are provisions to prohibit degradation of advisory roles. Section 401 of the Clean Water Act grants to States calcareous fens and to protect about 150,000 acres of ecologically and eligible Indian Tribes the authority to approve, apply conditions significant peatlands. to, or deny section 404 permit applications on the basis of a pro- The Department of Natural Resources has a variety of respon- posed activity's probable effects on the water quality of a wetland. sibilities concerning wetlands and administers about 5.3 million Most farming, ranching, and silviculture activities are not sub- acres of State land, almost one-half of which may be wetlands, in ject to section 404 regulation. However, the "Swampbuster" provi- addition to about 3 million acres of lakes. The Department's Divi- sion of the 1985 Food Security Act and amendments in the 1990 sion of Waters oversees permit applications for nearly all activities Food, Agriculture, Conservation, and Trade Act discourage (through below the ordinary high-water level in the "protected waters and financial disincentives) the draining, filling, or other alteration of wetlands" of the State, which include virtually all water bodies that wetlands for agricultural use. The law allows exemptions from pen- have open water or nonwoody vegetation, are deeper than about 6 alties in some cases, especially if the farmer agrees to restore the inches, and are larger than 10 acres (2.5 acres in incorporated areas). altered wetland or other wetlands that have been converted to agri- The Department's Division of Fish and Wildlife acquires lands and cultural use. The Wetlands Reserve Program of the 1990 Food, currently (1993) manages over 700,000 acres, a significant portion Agriculture, Conservation, and Trade Act authorizes the Federal of which are wetlands (Tom Landwehr, Minnesota Department of Government to purchase conservation easements from landowners Natural Resources, oral commun., 1993). Within the Division of who agree to protect or restore wetlands. The Consolidated Farm Fish and Wildlife, the Natural Heritage program identifies and clas- Service Agency (formerly the Agricultural Stabilization and Con- sifies natural biologic communities, including wetlands; the Scien- servation Service) administers the Swampbuster provisions and Wet- tific and Natural Areas program acquires sites of ecological signifi- lands Reserve Program. The Natural Resources Conservation cance to the State, notably rare wetland types such as patterned fen Service (formerly the Soil Conservation Service) determines com- and calcareous fen; and the Ecological Services section performs pliance with Swampbuster provisions and assists farmers in the iden- environmental reviews and will help develop a Statewide Compre- tification of wetlands and in the development of wetland protection, hensive Wetland Conservation Plan. The Department of Natural restoration, or creation plans. Resources' Division of Forestry helps manage most State-owned The 1986 Emergency Wetlands Resources Act and the 1972 land and also is chairing a public and private interagency commit- Coastal Zone Management Act and amendments encourage wetland tee to develop nonregulatory best-management practices to protect protection through funding incentives. The Emergency Wetland wetlands from forestry activities. The Department's Division of Resources Act requires States to address wetland protection in their Minerals is responsible for applying the rules of the 1991 Wetland Statewide Comprehensive Outdoor Recreation Plans to qualify for Conservation Act on lands from which metallic minerals or peats Federal funding for State recreational land; the National Park Ser- are mined. The Division of Minerals also sponsored a survey of peat vice (NPS) provides guidance to States in developing the wetland deposits in the State, including their type, distribution, and thick- component of their plans. Coastal States that adopt coastal-zone ness (Minnesota Department of Natural Resources, 1981). The management programs and plans approved by the National Oceanic Department of Natural Resources' Office of Planning is responsible and Atmospheric Administration are eligible for Federal funding and for the State Comprehensive Outdoor Recreation Plan document technical assistance through the Coastal Zone Management Act. required by Federal legislation and coordinates the environmental Federal agencies research wetlands and manage those on pub- review process within the Department of Natural Resources. lic land under their jurisdiction. The U.S. Forest Service (FS) is re- Other State agencies also are involved with wetland protection sponsible for more than 2.8 million acres, with an unknown acre- or management. The Environmental Quality Board determines age of wetlands, in the Chippewa and the Superior National For- which activities affecting Wetlands are subject to the environmen- ests and supports research in peatland ecology and hydrology. The tal review process. The Water Quality Division of the Pollution NPS manages over 140,000 acres in Minnesota, with an unknown Control Agency reviews permit applications for all discharges to acreage of wetlands. The FWS manages about 500,000 acres, much wetlands and other waters of the State, pursuant primarily to sec- of which is wetland, in 12 National Wildlife Refuges and numerous tions 401 and 402 of the Federal Clean Water Act. The Pollution smaller waterfowl production areas in Minnesota. The Corps has Control Agency also produces a biennial report monitoring state- wetland-management and restoration programs, especially in the wide water quality, pursuant to section 305(b) of the act. The De- Mississippi River lowlands. The EPA laboratory in Duluth is study- partment of Transportation is responsible for applying the Weiland ing effects of sedimentation and agricultural chemicals on prairie Conservation Act rules to all State transportation projects that af- potholes. The U.S. Geological Survey, with cooperative funding fect wetlands; this responsibility involves wetland impact assess- from State agencies, is studying the hydrology of small agricultural ment as well as wetland restoration and creation. The Department wetlands and calcareous fens. of Military Affairs manages the 53,000-acre Camp Ripley military State and local wetland activities.-The centerpiece of reservation and has an active program of wetland management in Minnesota's efforts to protect wetlands is the Weiland Conserva- cooperation with other State agencies. tion Act of 199 1, which works toward a no-net-loss goal. The intent Sovereign nation wetland activities. -Tribal councils of Na- of the law is to avoid or minimize wetland losses; where wetland tive American people in Minnesota strive to create, restore, or en- loss is unavoidable, the loss must be mitigated by replacement with hance wetlands for waterfowl and wild rice production, particularly a wetland of equal public value. The law also provides funds for per- on reservations or on traditionally harvested lands. The U.S. Bu- 242 National Water Summary-Wetiand Resources: STATE SUMMARIES reau of Indian Affairs helps provide funding for wetland projects Glaser, P.H., 1992, Vegetation and water chemistry, in Wright, H.E., Jr., through the Circle of Flight and Water Resources program. Coffin, B.A., and Aaseng, N.E., eds., The patterned peatlands of Private wetland activities. -The National Audubon Society Minnesota: Minneapolis, University of Minnesota Press, p. 15-26. manages three wildlife sanctuaries that contain wetlands, conducts Glaser, P.H., Wheeler, G.A., Gorham, Eville, and Wright, H.E., Jr., 1981, a public education program about wetlands, and is performing re- The patterned mires of the Red Lake peatland, northern Minnesota- Vegetation, water chemistry and landforms: Journal of Ecology, v. 69, search for the EPA by investigating the effectiveness of past wetland- p. 575-599. mitigation efforts. The Nature Conservancy actively seeks to pur- Gorham, Eville, Eisenreich, S.J., Ford, Jesse, Santelmann, MX, 1985, The chase and protect ecologically significant wetlands. Ducks Unlim- chemistry of bog waters, in Stumm, Werner, ed., Chemical processes ited provides funds for wetland restoration and for State or Federal in lakes: New York, John Wiley and Sons, p. 339-363. agencies to purchase and manage wetlands for waterfowl produc- Heinselman, M.L., 1963, Forest sites, bog processes, and peatland types in tion. The Izaak Walton League also provides funds for wetland res- the Glacial Lake Agassiz region, Minnesota: Ecological Monographs, toration or creation. Private organizations that are involved in the v. 33, no. 4, p. 327-374. protection of Minnesota wetlands include the Fish and Wildlife Keirstead, M.E., 1992, Management of Minnesota's peatlands and their Legislative Alliance, Minnesota Conservation Federation, Minne- economic uses, in Wright, H.E., Jr., Coffin, B.A., and Aaseng, N.E., eds., The patterned peatlands of Minnesota: Minneapolis, University sota Native Plant Society, Minnesota Waterfowl Association, Pheas- of Minnesota Press, p. 285-299. ants Forever, Project Environment Foundation, Sierra Club, Trout LaBaugh, J.W., Winter, T.C., Adomaitis, V.A., and Swanson, G.A., 1987, Unlimited, and others. Hydrology and chemistry of selected prairie wetlands in the Cotton- wood Lake area, Stutsman County, North Dakota, 1979-1982: U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 1431, 26 p. References Cited Minnesota Department of Natural Resources, 1978, Peatlands -Minnesota, Wisconsin, Michigan: St. Paul, Minnesota Department of Natural Anderson, J.P., and Craig, W.J., 1984, Growing energy crops on Minnesota s Resources map, approximate scale 1:1,750,000. wetlands - The land use perspective: Minneapolis, University of Min- -198 1, Minnesota peat program final report: St. Paul, Minnesota De- nesota Center for Urban and Regional Affairs, 95 p. partment of Natural Resources Division of Minerals, 93 p. Baker, D.G., Haines, D.A., and Strub, J.H., Jr., 1967, Climate of Minne- 1984, Recommendations for the protection of ecologically signifi- sota, part V-Precipitation facts, normals, and extremes: University cant peatlands in Minnesota: St. Paul, Minnesota Department of Natu- of Minnesota Agricultural Experiment Station Technical Bulletin 254, ral Resources, 57 p., 16 maps. 43 p. -1993, Minnesota's native vegetation-A key to natural communi- Baker, D.G., and Strub, J.H., Jr., 1965, Climate of Minnesota, part III- ties, version 1.5: St. Paul, Minnesota Department of Natural Resources Temperature and its application: St. Paul, University of Minnesota Natural Heritage Program, I 10 p. Agricultural Experiment Station Technical Bulletin 248, 63 p. Siegel, D.I., 1992, Groundwater hydrology, in Wright, H.E., Jr., Coffin, B.A., Borchert, J.R., and Yaeger, D.P., 1968, Atlas of Minnesota resources and and Aaseng, N.E., eds., The patterned peatlands of Minnesota: Min- settlement: St. Paul, Minnesota State Planning Agency, 262 p. neapolis, University of Minnesota Press, p. 163-172. Bradof, K.L., 1992, Ditching of Red Lake peatland during the homestead Siegel, D.I., and Glaser, P.H., 1987, Groundwater flow in a bog-fen com- era, in Wright, H.E., Jr., Coffin, B.A., and Aaseng, N.E., eds., The plex, Lost River peatland, northern Minnesota: Journal of Ecology, patterned peatlands of Minnesota: Minneapolis, University of Min- v. 75, p. 743-754. nesota Press, p. 263-284. Thompson, C.A., Bettis, E.A., 111, and Baker, R.G., 1992, Geology of Iowa Carter, Virginia, Bedinger, M.S., Novitzki, R.P., and Wilen, W.O., 1979, fens: Journal of the Iowa Academy of Science, v. 99, no. 2 -3, p. 53 - Water resources and wetlands, in Greeson, P.E., Clark, J.R., and Clark, 59. J.E., eds., Wetland functions and values -The state of our understand- Titter, R.W., Jr., 1984, Wetlands of the United States-Current status and ing -Proceedings of the National Symposium on Wetlands, Novem- recent trends: Washington, D.C., U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 59 p. ber 1978: Minneapolis, American Water Resources Association, Wright, H.E., Jr., 1972, Physiography of Minnesota, in Sims, P.K., and p. 344-376. Morey, G.B., eds., Geology of Minnesota, a centennial volume: Min- Coffin, Barbara, and Pfarmmuller, Lee, eds., 1988, Minnesota's endangered neapolis, Minnesota Geological Survey, p. 561-578. flora and fauna: Minneapolis, University of Minnesota Press, 473 p. Wright, H.E., Jr., Coffin, B.A., and Aaseng, N.E., eds., 1992, The patterned Cowardin, L.M., Carter, Virginia, Golet, F.C., and LaRoe, E.T., 1979, Clas- peatlands of Minnesota: Minneapolis, University of Minnesota Press, sification of wetlands and deepwater habitats of the United States: U.S. 327 p. Fish and Wildlife Service Report FWS/OBS-79/31, 131 p. Curtis, J.T., 1971, The vegetation of Wisconsin: Madison, The University of Wisconsin Press, 657 p. FOR ADDITIONAL INFORMATION: District Chief, U.S. Geological Dahl, T.E., 1990, Wetlands-Losses in the United States, 1780's to 1980's: Survey, 2280 Woodale Drive, Mounds View, MN 55112; Regional Wetland Washington, D.C., U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Report to Congress, Coordinator, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, BHW Building, I Federal 13 p. Drive, Fort Snelling, MN 55425 Digerfeldt, Gunnar, Almendinger, J.E., and Bjbrck, Svante, 1992, Recon- struction of past lake levels and their relation to groundwater hydrol- ogy in the Parkers Prairie sandplain, west-central Minnesota: Prepared by Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoccology, v. 94, p. 99-118. James E. Almendinger, Eggers, S.D., and Reed, D.M., 1987, Wetland plants and plant communi- U.S. Geological Survey ties of Minnesota and Wisconsin: St. Paul, U.S. Army Corps of Engi- neers, 201 p. Eisenlohr, W.S., Jr., and others, 1972, Hydrologic investigations of prairie potholes in North Dakota, 1959-68: U.S. Geological Survey Profes- sional Paper 585-A, 102 p., 3 p1s. U.S. Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper 2425 National Water Summary-Wetland Resources 243 mississi P1 Wetland Resources Wetlands occupy more than 13 percent of the surface area in TYPES AND DISTRIBUTION Mississippi (Dahl, 1990) and have greatly influenced the develop- Wetlands are lands transitional between terrestrial and deep- ment of the State. The first European settlers found large tracts of water habitats where the water table usually is at or near the land bottom-land forests (forested wetlands) in the swamps bordering the surface or the land is covered by shallow water (Cowardin and oth- Mississippi River and other river systems (fig. 1) and in the marshes ers, 1979). The distribution of wetlands and deepwater habitats in (emergent wetlands) and swamps (forested and scrub-shrub wet- Mississippi is shown in figure 2A; only wetlands are discussed lands) along the Gulf of Mexico. The forested wetlands in the allu- herein. . via] plain of the Mississippi River provided timber resources of bald Wetlands can be vegetated or nonvegetated and are classified cypress, water oak, and tupelo gum that have been cleared and har- on the basis of their hydrology, vegetation, and substrate. In this vested continuously for the last 200 years. The cleared land opened summary, wetlands are classified according to the system proposed up rich, fertile delta soils to agriculture (U.S. Fish and Wildlife by Cowardin and others (1979), which is used by the U.S. Fish and Service, 1992). Wildlife Service (Fws) to map and inventory the Natiorils wetlands. Mississippi wetlands provide important habitat for several At the most general level of the classification system, wetlands are endangered and threatened species, including the bald eagle (Curtis grouped into five ecological systems: Palustrine, Lacustrine, Riv- James, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, written commun., 1993). erine, Estuarine, and Marine. The Palustrine System includes only Also, 5 National Wildlife Refuges, 6 National Forests, I National wetlands, whereas the other systems comprise wetlands and Seashore, 22 State Wildlife Management Areas, and 20 State parks deepwater habitats. Wetlands of the systems that occur in Missis- contain wetland areas within their boundaries. Wetlands in Missis- sippi are described below. sippi are a key part of the Lower Mississippi Valley Joint Venture program for the restoration of Mississippi Flyway waterfowl popu- lations (Lower Mississippi Valley Joint Venture Management Board, System Wetland description 1990). Pa I ustrine .................. Nontidal and tidal-freshwater wetlands in which Wetlands trap suspended sediment, nutrients, and certain vegetation is predominantly trees (forested wet- classes of pesticides and other organic contaminants (Boto and lands); shrubs (scrub-shrub wetlands); persistent Patrick, 1979; Deason, 1989; German, 1989). Dissolved nutrients, or nonpersistent emergent, erect, rooted herba- sediments, and sediment-associated compounds such as trace met- ceous plants (persistent- and nonpersistent- emergent wetlands); or submersed and (or) als, pesticides and other organic compounds, and bacteria are floating plants (aquatic beds). Also, intermit- trapped or transformed during their passage through wetlands in tently to permanently flooded open-water bod- receiving and outgoing waters (Kadlec and Kadlec, 1979). Inland ies of less than 20 acres in which water is less wetlands provide flood storage, erosion control, outdoor recreation, than 6.6 feet deep. water-quality improvement for surface water, recharge areas for Lacustrine ................. Nontidal and tidal-freshwater wetlands within an ground water, and habitat for fish and wildlife. Coastal wetlands intermittently to permanently flooded lake or reservoir larger than 20 acres and (or) deeper provide buffer areas to absorb storm surges and floods, outdoor than 6.6 feet. Vegetation, when present, is pre- recreation opportunities, water-quality improvement, and important dominantly nonpersistent emergent plants (non- habitat for nursery and feeding areas for fish and wildlife. Coastal persistent-ernergent wetlands), or submersed wetlands in Mississippi are important in supporting a $50 million and (or) floating plants (aquatic beds), or both. commercial and recreational fishery (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Ser- Riverine ..................... Nonticlal and tidal-freshwater wetlands within a vice, 1992). channel. Vegetation, when present, is same as in the Lacustrine System. Estuarine ................... Tidal wetlands in low-wave-energy environments where the salinity of the water is greater than 0.5 part per thousand (ppt) and is variable owing to evaporation and the mixing of seawater and freshwater. 't Marine ....................... Tidal wetlands that are exposed to waves and cur- Ad @'* rents of the open ocean and to water having a salinity greater than 30 ppt. ''so In the mid-1980's, wetlands covered about 4,067,000 acres of . ............ Mississippi's 30,309,120 total land acres (Dahl, 1990). Palustrine wetlands in Mississippi include bogs, swamps, riverbank pioneer habitat, bottom-land forests, bayheads, coastal flatwoods, and savannahs (Ruple, 1992). Bottom-land forests (forested wetlands), swamps (forested or scrub-shrub wetlands), and fresh marshes (emergent wetlands) account for most of Mississippi's wetland acre- age (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 1992). The Mississippi Allu- via] Plain (fig. 2B) has the greatest concentration ofthose wetlands, but significant expanses ofwetlands occupy the flood plains ofmajor Figure 1. Flood-plain forest and wetlands on the lower rivers and their tributaries throughout the State. Wolf River. (Photograph by Dennis K. Demcheck, U.S. Estuarine wetlands are the second-most common wetlands in Geological Survey.) Mississippi. Of about 77,500 acres of coastal marsh, 99 percent is 244 National Water Surnmary-Wetland Resources: STATE SUMMARIES estuarine, and I percent is fresh. There also are about 343,000 acres systems. Larger wetlands may interact with both local and regional of mud flats and 9,000 acres of cypress-tupelo gum swamp (estua- ground-water flow systems. rine forested wetlands) (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 1992). Fire frequency, the time interval between fires on a wetland, is important in determining the successional state of a wetland HYDROLOGIC SETTING (Ruple, 1992). In large part, fire frequency determines the kinds of vegetation present in a wetland and, therefore, the character of the The combination of hydrology, fire frequency, substrate and wetland itself. For example, if a marsh or wet slough goes for de- soil characteristics, and climate produces the characteristics that are cades without a fire, then the wetland typically develops into a scrub- unique to Mississippi's wetlands (Ruple, 1992). The existence of shrub or hardwood forest. This succession happens because the lack wetlands depends on geologic and physiographic conditi6ns that of fire allows woody plants to replace herbaceous plants as the domi- favor the retention of water and on the hydrologic processes that nant vegetation present, changing the appearance of the wetland and allow the water to persist at a given site (Winter and Woo, 1990). the kinds of organisms using it (Ruple, 1992). Wetland hydrology involves complex water-flow patterns that Soil composition determines the rate at which water percolates are affected by regional and local geology, topography, soil charac- downward from a wetland to recharge the ground-water system or teristics, and climate. Wetlands commonly form in topographic lows discharges from the ground-water system into a wetland. Fluctua- where ground-water discharge and runoff collect. Water in small tions in local precipitation can combine with local variations in wetlands typically is supplied by local shallow ground-water flow geology to create transient or seasonal changes in the interactions as- 35' A 87' C B or .0 D 33' nther George ildl' gernem E 0 atio Frt Med Mi ECOREGIONS A. Southeastern Plain sachians F B. Southwestern Appal C. Interior PI D. Mississippi Alluvial Plain E. Mississippi Valley Loses Plain *0% H r F. Southern Coastal Plain A 31' WETLANDS AND DEEPWATER HABITATS 0 25 50 MILES Distribution of wetlands and deepwater habitats- This map shows the approximate distribution of large S. wetlands in the State. Because of limitations of scale 0 25 50 KILOMETERS G 3a W and source material, some wetlands are not shown Predominantly wetland Predominantly deepwater habitat MiAs@ippi GO Islands National SBashore Figure 2. Wetland distribution and ecoregions in Mississippi. A, Distribution of wetlands and deepwater habitats. H, Ecoregions. (Sources: A, TE. Dahl, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, unpub. data, 1991. B, Onnernik, 1987.) National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: MISSISSIPPI 245 of ground water and surface water. However, in Mississippi, pre- and continued survival of these palustrine forested and palustrine cipitation is abundant, averaging 50 to 68 inches per year across the scrub-shrub wetlands depends on whether these areas are able to State (Lamonds and Boswell, 1986). These high annual rainfall undergo continued flooding and dewatering cycles. Disruption of averages minimize the transient or seasonal changes in the interac- the cycle can change the composition of the forest or shrub com- tions of the ground and surface waters. munity or cause the disappearance of woody vegetation altogether, Most palustrine wetlands in Mississippi are closely associated depending on the nature of the disruption. For example, when a with the State's major flood plains and are directly and indirectly forested or scrub-shrub wetland is leveed and drained, resulting in affected by the Mississippi River. The flood plain of the Mississippi limited access for floodwaters, water-tolerant trees or shrubs are River is an area of relatively flat slope that has been subjected to ultimately replaced by upland vegetation. Conversely, when a wet- frequent flooding. Flooding has resulted in the evolution of large land is permanently flooded, such as by reservoir construction, re- areas of backwater swamps vegetated by water-tolerant trees such cruitment of new trees or shrubs ceases, and the aging forest or as cypress, tupelo gum, water oak, and red maple. The existence scrub-shrub community eventually disappears. The lower Yazoo River Basin contains one of the largest nearly contiguous forested wetlands remaining in Mississippi, comprising about 140,000 acres of bottom-land forest. The core of these for- ested wetlands includes the 60,000-acre Delta National Forest and the 27,000-acre Panther Swamp National Wildlife Refuge. The Yazoo River Basin supports threatened and endangered species such as the bald eagle, wood stork, Louisiana black bear, and pondberry. It also serves as a haven for migratory waterfowl and neotropical M o Ky birds (Creasman and others, 1992). Wetlands, such as those asso- Mississippi River ciated with the Yazoo River Basin, directly affect the quality of the Alluvial Plain water that passes through them. The Yazoo River Basin wetlands Tenn have acted as traps for nutrients, suspended sediments, and pesti- cides in agricultural runoff within this intensively farmed region of Ark the State, thus helping to maintain the water quality of streams and rivers. However, the result has been accelerated sediment deposi- tion within the open-water areas and swamps, subsequent conver- sion of swamps to bottom-land forests, and uptake of pesticides by La Miss the wildlife that live in the basin (Mississippi Department of Envi- ronmental Quality, 1992). Original forested wetlands Current forested wetlands (historical reconstruction) 1991 1883 M .......... Figure 3. Reduction of forested wetlands in the Mississippi River Alluvial Plain, 1883-1991. (Creasman and others, 1992). 246 National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: STATE SUMMARIES TRENDS Table 1. Selected vvetland-related activities of government agencies and private organizations in Mississippi, 1993 The Mississippi Alluvial Plain extends more than 700 miles [Source: Classification of activities is generalized from information provided from southern Illinois to the Gulf of Mexico. Historically, this area by agencies and organizations. e, agency or organization participates in supported more than 21 million acres of forested wetlands in seven welland-related activity; agency or organization does not participate in wetland-related activity. MAN, management; REG, regulation; R&C, res- States (fig. 3). Conversion of the forest to agricultural use has re- toration and creation; LAN, land acquisition; R&D, research and data col- duced what was a vast wetland system to a scattered patchwork lection; D&I, delineation and inventory] totaling about 4.9 million acres (Creasman and others, 1992). Mississippi began losing wetlands shortly after the arrival of European settlers. In 1850, the U.S. Congress, with the objective Agency or organization of controlling floods in the Mississippi Valley, passed the second FEDERAL of the Swamp Land Acts, which granted to Mississippi 3,347,860 Department of Agriculture acres of swamp and overflow lands considered unfit for cultivation Consolidated Farm Service Agency ........................... ... ... ... ... ... (Shaw and Fredine, 1971). The Flood Control Act of 1928 was Forest Service ................. ...............................................0 0 0 passed by Congress as a result of the disastrous 1927 floods. The Natural Resources Conservation Service ................ ... act provides comprehensive flood control for the lower Mississi i Department of Commerce ppi National Oceanic and Valley downstream from Cairo, 111. The act authorizes the U.S. Army Atmospheric Administration ........................................ Corps of Engineers (Corps) to construct and maintain levees, flood- Department of Defense ways, channel modifications, and various control structures. The Army Corps of Engineers .............................................. ... passage of these and other flood-contTol acts resulted in the con- Department of the Interior Fish and Wildlife Service .............................................. version of thousands of acres of wetlands to agriculture (Shaw and Geological Survey ......................................................... Fredine, 1971). National Biological Service ........................................ ... ... ... ... In 1937 there were about 1,750,000 acres ofpalustrine forested National Park Service ................................................... and palustrine scrub-shrub wetlands in Mississippi. By 1987 the Environmental Protection Agency ................................. area had decreased to about 600,000 acres (U.S. Fish and Wildlife STATE Department of Environmental Duality ........................... Service, 1992) - a 66-percent reduction in those kinds of wetlands. D epa rtment of Wildl fe, Fishe ries, and Pa rks ............. Wetland loss in Mississippi from the 1780's to the 1980's was about Natural Heritage Program ................................................ ... ... ... ... ... 59 percent (Dahl, 1990). In 1992 the FwS reported that almost all COUNTY AND LOCAL of the cleared land in the major wetland areas was being farmed, Diamondhead ..................................................................... . ... .. ... although substantial areas were considered marginal for crop pro- Jordan Rivers Shores ........................................................ ... 0 Timber Ridge ........................................................................ ... 0 duction because of the flood risks. Some of these marginal farm- PRIVATE ORGANIZATIONS lands are reverting back to scrub-shrub wetlands as they remain Ducks Unlimited .................................................................. fallow. Further, the rate of loss of bottom-land forests in Mississippi Eco-MS ................................................................................ has recently decreased because of a decline in the agricultural Gulf Coast Conservation Association ............................ ... ... ... ... ... economy and an increase in the recreational value of these forested Gulf Islands Conservancy, Inc . ........................................ ... ... wetlands. Threats to the remaining inland wetlands in Mississippi Mississippi Coast Audubon Society .............................. Mississippi Wildlife Federation ....................................... include drainage and flood-protection projects, dredging and stream Save the Pascagoula, Inc . ................................................ ... ... ... ... channelization, alteration ofdrainage patterns, construction ofdikes Sierra Club, Mississippi Chapter ..................................... and levees, discharge of pollutants, erosion (U.S. Fish and Wildlife The Nature Conservancy, Mississippi Field Office Service, 1992), and grazing. The introduction of normative plant or animal species, such as nutria (an aggressive herbivore), and the disturbance of resident fauna, such as removal ofbeaver populations, Food Security Act; the 1990 Food, Agriculture, Conservation, and also are threats to Mississippi's remaining inland wetlands (Ruple, Trade Act; the 1986 Emergency Wetlands Resources Act; and the 1992). 1972 Coastal Zone Management Act. Coastal wetland loss in Mississippi since 1930 exceeds 8,500 Section 10 of the Rivers and Harbors Act gives the Corps au- acres and has been primarily caused by industrial and urban devel- thority to regulate certain activities in navigable waters. Regulated opment (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 1992). Losses have de- activities include diking, deepening, filling, excavating, and plac- creased since passage of the Coastal Wetlands Protection Act in ing of structures. The related section 404 of the Clean Water Act is 1973. Continued threats to coastal wetlands in Mississippi include the most often-used Federal legislation protecting wetlands. Under erosion from sea-level rise, subsidence, barrier-island migration, section 404 provisions, the Corps issues permits regulating the dis- dredging and filling, discharge of pollutants, sedimentation, charge of dredged or fill material into wetlands. Permits are subject bulkheading, and alteration of water-excbange patterns between to review and possible veto by the U.S. Environmental Protection marshes and open water by installation ofdikes and weirs (U.S. Fish Agency (EPA), and the Fws has review and advisory roles. Section and Wildlife Service, 1992). 401 ofthe Clean WaterAct grants to States and eligible Indian Tribes the authority to approve, apply conditions to, or deny section 404 CONSERVATION permit applications on the basis of a proposed activity's probable effects on the water quality of a wetland. Many government agencies and private organizations partici- Most farming, ranching, and silviculture activities are not sub- pate in wetland conservation in Mississippi. The most active agen- ject to section 404 regulation. However, the "Swampbuster" provi- cies and organizations and some of their activities are listed in table sion of the 1985 Food Security Act and amendments in the 1990 1 . Food, Agriculture, Conservation, and Trade Act discourage (through Federal wetland activities. -Development activities in Mis- financial disincentives) the draining, filling, or other alteration of sissippi wetlands are regulated by several Federal statutory prohi- wetlands for agricultural use. The law allows exemptions from pen- bitions and incentives that are intended to slow wetland losses. Some alties in some cases, especially if the farmer agrees to restore the of the more important of these are contained in the 1899 Rivers and altered wetland or other wetlands that have been converted to agri- Harbors Act; the 1972 Clean Water Act and amendments; the 1985 cultural use. The Wetlands Reserve Program of the 1990 Food, National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: MISSISSIPPI 247 Agriculture, Conservation, and Trade Act authorizes the Federal coastal wetlands. Typically, few comments are received from these Government to purchase conservation easements from landowners agencies; however, some subdivisions have restrictions limiting who agree to protect or restore wetlands. The Consolidated Farm development in adjacent coastal waters (Ruple, 1992). Service Agency (formerly the Agricultural Stabilization and Conser- Private and cooperative wetland activities. -Many citizen's vation Service) administers the Swampbuster provisions and groups and private organizations support efforts to protect Missis- Wetlands Reserve Program. The Natural Resources Conservation sippi wetlands. Eco-MS is a coalition of about 35 environmental Service (formerly the Soil Conservation Service) determines com- groups that support wetland protection efforts. The Gulf Islands pliance with Swampbuster provisions and assists farmers in the iden- Conservancy, Inc., the Gulf Coast Conservation Association, and tification of wetlands and in the development of wetland protection, the Mississippi Coast Audubon Society are dedicated to wetland restoration, or creation plans. protection in the Mississippi coastal area. The Mississippi Wildlife The 1986 Emergency Wetlands Resources Act and the 1972 Federation and the Mississippi Chapter of the Sierra Club also ac- Coastal Zone Management Act and amendments encourage wetland tively support measures to protect wetlands statewide. The Nature protection through funding incentives. The Emergency Wetlands Conservancy acquires and manages wetlands in Mississippi. More Resources Act requires States to address wetland protection in their than 105,000 acres of wetlands along the Pascagoula River have been Statewide Comprehensive Outdoor Recreation Plans to qualify for acquired by the State with the assistance of private organizations Federal funding for State recreational land; the National Park Ser- such as The Nature Conservancy and Save the Pascagoula, Inc. The vice (NPS) provides guidance to States in developing the wetland Nature Conservancy, in conjunction with the Fws, is acquiring land component of their plans. Coastal and Great Lakes States that adopt to expand the Grand Bay National Wildlife Refuge. The Nature coastal-zone management programs and plans approved by the Conservancy also participates in the Mississippi Coastal Preserve National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NoAA) are eli- Program. gible for Federal funding and technical assistance through the In May 1986 an international commitment to conserving North Coastal Zone Management Act. America's waterfowl resources was pledged by signing of the North Several Federal agencies have wetland-management responsi- American Waterfowl Management Plan. Canada, the United States, bilities. The NPs administers the Mississippi Gulf Islands National and Mexico are the participants. The plan is a direct response to a Seashore, a series of barrier islands in the Gulf of Mexico off continuing decline in waterfowl populations and the habitat upon Mississippi's coast that are fringed by estuarine and marine wet- which waterfowl and other wetland wildlife depend (Lower Missis- lands. The U.S. Geological Survey collects information on the quan- sippi Valley Joint Venture Management Board, 1990). Imple- tity and quality of the Natiorfs water resources, including wetlands. menting the plan depends on the development of joint ventures and NOAA's National Marine Fisheries Service and the Gulf of Mexico partnerships among Federal and State agencies and private organi- Fisheries Management Council prepare and approve plans and zations. The Lower Mississippi Valley Joint Venture is a coopera- implement mechanisms concerning the management of fisheries in tive effort by the FWS, The Nature Conservancy, Ducks Unlimited, Mississippi estuarine and offshore waters including modifications and others to ensure the long-term success of waterfowl and wet- to wetlands that could adversely affect juvenile fish stocks. NOAAS land conservation in a seven-State area, including Mississippi. National Ocean Service, in cooperation with the National Marine Fisheries Service, has compiled an inventory of coastal wetlands. References Cited The U.S. Forest Service has an ongoing interest in the reforesta- tion of bottom-land forests in the lower Mississippi River Valley. Boto, K.G., and Patrick, W.H., Jr., 1979, Role of wetlands in the removal of The EPA directs the Gulf of Mexico Program, which provides a fo- suspended sediments, in Greeson, P.E., Clark, J.R., and Clark, J.E., rum for resolving complex environmental problems of the gulf from eds., Proceedings of the National Symposium on Wetlands, Novem- a regional perspective. The program promotes wetland management ber 1978: Minneapolis, Minn., American Water Resources Associa- and restoration and use of wetlands in the treatment of wastewater tion, p. 479-489. by States that border the Gulf of Mexico. Cowardin, L.M., Carter, Virginia, Golet, F.C., and LaRoe, E.T., 1979, Clas- State wetland activities. -The Mississippi Department of sification of wetlands and deepwater habitats of the United States: U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Report FWS/OBS -79/31, 131 p. Wildlife, Fisheries, and Parks, which is governed by the Mississippi Creasman, Lisa, Craig, Nancy Jo, and Swan, Mark, 1992, The forested Commission on Wildlife, Fisheries, and Parks, is the primary State wetlands of the Mississippi River-An ecosystem in crisis: Baton management agency for tidally influenced wetlands. As mandated Rouge, La., The Nature Conservancy of Louisiana, 23 p. by the Mississippi Coastal Wetlands Protection Law of 1973, the Dahl, T.E., 1990, Wetlands-Losses in the United States, 1780's to 1980's: Department's Bureau of Marine Resources reviews and comments Washington, D.C., U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Report to Congress, on all aspects of wetland protection. 13 p. The Mississippi Department of Environmental Quality is the Deason, J.P., 1989, Impacts of irrigation drainwater on wetlands, in Fisk, primary State management agency for freshwater wetlands. The D.W., ed., Wetlands- Concerns and successes: Bethesda, Md., Department monitors and enforces many water-quality standards American Water Resources Association, p. 127-138. German, E.R., 1989, Removal of nitrogen and phosphorus in an undevel- and regulations that directly affect wetlands. The Department's oped wetland area, central Florida, in Fisk, D.W., ed., Wetlands- Office of Pollution Control requires section 401 water-quality cer- Concerns and successes: Bethesda, Md., American Water Resources tification of applicants seeking dredge and fill (section 404) per- Association, p. 139-147. mits from the Corps. During project review, the Office of Pollution Kadlec, R.H., and Kadlec, J.A., 1979, Wetlands and water quality, in Control attempts to prevent wetland losses by requesting that alter- Greeson, P.E., Clark, J.R., and Clark, J.E., eds., Proceedings of the natives be considered. For unavoidable losses, the agency requests National Symposium on Wetlands, November 1978: Minneapolis, mitigation. Minn., American Water Resources Association, p. 436-456. The Natural Heritage Program, authorized by the Mississippi Lamonds, A.G., and Boswell, E.H., 1986, Mississippi surface-water re- Natural Heritage Act of 1978, identifies and inventories priority sources, in U.S. Geological Survey, National water summary 1985 - Hydrologic events and surface-water resources: U.S. Geological Sur- wetlands. The program requires that areas and species of biologi- vey Water-Supply Paper 2300, p. 295-300. cal significance or special concern to the State, including rare or Lower Mississippi Valley Joint Venture Management Board, 1990, Conserv- threatened plants, be listed on the Mississippi Natural Registry. ing waterfowl and wetlands - The Lower Mississippi Valley Joint Ven- County and local wetland activities. -Counties and cities re- ture: Vicksburg, Miss., North American Waterfowl Management Plan, view permit applications for projects that affect their inland and 32 p. 248 National Water Surnmary-Wetland Resources: STATE SUMMARIES Mississippi Department of Environmental Quality, 1992, Mississippi 1992 water quality assessment, Federal Clean Water Act Section 305(b) report: Mississippi Department of Environmental Quality, Office of Pollution Control, p. 93 -104. Omernik, J.M., 1987, Ecoregions of the conterminous United States -Map supplement: Annals of the Association of American Geographers, v. 77, no. 1, scale 1:7,500,000. Ruple, David, ed., 1992, A citizen's guide for protecting wetlands in Mis- sissippi: Mississippi Department of Wildlife, Fisheries, and Parks, 66 p. Shaw, S.P., and Fredirle, C.G., 1971, Wetlands of the United States, their extent and their value to waterfowl and other wildlife: U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Circular 39, 67 p. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 1992, Regional wetlands concept plan- Emergency wetlands resources act, Southeast Region: Atlanta, Ga., U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 249 p. Winter, T.C., and Woo, Ming-Ko, 1990, Hydrology of lakes and wetlands, in Wolman, M.G., and Riggs, H.C., eds., Surface water hydrology: Boulder, Colo., Geological Society ofAmerica, The Geology of North America, v. 0-1, chap. 8, p. 159-187. FOR ADDITIONAL INFORMATION: District Chief, U.S. Geological Survey, 100 W. Capitol Street, Suite 120, Jackson, MS 39269; Regional Weiland Coordinator, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 1875 Century Build- ing, Suite 200, Atlanta, GA 30345 Prepared by Charles R. Demas and Dennis K. Demcheck, U.S. Geological Survey U.S. Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper 2425 National Water Summary-Wetland Resources 249 Missouri Wetland Resources Missouri wetlands occupy 643,000 acres, about 1.4 percent of wetland areas under the jurisdiction of the Missouri Department of the State's area (Dahl, 1990). Before the arrival of European set- Conservation in cooperation with the North American Waterfowl tlers, wetlands occupied about 4.84 million acres, about 10.8 per- Plan, and four State parks that feature and preserve wetlands within cent of what is now Missouri, and were a significant component of their boundaries (Lower Mississippi Valley Joint Venture Manage- the landscape (Epperson, 1992). ment Board, 1990; Epperson, 1992). Before European settlement, wetlands primarily were associ- ated with the major rivers and streams, especially in the State's TYPES AN .D DISTRIBUTION "bootheel" (southeastern area), which borders the Mississippi River. This area once contained about 50 percent of the State's wetlands Wetlands are lands transitional between terrestrial and and was nicknamed "swampeast" Missouri. Although they were con- deepwater habitats where the water table usually is at or near the sidered impediments to progress, wetlands provided large economic land surface or the land is covered by shallow water (Cowardin and benefits to the railroad companies that purchased and harvested the others, 1979). The distribution of wetlands and deepwater habitats vast bottom-land forests of cypress, tupelo gum, and oak for tim- in Missouri is shown in figure 2A; only wetlands are discussed ber (Epperson, 1992). After the commercial timber had been re- herein. moved, these cleared wetlands were drained and converted to agri- Wetlands can be vegetated or nonvegetated and are classified cultural use, and they remain in that land-use category today. on the basis of their hydrology, vegetation, and substrate. In this Wetlands maintain water quality, mitigate flood effects, pro- summary, wetlands are classified according to the system proposed vide critical habitat for many rare and endangered plants and ani- by Cowardin and others (1979), which is used by the U.S. Fish and mals, and are a source of recreational activities such as birding, fish- Wildlife Service (Fws) to map and inventory the Natiorfs wetlands. ing, hunting, and ecotourism in unique areas such as Slaughter Sink At the most general level of the classification system, wetlands are and Grasshopper Hollow (fig. 1). Wetlands in Missouri provide grouped into five ecological systems: Palustrine, Lacustrine, Riv- critical habitat for 15 animal and 4 plant species that are endangered erine, Estuarine, and Marine. The Palustrine System includes only or threatened (Rick Hansen, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, writ- wetlands, whereas the other systems comprise wetlands and ten commun., 1993). Also within Missouri, a large number of wet- deepwater habitats. Wetlands of the systems that occur in Missouri land species are of special concern. Some of the endangered or are described below. threatened plants and animals associated with wetlands in Missouri include the eastern prairie fringed orchid, gray bat, Indiana bat, System Wetland description Ozark big bat, bald eagle, least tern, Neosho madtom, Ozark cavefish, and the Higgins eye pearly mussel. Palustrine .................. Wetlands in which vegetation is predominantly Missouri's location on the Mississippi Flyway makes the State trees (forested wetlands); shrubs (scrub-shrub wetlands); persistent or nonpersistent emergent, a favored wintering area for waterfowl and raptors. As many as erect, rooted, herbaceous plants (persistent- and 200,000 ducks, mainly mallard, but also pintail, green-winged teal, nonpersistent-emergent wetlands); or sub- widgeon, gadwall, and shoveler, reside in the 21,600-acre Mingo mersed and (or) floating plants Jaquatic beds). National Wildlife Refuge in southeastern Missouri. As many as Also, intermittently to permanently flooded 200,000 geese and 300,000 ducks winter in the 6,890-acre Squaw open-water bodies of less than 20 acres in which Creek National Wildlife Refuge in northwestern Missouri. This water is less than 6.6 feet deep. Lacustrine ................. Wetlands within an intermittently to permanently refuge supports one of the largest wintering concentrations of bald flooded lake or reservoir. Vegetation, when pres- eagles in the United States and harbors as many as 200 bird species ent, is predominantly nonpersistent emergent at any given time. About 100 bald eagles winter in the 10,670-acre plants (nonpersistent-emergent wetlands), or Swan Lake National Wildlife Refuge in north-central Missouri submersed and (or) floating plants (aquatic (Riley, 1979). Missouri has five National Wildlife Refuges, one beds), or both. National Scenic Riverway, one National Forest system, seven State Riverine ..................... Wetlands within a channel. Vegetation, when pres- ent, is same as in the Lacustrine System. Palustrine forested wetlands (swamps and other forested wet- lands), palustrine emergent wetlands (marshes and fens), and palustrine scrub -shrub wetlands (shrub swamps) constitute most of the wetland acreage in Missouri (Epperson, 1992). Most of the State's wetlands are associated with rivers and streams (fig. 2A). The bootheel region is especially rich in wetlands. Fens are small (0.5 -10 acres), palustrine forested or emergent wetlands unique to areas where ground water, underground streams, and karst topography (resulting from limestone and dolomite rock dissolution) characterize the local hydrology and geology. In con- trast to most other wetlands in Missouri, fens are created by ground water, not surface water (Epperson, 1992). These wetlands are lo- cated primarly along stream terraces and at the base of slopes in Figure 1. Grasshopper Hollow, a fen in the Ozark the Ozark Highlands (fig. 2B). Vegetation in fens primarily consists Highlands of Missouri. (Photograph by lane Epperson, of grasses, sedges, and reeds; however, some are forested. Fens Missouri Department of Natural Resources.) provide habitat for several unique plant and animal species, includ- 250 National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: STATE SUMMARIES ing a disproportionate number of Missouri's rare and endangered C plants and invertebrates (Mohlenbrock, 1993). Notable examples of fens include Grasshopper Hollow (fig. 1) and Slaughter Sink. C HYDROLOGIC SETTING The existence of wetlands depends on specific topographic and geologic conditions that favor flooding or saturated soils and on the hydrologic processes that allow the water to persist (Winter and Woo, 1990). Wetland hydrology involves complex water-flow patterns that D are affected by regional and local geology, topography, soil charac- teristics, and climate. Wetlands in Missouri are a result of diverse surface- and ground-water conditions. Surface water collects in topographic lows, and ground water typically discharges there. Soil characteristics A determine the rate at which water percolates downward to recharge the ground-water system or discharges from it. Fluctuations in lo- E A ECOREGIONS A. Ozark Highlands B. Central Irregular Plains SO reek N R C. Western Corn Belt Plains D. Interior River Lowland 40' E. Mississippi Alluvial Plain Kansas Cit 0 d nce col -St. ouis rso L.A. of the rka 0-1 ke 9 t Si kJon L.k. I zer --_,G assh pe 110 W M Rive k Cairo. 11finoils r A Tree State Park 94" 92- .0 WETLANDS AND DEEPWATER HABITATS Distribution of wetlands and deepwater habitats- This map shows the approximate distribution of large wetlands in the State. Because of limitations of scale and source material, some wetlands are not shown so- Predominantly wetland 0 25 50 MILES Predominantly deepwater habitat 0 25 50 KILOMETERS Figure 2. Weiland distribution in Missouri and ecoregions of the State. A, Distribution of wetlands and deepwater habitats. B, Ecoregions. (Sources: A, TE. Dahl, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, unpub. data, 7991. B, Omernik, 1987.) National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: MISSOURI 251 cal precipitation can combine with local geologic differences to whether these areas are able to undergo continued flooding and create transient or seasonal changes in the interactions of ground dewatering cycles. Disruption of this continual flooding/dewater- water and surface water. Average annual precipitation ranges from ing cycle results in (1) replacement of the existing trees by less water- 36 to 48 inches per year across Missouri (Waite and Skelton, 1986). tolerant trees and shrubs when periodic flooding is prevented (such The extent of wetland areas located in parts of the State with lower as occurs when levees are built along a river and the flood plain is annual precipitation rates, especially those associated with shallow drained) or (2) lack of recruitment of new trees in areas that be- ground-water systems and surface-water runoff, such as fens, de- come permanently flooded (such as occurs when a river is dammed). pends on the timing and amounts of rainfall. Other wetland areas, Water in fens is supplied by local shallow ground-water flow such as those along major rivers, are less dependent on local rain- systems. These wetlands typically are associated with springs or fall patterns for their continued existence. seeps that discharge at the surface. In Missouri, fens occur in the The largest wetlands in Missouri are closely associated with Ozark Highlands ecoregion. The Ozark Highlands ecoregion is and are directly and indirectly affected by the Mississippi and Mis- underlain by limestone and dolomite overlain by less easily erod- souri Rivers and their tributaries. The flood plains created by the ible rock such as sandstone. If sinkholes (formed by the collapse of Mississippi and Missouri Rivers have resulted in an area of rela- limestone and dolomite eaves) become plugged, fens develop as the tively flat slope that has been flooded frequently. The wetlands of result of retention of ground-water discharge or stormwater runoff. the Missouri bootheel were formed as a result of the New Madrid Fens are sustained by water that has passed through highly miner- earthquake (actually a series of earthquakes), which occurred in alized soils (Mitsch and Gosselink, 1993). 1811. Lasting for several months, this catastrophe changed the course of the Mississippi River and greatly changed the topogra- TRENDS phy of the Mississippi Alluvial Plain (McCaig and Boyce, 1988). All of the land from Cape Girardeau south to Arkansas sank from Wetland losses and the land-use changes that have altered 10 to 50 feet, converting rich bootheel forests into swamp (Johnson wetland functions and biota began at the time of settlement by Eu- and DeLano, 1990). The subsequent flooding in the subsided for- ropeans. As of the 1980's, Missouri had only 643,000 acres of wet- ested areas following the earthquakes resulted in the formation of lands of an estimated 4,844,000 acres of wetlands existing in the large tracts of backwater swamps characterized by water-tolerant 1780's (Dahl, 1990), an 87-percent loss. Large-scale wetland losses trees such as cypress, tupelo gum, water oak, and swamp red maple. began after 1850, when the U.S. Congress passed the Swamp Land Backwater flooding in the major tributaries of the Mississippi Act. The act granted to Missouri 3,432,481 acres of Federal forest- and Missouri Rivers has resulted in the formation of similar wet- ed wetlands and overflow lands considered unfit for cultivation. The lands along their flood plains. The existence and continued survival object of the act was to promote flood control in the Mississippi of these forested, scrub-shrub, and emergent wetlands depends on River Valley (Shaw and Fredine, 197 1). The remaining 1,410,000 91, 90, 37' MISSOURI EXPLANATION Wetlands 1650 0 10 20 30 MILES 36' 0 10 20 30 KILOMETERS 91, 90, 91, 90, 37' 3P jy@ < 1920 1975 36. 36'@ Figure 3. Palustrine forested -wetl and loss in the Mississippi Alluvial Plain, southeastern Missouri, 1650-1975. (Source: Epperson, 1992.) 252 National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: STATE SUMMARIES acres were transferred to the State during the next few years. Shortly in navigable waters. Regulated activities include diking, deepening, thereafter, the land was transferred to the counties, which in turn filling, excavating, and placing of structures. The related section 404 sold large tracts at public auction (Epperson, 1992). of the Clean Water Act is the most often-used Federal legislation By 1912, about 3,500,000 acres of wetlands had been targeted protecting wetlands. Under section 404 provisions, the Corps issues for drainage statewide (Epperson, 1992). Stream channelization and permits regulating the discharge of dredged or fill material into damming also have significantly affected wetlands within Missouri. wetlands. Permits are subject to review and possible veto by the U.S. The primary cause of recent wetland loss, both nationally and state- Environmental Protection Agency, and the Fws has review and ad- wide, has been conversion of wetlands to agricultural use. Other visory roles. Section 401 of the Clean Water Act grants to States causes include urban development, flood control, and timber har- and eligible Indian Tribes the authority to approve, apply conditions vesting (Frayer and others, 1983). to, or deny section 404 permit applications on the basis of a pro- The most severe wetland loss has occurred in the southeast- posed activity's probable effects on the water quality of a wetland. ern part of the State in the Mississippi Alluvial Plain (fig. 3), where Most farming, ranching, and silviculture activities are not sub- only about 60,000 acres (2.5 percent) of an estimated original ject to section 404 regulation. However, the "Swampbuster" provi- 2,400,000 acres of forested wetlands remain intact (Vaught and sion of the 1985 Food Security Act and amendments in the t990 Bowmaster, 1983). Wetland loss in the southeastern part of the State Food, Agriculture, Conservation, and Trade Act discourage (through ranged from 257,OOD acres from 1870 to 1890 to 595,000 acres from financial disincentives) the draining, filling, or other alteration of 1900 to 1920. In the 1930's, fearing that this magnificent wetland wetlands for agricultural use. The law allows exemptions from pen- forest would be lost, businessmen, residents, and local school chil- alties in some cases, especially if the farmer agrees to restore the dren contributed their nickels and dimes to purchase some of the altered wetland or other wetlands that have been converted to agri- last remnants of the once vast wetland forest. In 1938, more than cultural use. The Wetlands Reserve Program of the 1990 Food, 1,000 acres were purchased and became the Big Oak Tree State Park Agriculture, Conservation, and Trade Act authorizes the Federal (Johnson and DeLano, 1990). Government to purchase conservation easements from landowners who agree to protect or restore wetlands. The Consolidated Farm CONSERVATION Service Agency (formerly the Agricultural Stabilization and Conser- vation Service) administers the Swampbuster provisions and Wet- Many government agencies and private organizations partici- lands Reserve Program. The Natural Resources Conservation Ser- pate in wetland conservation in Missouri. The most active agencies vice (formerly the Soil Conservation Service) (NRCS) determines and organizations and some of their activities are listed in table 1. compliance with Swampbuster provisions and assists farmers in the Federal wetland activities. -Development activities in Mis- identification of wetlands and in the development of wetland pro- souri wetlands are regulated by several Federal statutory prohibi- tection, restoration, or creation plans. tions and incentives that are intended to slow wetland losses. Some The 1986 Emergency Wetlands Resources Act encourages of the more important of these are contained in the 1899 Rivers and wetland protection through funding incentives. The act requires Harbors Act; the 1972 Clean Water Act and amendments; the 1985 States to address wetland protection in their Statewide Comprehen- Food Security Act; the 1990 Food, Agriculture, Conservation, and sive Outdoor Recreation Plans to qualify for Federal funding for Trade Act; and the 1986 Emergency Wetlands Resources Act. State recreational land; the National Park Service (NPS) provides Section 10 of the Rivers and Harbors Act gives the U.S. Army guidance to States in developing the wetland component of their Corps of Engineers (Corps) authority to regulate certain activities plans. The Rivers and Harbors Act of 1899 requires a permit for con- Table 1. Selected wetland-related activities of government struction or excavation in, over, or under "navigable waters" of the agencies and private organizations in Missouri, 1993 United States. The Corps is the lead agency for administration of [Source: Classification of activities is generalized from information provided this Act. The Lake of the Ozarks and the Osage, Mississippi, and by agencies and organizations. e, agency or organization participates in Missouri Rivers are the major navigable waters in Missouri. The wetland-related activity; agency or organization does not participate in Flood Control Act of 1928 authorizes the Corps to construct and wetland-related activity. MAN, management; REG, regulation; R&C, res- maintain levees, floodways, channel modifications, and various toration and creation; LAN, land acquisition; R&D, research and data col- lection; D&I, delineation and inventory] control structures for the lower Mississippi River Valley downstream from Cairo, Ill. The FwS has section 404 responsibilities under the Fish and Agency or organization Wildlife Coordination Act of 1934, National Environmental Policy FEDERAL Act of 1969, and the Endangered Species Act of 1973. The Fws Department of Agriculture provides advisory comments to the Corps, during section 404 per- Consolidated Farm Service Agency ........................... ... ... ... ... ... mit-application review on the potential effects on fish, wildlife, and Forest Service .................................................................0 0 0 related environmental resources. The FWS is mapping the Nation's Natural Resources Conservation Service ................ ... wetlands under its National Wetlands Inventory project. Missouri Department of Defense has five National Wildlife Refuges that are managed by the FWS Army Corps of Engineers .............................................. ...0 primarily for migratory birds and federally listed threatened and Department ofthe Interior Fish and Wildlife Service ..............................................e 0 0 0 0 endangered species. Geological Survey .................................. ....................... ... The NPS manages the Ozark National Scenic Riverways, which National Biological Service ......................................... ... ... ... ... includes 134 miles of the Current and Jack Fork Rivers. Natural National Park Service ...................................................* * 0 wetland communities are common in the riparian corridors (the area Environmental Protection Agency .................................. ... adjacent to a stream or river that is at least occasionally flooded) of STATE Department of Conservation ...........................................0 these rivers and their tributaries. Department of Natural Resources .................................. State wetland activities. -Under section 401 of the Clean PRIVATE Water Act, the Missouri Department of Natural Resources must Ducks Unlimited ..................................................................0 certify that a proposed federally permitted or licensed activity will National Audubon Society ................................................ not violate State water-quality standards. If section 401 water-quality The Nature Conservancy ..................................................0 certification is denied, the Corps must deny the section 404 permit National Water Surnmary-Wetland Resources: MISSOURI 253 application. The Department's Division of State Parks is responsible Frayer, W.E., Monahan, T.J., Bowden, D.C., and Graybill, F.A., 1983, Sta- for preserving, restoring, and managing natural wetland ecosystems tus and trends of wetlands and deepwater habitats in the conterminous through the State park system. The Department of Natural Re- United States, 1950's to 1970's: Fort Collins, Colorado State Univer- sources, Division of Geology and Land Survey's Water Resources sity, 31 p. Program, with extensive public participation, has developed short- Johnson, Cathy, and DeLano, Patti, 1990, Missouri - Off the beaten path: Chester, Conn., The Glope Pequot Press, 166 p. and long-term wetland goals for the State, as well as specific rec- Lower Mississippi Valley Joint Venture Management Board, 1990, Conserv- ommendations for achievement of the goals. Recently, the Missouri ing waterfowl and wetlands -The Lower Mississippi Valley Joint Ven- Departments of Natural Resources and Conservation, the Fws, and ture: Vicksburg, Miss., North American Waterfowl Management Plan, the NRCs have been working toward a common wetland data base 32 p. for use by these agencies. McCaig, Barbara, and Boyce, Chris, 1988, Missouri Parks Guide: Wauwa- The Missouri Department of Conservation is the State's pri- tosa, Wis., Affordable Adventures, Inc., 43 p. mary fish and wildlife agency. The Department's Natural Heritage Mitsch, W.J., and Gosselink, J.G., 1993, Wetlands (2d ed.): New York, Van Database is an inventory of wetlands and other natural features Nostrand Reinhold Co., 722 p. owned or managed by the Department, as well as of other wetlands Mohlenbrock, R.H., 1993, Slaughter Sink, Missouri: Natural History, v. 6, no. 93, p. 25 - 26. considered by the State to be valuable. The Department also has Omernik, J.M., 1987, Ecoregions of the United States -Map supplement: developed a wetland-management plan to guide its efforts in the Annals of the Association of American Geographers, v. 77, no. 1, scale restoration and management of wetlands until the year 2000. The 1:7,500,000. key elements of the plan are to (1) protect, restore, and improve Riley, Laura, and Riley, William, 1979, Guide to the National Wildlife Ref- wetland habitat, (2) acquire new wetland areas, (3) identify popu- uges: Garden City, N.Y., Anchor Press, p. 319-322, 335-341. lation goals and management strategies for waterfowl, wildlife, fur- Shaw, S.P., and Fredine, C.G., 1971, Wetlands of the United States -Their bearer, and fish species, (4) address human use of wetland resources, extent and their value to waterfowl and other wildlife: U.S. Fish and and (5) identify future research needs. Wildlife Service Circular 39, 67 p. Private wetland activities. -The Nature Conservancy is de- Vaught, Richard, and Bowmaster, J.T., 1983, Missouri wetlands and their management: Jefferson City, Missouri Department of Conservation, veloping an integrated approach for the conservation and restora- 23 p. tion of the Mississippi Alluvial Plain. The organization owns six Waite, L.A., and Skelton, John, 1986, Missouri surface-water resources, in properties containing wetlands, including ponds, fens, flood-plain National water summary 1985 -Hydrologic events and surface-wa- forest, and wet prairies. Ducks Unlimited participates in wetland- ter resources: U.S. Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper 2300, protection efforts through its involvement in the North American p. 301-308. Waterfowl Management Plan. The National Audubon Society con- Winter, T.C., and Woo, Ming-Ko, 1990, Hydrology of lakes and wetlands, ducts a considerable variety of public-education and wetland-pres- in Wolman, M.G., and Riggs, H.C., eds., Surface water hydrology: ervation programs and projects. Boulder, Colo., Geological Society of America, The Geology of North America, v. 0-1, chap. 8, p. 159-187. References Cited FOR ADDITIONAL INFORMATION: District Chief, U.S. Geological Cowardin, L.M., Carter, Virginia, Golet, F.C., and LaRoe, E.T., 1979, Clas- Survey, 1400 Independence Road, Rolla, MO 65401; Regional Wetland sification of wetlands and deepwater habitats of the United States: U.S. Coordinator, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, BHW Federal Building, I Fish and Wildlife Service Report FWSJOBS-79/31, 131 p. Federal Drive, Fort Snelling, MN 55111 Dahl, T.E., 1990, Wetlands-Losses in the United States, 1780's to 1980's: Washington, D.C., U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Report to Congress, 13 p. Prepared by Epperson, J.E., 1992, Missouri wetlands -A vanishing resource: Missouri Charles R. Demas and Dennis K. Demcbeck, Division of Geology and Land Survey Water Resources Report 39, U.S. Geological Survey 67 p. 254 National Water Summary-Wetiand Resources: STATE SUMMARIES U.S. Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper 2425 National Water Summary-Wetland Resources 255 Montana Wetland Resources Wtlands cover only a small part of Montana, but their ecologi- TYPES AND DISTRIBUTION cal and economic importance far outweighs their relative size. Wetlands provide stopover feeding areas and breeding grounds for Wetlands are lands transitional between terrestrial and deep- migratory waterfowl (fig. 1). The Nation's most valuable waterfowl water habitats where the water table usually is at or near the land production area, the prairie pothole region of the northern Great surface or the land is covered by shallow water (Cowardin and oth- Plains, includes wetlands of north-central and northeastern Mon- ers, 1979). The distribution of wetlands and deepwater habitats in tana. Wetlands are highly productive and provide food for both Montana is shown in figure 2A; only wetlands are discussed herein. aquatic and terrestrial animals. Several threatened or endangered Wetlands can be vegetated or nonvegetated and are classified species depend on Montana wetlands, including the whooping crane, on the basis of their hydrology, vegetation, and substrate. In this least tern, bald eagle, piping plover, grizzly bear, and peregrine fal- summary, wetlands are classified according to the system proposed con. Many freshwater fish and upland game birds are wetland de- by Cowardin and others (1979), which is used by the U.S. Fish and pendent, as are antelope, white-tailed and mule deer, elk, moose, Wildlife Service (Fws) to map and inventory the Natiorfs wetlands. and bear, as well as other nongame mammals. At the most general level of the classification system, wetlands are Wetlands stabilize or improve environmental quality by trap- grouped into five ecological systems: Palustrine, Lacustrine, Riv- ping sediments, producing oxygen, recycling nutrients, absorbing erine, Estuarine, and Marine. The Palustrine System includes only chemicals and other pollutants, moderating water temperature, and wetlands, whereas the other systems comprise wetlands and storing carbon (Tiner, 1984). Many small cities and towns in Mon- deepwater habitats. Wetlands of the systems that occur in Montana tana use sewage lagoons, which are constructed wetlands, for mu- are described below. nicipal wastewater treatment. Socioeconomic benefits of Montana wetlands are well docu- mented. Wetland vegetation stabilizes streambanks, reduces erosion System Wetland description and flooding, and provides windbreaks for crops and farmsteads. Palustrine .................. Wetlands in which vegetation is predominantly In some areas, wetlands augment streamflow, whereas in other ar- trees (forested wetlands); shrubs (scrub-shrub eas they capture overland runoff and slowly release it to underlying wetlands); persistent or nonpersistent emergent, aquifers. Because of their high level of productivity, wetlands are erect, rooted, herbaceous plants (persistent- and excellent providers of renewable resources, including timber, hay, non persistent-em erg ant wetlands); or sub- mersed and (or) floating plants Jaquatic beds). and livestock water. Montana natives and pioneers highly regarded Also, intermittently to permanently flooded wetland plants such as cattails, willows, and black cottonwood for open-water bodies of less than 20 acres in which food, fuel, insulation, basket-making materials, and construction water is less than 6.6 feet deep. materials, and their use continues to some extent today (Hansen and Lacustrine ................. Wetlands within an intermittently to permanently others, 199 1; R.M. Hazelwood, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, oral flooded lake or reservoir. Vegetation, when pres- commun., 1993). ent, is predominantly nonpersistent emergent plants (nonpersistent-emergent wetlands), or Finally, wetlands are valued for recreation, education, and es- submersed and (or) floating plants (aquatic thetics. As Montana's tourism industry becomes increasingly im- beds), or both. portant, so do wetlands for the extensive opportunities they provide Riverine ..................... Wetlands within a channel. Vegetation, when pres- for fishing, hunting, camping, and observing wildlife. ent, is same as in the Lacustrine System. Dahl (1990), on the basis of unpublished data from the FWS, estimated that 840,300 acres, or 0.9 percent of the State, contained wetlands. However, the total wetland area of Montana has not yet been systematically inventoried. Since 1974, the Fws has been con- ducting a thorough inventory of the Nation's wetlands. That inven- tory will enable a more accurate estimate of Montana's wetland acre- 4-` 4- age. Other investigators have made estimates of wetland acreage for various specific purposes. These estimates did not include all of the State's wetlands. On the basis of an inventory of 15 counties in northern Montana, the Fws (1954) concluded that 187,400 acres of wetlands statewide provide valuable waterfowl breeding habitat. hill ildlife Service, unpub. data, 1975) R.J. King (U.S. Fish and and W identified 159,608 wetland acres with significant waterfowl produc- tion capability (exclusive ofconstructed reservoirs and stock ponds) in 40 of Montana's 56 counties.The Water Quality Bureau of the Figure 1. Freezout Lake Wildlife Management Area in west- Montana Department of Health and Environmental Sciences (1992) central Montana. Wetlands associated with this natural lake estimated that riparian areas comprise about 1,860,000 acres. Ri- receive irrigation return flow, furnish habitat for numerous parian areas include both wetlands and uplands. waterfowl species, and provide a variety of recreational op- Most Montana wetlands are palustrine. These include forested portunities. (Photograph bylohn H. Lambing, U.S. Geolog- wetlands adjacent to rivers statewide; scrub-shrub wetlands such ical Survey.) as willow carrs (thickets) in western Montana and greasewood 256 National Water Surnmary-Wetland Resources: STATE SUMMARIES Eu ir r R' men Beru VS. FoH Pm Pn 47 ad? 6 MEtca)f N N), ficrea 4@) C) A 45, 10$1 109" k It t5iig 1 0 50 100 MILES Red Rock 0 50 10'0 KILOMETERS 113- Lakes NWn WETLANDS AND DEEPWATER HABITATS Distribution of wetlands and deepwater habitarts- This map shows the approximate distribution of large wetlands in the State. Because of limitations of scale and source material, some wetlands are not shown Predominantly wertland Great Predominantly deepwater habitat N hern Plains Area typified by a high density of small wetlands -- Rocky Mountains B Middle Rocky Mountains PHYSIOGRAPHIC DIVISIONS r'Iddhol alo, 4A dLj GLACIATION A M Glacial extent during C most recent glacial maximum Figure 2. Wetland distribution in Montana and physical features that control wetland distribution in the State. A, Distribution of wetlands and deepwater habitats. 8, Physiography. C, Extent of most recent glaciation. (Sources: A, TE Dahl, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, unpub. data, 1991. B, Physiographic divisions from Fenneman, 1946; landforms data from EROS Data Center C, Alden, 193Z 1953.) National Water Surnmary-Wetland Resources: MONTANA 257 scrubland adjacent to rivers in eastern and southwestern Montana; regional topographic gradient, no integrated drainage system, and persistent-emergent wetlands such as marshes, fens and wet soils that have low permeability. Consequently, the region is highly meadows in western Montana, and fresh and saline marshes in east- susceptible to flooding. The large storage capacity of prairie pot- ern Montana; and aquatic-bed wetlands such as water-lily ponds in holes makes them instrumental in controlling seasonal flooding and northwestern Montana (Tiner, 1984; Hansen and others, 1991; thus in protecting productive cropland and rural communities from Windell and others, 1986). Palustrine wetlands also are associated damage. Furthermore, the slow infiltration afforded by compact, with artificial lakes and ponds throughout the State. clayey soils allows the potholes to slowly augment ground-water The distribution of the different types of wetlands in Montana supplies with water that otherwise would leave the area as overland correlates with the State's physiography (fig. 2B). In glaciated areas flow. of the Great Plains (fig. 2C), wetlands are primarily in topographic Glaciation in the Northern Rocky Mountains (fig. 2C) also depressions commonly referred to as prairie potholes. In the North- covered some intermontane basins with glacial till, allowing the eTn and Middle Rocky Mountains, wetlands are primarily in pot- formation of pothole wetlands such as the complexes near Ovando holes of glaciated intermontane basins, in the flood plains of streams and the Ninepipe National Wildlife Refuge. Dams formed by gla- in unglaciated intermontane basins, and in high mountain valleys. cial debris created other productive wetland areas, including those In unglaciated areas of the Great Plains, wetlands occur in flood associated with Flathead Lake and Lake McDonald. Geologic char- plains of streams in the Missouri and Yellowstone River basins and acteristics play an important role in the water quality of these wet- also are commonly associated with constructed livestock ponds. lands. The mountain ground water that interacts with intermontane wetlands generally is less mineralized than prairie ground water, HYDROLOGIC SETTING so the water is fresher in intermontane wetlands than in prairie pothole wetlands. However, some intermontane pothole wetlands Wetlands form where the soil or substrate is saturated with or near Eureka are biologically sterile because slime deposits from covered by water for extended periods. The location and persistence glacial rock flour inhibit growth (Reichmuth, 1986). of water are a function of interdependent climatic, topographic, Intermontane basins are drained by low-gradient, meandering hydrologic, and geologic factors. In Montana, except in the high streams and rivers that develop riparian (streamside) wetlands in mountains, annual potential evaporation exceeds precipitation, re- slackwater deposits behind natural levees, in oxbow lakes formed sulting in a moisture deficit that inhibits wetland formation. There- by meander cutoffs, on is] ands, below diversions, along shorelines, fore, topographic, hydrologic, and geologic factors are as important and on deltas and fans (Reichmuth, 1986). Riparian wetlands are as climatic factors in creating and maintaining most Montana wet- dependent on seasonal flooding for moisture. The frequency and lands. duration of flooding depend on climate, flood-plain elevation, drain- Glaciation in the northern Great Plains (fig. 2Q blanketed the age area, channel slope, and soils. The magnitude of flooding and landscape with dense, clayey glacial till (sediment) (Alden, 1932). the resultant ground-water levels in the alluvium affect the type and As the overlying glacial ice melted, potholes (kettle takes) remained productivity of vegetation in riparian areas. Floodwaters also de- where ice blocks had previously been embedded in the till. These posit nutrient-rich sediments and promote anaerobic (oxygen-poor) potholes range in area from less than I acre to several square miles. conditions that make the nutrients available to plants. The nearly impermeable till inhibits direct infiltration of snowmelt Intermontane basins, particularly those in southwestern Mon- into the soil. Instead, meltwater flows overland into prairie potholes. tana, are seismically active. For example, regional northwest tilting Even though potential evaporation exceeds precipitation in this re- elevated the northern Gallatin River above the streambeds of its gion, the high moisture-retention capacity of the clayey soil allows western tributaries, and wetlands have developed in resulting areas lush, diverse wetland vegetation to develop wherever water accu- of shallow ground water. Another example is a geologically recent mulates, resulting in highly productive wetlands (Winter, 1989). In uplift that reversed the direction of flow in the upper Red Rock River. terms of waterfowl production, the seven most productive counties The uplift occurred so rapidly that streams have not had sufficient in Montana are located in the prairie pothole region (R.J. King, U.S. time to cut and deepen channels in response to the new regional Fish and Wildlife Service, unpub. data, 1975). gradient. The lack of an integrated drainage system has created large The hydrology and water quality of prairie pothole wetlands waterlogged areas (Reichmuth, 1986). These areas receive additional can vary over time. In some areas, ground-water flow reverses di- inflow from geologic faults, which allow warm ground water to flow rection because of changing water levels in adjacent potholes. Prairie toward the land surface, providing excellent wetland habitat for pothole wetlands can recharge ground-water aquifers in spring un- waterfowl. Fault-controlled ground-water flow also is a primary til evaporation and water uptake by plants cause the water level in moisture source for wetlands in other intermontane basins. the wetland to drop below the local water table. At that time, ground High-mountain wetlands form in response to geologic, climatic, water begins to flow back into the wetland (Winter, 1989). Wetland and even biological forces. In alpine and subalpine zones, where salinity commonly increases as evaporation concentrates dissolved precipitation exceeds evaporation, wetlands persist wherever natu- minerals in the water through the summer and freezing concentrates ral impoundments prevent surface runoff. For example, alpine lakes them through the winter (LaBaugh, 1989). In spring, snowmelt di- fill cirques, which are scour holes that glaciers carved below moun- lutes the salinity. tain peaks. Below the subalpine zone, sinuous, low-velocity streams Water quality can differ between temporary and permanent drain broad, U-shaped glaciated mountain valleys. Seasonal flood- prairie pothole wetlands, even within the same area. Some prairie ing and high water tables sustain wetlands behind glacial moraines pothole wetlands are sustained by ground-water inflow, which pro- and beaver dams and within low-lying depressions such as oxbow vides a constant, but commonly mineralized or saline, source of and kettle lakes. Downstream from glaciated valleys, running wa- water. Other prairie pothole wetlands are sustained only by runoff ter has eroded steep, V-shaped valleys that have wetlands along and receive no ground-water inflow. In wet years, these wetlands streams and springs and within impoundments created by landslides generally have freshwater, but during most years the combination and beaver dams (Windell and others, 1986). of evaporation and infiltration causes them to go dry. Still other A recent study of peat-fen (wetlands that have organic soils) prairie pothole wetlands have brackish (slightly to moderately salty) hydrology in the headwaters of the Blackfoot River reveals the com- water resulting from a combination of ground-water and surface- plexity of water flow through a mountain wetland. Not only does water inflow (Winter, 1989). the flow velocity range markedly, from 1.8 to 880 feet per day, but The glaciated areas of the Great Plains typically have a small ground water flows both into and out of the wetland. The large range 258 National Water Surnmary-Wetland Resources: STATE SUMMARIES of flow velocities was explained by the extreme variability of peat Sciences, 1982, p. 3). The Montana Department of Fish, Wildlife permeability (Morton and others, 1989). and Parks (1992, p. 2) concurs, forecasting that "***a continuing Some eastern States have taken advantage of the natural filter- general decline in the wetland base in the State appears most prob- ing capacity of wetlands to mitigate acidic mine drainage. In an able." The acreage of wetlands that have been lost is not precisely attempt to duplicate their success, three artificial wetlands have been known, but one estimate is that only 73 percent of the State's constructed to treat acidic mine drainage from abandoned coal mines pTedevelopment wetlands remain (Dahl, 1990). near Belt, Mont. The artificial wetlands have decreased the concen- Most losses have been due to conversion of wetlands to crop- trations of toxic metals somewhat, but the concentrations still ex- lands, particularly in the prairie pothole region. As of the mid-I 980's, ceed State and Federal water-quality standards, and the discharge about 20,000 acres of prairie in eastern Montana had been artifi- remains acidic. These shortcomings are attributable to mechanical cially drained for agricultural production (Dahl, 1990). Significant problems, freezing in the winter, and, most significantly, extremely losses of wetlands are also attributable to the construction of high- acidic, highly mineralized mine discharge that exceeds the treatment ways, railroads, dams, large reservoirs, and irrigation systems; soil capacity of the wetlands. Therefore, wetlands might not provide a erosion and siltation; urbanization; recreational development; viable solution to acidic mine drainage problems in Montana (J.N. channelization; mining; logging; oil and gas production; and inten- Koerth, Montana Department of State Lands, oral commun., 1992.) sive grazing (Hansen and others, 1988; Montana Department of Fish, Wildlife and Parks, 1992; Windell and others, 1986). Mon- TRENDS tana wetland losses will become more critical as wetland habitat for breeding and migrating waterfowl diminishes in neighboring States. Although wetland deterioration can be physical, chemical, or Although the decline of wetland acreage continues, the national biological, the major concern in Montana is physical loss of wet- rate of wetland loss has slowed since protective legislation and edu- lands (Montana Department of Health and Environmental Sciences, cational programs were implemented in the mid-1980's (Dahl and 1982, 1988, 1992). In its biennial report to the U.S. Environmental others, 1991). Under that legislation, private organizations and Protection Agency (EPA), the Water Quality Bureau stated that, "Pre- government agencies have created, restored, and protected wetlands cious little is known about Montana wetlands except that they are throughout Montana. In addition, the construction of reservoirs used disappearing" (Montana Department of Health and Environmental for livestock watering, especially in eastern Montana, has improved Table 1. Selected wetland-related activities of government waterfowl production and has contributed significantly to the wet- agencies and private organizations in Montana, 1993 land base (Montana Department of Fish, Wildlife and Parks, 1992). Whereas the major wetland concern in Montana is the dimin- [Source@ Classification of activities is generalized from information provided ishing quantity, also important is the deteriorating quality of the by agencies and organizations. 9, agency or organization participates in wetlands that remain. Fertilizers, pesticides, sediments, and salts wetland-related activity, ..., agency or organization does not participate in wetland-related activity. MAN, management; REG, regulation; R&C, restora- from farms and ranches, brine from oil-field activities, and saline tion and creation; LAN, land acquisition; R&D, research and data collection; seeps induced by agricultural practices adversely affect the quality D&I, delineation and inventory) of water in some Montana wetlands (Montana Department of Fish, Wildlife and Parks, 1992; Reiten, 1992; Miller and Bergantino, C \ X Agency or organization 1983). A recent drought in Montana also has adversely affected both the quantity and quality of the State's wetlands. Many wetlands have FEDERAL dried up, and evaporation has concentrated dissolved minerals in Department of Agriculture others. Consolidated Farm Service Agency ........................... ... Forest Service ................................................................. Natural Resources Conservation Service ................ CONSERVATION Department of Defense Army Corps of Engineers .............................................. Many government agencies and private organizations partici- Military reservations ..................................................... pate in wetland conservation in Montana. The most active agencies Department of the Interior and organizations and some of their activities are listed in table 1. Bureau of Land Management ...................................... Federal wetland activities.-Development activities in Mon- Bureau of Reclamation ................................................. Fish and Wildlife Service .............................................. tana wetlands are regulated by several Federal statutory prohibitions Geological Survey ...........................! ............... ..............0 and incentives that are intended to slow wetland losses. Some of the National Biological Service .......................... .............. ... ...0 more important of these are contained in the 1899 Rivers and Har- National Park Service ...................................................* * hors Act; the 1972 Clean Water Act and amendments; the 1985 Food Environmental Protection Agency ................... .............. ... Security Act; the 1990 Food, Agriculture, Conservation, and Trade TRIBAL Confederated Salish and Kootenai Tribes .....................* Act; and the 1986 Emergency Wetlands Resources Act. STATE Section 10 of the Rivers and Harbors Act gives the U.S. Army Department of Fish, Wildlife and Parks .........................* Corps of Engineers (Corps) authority to regulate certain activities Department of Environmental Quality in navigable waters. Regulated activities include diking, deepening, Reclamation Division ..................................................... ... filling, excavating, and placing of structures. The related section 404 Water Quality Division ................................................... Department of Natural Resources and Conservation of the Clean Water Act is the most often-used Federal legislation Forestry Division ............................................................. protecting wetlands. Under section 404 provisions, the Corps issues Trust Land Management Division ................................ permits regulating the discharge of dredged or fill material into Department of Transportation ......................................... wetlands. Permits are subject to review and possible veto by the EPA, Montana Bureau of Mines and Geology ....................... and the Fws has review and advisory roles. Section 401 of the Clean Montana Riparian Association ........................................ ... ... Water Act grants to States and eligible Indian Tribes the authority Natural Resource information System .......................... ... LOCAL ORGANIZATIONS to approve, apply conditions to, or deny section 404 permit appli- Conservation Districts ......................................... ............. . ... ... cations on the basis of a proposed activity's probable effects on the PRIVATE ORGANIZATIONS water quality of a wetland. Ducks Unlimited .................................................................. Most farming, ranching, and silviculture activities are not sub- The Nature Conservancy .................................................. ject to section 404 regulation. However, the "Swampbuster" provi- National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: MONTANA 259 sion of the 1985 Food Security Act and amendments in the 1990 and State and Federal agencies, informs private landowners of the Food, Agriculture, Conservation, and Trade Act discourage (through economic benefits and resource values of riparian areas (J.F. financial disincentives) the draining, filling, or other alteration of Schumaker, Montana Department of Natural Resources and Con- wetlands for agricultural use. The law allows exemptions from pen- servation, written commun., 1992). The Montana Interagency Wet- alties in some cases, especially if the farmer agrees to restore the lands Group cooperates to avoid, minimize, or mitigate damage to altered wetland or other wetlands that have been converted to agri- wetlands that might result from State highway construction. If none cultural use. The Wetlands Reserve Program of the 1990 Food, of those alternatives is feasible, the group operates a wetland-bank- Agriculture, Conservation, and Trade Act authorizes the Federal ing system, which creates new wetlands to replace those that are Government to purchase conservation easements from landowners lost (Montana Department of Fish, Wildlife and Parks, 1992). The who agree to protect or restore wetlands. The Consolidated Farm North American Waterfowl Management Plan is an agreement be- Service Agency (cm) (formerly the Agricultural Stabilization and tween Canada and the United States to reverse recent declines in Conservation Service) administers the Swampbuster provisions and waterfowl populations. Under the plan, wetlands can be purchased, Wetlands Reserve Program. The Natural Resources Conservation leased, or protected by easements. Landowners are offered economic Service (formerly the Soil Conservation Service) determines com- incentives for using farming practices that are beneficial to water- pliance with Swampbuster provisions and assists farmers in the iden- fowl. Another component of the plan is the joint venture-a part- tification of wetlands and in the development of wetland protection, nership of public and private organizations working toward the com- restoration, or creation plans. mon goal of wetland preservation. The U.S. Prairie Pothole Joint The 1986 Emergency Wetlands Resources Act encourages Venture is a coalition of Federal and State agencies and private or- wetland protection through funding incentives. The act requires ganizations that researches, protects, and enhances prairie wetland States to address wetland protection in their Statewide Comprehen- and upland habitat in northeastern Montana and four other States sive Outdoor Recreation Plans to qualify for Federal funding for that have prairie potholes. Joint ventures are also being planned for State recreational land; the National Park Service provides guidance the northern Great Plains and the intermontane basins of Montana to States in developing the wettand component of their plans. (Montana Department of Fish, Wildlife and Parks, 1992). Federal agencies are responsible for the proper management The Montana Department of Fish, Wildlife and Parks has a of wetlands on public land under their jurisdiction. The Bureau of supporting technical role in all four interagency agreements. As a Land Management manages about 267,000 acres of wetlands and regulatory agency, the Department administers the Montana Stream deepwater habitats in Montana, including 9,000 miles of streams Protection Act of 1963, which regulates construction by government (D.K. Hinckley, Bureau of Land Management, oral commun., 1992). agencies along streams, and the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Coordina- The Corps manages the 408,591-acre Fort Peck Lake project area, tion Act, which regulates Federal activities that might adversely which includes deepwater and upland habitats, palustrine and lacus- affect wetlands. Also, the Department determines wetland desig- trine wetlands, and 1,520 miles of shoreline (L.D. Krueger, U.S. nations for Swampbuster enforcement and assists the FWS with its Army Corps of Engineers, oral commun., 1992). The U.S. Forest ongoing wetland inventory. The State Waterfowl Stamp program, Service manages 16,806,039 acres in I I National Forests in Mon- with matching funds from Ducks Unlimited, supports the Depart- tana (U.S. Forest Service, 1991). The FWS manages 40,590 acres of ment efforts to protect, develop, and enhance wetlands and associ- waterfowl protection areas and 1,066,559 acres of National Wild- ated upland areas on public and private land. Forty-five State Wild- life Refuges in Montana, including major wetland complexes at life Management Areas, including 19 that contain wetlands, also are Medicine Lake, Lake Bowdoin, Benton Lake, Lee Metcalf, Red Rock administered by the Department (Montana Department of Health Lakes, Halfbreed, and Ninepipe National Wildlife Refuges. The Fws and Environmental Sciences, 1982). also holds perpetual easements on 32,100 acres of Montana wet- The Montana Department of Environmental Quality (a new lands. Finally, since 1988, the Fws has involved about 300 Montana State agency formed July 1, 1995, and composed of parts of the landowners in the restoration, enhancement, and creation of about former Departments of Health and Environmental Sciences, Natu- 7,500 wetland acres (J.W. Stutzman and P.H. Hartmann, U.S. Fish ral Resources and Conservation, and State Lands), administers and and Wildlife Service, oral commun., 1992, 1993). The CFSA admin- enforces State water-quality standards. Although none of the exist- isters a Water Bank program in which private landowners agree not ing standards apply directly to wetlands, the Department is develop- to destroy wetlands in return for annual payments. In Montana, about ing enforceable water-quality and biological standards that will be 3,200 wetland acres are protected under this program (Montana specific to Montana wetlands. This effort, funded by EPA, also in- Department of Health and Environmental Sciences, 1989). cludes the development of a State wetlands data base, water-quality Tribal wetland activities.-Indian tribes are becoming increas- and biological monitoring, education, river-corridor management, ingly involved in wetland programs on reservation lands and ceded support for the Montana Riparian Association and wetland banking, territories in Montana. For example, the Confederated Salish and and a wetland-protection coordinator. The coordinator is working Kootenai Tribes of the Flathead Indian Reservation in western with other agencies and organizations to develop a State wetland- Montana have enacted several ordinances directed at protecting and protection plan (Montana Department of Health and Environmen- managing wetlands in their 1. 2-million- acre reservation. These in- tal Sciences, 1992). Until the new standards are approved, section clude a Tribal Water Quality Ordinance and Shoreline Protection and 404 of the Clean Water Act continues to provide the most explicit Aquatic Lands Conservation Ordinances, which enforce a "no net protection for Montana wetlands. The Department is the State loss" policy. The tribes also have applied for treatment as a State agency that reviews section 404 permit applications and certifies under section 404 of the Clean Water Act and are awaiting action compliance with State water-quality standards. As the permitting by EPA (S.K. Ball, Confederated Salish and Kootenai Tribes, writ- agency for hardrock and coal mines, the Department of Environ- ten commun., 1993). mental Quality enforces compliance with section 404 and requires State wetland activities.-Four State interagency agreements mitigation of wetland loss in mining areas (S.J. Olsen and B.K. pertain to wetland protection. The Montana Riparian Association Lovelace, Montana Department of State Lands, oral commun., is a statewide interagency cooperative that develops riparian eco- 1992). logical classifications to assist in the identification, description, and The Montana Department of Natural Resources and Conserva- management of riparian communities, including wetlands (Hansen tion (reorganized July 1, 1995, to include parts of the former De- and others, 1991). The Montana Riparian Education Committee, partment of Natural Resources and Conservation and the Depart- which is composed of agricultural and conservation organizations ment of State Lands) manages 5.2 million acres statewide in addition 260 National Water Surnmary-Wetland Resources: STATE SUMMARIES to all land below the low-water level of navigable lakes and streams. Hansen, P.L., Chadde, S.W., and Pfister, R.D., 1988, Riparian dominance An estimate of wetland acreage under Department management is types of Montana: University of Montana Miscellaneous Publication not available. The Department leases about 80,000 acres to the De- 49, p. 9-23. partment of Fish, Wildlife and Parks, the FwS, and The Nature Con- LaBaugh, JW., 1989, Chemical characteristics of water in northern prairie servancy; most of the remaining area is leased to individuals and wetlands, in van der Valk, Arnold, ed., Northern prairie wetlands: Ames, Iowa State University Press, p. 56-91. corporations for logging, grazing, and agricultural activities. The Miller, MR., and Bergantino, R.N., 1983, Distribution of saline seeps in Strearnside Management Zone Act, which the Department admin- Montana: Montana Bureau of Mines and Geology HydTOgeologic Map isters, prohibits certain forestry practices along streams, takes, other 7, 7 p. water bodies, and adjacent wetlands. Montana Department of Fish, Wildlife andParks, 1992,1993 Montanastate- County and local wetland activities. -County conservation wide comprehensive outdoor recreation plan, draft section III, Mon- districts administer the Natural Streambed and Land Preservation tana wetlands: Helena, Montana Department of Fish, Wildlife and Act of 1975. Districts review applications and issue permits to in- Parks, 8 p. dividuals and other private entities planning activities that may Montana Department of Health and Environmental Sciences, 1982, Mon- physically alter or modify the bed or immediate banks of a peren- tana water quality, 1982: Helena, Water Quality Bureau, Montana 305(b) Report, 116 p. nial stream. By educating the public and enforcing permit condi- -1988, Montana water quality, 1988: Helena, Water Quality Bureau, tions, the Districts minimize impacts to riparian wetlands (J.F. Montana 305(b) Report, 80 p. Schumaker, Montana Department of Natural Resources and Con- 1992, Montana water quality, 1992: Helena, Water Quality Bureau, servation, written commun., 1992). Montana 305(b) Report, 42 p. Private wetland activities.-Ducks Unlimited provides funds Morton, R.B., Goering, J.D., and Dollhopf, D.J., 1989, Hydrologic charac- for State agencies to restore, enhance, and create wetlands in Mon- teristics of a wetland using a bromide tracer, in Woessner, W.W., and tana and supports university research of waterfowl ecology (P.M. Potts, D.F., eds., Proceedings of the Symposium on Headwaters Hy- Bultsma, Ducks Unlimited, oral commun., 1992). The Nature Con- drology, Missoula, Mont.: American Water Resources Association servancy manages habitat for the preservation of rare species and Technical Publication Series TPS-89-1, p. 553-562. Reichmuth. DR., 1986, Fluvial systems in the wetland environment, in ecosystems. Working with private landowners, the Conservancy has Sather, J.H., and Low, Jessop, eds., Proceedings of the Great Basin/ established more than 152,000 acres of conservation easements and Desert and Montane Regional Wetland Functions Workshop, Logan, has acquired more than 15,000 acres of critical habitat statewide. Utah, February 27- 28, t 986: University of Massachusetts at Amherst, In addition, the Conservancy cooperates with government agencies The Environmental Institute Publication 90 - 4, p. 23 - 59. to assist them in acquiring land. To complement its conservation Reiten, J.C., 1992. Water quality of selected lakes in eastern Sheridan efforts, the Conservaricy coordinates the Natural Heritage Program County, Montana: Montana Bureau of Mines and Geology Open-File of the Natural Resource Information System, which maintains a Report MBMG 244,44 p. computerized inventory of biological resources (H.S. Zackheim, The Titter, R.W., Jr., 1984, Wetlands of the United States-Current status and Nature Conservancy, oral commun., 1992). recent trends: Newton Corner, Mass., U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, National Wetlands Inventory, 59 p. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 1954, Wetlands inventory of Montana: Bill- References Cited ings, Mont., U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Office of River Basin Studies, p. 20. Alden, W.C., 1932, Physiography and glacial geology of eastern Montana U.S. Forest Service, 1991, Land areas of the national forest system as of and adjacent areas: U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 174, September 30, 1991: U.S. Forest Service Report FS-383, p. 25. 133 p. Windell, J.T., Willard, B.E., Cooper, D.J., and others, 1986, An ecological -1953, Physiography and glacial geology of western Montana and characterization of Rocky Mountain montane and subalpine wetlands: adjacent areas: U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 231, 200 p. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Biological Report 86(11), 298 p. Cowardin, L.M., Carter, Virginia, Golet, F.C., and LaRoe, E.T., 1979, Clas- Winter, T.C., 1989, Hydrologic studies of wetlands in the northern prairie, sification of wetlands and deepwater habitats of the United States: U.S. in van der Valk, Arnold, ed., Northern prairie wetlands: Ames, Iowa Fish and Wildlife Service Report FWS/OBS -79/31, 131 p. State University Press, p. 16-55. Dahl, T.E., 1990, Wetlarlds-Losses in the United States, 1780's to 19807s: Washington, D.C.,U.S. Fish andWildlife Service Report to Congress, 13 p. FOR ADDITIONAL INFORMATION: District Chief, U.S. Geological Dahl, T.E., Johnson, C.E., and Frayer, W.E., 1991, Wetlands-Status and Survey, 428 Federal Building, 301 South Park, Drawer 10076, Helena, MT trends in the conterminous United States, mid-] 970's to mid-] 980's: 59626; Regional Wetland Coordinator, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Fish Washington, D.C., U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Report to Congress, and Wildlife Enhancement, P.O. Box 25486, Denver Federal Center, Den- 22 p. ver, CO 80225 Fermeman, N.M., 1946, Physical divisions of the United States: Washing- ton, D.C., U.S. Geological Survey special map, scale 1:7,000,000. Hansen, P.L., Boggs, K.W., Pfister, R.D., and Joy, John, 1991, Ciassifica- Prepared by tion and management of riparian and wetland sites in Montana, draft Eloise Kendy, version 1: Missoula, Montana Riparian Association, Montana Forest U.S. Geological Survey and Conservation Experiment Station, School of Forestry, University of Montana, 478 p. U.S. Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper 2425 National Water Summary-Wetland Resources 261 Nebraska Wetland Resources Although wetlands occupy only 1.9 million acres in Nebraska, or by Cowardin and others (1979), which is used by the U.S. Fish and about 4 percent of the State's area (Dahl, 1990), Nebraska's wetland Wildlife Service (Fws) to map and inventory the Natiorfs wetlands. resources are diverse in form, function, and value. Within the State, At the most general level of the classification system, wetlands are wetlands range from freshwater to saline and from acidic to alka- grouped into five ecological systems: Palustrine, Lacustrine, Riv- line. Many are sustained by ground water, whereas others depend erine, Estuarine, and Marine. The Palustrine System includes only on precipitation and the resulting runoff as a water source (Gersib, wetlands, whereas the other systems comprise wetlands and 1991). deepwater habitats. Wetlands of the systems that occur in Nebraska Wetlands in Nebraska have many functions that are of value to are described below. humans. Wetlands control flooding, trap sediment, control erosion, retain nutrients, and sometimes recharge ground water. Wetlands System Wetland description are used recreationally for canoeing, fishing, hunting, and swim- ming. In addition to being of economic and social value to humans, Palustrine .................. Wetlands in which vegetation is predominantly wetlands are critical to the survival of certain wildlife. trees (forested wetlands); shrubs (scrub-shrub Nebraska has three major wetland complexes of international wetlands); persistent or nonpersistent emergent, erect, rooted, herbaceous plants (persistent- and importance (Gersib, 199 1). The Rainwater Basin wetland complex non persiste nt-e merge nt wetlands); or sub- (fig. 1) in south-central and southeastern Nebraska provides stag- mersed and (or) floating plants (aquatic beds). ing and migrational habitat for waterfowl and shore birds in the Also, intermittently to permanently flooded spring. The basins in this complex are focal points in the Central open-water bodies of less than 20 acres in which Flyway spring-migration corridor. The Big Bend Reach of the Platte water is less than 6.6 feet deep. River is a migrational habitat for sandhill cranes and the endangered Lacustri ne ................. Wetlands within an intermittently to permanently flooded lake or reservoir. Vegetation, when pres- whooping crane. This reach also is breeding habitat for the endan- ent, is predominantly nonpersistent emergent gered least tern and the threatened piping plover. The Sandhills plants (nonpersistent-emergent wetiands@, or wetland complex in north-central and northwestern Nebraska pro- submersed and (or) floating plants (aquatic vides migrational habitat for the whooping crane and bald eagle, as beds), or both. well as migrational and breeding habitat for other nongame birds Riverine ..................... Wetlands within a channel. Vegetation, when pres- and waterfowl (Gersib, 1991). ent, is same as in the Lacustrine System. Although the Fws National Wetlands Inventory has wetland TYPES AND DISTRIBUTION acreage statistics for most of the State, there is no statewide esti- Wetlands are lands transitional between terrestrial and deep- mate of the wetland acreage within each of these systems. Gersib water habitats where the water table usually is at or near the land (199 1) gives the approximate wetland acreage for six major wetland complexes in Nebraska: the Eastern Saline, the Rainwater Basin, surface or the land is covered by shallow water (Cowardin and oth- the Missouri River, the Platte River Big Bend Reach, the North ers, 1979). The distribution of wetlands and deepwater habitats in Platte River Lower Reach, and the Sandhills (fig. 2B). This estimate Nebraska is shown in figure 2A; only wetlands are discussed herein. indicates that of the approximately 1.4 million acres of wetlands Wetlands can be vegetated or nonvegetated and are classified inventoried, 85 percent were palustrine, 13 percent were lacustrine, on the basis of their hydrology, vegetation, and substrate. In this and 2 percent were riverine (Gersib, 1991). Documentation is not summary, wetlands are classified according to the system proposed adequate for classification of other State wetlands. HYDROLOGIC SETTING The distribution of wetlands is determined by physiographic, climatic, and hydrologic factors. The eastern one-fourth of the State is generally characterized by low hills; the remainder is composed of dissected plains, high plains, and sandhills. Nebraska's climate is semiarid in the western part of the State and subhumid in the e stern part. Average annual precipitation from 1951 to 1980 ranged a X, from less than 16 inches in the western panhandle to more than 32 inches in the southeastern corner of the State (Engel and Steele, 1986). Nebraska's average annual free-water-surface evaporation for 1956-70 ranged from about 42 inches in the northeastern part of the State to more than 52 inches in the southwest (Farnsworth and pwom' others, 1982). Average annual runoff differs considerably across the State, ranging from less than I inch in the west and southwest to Figure 1. Waterfowl on a wetland in the Rainwater Basin wetland about 6 inches in the southeast (Gebert and others, 1985). complex in south-central Nebraska at sunrise. This wetland com- Saline marshes (emergent wetlands) characterize the eastern plex is used by 5 to 7 million ducks and geese annually and has saline wetland complex in southeastern Nebraska. These marshes lost 78 percent of its original wetland acres. (Photograph courtesy have developed in areas where sandstone bedrock is at or near the of the Nebraska Came and Parks Commission.) land surface, and saline ground water seeps into streams or flood- 262 National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: STATE SUMMARIES plain depressions (fig. 3A). Although seeps and springs contribute sloughs that have resulted from high flows that have changed the to the concentrations of dissolved solids in the saline marshes, sur- course of the river. Although shallow aquifers are associated with face runoff from precipitation and flooding along streams provide the Missouri River, the river is fed primarily by overland runoff most of the wetlands'water supply and a substantial part of the dis- (Kuzelka and others, 1993). Some water loss in the Missouri River solved solids (Farrar and Gersib, 1991). Most water loss is due to wetlands is the result of evapotranspiration and seepage to the ad- evapotranspiration, and this process has concentrated the dissolved jacent aquifers; however, much of the wetland loss is due to minerals in the flood-plain soils and wetlands. channelization and flood control along the river. In south-central and southeastern Nebraska, overland runoff Along the Platte and North Platte Rivers, wet meadows (emer- supplies nearly all water for wetlands within the Rainwater Basin gent wetlands) result from a combination of ground-water seepage, wetland complex (Gilbert, 1989). This part of the State is charac- runoff from precipitation and snowmelt, and surface-water diver- terized by nearly level to gently rolling loess plains; within these sions and return flows (Hurr, 1983). During spring and early sum- plains are depressions probably formed by wind erosion. Surface mer, snowmelt supplies water to the river, raising the river stage and drainage is poorly developed, resulting in numerous closed basins causing a corresponding rise in ground-water levels in the adjacent in which all drainage is internal (Gersib, 1991). Most accumulated flood plain (fig. 3Q. Because of the high water table and surface water is lost through evaporation, but some leaches through under- soils that generally are saturated, precipitation often pools in the lying materials and may produce chemical precipitates that result wet meadows in sloughs and swales (Currier, 1989). During sum- in a relatively impermeable layer below the land surface (Nebraska mer and early fall, river stage is lower because of decreased runoff. Game and Parks Commission, 1984) (fig. 3B). The water table gen- Water loss from the associated wet meadows occurs by evapotrans- erally is from 60 to 100 feet below the bottoms of most of these piration and as a result of ground-water withdrawals that lower the basins (Keech and Dreezen, 1968). The amount of water in the water table in the river valley and induce infiltration from the river wetlands within the Rainwater Basin complex varies greatly and to the aquifer. Concurrently, water levels within the wet meadows depends upon the rates of precipitation and evapotranspiration. associated with the river decline. In the Missouri River wetland complex, wetlands form in and The Sandhills region of north-central and northwestern Ne- along the river (on alluvial islands, deep pools, marshes, and shal- braska contains the largest sand-dune area in the Western Hemi- low-water areas), and isolated wetlands form within oxbows and sphere and one of the largest grass - stabilized dune regions in the 43" 97' r Uff "Y rn h j@ 0!%L..Ih Pftt. 41. inc 0 25 50 MILES 0 25 50 KILOMETERS A WETLANDS AND DEEPWATER HABITATS Sandhills Distribution of wetlands and cleepwater habitats- This map shows the approximate distribution of large Missouri River wetlands in the State. Because of limitations of scale and source material, some wetlands are not shown Predominantly wetland lh-- -Platte River Predominantly deepwater habitat "al 1% Big Bend El Reach North Platte River Area typified by a high density of small wetlands Lower Reach Eastern Saline Rainwater Basin 8 MAJOR WETLAND COMPLEXES Figure 2. Distribution of wetlands and cleepwater habitats and major wetland complexes in Nebraska. A, Distribution of wetlands and deepwater habitats. 9, Major wetland complexes. (Sources: A, TE. Dahl, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, unpub. data, 1991. B, Gersib, 1991.) National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: NEBRASKA 263 A. Eastern Saline wetlands EXPLANATION PALLISTRINE WETLAND PALLISTRINE WETLAND - Overland runoff C@ Scrub-shrub vegetation I - Direction of ground-water PALUSTRINE WETLANDS flow Forest vegetation RIVERINE WETLAND Average water table Water table in spring --------- and Emergent vegetation ---------- -------- early summer Farmed crops Water table in late summer Off Alkovium % Alluvium and early fall @(6cj Submersed aquatic Sandstone Direction of ground-water vegertation Sandstone flow in spring and early Loess summer Glacial drift Direction of ground-water Limestone flow in late summer and M Saturated clay F_ early fall B. Rainwater Basin Figure3. Generalized geohydrology of wetlands PALUSTAINEWETLAND within Nebraska. A, Eastern Saline wetlands. B, PALUSTRINE WETLAND Rainwater Basin. C, Platte River wetlands. D, Sand- hills. world (Bleed and Flowerday, 1990). Sandhill wetlands include wet meadows, where the water table is at or near the land surface, marshes that are associated with Clay, silt and sand area lakes and often contain standing water, and per- --------------------------------------------------------- manent lakes. Most of the lakes are 10 acres or less in Clay, silt@ and sand area, average about 5 feet in depth (McCarraher, 1977), and are considered palustrine wetlands accord- Bedrock Bedrock ing to the classification system used by the FwS. In the central and eastern parts of the Sandhills, lakes and marshes typically are slightly alkaline, are C Platte River wetlands in hydrologic connection with the ground water, and PALUSTRINE WETLAND PALUSTRINE WETLANDS commonly have suface outlets (Ginsberg, 1985). Many wetlands in the western Sandhills are strongly alka- PALUSTRINE WETLAND line and have little or no surface outflow. LaBaugh RIVERINE WETLANDS (1986) and Winter (1986) have shown that these lakes, in addition to being maintained by overland runoff, a, also are interconnected with the ground-water system (fig. 3D). Lakes that have high alkalinity are found in ---- -- -- -------- areas where the ground water becomes mineralized as ----------- it moves through the rock formations. Where water circulation is impeded and the water table intersects the land surface, the concentration of total dissolved Alluvial sand and gravef solids is increased by the high rate of evaporation in this region (Hem, 1985). The physical, chemical, and Permeable bedrock biological interactions of the marshes and wet mead- ows are largely unknown (Bleed and Howerday, 1990). D. Saindhills TRENDS NORTH SOUTH From 1780 to 1980, Nebraska lost about 1 mil- PALUSTRINE WETLANDS lion acres, or about 35 percent of the State's original Prairie PALLISTRINE wetlands (Dahl, 1990). Agricultural conversions that LACUSTRINE WETLAND WETLAND involved draining, clearing, leveling, and ground-water pumping were the principal causes of these losses. Prairie Losses also were caused by construction of impound- -------- ments and large reservoirs, urbanization, road con- Alluvial sand and gravel Permeable bedrock X Dune as d struction, and other activities. The Rainwater Basin, used by 5 to 7 million Dune @18nd ducks and geese annually, has lost an estimated 78 percent of its original acreage (Nebraska Game and Parks Commission, 1984). In the Sandhills, agricul- tural conversions account for the loss of 28,000 acres, or 15 percent, of the original wetlands in that area 264 National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: STATE SUMMARIES (Nebraska Game and Parks Commission, 1972). Table 1. Selected wetland-related activities of government Channelization of the Missouri River has enabled agricultural, agencies and private organizations in Nebraska, 1993 urban, and industrial development of its flood plain, including the [Source: Classification of activities is generalized from information provided wetland areas. Wetland losses in the unchannelized reaches of the by agencies and organizations. e, agency or organization participates in Missouri River also have been substantial owing to operation of wetland-related activity; ..., agency or organization does not participate in wetland-related activity. MAN, management; REG, regulation; R&C, res- dams on the main stem. toration and creation; LAN, land acquisition; R&D, research and data col- Williams (1978) showed that the North Platte and Platte Riv- lection; D&I, delineation and inventory] ers have had channel-width decreases of 90 to 90 percent from the Wyoming -Nebraska State line to Overton between 1860 and 1965. From Overton to Grand Island, channel-width reductions of 60 to Agency or organization 70 percent have occurred. FEDERAL Department of Agriculture Consolidated Farm Service Agency ........................... ... CONSERVATION Forest Service .................................................................0 Many government agencies and private organizations partici- NaturalResources Conservation Service ................ ... n- Department of Defense pate in wetland conservation in Nebraska. The most active age Army Corps of Engineers .............................................. cies and organizations and some of their activities are listed in table Department of the Interior I . Bureau of Land Management ...................................... ... ... Federal wetland activities. -Development activities in Ne- Bureau of Reclamation ...............................................-9 braska wetlands are regulated by several Federal statutory prohibi- Fish and Wildlife Service ..............................................0 Geological Survey .......................................................... ... ... tions and incentives that are intended to slow wetland losses. Some National Biological Service ......................................... ... ... of the more important of these are contained in the 1899 Rivers and National Park Service ................................................... ... ... ... ... Harbors Act; the 1972 Clean Water Act and amendments; the 1985 Environmental Protection Agency .................................. ...a Food Security Act; the 1990 Food, Agriculture, Conservation, and STATE Trade Act; and the 1986 Emergency Wetlands Resources Act. Department of Environmental Quality ........................... ...0 Section 10 of the Rivers and Harbors Act gives the U.S. Army Department of Roads ......................................................... Department of Water Resources .................................... ... Corps of Engineers (Corps) authority to regulate certain activities Forest Service ___ ................. ............ ___ ... -. ... ... in navigable waters. Regulated activities include diking, deepening, Game and Parks Commission ................ .........................0 a 0 filling, excavating, and placing of structures. The related section 404 Natural Resources Commission ...................................... ... ... ... ... of the Clean Water Act is the most often-used Federal legislation Water Resources Center ................................................ . ... ... ... ... protecting wetlands. Under section 404 provisions, the Corps issues University bf Nebraska Conservation and Survey Division ............................. permits regulating the discharge of dredged or fill material into Other State- unive rs ity programs ................................ ... 0 wetlands. Permits are subject to review and possible veto by the U.S. COUNTY AND LOCAL Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), and the Fws has review and Some county and local governments ............................ ... advisory roles. Section 401 of the Clean Water Act grants to States Natural Resources Districts .............................................0 0 e and eligible Indian Tribes the authority to approve, apply conditions PRIVATE ORGANIZATIONS Ducks Unlimited ..................................................................0 to, or deny section 404 permit applications on the basis of a pro- Nebraska Audubon Society ................................... 0 0 0 0 0 posed activity's probable effects on the water quality of a wetland. Platte River Whooping Crane Most farming, ranching, and silviculture activities are not sub- Habitat Maintenance Trust, Inc . ...................................... ject to section 404 regulation. However, the "Swampbuster" provi- Preserve Our Water Resources Association ............... ... ... ... ... sion of the 1985 Food Security Act and amendments in the 1990 The Nature Conservancy ..................................................o Food, Agriculture, Conservation, and Trade Act discourage (through financial disincentives) the draining, filling, or other alteration of ventories, and other resource-management tools. Technical assis- wetlands for agricultural use. The law allows exemptions from pen- tance is available for wetland- delineation training, project consul- alties in some cases, especially if the farmer agrees to restore the tation, and public education. The EPA oversees the development and altered wetland or other wetlands that have been converted to agri- implementation of water-quality standards that apply to surface cultural use. The Wetlands Reserve Program of the 1990 Food, waters, including wetlands, and a nonpoint-source pollution-con- Agriculture, Conservation, and Trade Act authorizes the Federal trol program that can include the restoration and maintenance of Government to purchase conservation easements from landowners wetlands. who agree to protect or restore wetlands. The Consolidated Farm Other Federal agencies have active nonregulatory wetland Service Agency (formerly the Agricultural Stabilization and Con- policies. The U.S. Forest Service (FS) is involved primarily in re- servation Service) administers the Swampbuster provisions and Wet- search of riparian wetlands and in managing wetlands in the national lands Reserve Program. The Natural Resources Conservation forests in Nebraska. In addition, the FS is developing a program to Service (formerly the Soil Conservation Service) determines com- integrate livestock grazing and wetland maintenance and is work- pliance with Swampbuster provisions and assists farmers in the iden- ing with Ducks Unlimited, a private conservation organization, to tification of wetlands and in the development of wetland protection, develop habitat for waterfowl. restoration, or creation plans. The Bureau of Land Management (BLM) manages 6,600 acres The 1986 Emergency Wetlands Resources Act encourages of public land in Nebraska. Some of these lands have been invento- wetland protection through funding incentives. The act requires ried, and none have been identified as wetlands. If wetland areas States to address wetland protection in their Statewide Comprehen- are identified on BLM-administered lands, appropriate management sive Outdoor Recreation Plans to qualify for Federal funding for actions and protective requirements for wetland habitats will be State recreational land; the National Park Service (NPS) provides applied (Bureau of Land Management, 1992). guidance to States in developing the wetland component of their The Bureau of Reclamation (BOR) mitigates for degraded or plans. destroyed wetlands through restoration of degraded wetlands and In addition to regulatory responsibilities, the EPA provides fi- creation of new wetlands. The BOR, as stated in their wetland initia- nancial assistance for special studies, development of wetland in- tive, is responsible for the management of wetland resources that National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: NEBRASKA 265 occur on Federal property purchased for project purposes. Ducks Unlimited has cooperative programs with government State wetland activities. -Nebraska has no laws specifically agencies and private organizations and will provide as much as 50- for the protection of wetlands. The Nebraska Department of Envi- percent cost-share funding for wetland acquisition and development. ronmental Quality is responsible for the Clean Water Act section Ducks Unlimited also is active in the creation and restoration of 401 certification process, which considers the effects of dredge or wetlands on land owned by the organization. fill activities on water quality to determine compliance with State The Preserve Our Water Resources Association promotes the water-quality standards. An antidegradation clause within the stan- restoration and creation of wetlands and monitors the success of dards protects present water-quality conditions and has been applied mitigation. Other private organizations participating in wetland to wetlands. activities include the Nebraska Sierra Club, The Nebraska Wildlife The Nebraska Department of Roads must identify wetlands that Federation, and Pheasants Forever. might be degraded by road construction. If wetland degradation or destruction is unavoidable, the Department must, through the pro- cess of mitigation, restore former wetlands or create new wetlands. References Cited A mitigation bank for use by the Nebraska Department of Roads is being developed with the Corps, the FWS, the EPA, the Nebraska Bleed, Ann, and Flowerday, Charles, eds., 1990, An atlas of the Sand Hills: Game and Parks Commission, and the Nebraska Department of En- University of Nebraska, Conservation and Survey Division, Resource vironmental Quality. Atlas No. 5a, 265 p. Bureau of Land Management, 1992, Nebraska record of decision and ap- The Nebraska Game and Parks Commission's involvement in proved resource management plan: Bureau of Land Management Re- wetlands includes the acquisition, restoration, and management of port BLM[WY/ES -92/010+4410, 51 p. State-owned wetlands. The Commission also provides technical as- Clausen, Mary, Fritz, Mike, and Steinauer, Gerry, 1989, The Nebraska natu- sistance for wetlands management to private owners and sponsors ral heritage program -Two-year progress report: Lincoln, Nebraska the Wetland Initiative Program. The Commission acts as an advi- Natural Heritage Program, 154 p. sory agency for the section 404 permit process administered by the Cowardin, L.M., Carter, Virginia, Golet, F.C., and LaRoe, E.T., 1979, Clas- Corps. As a nonregulatory agency, the Commission has inventoried sification of wetlands and deepwater habitats ofthe United States: U.S. wetlands within the State but is not involved with the delineation of Fish and Wildlife Service Report FWS/OBS-79/31, 131 p. wetlands. The Nebraska Natural Heritage data base, now adminis- Currier, P.J., 1989, Plant species composition and groundwater levels in a tered by the Commission, is the only existing comprehensive sys- Platte River wet meadow, in Bragg, T.B. and Stubbendieck, James, eds., Proceedings of the I I th North American Prairie Conference, Lincoln, tem for identifying the ecologically significant components of Nebr., August 7-11, 1988: Lincoln, University of Nebraska, p. 19- Nebraska's natural diversity (Clausen and others, 1989). 24. The Nebraska Department of Water Resources regulates con- Dahl, T.E., 1990, Wetlands-Losses in the United States, 1780's to 1980's: struction in wetland areas through the flood-plain permit process Washington, D.C., U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Report to Congress, within counties that do not assert jurisdiction. The Department also 13 p. conducts wetland research, data collection, and education. Other Engel, G.B., and Steele, E.K., Jr., 1986, Nebraska surface-water resources, State agencies that are involved in these activities are the Nebraska in U.S. Geological Survey, National water summary 1985-Hydro- Natural Resources Commission, the Nebraska Forest Service, the logic events and surface-water resources: U.S. Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper 2300, p. 315-322. Nebraska Water Resources Center, and the Conservation and Sur- Farnsworth, R.K., Thompson, E.S., and Peck, E.L., 1982, Evaporation at- vey Division of the University of Nebraska. las for the contiguous 48 United States: National Oceanic and Atmo- County and local wetland activities. -Some county and lo- spheric Administration Technical Report NWS 33, 27 p. cal governments regulate construction in wetlands through flood- Farrar, Jon, and Gersib, Richard, 199 1., Nebraska salt marshes -Last of the plain permits. The Nebraska Natural Resources Districts also are least: Lincoln, Nebraska Game and Parks Commission, 23 p. involved in conservation at the local level. The roles of the Districts Gebert, W.A., Graczyk, D.J., and Krug, W.R., 1985, Average annual runoff differ with locatiom Many participate in the Wildlife Habitat Im- in the United States, 1951-80: U.S. Geological Survey Open-File provement Program, a cooperative program with the Nebraska Game Report 85-627, scale 1:2,000,000. and Parks Commission. Other Districts are active in wetland acqui- Gersib, R.A., 1991, Nebraska wetlands priority plan for inclusion in The 1991-1995 Nebraska State Comprehensive Outdoor Recreation Plan: sition, restoration, creation, and management. Lincoln, Nebraska Game and Parks Commission, 35 p. Private wetland activities. -Within Nebraska, numerous pri- Gilbert, M.C., 1989, Ordination and mapping of wetland communities in 6te organizations axe involved in wetlands. The Nebraska chapter Nebraska's Rainwater Basin region, CEMRO Environmental Report of The Nature Conservancy has purchased 1,750 acres of land at 89-1: Omaha, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, 105 p. four different sites in the Platte River Big Bend Reach wetlands Ginsberg, Marilyn, 1985, Nebraska's sandhills lakes-A hydrogeologic complex and about 500 acres within the Rainwater Basin wetlands overview: Water Resources Bulletin, v. 21, no. 4, p. 573-578. complex. The Nature Conservancy and the Platte River Whooping Hem, J.D., 1985, Study and interpretation of the chemical characteristics Crane Habitat Maintenance Trust, Inc., a private organization, co- of natural water (3d ed.): U.S. Geological Survey Water-Supply Pa- operatively manage most of that land. per 2254, 263 p. Hurr, R.T., 1983, Ground-water hydrology of the Mormon Island Crane Between 1979 and 1992, the Platte River Whooping Crane Meadows Wildlife Area near Grand Island, Hall County, Nebraska: Habitat Maintenance Trust, Inc., acquired 8,600 acres of habitat in U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 1277-H, 12 p. and along the Platte River; 1,200 acres are under perpetual conser- Keech, C.F., and Dreezen, V.H., 1968, Geology and ground-water resources vation easement. The Trust's principal charge is the acquisition and of Fillmore county, Nebraska: U.S. Geological Survey Water- Supply management of wildlife habitat, but it also has the authority to con- Paper 1839-L, 27 p. duct research and acquire interests in water and has the responsi- Kuzelka, R.D., Flowerday, C.A., Manley, R.N., Rundquist, B.C., and Herrin, bility to protect the biologic and hydrologic integrity of the habitat. S.J., 1993, Flat water-A history of Nebraska and its water: Univer- The National Audubon Society owns and manages wetlands in sity of Nebraska, Conservation and Survey Division, Resource Report Nebraska, including the 1,200-acre Lillian Annette Rowe Sanctu- No. 12, 292 p. LaBaugh, JW., 1986, Limnological characteristics of selected lakes in the ary near Gibbon. Local chapters of the National Audubon Society Nebraska sandhills, U.S.A., and their relation to chemical character- have diversified involvement in wetlands. Many chapters have wet- istics of adjacent ground water: Journal of Hydrology, v. 86, no. 3/4, land-education and wetland-identification programs but generally p. 279-298. do not own or manage wetlands. McCarraher, D.B., 1977, Nebraska's sandhills lakes: Lincoln, Nebraska 266 National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: STATE SUMMARIES Game and Parks Commission, 67 p. Nebraska Game and Parks Commission, 1972, Survey of habitat: Lincoln, Nebraska Game and Parks Commission, Workplan K-71, 78 p. -1984, Survey of habitat: Lincoln, Nebraska Game and Parks Com- mission Workplan K- 83, 13 p. Williams, G.P., 1978, The case of the shrinking channels-The North Platte and Platte Rivers in Nebraska: U.S. Geological Survey Circular 781, 48 p. Winter, T.C., 1986, Effect of ground-water recharge on configuration of the water table beneath sand dunes and on seepage in lakes in the sandhills of Nebraska, U.S.A.: Journal of Hydrology, v. 86, no. 3/4, p. 221-237. FOR ADDITIONAL INFORMATION: District Chief, U.S. Geological Survey, Room 406, Federal Building, 100 Centennial Mail North, Lincoln, NE 68508; Regional Wetland Coordinator, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Fish and Wildlife Enhancement, P.O. Box 25486, Denver Federal Center, Denver, CO 80225 Prepared by Jill D. Frankforter, U.S. Geological Survey U.S. Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper 2425 National Water Summary-Wetland Resources 267 Nevada Wetland Resources Wtlands cover less than 1 percent of Nevada but are some of (1990) for wetlands in Lahontan Valley. Palustrine and lacustrine the most economically and ecologically valuable lands in the State. wetlands constitute most of the State's wetland acreage. Forested, Wetlands provide important habitat for the State's fish and wildlife. scrub-shrub, and emergent wetlands are the most common types of In Nevada, riparian (streamside) wetlands and large marshes pro- palustrine wetlands. Riparian wetlands are mostly forested and vide stopover and breeding grounds for migratory waterfowl. Many scrub-shrub types. of Nevada's threatened and endangered species inhabit wetlands. The Bureau ofLand Management (BLM) administers almost 48 Other important functions of wetlands include flood attenuation, million acres of land in Nevada, of which approximately 75,000 bank stabilization, and water-quality improvement (fig. 1). Eco- acres are riparian-wetland habitat (Bureau of Land Management, nomic benefits, such as recreational activities, are abundant in 1991). More than 2,100 miles of riparian -stream habitat are present Nevada's wetland areas and include hunting, fishing, boating, bird on BLM land in Nevada. Some of the largest areas of riparian wet- watching, photography, and camping. Other economic benefits of lands are along the Humboldt River and the upper part of the White wetlands and associated lands include grazing and mining. Wetland River. Large marshes, such as Stillwater Marsh (33,400 acres) and vegetation generally is more lush than that in surrounding uplands, Humboldt Marsh (58,000 acres) and those on Carson Lake (25,600 so it is desirable for grazing of cattle or sheep. Mining of placer gold acres) and Ruby and Franklin Lakes (20,000 acres combined), are and silver deposits in riparian wetlands has been a profitable ven- mostly scrub-shrub and emergent wetlands. Many of the basins in ture in parts of Nevada but not without negative effects on wetland Nevada contain playa and wet-meadow wetlands; these are espe- resources. Economic-grade uranium deposits are present in alpine cially common in the northwestern part of the State. Some of the peat bogs and fens in the Sierra Nevada but have not been exploited. largest playas are in the Black Rock Desert in northwestern Nevada, Spring Valley in eastern Nevada, Railroad Valley in south-central TYPES AND DISTRIBUTION Nevada, Smoke Creek Desert in northwestern Nevada, Carson Sink in west-central Nevada, Winnemucca Lake in northwestern Nevada, Wetlands are lands transitional between terrestrial and and Clayton Valley in southwestern Nevada. Pyramid Lake, Lake deepwater habitats where the water table usually is at or near the Tahoe, Walker Lake, Lake Mead (a reservoir), and many smaller land surface or the land is covered by shallow water (Cowardin and reservoirs contain most of the nonplaya lacustrine wetlands. River- others, 1979). The distribution of wetlands and deepwater habitats ine wetlands make up only a small percentage of the wetland acre- in Nevada is shown in figure 2A; only wetlands are discussed herein. age in the State. Wetlands can be vegetated or nonvegetated and are classified on the basis of their hydrology, vegetation, and substrate. In this HYDROLOGIC SETTING summary, wetlands are classified according to the system proposed by Cowardin and others (1979), which is used by the U.S. Fish and Wetlands in Nevada are limited to areas where there is a per- Wildlife Service (FWS) to map and inventory the NatiotYs wetlands. sistent water supply at or near land surface. The location and per- At the most general level of the classification system, wetlands are sistence of water supply is a function of several interrelated factors, grouped into five ecological systems: Palustrine, Lacustrine, Riv- including climate, physiography, and hydrology. erine, Estuarine, and Marine. The Palustrine System includes only In Nevada, precipitation (fig. 2B) and runoff (fig. 2C) have wetlands, whereas the other systems comprise wetlands and wide ranges in values annually, seasonally, and areally (Moosburner, deepwater habitats. Wetlands of the systems that occur in Nevada 1986). Nevada, the most and State in the Nation, has average an- are described below. nual precipitation values ranging from more than 16 inches in the Sierra Nevada and other high mountain ranges to less than 4 inches System Wetland description Palustrine .................. Wetlands in which vegetation is predominantly trees (forested wetlands)- shrubs (scrub-shrub wetlands); persistentor no npersistent emergent, erect, rooted, herbaceous plants (persistent- and nonpersistent-emergent wetlands); or sub- mersed and (or) floating plants (aquatic beds). Also, intermittently to permanently flooded open-water bodies of less than 20 acres in which water is less than 6.6 feet deep. Lacustrine ................. Wetlands within an intermittently to permanently flooded lake or reservoir. Vegetation, when pres- ent, is predominantly nonpersistent emergent plants (non persistent-emergent wetlands), or submersed and (or) floating plants (aquatic beds), or both. Riverine ..................... Wetlands within a channel. Vegetation, when pres- Figure 1. Wetland in Carson Valley, about 5 miles south of Carson ent, is same as in the Lacustrine System. City. This wetland was constructed to receive treated sewage effluent from Incline Village in the Lake Tahoe Basin and to function Nevadahad about236,350 acres ofwetlands in the mid4980's, as a nutrient-removal system for the effluent before discharge into according to an inventory by the FWS (Dahl, 1990). However, wet- the Carson River. View looking southwest, with Sierra Nevada in land acreage available as bird and fish habitat varies considerably background, 1993. (Photograph by Michael S. Lico, U.S. Geologi- from wet years to dry years, as detailed by Hoffman and others cal Survey) 268 National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: STATE SUMMARIES near Fallon and in the Las Vegas area. Runoff in the spring and early with discharge areas. Ground water commonly discharges from summer is mostly a result of snowmelt and is greatest in the moun- springs and seeps along the fault-bounded basins and creates wet- tain areas. Occasional summer thunderstorms can create large lands. Water for the Ruby Lake wetlands (fig. 2A) is mostly from amounts of runoff, although these storms generally are localized. spring discharge. Playa lakes, where wetlands are maintained by Evaporation, which removes water that could potentially form water from the typically shallow water table, are another common wetlands, is greatest in the lower altitudes and southern part of the setting for wetlands. Wetlands also are present at the discharge points State (fig. 2D). The lowest yearly evaporation is in the Sierra Ne- of regional ground-water flow systems, where springs commonly vada and other high mountain ranges. Large tracts of land in 119. 115. the basin areas have high evapo- ration rates, as much as 80 inches per year in the lowlands near the Colorado River (Moosburner, 1986). W@01 M '';@' .'. v Potential evaporation ex- Y ceeds precipitation in most of "-f Nevada, the exceptions being in Y' 41 the high mountain areas, creat- ing a water deficit that inhibits gfhob C,4ek Ry. P.th wetland development. The exist- Doan ence of fens (emergent wetlands that have organic soil) in high Hu Idt mountain valleys and the pau- ja city of them in lower altitude vm rid ke basins attests to their depen- dence on abundant water from Truek@ Ferr'4 htrsh Aj precipitation. However, steep to- R n ks r pography and shifting stream Washo, FAk channels prevent the formation incline villag n Lake amn C Lothown. R@@ir Gr@ Ba3in of fens in many areas where ad- Lk@ Natilal Park equate water is present. Th.c Y In most of the basins in 7r rstll Nevada, wetlands are associated 7 ton Pen An' j.r 1\ 37' 0 25 50 MILES 0 25 50 KILOMETERS Mcud A E AN EEPWATER HABITATS This map shows the approximate distribution of large Distribution of wetlands and deepwater habitats- B 'Zt,_ wetlands in the State. Because of limitations of scale PRECIPITATION WT r4) and source material, some wetlands are not shown -16- Line of average annual Predominantly wetland precipitation - Interval, Predominantly deepwater habitat in inches, is variable Figure 2. Wetland distribution in Nevada and physical and climatological features that control wetland distribution in the State. A, Distribution of wetlands and cleepwater habitats. B, Annual precipitation. (Sources: A, TE. Dahl, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, unpub. data, 1991; B, Moosbumer 1986.) National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: NEVADA 269 discharge large volumes of ground water. An example of this hy- written commun., 1993); this water-table rise has resulted in the drologic setting is the Ash Meadows wetlands (Winograd and formation of small wetlands throughout the valley. Thordarson, 1975). Wetlands can be formed by other human activities. Dewater- In the high mountain areas of the State, wetlands commonly ing -more than 23,000 acre-feet in 1991-of a large open-pit mine form in glaciated valleys. Glacially scoured valleys commonly have in Desert Valley in northern Nevada has created a lush wetland of large cirque basins where remnant glaciers or semipermanent snow 3,500 acres that is being used by increasing numbers of waterfowl. fields supply water for wetlands. Many of these cirque basins have In Carson Valley, about 900 acres of wetlands have been created by lakes (tarns) that provide wetland habitat. Below the cirque basins, constructing cells (diked impoundments) and filling them with the glaciated mountain valleys typically are steep sided, U-shaped, treated sewage effluent from the Lake Tahoe Basin (fig. 1). The area and have relatively flat floors with low-gradient streams. Wetlands has become a popular duck-hunting site. form on the valley floors in cut-off meander channels (oxbows), Stillwater Marsh is an important wetland complex in the Pa- behind glacial moraines, in small kettle holes, and behind beaver cific Flyway. Archeological evidence indicates that as much as 5,000 dams. years ago humans used the marsh for food resources (Hoffman and Riparian wetlands are present along most of the perennial others, 1990). Because of the importance of Stillwater Marsh and streams in Nevada. These wetlands occur along natural streambanks other Lahontan Valley wetlands to migratory birds, the area has been and constructed channels. Annual flushing of stream channels and classified as a Hemispheric Reserve within the Western Hemispheric wetlands by spring floods has been attenuated largely by diversion Shorebird Reserve Network (WHSRN) by the WHSRN Council. for irrigation, stream channelization, and construction of dams. Lahontan Valley supports about 75 percent of the ducks, 50 per- However, constructed water bodies such as reservoirs, canals, and cent of the Canada geese, and 65 percent of the tundra swans in the agricultural drains are common settings for wetland formation. As State. Between 30 and 50 percent of the Pacific Flyway canvasback an example of an artificially maintained wetland system, leakage ducks stop in Lahontan Valley in the fall. from a canal near Fernley raised the water table until drainage Stillwater Marsh is located at the terminus of the Carson River, ditches had to be dug to lower the water table for efficient crop which flowed freely to the wetlands until the Newlands Project was growth. The water in these ditches flows to a State Wildlife Area constructed in the early 1900's. Annual springtime floods flushed where wetlands are present near the channels and impoundments. the wetlands and removed accumulated mineral salts, leaving a Most wetlands are maintained by a shallow water table. The prime freshwater marsh. Currently, most of the water flowing to water-table altitude depends on several factors, among which are Stillwater Marsh is irrigation drainage that has high concentrations geology, topography, soil characteristics, water supply, plampage, of arsenic, boron, selenium, and other toxic constituents (Lico, and local hydrology. Irrigation of land for agriculture commonly 1992). Owing to the highly regulated nature of the irrigation sys- results in a rise of the water table, which can create wetlands. The tem, springtime floods are uncommon, and no mechanism exists to Newlands (irrigation) Project near Fallon in western Nevada has remove salts from the marsh. Presently, Stillwater Marsh would caused the water table in parts of Lahontan Valley to rise by as much require large volumes of freshwater to reduce the salinity and con- as 30 to 60 feet (Rush, 1972; R.L. Seiler, U.S. Geological Survey, centrations of several toxic constituents that have been implicated 0 to 40 to ':'N 40 to 0.1 1 45 55 40 45 50 al a I 0& 104 4 10.1 40 45 45 o's 10 40 50 40 14" 04 5 0 50 45 AD 5 60 tl@ C RUNOFF D EVAPORATION so -0. 7- Line of average annual 45- Line of equal water-free- runoff - Interval, surface evaporation - 75 in inches, is variable Interval, 5 inches Figure 2. Continued. Wetland distribution in Nevada and physical and climatological features that control wetland distribution in the State. C, Annual runoff. D, Annual free-water-surface (lake) evaporation. (Sources: C, Moosburrier 1986; D, Farnsworth and others, 1982.) 270 National Water Surnmary-Wetland Resources: STATE SUMMARIES in the deaths and low reproduction rates of waterfowl (Hoffman and the poor quality of the riparian wetland habitat is overgrazing of others, 1990; Lico, 1992). Volumes of irrigation return flow will cattle on Federal land (Bureau of Land Management, 1992). The be further reduced when the Newlands Project implements operat- BLm has formal plans for improving the condition of wetlands un- ing criteria adopted by the Bureau ofReclamation [(BOR)1987]. Re- der its jurisdiction (Bureau of Land Management, 1991). Urban cent drought has severely affected Stillwater Marsh, leaving only a development, particularly near Reno, has adversely affected wet- few hundred acres of water surface for waterfowl use. In 1990, Public lands; detrimental activities include building directly on filled wet- Law 101-618 was passed by Congress, authorizing the FWS to pur- lands, draining of wetlands, channelization of creeks and rivers, and chase water rights from willing sellers within the Newlands Project contamination of wetlands by inadequately treated sewage and in- area and use the water for maintenance of wildlife habitat. The dustrial waste. Las Vegas Wash contains wetlands that are threat- Nevada Department of Wildlife and The Nature Conservancy are ened by treated municipal sewage effluent, industrial chemicals, and assisting FWS in this "water-buyout program." erosion. Ash Meadows wetlands, in southern Nevada, are administered According to Thompson and Merritt (1988), 82 percent of by the Fws and are the sole habitat for 33 plant and animal species wetlands have been lost in western Nevada. They document the loss (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 1990). The wetlands are home for of two National Wildlife Refuges and the decreasing quality of the three species of endangered pupfish and one species of speckled remaining wetlands. Historical accounts by Captain J.H. Simpson dace. These unique wetlands are a result of ground water from a in 1859 of conditions before irrigation read as follows: "Carson Lake regional carbonate-rock aquifer discharging through lake-bed de- beautifully blue; lake margined with rushes; the shores are covered posits to a series of springs along a fault contact. More than 17,000 with muscle-shells [sic]; pelicans and other aquatic fowl a charac- acre-feet of water discharges from these springs annually (Winograd teristic." According to Simpson, "***the lake is filled with fish***"; and Thordarson, 1975). Devils Hole National Monument, adminis- he also observed that the local Indians had ""Piles of fish lying tered by the National Park Service (NIPS), is included in this group about drying" (Simpson, 1876). Carson Lake no longer supports of wetlands but is unique in that it occupies a solution cavern in the fish populations of any consequence. The loss of wetlands was carbonate-rock aquifer. The Devils Hole pupfish, an endangered mostly due to diversion of strearnflow to irrigate crops in western species, is found only within this small pool (U.S. Fish and Wild- Nevada and for urban uses in the Reno-Sparks area. The drought life Service, 1990). of the late 1980's to early 1990's further reduced the acreage of wet- Carson Valley, in western Nevada, is the setting for wetlands lands in western Nevada. of a different nature. Incline Village, in the Lake Tahoe Basin, ex- Some human activities have resulted in an increase in wetland ports all of its treated sewage effluent to Carson Valley by way of a acreage. Constructed wetlands in Carson Valley (fig, 1) utilize sew- pipeline. Before 1984, the effluent was discharged into the Carson age effluent to provide habitat for waterfowl. In Desert Valley, a River at the northern end of the valley. In 1975, the U.S. Environ- mine-dewatering operation has supplied water for constructed wet- mental Protection Agency (EPA) issued a more stringent discharge lands that have become important habitat for waterfowl and other permit; as a result, several diked impoundments were constructed wildlife. Wetlands were constructed by the Nevada Department of to hold the sewage effluent, creating a 900-acre site with 140 acres Transportation in Washoe Valley near Washoe Lake to offset losses of permanent wetlands. The area now provides nesting habitat for from highway construction (John Nelson, Nevada Division of En- waterfowl and recreational opportunities for residents of the area. vironmental Protection, oral commun., 1993). Leakage from the Ruby Lake wetlands are cast of the Ruby Mountains in north- Truckee Canal near Fernley has been used to create an extensive eastern Nevada (fig. 2A). The FWS operates and maintains a 37,600- wetland operated and maintained by the Department of Wildlife. acre National Wildlife Refuge there, which includes the marsh and Agriculture-related activities, including construction of ponds, res- surrounding area. During a year of average precipitation, more than ervoirs (such as Lahontan and Rye Patch), drainage ditches, and 13,000 acres of bird and fish habitat are present in the spring, de- canals, undoubtedly have added to wetland acreage throughout the clining to about 11,000 acres in the fall. Water for the wetlands is State. provided mostly by the discharge of many springs at the base of the Ruby Mountains. This discharge is proportional to the amount of CONSERVATION snowpack in the mountains (Jeff Mackay, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, written commun., 1992). More than 200 species of birds Many government agencies and private organizations partici- regularly use the wetlands for nesting, feeding, or stopover during pate in wetland conservation in Nevada. The most active agencies migration periods. In some years, more than 6,000 ducks, mostly and organizations and some of their activities are listed in table 1. redheads and canvasbacks, have hatched at the marsh. Federal wetland activities.-Development activities in Nevada wetlands are regulated by several Federal statutory prohibitions and TRENDS incentives that are intended to slow wetland losses. Some of the more important of these are contained in the 1899 Rivers and Harbors The Fws has estimated that, from the 1780's to the 1980's, 52 Act; the 1972 Clean Water Act and amendments; the 1985 Food percent of Nevada's wetlands were lost (Dahl, 1990). In terms of Security Act; the 1990 Food, Agriculture, Conservation, and Trade area, that represents a loss of about 25 1,000 acres of wetlands dur- Act; and the 1986 Emergency Wetlands Resources Act. ing settlement of the State. Conversion of wetlands to cropland and Section 10 of the Rivers and Harbors Act gives the U.S. Army diversion of water for agricultural and urban purposes are the pri- Corps of Engineers (Corps) authority to regulate certain activities mary reasons for this loss of wetlands. A large part of the flow in in navigable waters. Regulated activities include diking, deepening, major rivers within the State (Carson, Humboldt, Truckee, and filling, excavating, and placing of structures. The related section 404 Walker) has been diverted for irrigation, leaving insufficient quan- of the Clean Water Act is the most often-used Federal legislation tities of water for wetland maintenance. Riparian wetlands have been protecting wetlands. Under section 404 provisions, the Corps issues drastically affected by a variety of human activities. The BLM, which permits regulating the discharge of dredged or fill material into administers approximately 2, 100 miles of riparian stream habitat wetlands. Permits are subject to review and possible veto by the EPA, in the State, has reported that more than 80 percent of that habitat and the Fws has review and advisory roles. Section 401 of the Clean is in poor condition (Nevada Department of Conservation and Natu- Water Act grants to States and eligible Indian Tribes the authority ral Resources, 1988). In the same report, the U.S. Forest Service to approve, apply conditions to, or deny section 404 permit appli- (FS) estimated that 53 percent of the riparian wetlands under its cations on the basis of a proposed activity's probable effects on the jurisdiction are in fair to poor condition. The primary reason for water quality of a wetland, National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: NEVADA 271 Tablel. Selected wetland-related activities of government 1991). The BLM and Fs have riparian-wetland management plans that agencies and private organizations in Nevada, 1993 include educating the public on the benefits and importance of [Source: Classification of activities is generalized from information provided healthy riparian areas; assessing acreage and condition of riparian by agencies and organizations. a, agency or organization participates in wetlands; and restoring, maintaining, and protecting riparian wet- wetland-related activity; ..., agency or organization does not participate in lands. The BLm has acquired about 5,000 acres of wetlands in Sol- wetland-related activity. MAN, management; REG, regulation; R&C, resto- ration and creation; LAN, land acquisition; R&D, research and data collec- dier Meadow, Black Rock Desert, through land exchange. Military tion; D&I, delineation and inventory] installations are responsible for preparing resource-management plans for fish and wildlife, recreation, and other natural and cultural resources. The plans provide policy and a framework for address- Agency or organization 0 0@ '3@' 4P ing wetland and other natural and cultural resource issues. The FWS FEDERAL manages seven National Wildlife Refuges, two National Wildlife Department of Agriculture Ranges, and two fish hatcheries in Nevada. National Wildlife Ref- Consolidated Farm Service Agency ........................... ... uges total more than 220,000 acres and National Wildlife Ranges Forest Service ............... .................................................0 total more than 2 million acres. The NPS manages more than 77,000 Natural Resources Conservation Service ................ ... acres of land (National Park Service, 199 1) at two locations - Great Department of Defense Army Corps of Engineers .............................................. ... Basin National Park and Devils Hole National Monument. An esti- Military reservations :*................ ..............* ..........0 mate of wetland acreages within National Parks in Nevada does not Department ofthe Interior exist. The BOR is involved in the restoration and creation of wetlands Bureau of Land Management ......................................0 in conjunction with some of their projects and has been instrumen- Bureau of Reclamation ................................................. ... ... tal in the construction of irrigation projects in Nevada. Inherently Fish and Wildlife Service ..............................................e associated with these projects is the alteration of natural riparian Geological Survey .......................................................... ... ... ... ...a National Biological Service ......................................... ... ... ... ... 0 and wet-meadow wetlands. The BOR has attempted either to mini- National Park Service ................................................... mize or to mitigate adverse effects on these wetlands. Environmental Protection Agency ............................. State wetland activities. - Several State agencies are involved STATE in wetland activities in Nevada (table 1). Nevada does not currently Department of Conservation and (1993) have a comprehensive wetlands-protection program but fol- Natural Resources: Division of Environmental Protection ................ ....... ...0 lows Federal policy and cooperates in many Federal programs. Division of State Lands .................................................. ...0... ... ... ... Four agencies within the Nevada Department of Conservation Division of State Parks i*...................* ......................000 and Natural Resources engage in wetland-related activities. The Division of Water Planning ........................................... ...0 Division of Environmental Protection is the key regulatory agency Department of Transportation ......................................... ... ... and enforces provisions of the Clean Water Act within the State. Department of Wildlife ......................... ....................*0 PRIVATE Pursuant to section 305(b) of the act, the Division of Environmen- Ducks Unlimited .................................................................. ... ... tal Protection submits to the EPA and the U.S. Congress a biennial Environmental Defense Fund .............. ............................ ... ... assessment of the State's surface-water quality (Nevada Department The Nature Conservancy ........... .................... of Conservation and Natural Resources, 1992), including that of wetlands. The Division issues discharge permits, monitors water quality, and sets water-quality standards for Nevada. Reviews for Most farming, ranching, and silviculture activities are not sub- subdivision permits also are under the jurisdiction of the Division ject to section 404 regulation. However, the "Swampbuster" pro- of Environmental Protection. The Division of Water Planning is vision of the 1985 Food Security Act and amendments in the 1990 responsible for review of section 404 permit applications, and Di- Food, Agriculture, Conservation, and Trade Act discourage (through vision approval is necessary for the Corps to issue a permit. The financial disincentives) the draining, filling, or other alteration of Division of State Lands has legislative authority for wetlands pro- wetlands for agricultural use. The law allows exemptions from peri- tection on lands owned or managed by the State of Nevada; the alties in some cases, especially if the farmer agrees to restore the Division issues permits for all activities associated with State lands. altered wetland or other wetlands that have been converted to agri- The Division of State Parks is responsible for management of State cultural use. The Wetlands Reserve Program of the 1990 Food, park land and reviews activities that may affect wetlands in parks. Agriculture, Conservation, and Trade Act authorizes the Federal The Division of State Parks has been involved in the construction Government to purchase conservation easements from landowners of wetlands on State park land and is responsible for Nevada's State- who agree to protect or restore wetlands. The Consolidated Farm wide Comprehensive Outdoor Recreation Plans, which contain a Service Agency (formerly the Agricultural Stabilization and Cori- summary of wetland-related activities within the State. servation Service) administers the Swampbuster provisions and Wet- The Nevada Department of Transportation is responsible for lands Reserve Program. The Natural Resources Conservation assessing and mitigating impacts on wetlands that are a result of Service (formerly the Soil Conservation Service) determines com- highway construction and maintenance. In cooperation with Depart- pliance with Swampbuster provisions and assists farmers in the iden- ment of State Parks, the Department of Transportation has con- tification of wetlands and in the development of wetland protection, structed wetlands near Washoe Lake to mitigate losses of wetlands restoration, or creation plans. from construction of nearby highways. The 1986 Emergency Wetlands Resources Act encourages The Department of Wildlife is responsible for day-to-day man- wetland protection through funding incentives. The act requires agement of the State's 10 Wildlife Management Areas (comprising States to address wetland protection in their Statewide Compreherl- about 256,000 acres). These areas contain important wetlands and sive Outdoor Recreation Plans to qualify for Federal funding for include areas such as Carson Lake in Lahontan Valley and Franklin State recreational land; the Nps provides guidance to States in de- Lake on the eastern side of the Ruby Mountains. The Department veloping the wetland component of their plans. of Wildlife can require a Habitat Modification Permit before dredg- Federal agencies are responsible for the proper management ing in any river, stream, or lake if the Department determines that of wetlands on public land under their jurisdiction. The BLM, FS, and the activity will be harmful to fish. The Department of Wildlife has the Department of Defense administer most of the Federal land in been monitoring the condition of wetlands by taking yearly popu- Nevada; BLM land (almost 48 million acres) alone contains about lation counts of waterfowl (Norman Saake, Nevada Department of 75,000 acres of riparian wetlands (Bureau of Land Management, Wildlife, oral commun., 1992). The Department of Wildlife has the 272 National Water Surnmary-Wetland Resources: STATE SUMMARIES authority to implement and manage a program for conserving, pro- Farnsworth, R.K., Thompson, E.S., and Peck, E.L., 1982, Evaporation at- tecting, restoring, and propagating selected species of native fishes las for the contiguous 48 United States: National Oceanic and Atmo- and other wildlife that are threatened with extinction. Wetlands have spheric Administration Rchnical Report NWS 33, 27 p. been constructed under the auspices of the Department of Wildlife; Hoffman, R.J., Hallock, R.J., Rowe, T.G., Lico, M.S., Burge, H.L., and Thompson, S.P., 1990, Reconnaissance investigation of water qual- these wetlands, which are mostly for waterfowl, include most of the ity, bottom sediment, and biota associated with irrigation drainage in State Wildlife Management Areas and those constructed with the and near Stillwater Wildlife Management Area, Churchill County, cooperation of private entities. Nevada, 1986-87: U.S. Geological Survey Water-Resources Investi- County and local wetland activities. -Most regulation of de- gations Report 89-4105, 150 p. velopment activities in Nevada's wetlands is accomplished through Lico, M.S., 1992, Detailed study of irrigation drainage in and near wildlife Federal and State laws, However, some local activities, such as pond management areas, west-central Nevada, 1987 -90. Part A -Water construction at local parks or river-enhancement projects, also can quality, sediment composition, and hydrogeochemical processes in be beneficial to wetlands. Stillwater and Fernley Wildlife Management Areas: U.S. Geological Private wetland activities. -Activities by private entities in- Survey Water-Resources Investigations Report 92-.4024A, 65 p. clude purchasing wetlands and water rights, public education on Livermore, David, 1988, Wetlands acquired in the Ruby Valley: The Na- wetland issues, and lobbying for wetland- enhancement legislation. ture Conservancy, Great Basin Newsletter, Spring 1988, unpaginated. Moosburner, Otto, 1986, Nevada surface-water resources, in U.S. Geological The Nature Conservancy is perhaps the most active private organi- Survey, National water summary 1985 -Hydrologic events and sur- zation involved in wetland protection in Nevada. The Nature Con- face-water resources: U.S. Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper servancy has one wetland holding in Condor Canyon, a part of 2300, p. 323 - 328. Meadow Valley Wash near Panaca. Purchasing sensitive wetland National Park Service, 199 1, Draft general management plan, development areas has been a critical function of The Nature Conservancy in concept plans, and environmental impact statement, Great Basin Na- Nevada. The Nature Conservancy has purchased land containing tional Park, White Pine County, Nevada: Denver, Colo., National Park wetlands at Franklin Lake and Ash Meadows and sold the proper- Service, 274 p. ties to State or Federal agencies for management (Livermore, 1988). Nevada Department of Conservation and Natural Resources, 1988, Nevada's wetlands-An element of recreation in Nevada, 1987-Statewide In Lahontan Valley, The Nature Conservancy has purchased water comprehensive outdoor recreation plan: Carson City, Nevada Depart- rights from farmers within the Newlands Project area, taking land ment of Conservation and Natural Resources, Division of State Parks, out of agricultural production, and is reselling the water rights to 78 p. the Fws for use at Stillwater Marsh. This action is providing fresh- -1992, Nevada water quality assessment (305b) report: Carson City, water to the marsh, which has received irrigation drainage as its only Nevada Department of Conservation and Natural Resources, Division source of water in recent years. This effort by The Nature Conser- of Environmental Protection, unpagmated. vancy will result in an improvement of the habitat in this important Rush, F.E., 1972, Hydrologic reconnaissance of Big and Little Soda Lakes, welland on the Pacific Flyway. The Environmental Defense Fund Churchill County, Nevada: Nevada Division of Water Resources, In- has been actively assisting The Nature Conservancy in acquisition formation Report 11, 1 sheet. Simpson, J.H., 1876, Report of explorations across the Great Basin of the of water rights in Lahontan Valley. Ducks Unlimited also acquires territory of Utah for a direct wagon-route from Camp Floyd to Genoa, wetlands for purposes of conservation. Private local and national in Carson Valley, in 1859: Reno, University of Nevada Press, 518 p. organizations that participate in educational or lobbying activities (Reprinted in 1983.) in the State include gun and hunting clubs, the Sierra Club, the Thompson, S.P., and Merritt, K.L., 1988, Western Nevada wetlands-His- Lahontan Valley Wetlands Coalition, the National Audubon Soci- tory and current status, in Blesse, R.E., and Goin, Peter, eds., Nevada ety, and the Nevada Waterfowl Association. public affairs review no. 1: Reno, University of Nevada, p. 40-45. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 1990, Recovery plan for the endangered and threatened species of Ash Meadows, Nevada: Portland, Oreg., U.S. References Cited Fish and Wildlife Service, 123 p. Bureau of Land Management, 1991, Riparian-wetland initiative for the Winograd, I.J., and Thordarson, William, 1975, Hydrogeologic and 1990's: U.S. Bureau of Land Management Report BLM/W0/GI-9l/ hydrochernical framework, south-central Great Basin, Nevada-Cali- 00 1 +4340, 50 p. fornia, with special reference to the Nevada Test Site: U.S. Geologi- -1992, BLM-Meeting the challenge in 1991 -Recreation 2000, cal Survey Professional Paper 712-C, 126 p. fish and wildlife 2000, riparian-wetland initiative for the 1990's - Progress report on the implementation of three initiatives: U.S. Bu- FOR ADDIT10NAL INFORMATION: District Chief, U.S.. Geological reau of Land Management Report BLM-WO-GI-92-003-4333, Survey, 333 W. Nye Lane, Carson City, NV 89706; Regional Wetland Co- 94 p. ordinator, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Eastside Federal Complex, 911 Bureau of Reclamation, 1987, Final environmental impact statement for the NE. I I th Avenue, Portland, OR 97232 Newlands Project, proposed operating criteria and procedures: Wash- ington, D.C., U.S. Bureau of Reclamation, 332 p. Cowardin, L.M., Carter, Virginia, Golet, F.C., and LaRoe, E.T., 1979, Clas- Prepared by sification of wetlands and deepwater habitats of the United States: U.S. Michael S. Lico Fish and Wildlife Service Report FWS/OBS -79/31, 131 p. U.S. Geological Survey Dahl, T.E., 1990, Wetlands-Losses in the United States, 1780's to 1980's: Washington, D.C., U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Report to Congress, 13 p. U.S. Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper 2425 National Water Summary-Wetland Resources 273 New Hampshire Wetland Resources Wtlands are an integral part of New Hampshire's natural re- Rubin and others (1993) used LANDSAT (satellite) imagery sources. They provide essential habitat for wildlife and vegetation, to estimate wetland area at 396,246 acres, or about 6.7 percent of including rare and endangered species and natural communities. the State. That estimate probably underestimates the actual wetland Wetlands are a source of timber and provide opportunities for hunt- area owing to similarities between evergreen forest in upland and ing and fishing, education and research, and bird, wildlife, and plant wetland areas. Also, LANDSAT imagery cannot discern wetlands observation, all of which benefit the tourist industry and economy, smaller than about 2 acres (Ken Kettenring, New Hampshire Wet- Other benefits include flood control, bank- and shoreline-erosion lands Board, oral commun., 1993). Estimates of wetland area based control, sediment retention, water filtration, and nutrient uptake. In on review of permits by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency recognition of the importance of wetlands, many government agen- (EPA) and field checking during functional assessments by the cies and private organizations have worked to preserve wetlands and Audubon Society of New Hampshire place New Hampshire's wet- educate the public about wetland values. For example, Lake land area at about 10 percent of the State's total area (Mark Kern, Umbagog and its associated wetlands (fig. 1), which constitute one Environmental Protection Agency, oral commun., 1993). of the most productive wildlife areas in New Hampshire, are pro- The distribution of wetlands in New Hampshire has been in- tected by the State and by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (FWS) fluenced by the State's physiography (fig. 2B). In the northern part as a National Wildlife Refuge. of the White Mountain Section, glacial erosion and sediment de- posits have created broad valleys in which large wetland complexes TYPES AND DISTRIBUTION have formed. For example, many wetlands are present along tribu- taries to the Connecticut Lakes and Lake Francis near Pittsburg. Wetlands are lands transitional between terrestrial and deep- Small wetlands in the White Mountains have formed mainly along water habitats where the water table usually is at or near the land small streams in river valleys or where streams flow over flat benches surface or the land is covered by shallow water (Cowardin and oth- on hillsides. Wetlands in the New England Upland and Seaboard ers, 1979). The distribution of wetlands and deepwater habitats in Lowland Sections are in many settings, such as in topographic de- New Hampshire is shown in figure 2A; only wetlands are discussed pressions, around the margins of ponds and lakes, and in river val- herein. leys. In many areas of the State, small wetlands are interrelated and Wetlands can be vegetated or nonvegetated and are classified form large wetland complexes. on the basis of their hydrology, vegetation, and substrate. In this To date (1993) there is no published information concerning summary, wetlands are classified according to the system proposed acreage of the different wetland types in New Hampshire. However, by Cowardin and others (1979), which is used by the FWS to map the similarities of the ecological, hydrologic, and physiographic set- and inventory the Natiods wetlands. At the most general level of the tings of New Hampshire to those in the other New England States classification system, wetlands are grouped into five ecological makes it likely that the predominant wetland types in the State are systems: Palustrine, Lacustrine, Riverine, Estuarine, and Marine. the same as in the remainder of the region - palustrine forested and The Palustrine System includes only wetlands, whereas the other scrub-shrub (Tiner, 1987, 1992; Widoff, 1988). Forested and scrub- systems comprise wetlands and deepwater habitats. Wetlands of the shrub wetlands that have organic-rich mineral soils are commonly systems that occur in New Hampshire are described below. referred to as swamps, whereas wetlands that have organic soils over mineral soils are called peatlands. In southern New Hampshire and System Wetland description in the Connecticut River Valley, forested swamps in poorly drained basins typically are dominated by red maple or have mixtures of red Palustrine .................. Nontidal and tidal-freshwater wetlands in which maple, yellow birch, hemlock, and white pine. Swamps in the flood vegetation is predominantly trees (forested wet- plains of major rivers typically are dominated by silver maple. lands); shrubs (scrub-shrub wetlands); persistent Peatlands in southern and coastal New Hampshire commonly con- or nonpersistent emergent, erect, rooted herba- ceous plants (persistent- and nonpersistent- tain pitch pine or Atlantic white cedar (Dan Sperduto, New Hamp- emergent wetlands); or submersed and (or) shire Natural Heritage Inventory, written commun., 1993). A few floating plants (aquatic beds). Also, intermit- tently to permanently flooded open-water bod- ies of less than 20 acres in which water is less than 6.6 feet deep. 'n" Lacustrine .............. Nontidal and tidal-freshwater wetlands within an intermittently to permanently flooded lake or 6@ reservoir larger than 20 acres and ior) deeper than 6.6 feet. Vegetation, when present, is pre- dominantly nonpersistent emergent plants (non- persistent-emergent wetlands), or submersed and (or) floating plants (aquatic beds), or both. Riverine ..................... Nontidal and tidal-freshwater wetlands within a channel. Vegetation, when present, is same as in the Lacustrine System. Estuarine ................... Tidal wetlands in low-wave-energy environments where the salinity of the water is greater than 0.5 part per thousand (ppt) and is variable owing to evaporation and the mixing of seawater and freshwater. Marine ....................... Tidal wetlands that are exposed to waves and cur- Figure 1. Wetlands along the mouth of Hampshire rents of the open ocean and to water having a Brook and Lake Umbagog. (Photograph courtesy of the salinity greater than 30 ppt. Society for Protection of New Hampshire Forests.) 274 National Water Surnmary-Wetland Resources: STATE SUMMARIES swamps in southern New Hampshire contain black gum, which is a lands) are acidic, nutrient poor, and have a low diversity of plant species near the northern extent of its range. In northern New Hamp- species, whereas fens (palustrine forested, scrub-shrub, and persis- shire and at higher altitudes, forested swamps typically contain red tent-emergent wetlands) are less acidic and have higher nutrient spruce and balsam fir, and forested peatlands generally are domi- levels and plant diversity. The herbaceous-plant community in bogs nated by black spruce, larch, or northern white cedar. generally is dominated by sphagnum moss, whereas in fens it typi- Peatlands are present throughout New Hampshire but are more cally is dominated by mosses and sedges. common in the north. Most are small. The absence of extensive Scrub-shrub vegetation grows in most wetlands, typically as a peatlands in New Hampshire is due largely to the State's mountain- transitional community between emergent wetlands and forested ous terrain (Johnson, 1985). The terms bog and fen have been used wetlands or upland, or between open water and forested wetlands to differentiate peatlands in some classification systems (Damman or upland. In general, shrub swamps are dominated by broad-leaved and French, 1987). Bogs (palustrine forested and scrub-shrub wet- deciduous shrubs such as willow and alder; scrub-shrub commu- A Lo B At PHYSIOGRAPHIC DIVISIONS A. White Mountain Section B. New England Upland Section C. Seaboard Lowland Section 0 Lk@ A Vtobg.g -11onpohi@' 0 10 20 30 MILES 0 10 20 30 KILOMETERS WWI t Mtn F B do c SURFICIAL GEO LOGY Sand .41 Sand and gravel Till, clay, and silt MEV- .F N anai Rhw chester 2,_ Pow JV udir r WETLANDS AND DEEPWATER HABITATS Distributi n of wetlands and cleepwater habitats- j, This mo ap shows the approximate distribution of large wetlands in the State. Because of limitations of scale and source material, some wetlands are not shown Predominantly wetland M A Predominantly cleepwater habitat Figure 2. Wetland distribution and physical features that control wetland distribution in New Hampshire. A, Distribution of wetlands and deepwater habitats. B, Physiography. C, Surficial geology. (Sources: A, TE. Dahl, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, unpub. data, 1997. B, Physiographic divisions from Fenneman, 1946,- land(orms data from EROS Data Center; C, Koteff, 7993). National Water Surnmary-Wetland Resources: NEW HAMPSHIRE 275 nities in bogs contain broad-leaved evergreen shrubs such as leath- becomes shorter (Hammond and Cotton, 1986). Wetland vegetation erleaf and labrador tea and stunted conifers such as black spruce is influenced by these climatic differences. Wetlands in southern and larch; and fens generally contain broad-leaved evergreen shrubs, New Hampshire are dominated by plant communities similar to broad-leaved deciduous shrubs, and northern white cedar. (Dan those of southern New England wetlands, whereas wetlands in Sperduto, written commun., 1993). northern New Hampshire are dominated by communities similar Palustrine emergent wetlands, commonly referred to as to those in Canadian wetlands. marshes, are more common in southern New Hampshire. Most are The distribution of wetlands in New Hampshire also is partly small and associated with lacustrine or riverine wetlands. Marshes determined by physiography, distribution of glacially derived sedi- that have shallow water or saturated soils generally contain sedges, ments, and the geologic character of the underlying bedrock. Areas rushes, or grasses, whereas those in deeper water typically contain of steep topography do not retain water long enough for wetlands cattails. to develop. However, given favorable hydrologic conditions, wetlands Most of New Hampshire's takes and rivers fiave areas of shal- can form on drainage divides and near mountaintops. For example, low water where aquatic vegetation has become established. These several ridge-top subalpine bogs occur on Mount Washington lacustrine and riverine wetlands are essential for the biological pro- (Johnson, 1985). Most of New Hampshire's wetlands, however, are ductivity of lakes and rivers. As a result of recent increases in bea- in lowlands, valleys, and depressions that have more favorable hy- ver populations, many riparian (streamside) wetlands along smaller drologic conditions for wetlands. streams and rivers have been flooded behind beaver dams. Over Many of the low-lying areas of New Hampshire are covered time, this flooding promotes a cyclical change from riparian shrub by stratified sand, gravel, clay, and silt deposited by glacial melt- swamps to small ponds and marshes to wet meadows and then back water and by modern streams in the time since glaciation (fig. 2C). to shrub swamps (George Springston, Vermont Wetlands Office, Most uplands are underlain by bedrock mantled by glacial till, a written commun., 1993). Many State wildlife areas contain emer- mixture of clay, silt, sand, gravel, and boulders. Both till and fine- gent wetlands in impoundments built for the improvement of wa- grained sediments can restrict drainage and retain surface water. terfowl habitat. However, although flooding caused by beaver dams Wetlands form over till in many small depressions in New Hamp- or manmade dams can create wetlands, it also can be detrimental shire uplands, over silty, clayey sands in some valleys in northern to existing riparian wetlands. New Hampshire, over fine-grained glacial-lake deposits in parts of Estuarine and marine wetlands along New Hampshire's 18 -mile the Merrimack and Connecticut River valleys, and over fine-grained coastline are estimated at about 7,500 acres (New Hampshire Of- marine deposits along the coast. In seep areas near streams or de- fice of State Planning, 1989). Most of these wetlands are in or near pressions that intersect the water table, coarse-grained glacial de- Hampton Harbor, Great Bay, and Little Bay. Short (1992) deter- posits can transmit ground water to overlying wetlands (Motts and mined that Great Bay estuary, which includes Great Bay, Little Bay, O'Brien, 1981). Some glacial landforms, such as ridges, hills, and and the lower Piscataqua River, contains about 2,600 acres of aquatic depressions can create conditions favorable for wetland formation beds, 1,200 acres of mud flats, and 1,000 acres of salt marsh. In by attenuating runoff or retaining water, For example, kettles, which general, salt marshes that are only occasionally flooded by tides are are depressions that formed when glacial ice that had been buried vegetated predominantly by saltmeadow cordgrass and black grass, by outwash melted, have either filled with water to form ponds or whereas those that are regularly flooded are dominated by saltmarsh passed through several successional stages of infilling to become cordgrass. bogs. Contrasts in the interactions between hydrology and vegeta- HYDROLOGIC SETTING tion in different settings can be illustrated by peatlands and coastal pondshore wetlands. In peatlands, vegetation patterns are deter- Wetlands are hydrologic features that form where climate and mined largely by water chemistry and movement (Damman and physiography favor the retention of water. Wetlands are found along French, 1987). For example, bogs receive little input from runoff rivers, lakes, and estuaries where flooding occurs, in isolated de- or ground water and rely on precipitation (including fog) and wind- pressions surrounded by upland where surface water collects, on blown dust as sources for water, nutrients, and minerals. Vegetation slopes and surface drainageways, and where ground water dis- in bogs commonly grows in a concentric pattern because of the charges to the land surface in spring or seepage areas. Soil satura- scarcity of nutrients and minerals in the center of the bog and the tion favors the growth of wetland plants and development of hydric increased availability of nutrients and minerals along bog margins. soils. Water either can flood wetlands, be present at the surface of Bogs are seldom flooded; even quaking (floating-mat) bogs sur- wetlands, or keep underlying soils saturated near the surface with rounding open water in ponds are rarely flooded because the bog no surface water present (Tiner, 199 1). mat fluctuates with changes in water level. Fens also receive inputs The timing and duration of the presence of water affects water from precipitation but rely principally on ground water and over- chemistry, soil development, and plant-community structure in land flow for inputs of minerals and nutrients; like bogs, fens sel- wetlands. Although degree of wetness is important in the determi- dom are flooded. nation of wetland type, many ecologic functions of wetlands also In contrast, flooding is the major hydrologic influence in depend upon wetland size, position of the wetland in a drainage pondshore wetlands. Coastal ponds occur largely in sandy glacial network, and sources of water (Brinson, 1993). Climate, physio- outwash, and pond water levels reflect seasonal and annual fluctua- graphy, and geology influence the hydrology and water quality of tions in ground-water levels. Pondshore wetlands can be flooded or wetlands. The complex interactions of these variables with biotic saturated for much of the year. Wetland plant communities are con- factors and site history determine the type of wetland that develops centrically zoned around the pond along a gradient from the long- in any particular setting. est to the shortest duration of flooding (Dan Sperduto, written New Hampshire's climate is conducive to wetland development, commun., 1993). Precipitation exceeds potential evapotranspiration on an annual basis, and the excess moisture is available for formation and main- TRENDS tenance of wetlands. Climate varies with altitude and distance from the Atlantic Ocean. For example, from the coast to the White Moun- Wetlands once were much more extensive in New Hampshire. tains, average annual precipitation and average annual runoff in- In the 1800's and early 1900's, timber harvesting and clearing and crease, summer temperatures decrease, and the growing season draining of wetlands for crops and grazing resulted in the loss or 276 National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: STATE SUMMARIES degradation of many wetlands, particularly in the major river val- Table 1. Selected wetland-related activities of government leys and along the coastline. Some of those areas reverted to wet- agencies and private organizations in New Hampshire, 1993 lands as pasture land was abandoned. In some cases, the character [Source: Classification of activities is generalized from information provided of the wetlands has changed. For example, most of New Hampshirels by agencies and organizations. e, agency or organization participates in Atlantic white cedar bogs were altered by logging or flooding, and wetland-related activity; agency or organization does not participate in wetland-related activity. MAN, management; REG, regulation; R&C, res- many have revegetated with red maple. As much as 7,500 acres of toration and creation; LAN, land acquisition; R&D, research and data col- tidal marsh have been lost since settlement by Europeans (New lection; D&I, delineation and inventory] Hampshire Office of State Planning, 1989). Although several Fed- eral and State regulations focus on minimizing wetland loss, many wetlands remain vulnerable. Agency or organization Development in and near wetlands due to urbanization is a FEDERAL major cause of wetland loss or degradation. Other factors that can Department of Agriculture destroy wetlands or affect wetland functions include far "ming, peat Consolidated Farm Service Agency ........................... ... harvesting, timber harvesting, road building, inadequate bridge- Forest Service .................... ............................................ support spacing and culvert diameter, all-terrain vehicle use, reser- Natural Resources Conservation Service ................ ... Department of Commerce voir construction, hydropower releases, navigation impoundments, National Oceanic and ground-water pumping, and air or water pollution. Atmospheric Administration ........................................* Department of Defense Army Corps of Engineers .. ............................................* CONSERVATION Military reservations .....................................................* Many government agencies and private organizations partici- Department of the Interior Fish and Wildlife Service ..............................................* pate in wetland conservation in New Hampshire. The most active Geological Survey .......................................................... ... ... ... ... 0 agencies and organizations and some of their activities are listed in National Biological Service ......................................... ... ... ... .... table 1. National Park Service ...................................................000 * Federal wetland activities. -Development activities in New Environmental Protection Agency .................................. ...* Hampshire wetlands are regulated by several Federal statutory pro- STATE Department of Environmental Services ........................ ... * ... ... ... ... hibitions and incentives that are intended to slow wetland losses. Waste Management .......................................................0* Some of the more important of these are contained in the 1899 Water Resources Division ............................................0e0 0 0 0 Rivers and Harbors Act; the 1972 Clean Water Act and amendments; Water Supply and Pollution Control ...........................@ * ... ... ... ... the 1985 Food Security Act; the 1990 Food, Agriculture, Conser- Department of Resources and vation, and Trade Act; the 1986 Emergency Wetlands Resources Act; Economic Development ............................................ Division of Forests and Lands ...................................... and the 1972 Coastal Zone Management Act. Division of Parks and Recreation ............................... Section 10 of the Rivers and Harbors Act gives the U.S. Army Natural Heritage Inventory .......................................... Corps of Engineers (Corps) authority to regulate certain activities Department of Safety ............I.......... ... .............................. ...0 in navigable waters. Regulated activities include diking, deepening, Department of Transportaitan ......................................... ...0 filling, excavating, and placing of structures. The related section 404 Fish and Game Department ..........I...................................00 Office of State Planning ....................................................** of the Clean Water Act is the most often-us@d Federal legislation State educational institutions ......................................... protecting wetlands. Under section 404 provisions, the Corps issues Wetlands Board .................................................................. ... ... ... ... ... permits regulating the discharge of dredged or fill material into COUNTY AND LOCAL wetlands. Permits are subject to review and possible veto by the EPA, Conservation Commissions., ............................................ ... . ... and the Fws has review and advisory roles. Section 401 of the Clean Soil and Water Conservation Districts .......................... ... ... Water Act grants to States and eligible Indian Tribes the authority Some county and local governments ............................e PRIVATE ORGANIZATIONS to approve, apply conditions to, or deny section 404 permit appli- Audubon Society of New Hampshire .............................* cations on the basis of a proposed activity's probable effects on the Ducks Unlimited ........................................ .........................0 water quality of a wetland. New England Wildflower Society ............ ............ Most farming, ranching, and silviculture activities are not sub- Private colleges and other ject to section 404 regulation, However, the "Swampbuster" provi- educational institutions :................................................0 Society for the Protection of sion of the 1985 Food Security Act and amendments in the 1990 New Hampshire Forests ...................................................* Food, Agriculture, Conservation, and Trade Act discourage (through The Nature Conservancy ................................................... financial disincentives) the draining, filling, or other alteration of wetlands for agricultural use. The law allows exemptions from pen- alties in some cases, especially if the farmer agrees to restore the protection through funding incentives. The Emergency Wetland altered wetland or other wetlands that have been converted to agri- Resources Act requires States to address wetland protection in their cultural use. The Wetlands Reserve Program of the 1990 Food, Statewide Comprehensive Outdoor Recreation Plans to qualify for Agriculture, Conservation, and Trade Act authorizes the Federal Federal funding for State recreational land; the National Park Ser- Government to purchase conservation easements from landowners vice (Nps) provides guidance to States in developing the wetland who agree to protect or restore wetlands. The Consolidated Farm component of their plans. Coastal States that adopt coastal-zone Service Agency (formerly the Agricultural Stabilization and Con- management programs and plans approved by the National Oceanic servation Service) administers the Swampbuster provisions and and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) are eligible for Federal Wetlands Reserve Program. The Natural Resources Conservation funding and technical assistance through the Coastal Zone Manage- Service (formerly the Soil Conservation Service) determines com- ment Act. pliance with Swampbuster provisions and assists farmers in the iden- Some of New Hampshire's wetlands are managed by Federal tification of wetlands and in the development of wetland protection, agencies. The FWS manages wetlands in waterfowl-protection areas, restoration, or creation plans. National Fish Hatcheries, and National Wildlife Refuges. Also, the The 1986 Emergency Wetlands Resources Act and the 1972 FWS administers wetland-acquisition programs such as the Partners Coastal Zone Management Act and amendments encourage wetland for Wildlife Program, which helps restore wetlands on private lands, National Water Summary-Wetiand Resources: NEW HAMPSHIRE 277 and the North American Waterfowl Management Plan, a coopera- ter-quality certification before a section 404 permit may be issued. tive program that provides funding for purchasing wetlands and The Department of Environmental Services' Water Resources Di- associated uplands. The Fws also has funded research on peatland vision also protects some wetlands through regulations of activities ecology (Damman and French, 1987). The NPS has designated 11 in rivers and lakes. The New Hampshire Department of Resources sites in New Hampshire as National Natural Landmarks, at least 4 and Economic Development's Division of Forests and Lands estab- of which contain significant wetlands. Some of these are owned by lishes and enforces acceptable management practices for logging and the State, and others are protected voluntarily by individual land- erosion control near surface-water bodies and wetlands. owners. The U.S. Forest Service manages a small number of Other legislation designed to protect ecologically sensitive wetlands in the White Mountain National Forest. The Great Bay Na- habitats such as wetlands includes the New Hampshire Native Plant tional Estuarine Research Reserve is supported by NOAA in coop- Protection Act of 1987, which requires all State agencies and de- eration with the New Hampshire Fish and Game Department. The partments to cooperate in preserving and protecting endangered and EPA, through a grant program under the Clean Water Act, has pro- threatened plants. In addition, the New Hampshire Legislature has vided funding to the New Hampshire Wetlands Board and the New enacted a Current Use Taxation law to reduce development pressures Hampshire Department of Resources and Economic Development's on recreational, scenic, and ecologically important open spaces. This Natural Heritage Inventory Program. The EPA also is providing ad- law uses a property tax abatement program on tracts of land larger ditional funds through the Merrimack River Initiative to identify and than 10 acres to encourage preservation of open space, farm land, protect important resources and habitats of the Merrimack River, forest land, wild land, and recreation land, including wetlands and including wetlands. The Corps is investigating the effectiveness of flood plains (New Hampshire Office of State Planning, 1989). wetlands on storage and regulation of flood flows along the Con- Several State agencies own or manage wetlands or are involved necticut River and the effect of development within the basin on in other aspects of wetland protection. The Department of Fish and natural valley storage. The U.S. Geological Survey, together with Game acquires and protects wetlands through wildlife-management the New Hampshire Department of Environmental Services, is programs. Wetlands are purchased with funds received from the sale mapping marsh and peat deposits in the State. of wildlife emblems and migratory-waterfowl stamps, as well as State wetland activities. -New Hampshire regulates wetlands from accounts set up for management of nongame and endangered primarily through State law and the rules of the Wetlands Board. species (New Hampshire Office of State Planning, 1989). The De- The Wetlands Board consists of 12 members who represent gov- partment owns about 3 5,000 acres, more than one-half of which is ernment and industry. Administrative support to the Wetlands Board wetland. Most of these wetlands are part of wild] ife -management is provided largely by the Wetlands Bureau of the Department of areas. Merrymeeting Marsh is one example. The Natural Heritage Environmental Services'Water Resources Division and by the New Inventory Program has documented New Hampshire's natural com- Hampshire Office of State Planning's Coastal Zone Management munities and rare and endangered species and their habitats. The Program. In New Hampshire, wetland regulations require permits Program also develops plans for the protection of endangered and to dredge, fill, or place structures in tidal or nontidal wetlands and threatened plant species and reviews State projects and permit ap- waterways. The highest value has been placed on coastal wetlands, plications for activities that could affect wetlands. The Office of State which were first protected by State statute in 1967. To enhance Planning is responsible for producing the wetland component of the habitat values in adjacent tidal wetlands and to protect tidal envi- New Hampshire Statewide Comprehensive Outdoor Recreation ronments from potential sources of pollution, the Board also em- Plan, which describes the State's wetland-protection plans. Wetland phasizes the preservation of tidal buffer zones. For freshwater wet- losses due to roadbuilding are minimized through close coopera- lands, emphasis is placed on bogs and marshes, with priority based tion between the New Hampshire Department of Transportation, the on the rarity of the habitat type, the difficulty of restoration, and Wetlands Board, and Federal agencies. the wetland's functions (New Hampshire Wetlands Board, 1993). County and local wetland activities. -Local conservation Projects that will alter wetlands are categorized as major-, commissions have an advisory role in local wetland protection minor-, and minimum-impact projects and projects not requiring a through oversight of the designation of Prime Wetlands and review permit. All wetlands are regulated regardless of size. In addition to of wetland permit applications. Under the Prime Wetlands law, mu- the size and type of the disturbance allowed in each category, the nicipalities may adopt what resembles a zoning overlay district (New evaluation criteria include (1) the history of disturbance at the site Hampshire Office of State Planning, 1989). The adoption of the and related projects elsewhere in the wettand or wetland complex Prime Wetlands designation allows for protection of wetlands that (cumulative impact), (2) whether the wetland has been identified have high local value even if they are not regionally or nationally by the Natural Heritage Inventory Program as an exemplary natu- significant. Conservation commissions must use inventory and ral community or whether there are documented occurrences of evaluation methods accepted by the Wetlands Board for this proc- State or federally listed endangered or threatened species, (3) the ess, such as those ofAmmann and Stone (1991) and Cook and oth- function and value of the area, and (4) whether the wetland is des- ers (1993). As of 1993, Prime Wetlands designations had been ignated a "Prime Weiland" by the local community under State adopted and submitted to the Wetlands Board by 20 of New guidelines. The Wetlands Board may not grant a permit for projects Hampshire's 234 towns, and many others are in process (Marjorie in or adjacent to an area designated as "prime" without a public Swope, New Hampshire Association for Conservation Commissions, hearing and without evidence in the record that there will be no oral commun., 1993). significant net loss of values as a result of the project or activity Private wetland activities. -During 1987-83, through a part- associated with the project. Because the State's regulations are more nership between the privately funded Trust for New Hampshire inclusive than section 404 of the Clean Water Act, the Corps has Lands and the publicly funded New Hampshire Land Conservation issued a New Hampshire State Programmatic General Permit that Investment Program, New Hampshire spent $46.4 million to pro- allows as much as 95 percent of the permit applications in New tect 385 parcels of land totaling 100,897 acres, including diverse Hampshire that normally would require a Corps permit to be ap- wetlands. These lands were acquired through purchases and dona- proved through the New Hampshire Wetlands Board permitting tions or protected through the use of conservation casements. The process after Corps review (K.N. Kettenring, written commun., Society for the Protection of New Hampshire Forests is compiling 1993). an inventory of the wetland acreage acquired by the program, which The Department of Environmental Services administers sec- will be available through the Complex Systems Research Center at tion 401 of the Federal Clean Water Act, which requires State wa- the University of New Hampshire. 278 National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: STATE SUMMARIES Private organizations provide complementary functions that Johnson, C.W., 1985, Bogs of the northeast: Hanover, N,H., The Univer- cannot readily be accomplished by governmental agencies. For sity Press of New England, 269 p. example, private organizations such as The Nature Conservancy can Koteff, Carl, 1993, New Hampshire sand and gravel resources: Boston, New more easily purchase property. The Nature Conservancy manages England Governors' Conference, Inc., 16 p. 14 preserves in New Hampshire, 8 of which include wetlands, and Mons, W.S., and O'Brien, A.L., 1981, Geology and hydrology of wetlands in Massachusetts: University of Massachusetts Water Resources Re- has protected 12 additional wetland sites by easement, management search Center Publication 123, 147 p. agreement, legal assistance, or purchase and transfer. The Audubon New Hampshire Office of State Planning, 1989, New Hampshire wetlands Society of New Hampshire monitors threatened and endangered priority conservation plan: Concord, New Hampshire Office of State species that use wetlands and offers educational workshops to pro- Planning, 95 p. mote the use of the New Hampshire Method (Ammann and Stone, New Hampshire Wetlands Board, 1993, New Hampshire Code ofAdminis- 1991; Cook and others, 1993) for the evaluation of wetlands. The trative Rules, Chapter Wt 100 through Wt 800: Concord, New Hamp- New Hampshire chapter of Ducks Unlimited has worked in coop- shire Wetlands Board, 118 p. eration with the State to purchase about 354 acres of wettand and Rubin, F.A., Justice, D.G., and Vogelmann, J.E., 1993, Final report-New surrounding upland habitat. The Society for Protection of New Hampshire statewide digital wetlands inventory: Durham, University of New Hampshire, Complex Systems Research Center, 30 p. Hampshire Forests owns 83 properties and holds conservation ease- Short, F.T., ed., 1992, The ecology of the Great Bay estuary, New Hamp- ments on 309 properties, many of which include wetlands. Other shire and Maine-An estuarine profile and bibliography: Durham, wetlands are owned or protected by local land trusts, The New University of New Hampshire, Jackson Estuarine Laboratory, 222 p. England Wildflower Society, the Appalachian Mountain Club, and Tiner, R.W., 1987, Preliminary National Wetlands Inventory report on many others. Individuals, timber companies, towns, and other pri- Vermont's wetland acreage: Newton Corner, Mass., U.S. Fish and vate landowners own most of New Hampshire's wetlands, and many Wildlife Service, 5 p. actively pursue wetland conservation. 199 1, Maine wetlands and their boundaries-A guide for code en- forcement officers: Augusta, Maine Department of Economic and Community Development, Office of Comprehensive Planning, 72 p. ReferencesCited -1992, Preliminary National Wetland Inventory report on Massachu- setts'wetland acreage: Newton Corner, Mass., U.S. Fish and Wildlife Ammann, A.P., and Stone, A.L., 199 1, Method for the comparative evalu- Service, 5 p. ation of nontidal wetlands in New Hampshire: Concord, New l4amp- Widoff, Lissa, 1988, Maine wetlands conservation priority plan: Augusta, shire Department of Environmental Services, variously paged. Maine State Planning Office, Bureau of Parks and Recreation, 117 p. Brinson, M.M., 1993, Changes in the functioning of wetlands along envi- ronmental gradients: Wetlands, v. 13, no. 2, p. 65 -74. Cook, R.A., Stone, A.L., and Ammann, A.P., 1993, Method for the evalua- FOR ADDITIONAL INFORMATION: District Chief, U.S. Geological tion and inventory of vegetated tidal marshes in New Hampshire: Survey, 525 Clinton Street, Bow, NH 03304; Regional Weiland Coordina- Concord, Audubon Society of New Hampshire, variously paged. tor, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 300 Westgate Center Drive, Hadley, MA Cowardin, L.M., Carter, Virginia, Golet, F.C., and LaRoe, E.T., 1979, Clas- 01035 sification of wetlands and deepwater habitats ofthe United States: U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Report FWS/OBS -79/31, 131 p. Damman, AW.H., and French, T.W., 1987, The ecology and peat bogs of Prepared by the glaciated northeastern United States -A community profile: U.S. David S. Armstrong, Fish and Wildlife Service Biological Report 85(7.16), 114 p. U.S. Geological Survey Fenneman, N.M., 1946, Physical divisions of the United States: Washing- ton D.C., U.S. Geological Survey special map, scale 1:7,000,000. Hammond, R.E., and Cotton, John, 1986, New Hampshire surface-water resources, in U.S. Geological Survey, National water summary 1985- Hydrologic events and surface-water resources: U.S. Geological Sur- vey Water-Supply Paper 2300, p. 329-334. U.S. Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper 2425 National Water Summary-Wetland Resources 279 New Jersey Wetland Resources New Jersey's diverse wetlands are the result of the interaction of than 3,000 acres of cranberry bog were under private management geologic events, human activities, and recent hydrologic conditions. in 1992. Wetlands also provide many recreational and educational The State's location on the East Coast has made it home to plants opportunities, including hunting and fishing, nature study, boating, that include many threatened and endangered species (Tiner, 1985; painting and drawing, and photography. Reyer and others, 1990). Of 338 rare plants identified in New Jer- sey by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (Fws), 249 species grow TYPES AND DISTRIBUTION in wetland or aquatic habitats. Major wetlands in the State include the Great Swamp (fig. 1) in the north and the wetlands of the New Wetlands are lands transitional between terrestrial and Jersey Pinelands and estuaries in the south (fig. 2A). deepwater habitats where the water table usually is at or near the The wetlands of New Jersey are valuable for their fish and land surface or the land is covered by shallow water (Cowardin and wildlife and their contribution to environmental quality, society, and others, 1979). The distribution of wetlands and deepwater habitats the economy (Tiner, 1985). Wetlands provide spawning and nurs- in New Jersey is shown in figure 2A; only wetlands are discussed ery grounds for shellfish such as crabs, clams, oysters, and shrimp herein. and for finfish species such as alewives, blueback herring, bass, Wetlands can be vegetated or nonvegetated and are classified white perch, American shad, menhaden, bluefish, sea trout, and on the basis of their hydrology, vegetation, and substrate. In this mullet. Bird species that include peregrine falcons, snow and summary, wetlands are classified according to the system proposed Canada geese, and pintail, canvasback, mallard, and black ducks use by Cowardin and others (1979), which is used by the U.S. Fish and New Jersey's salt marshes for feeding, migration, and wintering Wildlife Service (FWS) to map and inventory the Naticirfs wetlands. grounds. Beaver and muskrat use wetlands for their homes, and other At the most general level of the classification system, wetlands are furbearers such as raccoons, mink, river otter, foxes, mice, and rab- grouped into five ecological systems: Palustrine, Lacustrine, Riv- bits use wetlands for food and shelter (Tiner, 1985). Many reptile erine, Estuarine, and Marine. The Palustrine System includes only and amphibian species, including the endangered pine barrens tree wetlands, whereas the other systems comprise wetlands and frog, the blue-spotted salamander, and the endangered bog turtle, deepwater habitats. Wetlands of the systems that occur in New Jer- also live in the State's wetlands (Susan Lockwood, New Jersey De- sey are described below. partment of Environmental Protection and Energy, written commun., 1993). System Wetland description The environmental quality of aquatic habitats is enhanced by wetlands. Wetland soils and vegetation filter or absorb nutrients and Palustrine ............... Nontidal and tidal -freshwater wetlands in which can remove heavy metals and other contaminants from waters mov- vegetation is predominantly trees (forested wet- lands); shrubs (scrub-shrub wetlands); persistent ing through them (Tiner, 1985). Wetlands reduce turbidity and sedi- or noripersistent emergent, erect, rooted herba- ment loading, thereby slowing the rate of siltation of downstream ceous plants (persistent- and nonpersistent- harbors and navigable rivers and streams. The aquatic productivity emergent wetlands); or submersed and (or) of wetlands is very high. The net vegetative productivity of a salt floating plants (aquatic beds). Also, intermit- tently to permanently flooded open-water bod- marsh can exceed that of a tropical rain forest, and salt marshes ies of less than 20 acres in which water is less support a diverse community of animals that inhabit estuarine wa- than 6.6 feet deep. ters. Lacustrine ................. Nontidal and tidal-freshwater wetlands within an Wetlands have socioeconomic as well as habitat and environ- intermittently to permanently flooded lake or mental-quality value (Tiner, 1985). They provide flood- and storm- reservoir larger than 20 acres and (or) deeper damage protection, erosion control, and public water supply and than 6.6 feet. Vegetation, when present, is pre- dominantly noripersistent emergent plants (non- allow for the production of economically important natural species persistent-emergent wetlands), or submersed such as blueberries, cranberries, wild rice, salt hay, and timber. and (or) floating plants (aquatic beds), or both. Cranberry growing is a significant industry in New Jersey; more Riverine ..................... Nonticlal and tidal-freshwater wetlands within a channel. Vegetation, when present, is same as in the Lacustrine System. Estuarine ................... Tidal wetlands in low-wave-energy environments 471, where the sa linity of the water is g reater tha n 0.5 part per thousand (ppt) and is variable owing to evaporation and the mixing of seawater and freshwater. Tdal wetlands that are exposed to waves and cur- Marine ....................... rents of the open ocean and to water having a salinity greater than 30 ppt. An FWS study indicated that, as of the mid4980's, wetlands covered about 916,000 acres (19 percent) of New Jersey (Tiner, 1985). Although wetlands are present throughout the State, most are in New Jersey's coastal plain. Six of the 10 counties in the Coastal Plain are more than 25 percent wetland; 3 of the remaining 4 are Figurell. The Great Swamp National Wildlife Refuge between 10 and 25 percent wetland. near Meyersville. (Photograph by Mark Hardy, U.S. Nearly 99 percent (by area) of New Jersey's wetlands are Geological Survey). palustrine or estuarine (Tiner, 1985). Palustrine wetlands generally 280 National Water Surnmary-Wetland Resources: STATE SUMMARIES are swamps and freshwater lowlands, whereas estuarine wetlands three-fourths of New Jersey's estuarine wetlands is salt and brack- are marshes and associated saltwater wetlands. Two-thirds of the ish marsh distributed over four major drainage areas: Hudson River- State's wetland acreage is palustrine, and nearly one-third is estua- Raritan Bay, Barnegat Bay, New Jersey inland bays, and Delaware rine. The remaining I percent is divided among the other wetland Bay (Field and others, 1991). systems. New Jersey's most common palustrine wetland types are The location of New Jersey's wetlands is closely related to the swamps (forested wetland), shrub swamps (scrub-shrub wetland), State's ecoregion distribution (fig. 2B), as defined by Omernik and freshwater marsh and wet meadow (emergent wetland). Bogs (1987). The ecoregional structure of the State is, in large part, de- (wetlands that have organic soils) are less common and are found fined by its physiography (fig. 2C), which is, in turn, determined mainly in the northwestern part of the State. Palustrine forested primarily by its geology and glacial history. The northern part of wetlands are more abundant and more widely distributed in New the State is mostly in the Northern Piedmont Ecoregion and is un- Jersey than any other wetland type. They also have the most diverse derlain by sedimentary, igneous, and metamorphic rocks that have vegetation. Of the palustrine category, about three-fifths (by area) been modified in places by glacial action. During the last ice age, is deciduous -forested (hardwood swamps), and about one-fifth is glaciation affected the northern one-third of the State, and this was evergreen-forested (cedar swamps and pitch-pine lowlands). Nearly a major factor in the creation of wetlands there. After the glaciers melted, wetlands formed in depressions left by glacial action. Three A of the State's physiographic units-the Piedmont, New England, and Valley and Ridge Provinces -largely correspond to the sedimen- tary and igneous geological units of the northern part of the State 75' and generally coincide with the Northern Piedmont Ecoregion. C7 The State's southern one-half lies in the Middle Atlantic Coastal 4' Plain ecoregion and is in the Coastal Plain physiographic province, 41 t which is underlain by layered sedimentary rocks. Water in the well- 1-1: Ve, ?_' drained sandy soils and aquifers of the southern part of the State discharges to the barrier-island embayments of the Atlantic coast and to the Delaware Bay, forming estuarine wetlands along those wad sey City coasts. Also, freshwater wetlands have formed where water dis- 'I gi;@@p charges to streams or to depressions in the low-relief landscape. r Human and animal activities also have created wetlands. Bea- ver have played an important role, creating impoundments behind -R.'Up" B.Y their dams. Dam building, farm-pond construction, and construc- P 9 C Trento* D A A (nt ple-t B 40' B Camcle 8-',gf R-Y C F It- Supaw" Meadows \;Z Id NWR Edwin B. Forsy@he D NWR tkintic City E Cape May NWR 0 10 20 30 MILES 0 10 20 30 KILOMETERS WETLANDS AND DEEPWATER HABITATS ECOREGIONS PHYSIOGRAPHIC DIVISIONS Distribution of wetlands and cleepwater habitats- A. Northeastern Highlands A. Valley and Ridge Province This map shows the approximate distribution of large B. Northeastern Coastal Zone B. New England Province wetlands in the State. Because of limitations of scale C. Northern Appalachian C. Piedmont Province 4' So" and source material, some wetlands are not shown Plateau and Uplands D. Coastal Plain Province D. North Central Appalachians Predominantly wetland E. Middle Atlantic Coastal Plain Predominantly deepwater habitat F. Northern Piedmont Figure 2. Wetland distribution in New Jersey and ecological and physical features that control wetland distribution in the State. A, Distribution of wetlands and deepwater habitats. B, Ecoregions. C, Physiography. (Sources: A, TE. Dahl, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, unpub. data, 1991. B, Omernik, 7987. C, Physiographic divisions from Fenneman, 1946; landforms data from EROS Data Center.) National Water Surnmary-Wetland Resources: NEW JERSEY 281 tion of artificially engineered wetlands are three of the ways that New Jersey lost 39 percent of its wetlands between about 1780 and humans can create wetlands. Wetlands also can be formed by river 1980. Filling increased markedly following World War 11. Tiner action (Tiner, 1985). (1987) estimates median losses of tidal marshes on a county-by- county basis from 1952 to 1973 at about 30 percent but reports HYDROLOGIC SETTING losses of up to 100 percent in two counties. During that period, 2 of New Jersey's 15 counties that contain tidal marsh lost 100 per- New Jersey has two geohydrologic regimes - one south of the cent of that marsh; 5 other counties lost about 50 percent of their Fall Line in the Coastal Plain, and the other north of the Fall Line, tidal-marsh area. Ferrigno and others (1973) estimated that the loss associated with the State's remaining physiographic provinces. The in tidal-marsh acreage in New Jersey from 1953 to 1973 exceeded aquifer system of the Coastal Plain in the southern one-half of the 24 percent. Since the enactment of the Wetlands Act of 1970 and State is composed of alternating layers of unconsolidated clay, sand, the Freshwater Wetlands Protection Act of 1987 by the State, per- and gravel. In contrast, north of the Fall Line, ground water flows mitted wetland losses have fallen sharply to between 50 and 100 through fractured rocks and glacial valley-fill deposits. Precipita- acres per year (Ernest Hahn, New Jersey Department of Environ- tion, which is the source of water to the State's hydrologic system, mental Protection and Energy, oral commun., 1992). ranges from about 43 inches on the coast to about 47 inches in the Wetlands have been drained primarily for crop production and northern part. About one-half of the precipitation that reaches the pasturage. Wetlands have been filled for housing, transportation, land surface is returned to the atmosphere by evaporation and plant industrialization, and landfills. Stream channelization, dredging for transpiration. navigation, and reservoir, harbor, and marina construction also have South of the Fall Line. -About 95 percent of the State's es- adversely affected New Jersey's wetlands. In addition to quantita- tuarine wetlands and 75 percent of its marshes and swamplands are tive changes caused by these activities, qualitative changes have in the Coastal Plain. Coastal Plain wetlands constitute about 87 per- resulted from point and nonpoint discharges to surface waters. The cent of the State's total wetland area (Tiner, 1985). The layered clay, discharges are associated with agriculture, logging, industry, mu- sand, and gravel that make up New Jersey's Coastal Plain form a nicipal sewage, and urban runoff, all of which add contaminants and wedge that dips and thickens to the southeast. From a feather edge silt to surface waters (Tiner, 1985). Although the trend has been along the Fall Line and the Delaware River, the Coastal Plain sedi- toward a net loss of wetlands, some wetland area has been added ments thicken to more than 1,000 feet at the Continental Shelf. through the construction of ponds and reservoirs and through Recharge to the regiorfs shallow ground-water system occurs in planned wetland construction. interstrearn areas. Water entering the system flows toward areas of lower altitude, where it returns to the surface as base flow to streams, CONSERVATION ponds, and lakes and as leakage to coastal water bodies. Aquifers that are overlain by relatively impermeable clay layers are recharged Many government agencies and private organizations partici- by precipitation entering outcrop areas near the Fall Line and by pate in wetland conservation in New Jersey. The most active agen- slow percolation downward through the confining clay. cies and organizations and some of their activities are listed in table Wetlands form where ground water discharges along rivers and I . streams and in low-lying coastal areas. Farther inland, wetlands Federal wetland activities. -Development activities in New form where clay or other impervious materials restrict vertical water Jersey wetlands are regulated by several Federal statutory prohibi- movement and provide habitats for hydrophytic vegetation. The tions and incentives that are intended to slow wetland losses. Some forested swamplands in the Coastal Plain are strongly associated of the more important of these are contained in the 1899 Rivers and with rivers and streams-many of them in the New Jersey Pinelands. Harbors Act; the 1972 Clean Water Act and amendments; the 1985 Most estuarine wetlands in the Coastal Plain are located in the bar- Food Security Act; the 1990 Food, Agriculture, Conservation, and rier-island complex that lies along the Atlantic coast south of Point Trade Act; the 1986 Emergency Wetlands Resources Act; and the Pleasant and on the coast of the Delaware Bay south of Salem. 1972 Coastal Zone Management Act. North ofthe Fall Line. -Northern New Jersey is underlain by Section 10 of the Rivers and Harbors Act gives the U.S. Army consolidated sedimentary and igneous rocks. In such geohydrologic Corps of Engineers (Corps) authority to regulate certain activities systems, ground-water storage and flow occur in fractures in the in navigable waters. Regulated activities include diking, deepening, rocks. In the northeastern part of the State, glacial valley-fill sedi- filling, excavating, and placing of structures. The related section 404 ments also store and transport water. Most of the wetlands in the of the Clean Water Act is the most often-used Federal legislation northern part of the State are palustrine and have formed around protecting wetlands. Under section 404 provisions, the Corps issues water in glacial lakes and depressions that formed at the end of the permits regulating the discharge of dredged or fill material into last ice age. These lakes are gradually filling in with organic matter wetlands. Permits are subject to review and possible veto by the U.S. and becoming emergent, scrub-shrub, or forested wetlands that have Environmental Protection Agency, and the FWS has review and ad- organic soils. Water for the wetlands is supplied by precipitation and visory roles. Section 401 of the Clean Water Act grants to States by ground-water discharge from the surrounding glacial sediments and eligible Indian Tribes the authority to approve, apply conditions and fractured crystalline rock. Where silt and clay locally confine to, or deny section 404 permit applications on the basis of a pro- the aquifers, freshwater wetlands such as the Great Swamp have posed activity's probable effects on the water quality of a wetland. formed (Vecchioli and others, 1962). Most farming, ranching, and silvicultural activities are not sub- The location and composition of plant communities inhabit- ject to section 404 regulation. However, the "Swampbuster" provi- ing New Jersey's wetlands -both north and south of the Fall Line - sion of the 1985 Food Security Act and amendments in the 1990 are affected by depth of water, water-level fluctuations, soil mois- Food, Agriculture, Conservation, and Trade Act discourage (through ture, and salinity (Penfound, 1952), as well as by other soil proper- financial disincentives) the draining, filling, or other alteration of ties, biological factors, and human activities. wetlands for agricultural use. The law allows exemptions from pen- alties in some cases, especially if the farmer agrees to restore the TRENDS altered wetland or other wetlands that have been converted to agri- cultural use. The Wetlands Reserve Program of the 1990 Food, The State's wetlands have been drained and filled since settle- Agriculture, Conservation, and Trade Act authorizes the Federal ment by Europeans began in the 1600's. Dahl (1990) estimated that Government to purchase conservation easements from landowners 282 National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: STATE SUMMARIES Table 1. Selected wetland-related activities of government tion was held, is an intergovernmental treaty that forms the basis agencies and private organizations in New Jersey, 1993 for international cooperation in conserving wetland habitats.) Also, [Source: Classification of activities is generalizexd from information provided Supawna Meadows on the Delaware Bay, Cape May, and the Great by agencies and organizations. e, agency or organization participates in Swamp are National Wildlife Refuges. Many other New Jersey wet- wetland-related activity; agency or organization does not participate in lands are in State Wildlife Management Areas. The New Jersey wetland-related activity. MAN, management; REG, regulation; R&C, res- toration and creation; LAN, land acquisition; R&D, research and date col- Pinelands extends across much of the eastern part of southern New lection; D&I, delineation and inventory] Jersey. Most of the Pinelands, including its wetlands, is part of the Atlantic Coastal Plain Biosphere Reserve of the United Nations Man and the Biosphere program (Good and Good, 1984). In the Agency or organization 00 0' \Y 0' Pinelands, the Mullica River estuary is part of the Experimental FEDERAL Ecological Reserve network. The Mullica River also is being con- Department ofAgriculture sidered as a site for a National Estuarine Research Reserve. Consolidated Farm Service Agency ........................... ... State Wetland Activities. -State laws governing wetlands are Forest Service ................................................................. the Hackensack Meadowlands Reclamation and Development Act Natural Resources Conservation Service ................ of 1969, the Wetlands Act of 1970, the Waterfront Development Act Department of Commerce of 1914, the Coastal Area Facility Review Act of 1973, the Flood National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ............ ........................... Hazard Area Control Act of 1979, the Pinelands Protection Act of Department of Defense 1979, and the Freshwater Wetlands Protection Act of 1987. State Army Corps of Engineers .............................................. agencies that have a role in wetland conservation include the Dela- Military reservations ..................................................... ware River Basin Commission, the New Jersey Department of En- Department of the Interior vironmental Protection and Energy, and the Pinelands Commission. Fish and Wildlife Service .............................................. Geological Survey .......................................................... ... ... ... ...0 The Department of Environmental Protection and Energy admin- National Biological Service ......................................... ... ... ... ... 0 isters the Wetlands Act of 1970, the Coastal Area Facility Review National Park Service ...................................................0 0 0 Act, the Waterfront Development Act of 1914, the Flood Hazard Environmental Protection Agency ..................................0 0 Control Act of 1979, and the Freshwater Wetlands Protection Act STATE of 1987. The Pinelands Protection Act of 1979 is administered by Department of Environmental Protection and Energy Bureau of Coastal Regulation ...................................... ...0 0 0 the Pinelands Commission. A summary of these laws can be found Bureau of Inland Regulation ........................................ ...o o * in a publication by the Department of Environmental Protection and The Natural Lands Trust ................................ ...............o o - - Energy (1992). Pinelands Commission ......................................................oo 0 o In addition to its wetland-management activities, New Jersey Rutgers University Center for also is active in data collection and public education regarding Coastal and Environmental Studies ............................... ... ... ... ... PRIVATE wetlands. The State's Natural Heritage Program maintains a data Ducks Unlimited ......................................... ... .._...............0 0 0 base of rare plant, animal, and natural communities, and its Natu- The Nature Conservancy ..................................................o 0 * 0 ... . ral Areas program administers 42 areas that are set aside for public The New Jersey Conservation Foundation .................. ... ... ... o 0 o use and education. New Jersey also runs the Delaware Estuary Re- The Trust for Public Lands ................................ ............... ... ... ... 0 ... . search Program and the Natural Lands Trust, a land-bank program. Private cranberry growers ...............................................0... ... ... ... ... The Natural Lands Trust has protected between 6,000 and 7,000 acres of New Jersey wetlands, mostly salt marsh, and was active in obtaining designation of the Delaware Bay as a Ramsar site. The Rutgers University Center for Coastal and Environmental Studies who agree to protect or restore wetlands. The Consolidated Farm performs research and data-collection activities. Service Agency (formerly the Agricultural Stabilization and Con- Private wetland activities. - Several private organizations are servation Service) administers the Swampbuster provisions and active in New Jersey wetlands protection. The New Jersey Conser- Wetlands Reserve Program. The Natural Resources Conservation vation Foundation has a wetland-acquisition program and was in- Service (formerly the Sail Conservation Service) determines com- strumental in obtaining passage of the New Jersey Freshwater Wet- pliance with Swampbuster provisions and assists farmers in the iden- lands Protection Act. The Trust for Public Lands also administers a tification of wetlands and in the development of wetland protection, wetland-acquisition program. The Nature Conservancy and Ducks restoration, or creation plans. Unlimited acquire and manage wetlands, conduct research on the The 1986 Emergency Wetlands Resources Act and the 1972 preservation of endangered species, and work to create and restore Coastal Zone Management Act and amendments encourage wetland wetland areas. Cranberry growers also manage several thousand protection through funding incentives. ne Emergency Welland acres of wetlands. Resources Act requires States to address wetland protection in their Statewide Comprehensive Outdoor Recreation Plans to qualify for Federal funding for State recreational land; the National Park Ser- References Cited vice provides guidance to States in developing the wetland compo- Cowardin, L.M., Carter, Virginia, Golet, F.C., and LaRoe, E.T., 1979, Clas- nent of their plans. Coastal and Great Lakes States that adopt coastal- sification of wetlands and deepwater habitats of the United States: U.S. zone management programs and plans approved by the National Fish and Wildlife Service Report, FWS/OBS-79/31, 131 p. Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration are eligible for Federal Dahl, T.E., 1990, Wetlands -Losses in the United States, 1780's to 1980 Is: funding and technical assistance through the Coastal Zone Manage- Washington, D,C., U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Report to Congress, ment Act. 13 p. Several wetlands in New Jersey have been specially designated Fermeman, N.M., 1946, Physical divisions of the United States: U.S. Geo- logical Survey special map, scale 1:7,000,000. for research, protection, education, or other purposes. The 13,080- Ferrigno, Fred, Widjeskog, Lee, and Toth, Steve, 1973, Marsh destruction: acre Edwin B. Forsythe National Wildlife Refuge has been desig- Trenton, New Jersey Department of Environmental Protection, Divi- nated a wetland of international significance by the Fws under the sion of Fish, Game, and Wildlife, 20 p. Ramsar Convention. (The Ramsar Convention on Wetlands of In- Field, D.W., Reyer, A.J., Genovese, P.V, and Shearer, B.D., 1991, Coastal ternational Importance, named for Rarnsar, Iran, where the conven- wetlands of the United States -An accounting of a valuable natural National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: NEW JERSEY 283 resource: Washington, D.C., National Oceanic and Atmospheric Ad- Tiner, R.W., Jr., 1985, Wetlands of New Jersey: Newton Corner, Mass., U.S. ministration and U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service cooperative report, Fish and Wildlife Service, 117 p. 59 p. -1987, Mid-Atlantic wetlands-A disappearing natural treasure: Good, R.E., and Good, N.F., 1984, The Pinelands National Reserve-An Newton Corner, Mass., U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 28 p. ecosystem approach to management: BioScience, v. 34, no. 3, p. 169- Vecchioli, John, Gill, H.E., and Lang, S.M., 1962, Hydrologic role of the 173. Great Swamp and other marshland in the upper Passaic River basin: Haftier, C.L., Moore, C.R., and Day, C.G., 1992, An investigation and veri- Journal ofthe American Water Works Association, v. 54, no. 6, p. 695- fication of draft national wetlands inventory maps for Cape May 701. County, New Jersey: Pleasantville, N.J., U.S. Fish and Wildlife Ser- vice, 93 p. New Jersey Department of Environmental Protection and Energy, 1992, The FOR ADDITIONAL INFORMATION: District Chief, U.S. Geological environmental manual for municipal officials: Trenton, New Jersey Survey, 810 BearTavern Road, Suite 206, WestTrenton, NJ 08628; Regional Department of Environmental Protection and Energy and The Asso- Weiland Coordinator, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 300 Westgate Center ciation of New Jersey Environmental Commissions, 177 p. Drive, Hadley, MAO 1035 Omernik, J.M., 1987, Ecoregions of the conterminous United States-Map supplement: Annals of the Association of American Geographers, v. 77, no. 1, scale 1:7,500,000. Prepared by Penfound, W.T., 1952, Southern swamps and marshes: Botanical Review, Thomas H. Barringer, v. 18, p. 413-446. U.S. Geological Survey Reyer, A.J., Shearer, B.D., Genovese, PX, Holland, C.L., Cassells, J.E., Field, D.W., and Alexander, C.E., 1990, The distribution and areal extent of coastal- wetlands in estuaries of the mid-Atlantic region: Washington, D.C., National Oceanic andAtmospheric Administration, 23 p. 284 National Water Surnmary-Wetland Resources: STATE SUMMARIES U.S. Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper 2425 National Water Summary-Wetland Resources 285 New Mexico Wetland Resources Wtlands cover about 482,000 acres (0.6 percent) of New Mexico, wetlands, whereas the other systems comprise wetland's and a reduction of about 33 percent from the wetland acreage that ex- deepwater habitats. Wetlands of the systems that occur in New isted about 200 years ago (Dahl, 1990). New Mexico's wetland acre- Mexico are described below. age places the State 34th in total wetland acreage among the 48 conterminous States. System Wetland description Wetlands are ecologically important and economically valu- able to the State. Wetlands provide important wildlife habitat. For Palustrine .................. Wetlands in which vegetation is predominantly example, in the Rio Grande Valley, wetlands provide habitat for 246 trees (forested wetlands); shrubs (scrub-shrub wetlands); persistent or nonpersistent emergent, species of birds, 10 species of amphibians, 38 species of reptiles, erect, rooted, herbaceous plants (persistent- and and 60 species of mammals (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 1990). non persistent-e mergent wetlands); or sub- Wetlands also provide stopover, feeding, and breeding grounds for mersed and (or) floating plants (aquatic beds). migratory waterfowl (fig. 1). Also, intermittently to permanently flooded open-water bodies of less than 20 acres in which Riparian (streamside) wetlands along perennial streams are water is less than 6.6 feet deep. important as migration corridors for a variety of waterfowl and other Lacustrine ................. Wetlands within an intermittently to permanently wildlife. The playa lakes in eastern New Mexico are vital links in a flooded lake or reservoir. Vegetation, when pres- chain of wetlands along the Central Flyway, which extends from ent, is predominantly nonpersistent emergent central Canada to the coast of Texas. Areas of springs and marshes plants (non persistent-e me rgent wetlands), or provide essential habitat for many rare and endangered species and submersed and (or) floating plants (aquatic for indigenous fish and wildlife in the western part of the State. beds), or both. Wetlands contribute to flood attenuation, bank stabilization" Riverine ..................... Wetlands within a channel. Vegetation, when pres- and improved water quality. New Mexico's tourist industry benefits ent, is same as in the Lacustrine System. from the beauty of the State's diverse wetlands. These wetlands pro- Although wetlands occur in all areas of New Mexico, they are vide opportunities for recreational activities that include fishing, most numerous in the eastern and northern areas of the State (fig. hunting, bird watching, nature photography, camping, and hiking. 2A). In the Southern Rocky Mountains (fig. 2B), wetlands are mostly in high mountain valleys and intermountain basins. In the TYPES AND DISTRIBUTION Great Plains, wetlands occur along the flood plains of the Canadian and Pecos Rivers and in association with playa lakes. In the Colo- Wetlands are lands transitional between terrestrial and rado Plateaus and Basin and Range, wetlands are sparsely distrib- deepwater habitats where the water table usually is at or near the uted, with the exception of wetlands associated with the San Juan, land surface or the land is covered by shallow water (Cowardin and San Francisco, and Gila Rivers. others, 1979). The distribution of wetlands and deepwater habitats Palustrine wetlands are distributed statewide. In New Mexico, in New Mexico is shown in figure 2A; only wetlands are discussed palustrine wetlands include forested wetlands in river flood plains herein. and near springs and seeps; scrub-shrub wetlands such as bottom- Wetlands can be vegetated or nonvegetated and are classified land shrubland; emergent wetlands, such as marshes, fens, alpine on the basis of their hydrology, vegetation, and substrate. In this snow glades, and wet and salt meadows; aquatic bed wetlands in summary, wetlands are classified according to the system proposed shallow ponds and small lakes; and sparsely or nonvegetated wet- by Cowardin and others (1979), which is used by the U.S. Fish and lands such as playa lakes. Palustrine wetlands along rivers, streams, Wildlife Service (Fws) to map and inventory the Natioifs wetlands. springs, lakes, and ponds are called riparian wetlands. Riparian At the most general level of the classification system, wetlands are wetlands along the State's major rivers provide habitat for fish, wild- grouped into five ecological systems: Palustrine, Lacustrine, Riv- life, and diverse plant life. They also provide habitat for migrating, erine, Estuarine, and Marine. The Palustrine System includes only overwintering, and nesting waterfowl. One of the more notable ri- parian wetlands in New Mexico is in the Bosque del Apache Na- tional Wildlife Refuge. The 57,191-acre refuge lies along 9 miles of the Rio Grande in south-central New Mexico. Marshes within the refuge are ideal winter habitat for migratory birds, including ducks, geese, sandhill cranes, and whooping cranes. Efforts are being made 4, to maintain and restore native riparian cottonwood habitat in the refuge for a variety of birds and other wildlife. Many western spe- cies of riparian trees and shrubs, such as willows and cottonwoods, have been lost because of normatural strearnflow regimes (Howe and Knopf, 1991). The normatural flows followed the completion of water projects in the first half of the 20th century, resulting in rapid colonization and expansion of the exotic Russian-olive and salt ce- dar. A The playa lakes of eastern New Mexico provide habitat for Figure 1. 1305que del Apache National Wildlife Refuge. These migrating, overwintering, and nesting waterfowl in the Central Fly- riparian wetlands provide habitat for migratory and resident way (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 1990). The estimated number waterfowl, fish, and other wildlife. (Photograph by Lisa Carter, of playa lakes in the State is 1,700, and they range in area from less U.S. Geological Survey.) than 1 acre to more than 600 acres (Nelson and others, 1983). The 286 National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: STATE SUMMARIES playa lakes range in wetness from dry lake bed to shallow lake and sometimes within the physiographic provinces. New Mexico's di- can be fresh or saline. The freshwater playas are numerous, small verse physiography, climate, and topography result in diverse hy- to medium in size, and serve as zones of recharge to the underlying drologic settings for wetland formation. aquifer (Osterkamp and Wood, 1987). The saline playas are larger In the Colorado Plateaus and Basin and Range Provinces (fig. and fewer than the freshwater playas and are areas of discharge from 2B), wetlands occur in springs and seeps, around oxbow lakes, along the underlying aquifer. Most playa lakes in New Mexico are streams and rivers, around reservoirs, and in other areas where the palustrine. However, playa lakes larger than 20 acres are classified water table is near the land surface. The and climate of this region as lacustrine wetlands, as are the shallow areas of large reservoirs. results in a low density and acreage of wetlands. Wetlands, although Riverine wetlands occur in the shallow river channels of pe- few in number, are vital to wildlife of these physiographic provinces. rennial streams. There are about 3,500 miles of streams in New In the Great Plains, wetlands occur in riparian zones along Mexico (Ong and others, 1993). perennial streams, around oxbow lakes, in isolated natural depres- sions with permanent or seasonal water supply, in playa lakes, and HYDROLOGIC SETTING in association with other lakes, reservoirs, channelized streams, rivers, and irrigation ditches. Playa lakes make up the largest area Wetlands form where a persistent water supply is at or near of wetlands in this province. the land surface. The location and persistence of the supply of water The area of playa lakes has topography classified as either is a function of precipitation and runoff patterns, evaporation po- smooth plains, irregular plains, or tablelands (Nelson and others, tential, topography, and the presence of a shallow water table. 1983). Smooth plains are largely on upland terrain, and irregular Precipitation and runoff rates differ annually and with loca- plains and tablelands are mostly on lowland terrain. Because of the tion and season. Average annual precipitation in New Mexico (fig. flatness of the terrain, there is generally little stream drainage, and 2C) ranges from about 8 inches in the northwestern corner of the playa lakes collect most of the surface runoff. The playa lakes are State and in the southern Rio Grande Valley to 24 inches in the mountains of A 108. 104' the northern and southern parts of the State. Runoff (fig. 2D) is greatest in the northern mountains and smallest in the desert areas of the southern and east- ern parts of the State. Much of the run- off from the mountains occurs during 36' concurrent snowmelt and rainfall in the spring and summer. San Average annual pan evaporation varies across the State and ranges from R about 40 to 112 inches per year (Nelson and others, 1983). Most evaporation Abuquerqua occurs from March through September /* and decreases with increasing altitude. Because annual evaporation exceeds annual rainfall, most of the State has a net annual moisture deficit. The mois- ture deficit is a limiting factor in the formation of wetlands and to the con- tinued existence of some of the more fragile wetlands. Even those areas of Bosque del Apwhe the State having the highest precipita- NW5 tion and lowest evaporation (high -well mountain regions) can be unfavorable for development of wetlands because of R steep topography, shifting stream chan- nels, and unfavorable soil conditions (Cooper, 1986). Shallow water tables and ground- Les Crtices water discharge into topographic de- pressions, streams, and springs main- tain wetlands in many areas of New 32 Mexico. These wetlands can be along WETLANDS AND DEEPWATER HABITATS small streams that have perennial flow Distribution of wetlands and deepwater habitats- in only short reaches or along larger, This map shows the approximate distribution of large perennial streams. In intermountain wetlands in the State. Because of limitations of scale basins, wetlands are maintained by a 0 50 100 MILES and source material, some wetlands are not shown shallow water table and springs whose i I I I W Predominantly wetland source is recharge from precipitation 0 50 100 KILOMETERS Predominantly deepwater habitat and runoff that occur during spring and 71 summer. Figure 2. Wetland distribution in New Mexico and physical and climatological features that Climatic, topographic, and hydro- control wetland distribution in the State. A, Distribution of wetlands and deepwater habitats. logic characteristics differ among and (Sources: A, TE. Dahl, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, unpub. data, 1991.) National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: NEW MEXICO 287 usually shallow depressions that have large surface area relative to ment on the origin of saline playa lakes; however, Wood and Jones the total volume of water contained in them. Consequently, most (1990) propose that the source of the salinity is from the concen- playa lakes have small storage capacities. tration by evaporation ofrunoff and shallow, fresh ground water that Studies by Osterkamp and Wood (1987) indicate that freshwa- discharges from the underlying aquifer. ter playa lakes in the Great Plains of New Mexico originate wher- In the Southern Rocky Mountains, wetlands occur in two ever surface depressions collect precipitation runoff. The takes en- physiographically and climatically distinct settings, mountain val- large as a result of dissolution of carbonates by water infiltrating leys and intermountain basins. Generally, mountain valleys are geo- the unsaturated zone above the underlying aquifer and subsequent logically young and therefore steep. The valleys have been shaped subsidence of the lake bed. Over time, the older central lake acquires over time either by running water throughout their entire length or a layer of clay-rich deposits that largely restricts water movement by glaciers at higher altitudes and running water at lower altitudes. from the playa lake to the underlying aquifer. Water probably is At high altitudes in some mountain valleys, glaciation formed large removed from freshwater playa lakes primarily by recharge to the Cirque basins in which remnant glaciers or late-melting snow main- underlying aquifer from the areas around the lake where lake-bed tains spring, seep, and snow-bed wetlands. Also, at these high alti- sediments have not yet accumulated (Osterkamp and Wood, 1487) tudes, ponds form in depressions behind slumping saturated soils and by evaporation that in some years ranges as high as 96 to 112 or in depressions caused by the weight of accumulated snow. Be- inches per year (Nelson and others, 1983). is no general agree- low the Cirque basins, wetlands occur in the glaciated, U-shaped valleys, on saturated cliff faces, at the sloping floor near the sides of the valley, in glacial kettle ponds, in oxbow lakes, in depressions B on glacial moraines, in lakes created by terminal or lateral moraines, in landslide-formed lakes, in seeps and springs, and in beaver ponds. flow In steep, V-shaped, nonglaciated areas of mountain valleys, wetlands Mount*ns occur as narrow riparian wetlands, near seeps and springs, and in Colorado beaver ponds (Windell and others, 1986). Plateaus Intermountain basins were filled by sediments derived from erosion of the surrounding mountains. The large, flat valleys are drained by low-gradient meandering streams and rivers. Intermoun- tain-basin wetlands occur along these streams and rivers, in con- Great Plalins structed and natural impoundments, around oxbow lakes, and in other areas where the water table is near the land surface. The shal- low water table is maintained by underlying aquifers, impermeable substrates, or annual floods (Windell and others, 1986). aw. And @erig. TRENDS The Fws has estimated that from the 1780's to the 1980's, wet- land acreage in New Mexico decreased by 33 percent- from about 720,000 to 482,000 acres (Dahl, 1990). Much of the decrease is PHYSIOGRAPHIC DIVISIONS attributable to the loss of native vegetation along streams because 20 D 10 24, 0.6 0 a2 0'1Z 4) a2 12 0.2 14 Is 2 5 'z oe PRECIPITATION RUNOFF -16- Line of equal annual precipftation- - 2 - Line of equal annual runoff- Interval, in inches, is variable Interval, in inches, is variable Figure 2. Continued. Wetland distribution in New Mexico and physical and climatological features that control wetland distribution in the State. B, Physiography. C, Average annual precipitation. D, Average annual runoff. (Sources: B, Physiographic divisions from Fenneman, 1946; landforms data from EROS Data Center. C and D, Cold and Denis, 1986.) 288 National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: STATE SUMMARIES of a change in streamflow resulting from reservoir construction or Table 1. Selected wetiand-related activities of government agricultural water diversions. The loss of native vegetation along agencies and private organizations in New Mexico, 1993 streams alters riparian-wetland functions and allows the prolifera- [Source: Classification of activities is generalized from information provided tion of nonnative vegetation (Howe and Knopf, 1991). by agencies and organizations. e, agency or organization participates in Wetland losses in rural areas can be attributed to conversion wetland-related activity; agency or organization does not participate in wetland-related activity. MAN, management; REG, regulation; R&C, res- to cropland, dewatering or diverting water for irrigation, and over- toration and creation; LAN, land acquisition; R&D, research and data col- grazing by livestock. Development of urban areas has caused wet- lection; D&I, delineation and inventory] land loss or degradation owing to encroachment of residential and commercial construction, dewatering for municipal and industrial water supply, channelization, and contamination from inadequately Agency or organization 4@ 01 13;@ op <@' treated sewage and industrial waste. Other causes of wetland loss FEDERAL or degradation are clear cutting, burning, hard-rock mining and Department of Agriculture related activities that produce toxic acidic or alkaline runoff, placer Consolidated Farm Service Agency ........................... ... mining, erosion and sedimentation, sand and gravel mining, road Forest Service .................................................................00**0 and railroad construction, and dam and reservoir construction in Natural Resources Conservation Service ................ ... Department of Defense wetland areas (Windell and others, 1986). Army Corps of Engineers ..............................................0 Some human activities have helped to form wetlands or enlarge Military reservations .....................................................* existing ones. The construction of reservoirs between 1916 and Department of the Interior 1985, which provided for storage of more than 5.9 million acre-feet Bureau of Land Management ......................................0 of surface water (Garrabrant and Garn, 1990), resulted in the for- Bureau of Reclamation .................................................0 Fish and Wildlife Service ..............................................e9 e mation of wetlands along the edge of those water bodies. However, Geological Survey ............... .......................................... ... such gains are at the expense of the original, natural riparian wet- National Biological Service ......................................... ... ... ... ... lands. Farm-pond construction also contributes to the formation of National Park Service ...................................................000 wetlands around the edge of the pond. More than one-half of the Environmental Protection Agency .................................. ... State's cropland is irrigated (Garrabrant and Garn, 1990), and leak- STATE Department of Game and Fish ......................................... ing ditches and seeps and return flow associated with irrigation have Energy, Mineral, and Natural contributed to the formation of wetlands. Resources Department ..................................................... ... ... Environment Department ..................................................* * State Engineer Office ........................................................0 0 CONSERVATION University of New Mexico Natural Heritage Program .. .......................................... Many government agencies and private organizations partici- COUNTY AND LOCAL GOVERNMENTS pate in wetland conservation in New Mexico. The most active agen- Albuquerque Open Space Division ................................. cies and organizations and some of their activities are listed in table Santa Fe County .................................................................. ... ... ... ... PRIVATE ORGANIZATIONS Federal wetland activities. -Development activities in New National Audubon Society ............................................... ... ...0 Sierra Club ........................................................................... ... ...* Mexico wetlands are regulated by several Federal statutory prohi- The Nature Conservancy .................................................. ... ... ... bitions and incentives that are intended to slow wetland losses. Some of the more important of these are contained in the 1899 Rivers and Harbors Act; the 1972 Clean Water Act and amendments; the 1985 Food Security Act; the 1990 Food, Agriculture, Conservation, and Service Agency (formerly the Agricultural Stabilization and Conser- Trade Act; and the 1986 Emergency Wetlands Resources Act. vation Service) administers the Swampbuster provisions and Section 10 of the Rivers and Harbors Act gives the U.S. Army Wetlands Reserve Program. The Natural Resources Conservation Corps of Engineers (Corps) authority to regulate certain activities Service (formerly the Soil Conservation Service) determines com- in navigable waters. Regulated activities include diking, deepening, pliance with Swampbuster provisions and assists farmers in the iden- filling, excavating, and placing of structures. The related section 404 tification of wetlands and in the development of wetland protection, of the Clean Water Act is the most often-used Federal legislation restoration, or creation plans. protecting wetlands. Under section 404 provisions, the Corps issues The 1986 Emergency Wetlands Resources Act encourages permits regulating the discharge of dredged or fill material into wetland protection through funding incentives. The act requires wetlands. Permits are subject to review and possible veto by the U.S. States to address wetland protection in their Statewide Comprehen- Environmental Protection Agency, and the Fws has review and ad- sive Outdoor Recreation Plans to qualify for Federal funding for visory roles. Section 401 of the Clean Water Act grants to States State recreational land; the National Park Service provides guidance and eligible Indian Tribes the authority to approve, apply conditions to States in developing the wetland component of their plans. to, or deny section 404 permit applications on the basis of a pro- The U.S. Forest Service (FS) manages five National Forests in posed activity's probable effects on the water quality of a wetland. New Mexico that contain diverse wetlands and riparian ecosystems. Most farming, ranching, and silviculture activities are not sub- The Fs also coordinates with State agencies and private landown- ject to section 404 regulation. However, the "Swampbuster" provi- ers on wetland-conservation activities. sion of the 1985 Food Security Act and amendments in the 1990 The FWS manages six National Wildlife Refuges in New Mexico Food, Agriculture, Conservation, and Trade Act discourage (through that provide habitat for migrating birds, endangered species, and financial disincentives) the draining, filling, or other alteration of other wildlife and wildlife-oriented public recreation. Under the wetlands for agricultural use. The law allows exemptions from pen- 1986 Emergency Wetlands Resources Act, the Fws evaluated eight alties in some cases, especially if the farmer agrees to restore the priority wetland sites in the State for acquisition (U.S. Fish and altered wetland or other wetlands that have been converted to agri- Wildlife Service, 1990). cultural use. The Wetlands Reserve Program of the 1990 Food, A goal of the Bureau of Land Management (BLM) is to restore, Agriculture, Conservation, and Trade Act authorizes the Federal maintain, and improve riparian wetland area conditions on public Government to purchase conservation easements from landowners land in New Mexico. The ELM is responsible for the management of who agree to protect or restore wetlands. The Consolidated Farm 12.8 million acres of public land in the tristate area of New Mexico, 290 National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: STATE SUMMARIES U.S. Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper 2425 National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: NEW MEXICO 289 Oklahoma, and Kansas, which includes 27,600 acres of riparian Cowardin, L.M., Carter, Virginia, Golet, F.C., and LaRoe, E.T., 1979, Clas- wetland (Bureau of Land Management, 1990). sification of wetlands and deepwater habitats ofthe United States: U.S. State wetland activities. -The principal State agencies in New Fish and Wildlife Service Report FWS/OBS-79/31, 131 p. Mexico that regulate or manage wetlands are the Department of Dahl, T.E., 1990, Wetlands -Losses in the United States, 1780's to 1980's: Game and Fish, Environment Department, and the State Engineer Washington, D.C., U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Report to Congress, 13 p. Office. Also involved is the State Park and Recreation Division of Fenneman, N.M., 1946, Physical divisions of the United States: Washing- the Energy, Mineral, and Natural Resources Department, which ton, D.C., U.S. Geological Survey special map, scale 1:7,000,000. developed the New Mexico Wetlands Priority Conservation Plan Garrabrant, L.A., and Garn, H.S., 1990, New Mexico water supply and use, (New Mexico Energy, Minerals, and Natural Resources Department, in National water summary 1987-Hydrologic events and water sup- 1988). This plan is a component of the 1986 Statewide Compre- ply and use: U.S. Geological Survey Water Supply Paper 2350, p. 375 - hensive Outdoor Recreation Plan. The goals of agencies managing 382. wetlands in New Mexico are to provide habitat for fish and wildlife Gold, R.L., and Denis, L.P., Jr., 1986, New Mexico surface-water resources, and for diverse plant species, to maintain wetlands for erosion and in U.S. Geological Survey, National water summary 1985-Hydro- flood control, and to enhance wetlands as agricultural, recreational, logic events and surface-water resources: U.S. Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper 2300, p. 341-346. and scenic resources. Howe, W.H., andKnopfF.L., 1991, On the imminent decline ofRioGrande State management of wetlands in New Mexico began with an cottonwoods in central New Mexico: The Southwestern Naturalist, assessment of State wetlands by the State Park and Recreation Di- v. 36, no. 2, p. 218-224. vision (New Mexico Energy, Minerals, and Natural Resources De- Nelson, R.W., Logan, WJ., and Weller, E.C., 1983, Playa wetlands and partment, 1988). The steps in the assessment were to locate wet- wildlife on the southern great plains -A characterization ofhabitat: lands, determine their types, assess their quality, prioritize them U.S. Fish andWildlife Service Report FWS/OBS-93129,163 p. according to their value and benefit, and rate the probable effect on New Mexico Energy, Minerals, and Natural Resources Department, t988, them of each of the major causes of wetland losses. The Division New Mexico wetlands priority conservation plan: Albuquerque, N. considers the seven major causes ofloss or degradation ofwetlands Mex., New Mexico Energy, Minerals and Natural Resources Depart- in New Mexico to be (1) municipal water development, (2) natural ment, State Park and Recreation Division, 79 p. Ong, Kim, Lepp, R.L., and Piatt, Jim, 1993, New Mexico stream water water-table fluctuation, (3) development of land surfaces, (4) pol- quality, in U.S. Geological Survey, National water summary 1990- lution, (5) erosion, tree cutting, or siltation, (6) invasion by nonna- 91-Hydrologic events and stream water quality: U.S. Geological tive plant species, and (7) poor management. The assessment of the Survey Water- Supply Paper 2400, p. 403-412. quality of wetlands is based on habitat conditions, the dominance Osterkamp, W.R., and Wood, W.W., 1987, Playa lake basins on the South- ofnative or rare species, the presence of terrestrial animals, and the ern High Plains of Texas and New Mexico-Part 1, Hydrologic, geo- uniqueness of the wetland in New Mexico. State government acqui- morphic, and geologic evidence for their development: Geologic So- sition of wetlands will be based on whether the public values and ciety of America Bulletin, v. 99, no. 2, p. 215-223. benefits of wetlands can be maintained or realized under present U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 1990, Regional wetlands concept plan - New Mexico wetlands: Albuquerque, N. Mex., U.S. Fish and Wildlife ownership (New Mexico Energy, Minerals, and Natural Resources Service, 185 p. Department, 1988). Windell, J.T., Willard, B.E., Cooper, D.J., and others, 1986, An ecological County and local wetland activities. -The Open Space Divi- characterization of Rocky Mountain montane and subaipine wetlands: sion of the city of Albuquerque acquires, manages, and restores U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Biological Report 86 (11), 298 p. wetlands. The Division also conducts feasibility studies and inven- Wood, W.W., and Jones, B.F., 1990, Origin of saline lakes and springs on tories wetlands in areas under its jurisdiction. The county of Santa the southern High Plains ofRxas and New Mexico, in Gustavson, T.C., Fe is involved in research and inventory of wetlands in the county. ed., Geological framework and regional hydrology -Upper Cenozoic Private wetland activities. - Private organizations involved in Blackwater Draw and Ogaflala Formation, Great Plains: Austin, Tex., wetland management and conservation in New Mexico include the Bureau of Economic Geology, p. 193 -208. National Audubon Society, the Sierra Club, and The Nature Con- servancy. A principal activity of the National Audubon Society and the Sierra Club is the restoration and creation of wetlands. The Si- FOR ADDITIONAL INFORMATION: District Chief, U.S. Geological erra Club also conducts research in wetlands. The Nature Conser- Survey, 4501 Indian School Rd., NE, Suite 200, Albuquerque, NM 87110; vancy acquires wetlands and other ecologically valuable habitats for Regional Wetland Coordinator, U.S. Fish and Wildlife, Fish and Wildlife conservation. A major goal of these private organizations is to in- Enhancement, 500 Gold Ave., SW, Albuquerque, NM 87103 form the public about the value of wetlands, Prepared by References Cited B.D. Jones, U.S. Geological Survey Bureau of Land Management, 1990, New Mexico riparian-wetiand 2000- A management strategy: Santa Fe, N. Mex., Bureau of Land Manage- ment, 25 p. , Cooper, D.J., 1986, Ecological studies in wetland vegetation, Cross Creek Valley, Holy Cross Wilderness, Sawatch Range, Colorado: Boulder, Colo., Holy Cross Wilderness Defense Fund Technical Report 2,25 p. (Available from Holy Cross Wilderness Defense Fund, 1130 Alpine, Boulder, Colo. 80304.) National Water Summary-Wetland Resources 291 New York Wetland Resources le diverse wetlands of New York have formed from the interac- wetlands, whereas the other systems comprise wetlands and tion of geologic events, climate, and hydrology. New York s fresh- deepwater habitats. Wetlands of the systems that occur in New York water and saltwater wetlands are important for fish and wildlife, are described below. environmental quality, human society, and the economy. Estuarine wetlands provide habitat for clams and oysters, and they provide System Wetland description spawning and nursery grounds for commercially important fish species, including alewife, blueback herring, bass, white perch, Palustrine .................. Nontidal and tidal-freshwater wetlands in which American shad, menhaden, bluefish, sea trout, and mullet. Many vegetation is predominantly trees (forested wet- lands); shrubs (scrub-sh rub wetlands); persistent bird species, including osprey, peregrine falcons, snow and Canada or nonpersistent emergent, erect, rooted herba- geese, and pintail, canvasback, mallard, and black ducks, use New ceous plants (persistent- and nonpersistent- York's salt marshes for feeding, migration, and wintering grounds. emergent wetlands); or submersed and (or) Nesting bald eagles and the largest colony of great blue herons in floating plants (aquatic beds). Also, intermit- New York live in the Iroquois National Wildlife Refuge. Beavers, tently to permanently flooded open-water bod- ies of less than 20 acres in which water is less muskrat, raccoons, river otters, foxes, and rabbits use wetlands as a than 6.6 feet deep. source of food and shelter. Many reptile and amphibian species also Lacustrine ................. Nontidal and tidal-freshwater wetlands within an live in the State's wetlands. intermittently to permanently flooded lake or New York's wetlands are home to many threatened and endan- reservoir larger than 20 acres and (or) deeper gered plants and animals. Of the 160 threatened or endangered plant than 6.6 feet. Vegetation, when present, is pre- species identified by the State's Department of Environmental Con- dominantly noripersistent emergent plants (non- persistent-emergent wetlands), or submersed servation, 50 percent are wetland species, as are 10 species of ver- and (or) floating plants (aquatic beds), or both. tebrates (Alvin Breisch, New York State Department of Environ- Riverine ..................... Nontidal and tidal-freshwater wetlands within a mental Conservation, oral commun., 1993). channel. Vegetation, when present, is same as The environmental quality of aquatic habitats is enhanced by in the Lacustrine System. wetlands. Wetlands filter or absorb nutrients, and they also remove Estuarine ................... Tidal wetlands in low-wave-energy environments heavy metals and other contaminants from waters moving through where the salinity ofthe water is greaterthan 0.5 them. Wetlands reduce turbidity and sediment loading, thereby slow- part per thousand (ppt) and is variable owing to ing the siltation of harbors and navigable rivers and streams. The evaporation and the mixing of seawater and aquatic productivity of wetlands is very high-the amount ofplant freshwater. material produced per acre annually by an estuarine wetland (gross Marine ....................... Tidal wetlands that are exposed to waves and cur- rents of the open ocean and to water having a primary productivity) has been estimated to be about the same as salinity greater than 30 ppt. that of a tropical rain forest (Odum, 1971). Salt marshes support a diverse community of animals that inhabit estuarine waters. Dahl (1990) has estimated that wetlands cover about 1.0 mil- In addition to the habitat and environmental benefits of wet- lion acres of New York. Another estimate places the present-day lands, they also provide socioeconomic benefits, including flood and acreage at 2.2 to 2.4 million acres (Patricia Riexinger, New York storm-damage protection, erosion control, and the production of Department of Environmental Conservation, oral commun., 1993). plants such as blueberries, cranberries, wild rice, salt hay, and tim- Such estimates of wetland area are typically based on surveys that ber. Wetlands also provide many recreational and educational op- portunities, including hunting and fishing, nature study, boating, painting and drawing, and photography. The Hudson River National Estuarine Research Reserve (fig. 1) is a wetland-upland complex of national significance that provides outstanding opportunities for research and education. TYPES AND DISTRIBUTION Wetlands are lands transitional between terrestrial and n 4., deepwater habitats where the water table usually is at or near the - land surface or the land is covered by shallow water (Cowardin and others, 1979). The distribution of wetlands and deepwater habitats in New York is shown in figure 2A; only wetlands are discussed herein. Wetlands can be vegetated or nonvegetated and are classified f on the basis of their hydrology, vegetation, and substrate. In this summary, wetlands are classified according to the system proposed Figure 1. Tivoli Bays, Hudson River National Estuarine by Cowardin and others (1979), which is used by the U.S. Fish and Research Reserve. The reserve is managed cooperatively Wildlife Service (Fws) to map and inventory the Natiorfs wetlands. by the State of New York and the National Oceanic and At the most general level of the classification system, wetlands are Atmospheric Administration's Sanctuaries and Reserves grouped into five ecological systems: Palustrine, Lacustrine, Riv- Division. (Photograph by E.A. Blair Hudson River National erine, Estuarine, and Marine. The Palustrine System includes only Estuarine Research Reserve.) 292 National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: STATE SUMMARIES 45- 16 44- P % f A *,e LAKE 0 N T A V"o sets M V1105 M so Buffalo cr 4 dwg.. fAke ban; 64 Ke.koa 0 Hudsor ARiver NV Estuarine 'ngh rato R h Reserve 42- 79- 77- WETLANDS AND DEEPWATER HABITATS Distribution of wetlands and deepwater habitats- This map shows the approximate distribution of large wetl:rids in the State. Because of limitations of scale 'd on iver Nei and ource material, some wetlands are not shown 75- rins esA a Predominantly wetland 01 predominantly deepwater habitat "A New York Long ESSEX WARREN 0 25 50 MILES 0 25 50 KILOMETERS mom NIAGARA M00% R=N V4 MONTGOMERY ONTARIO ERIE OMI OTS GO ICH ALBAN CHAUTAUQUA C ARAUG ALLEGANY STEUBEN TIOGA BROOME DELAWARE GREEN ULSTAR PERCENT WETLANDS IN COUNTY SULLWAN Greater than 6.0 ORANGE "NAM IF77" @ 3.5 to 6.0 % 1.8 to 3.5 ROCKLAND BRONX 1.0 to 1.8 MANHATTAN Sir Less than 1.0 STATON-P ISLAND KINGS QUEENS Figure 2. Wetland distribution in New York and physical and climatological features that affect wetland distribution in the State. A, Dis- tribution of wetlands and deepwater habitats. 0, Percentage area of New York counties that is wetland. (Sources: A, TE Dahl, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, unpub. data, 1991. B, O'Connor and Cole, 1989.) National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: NEW YORK 293 have different minimum unit sizes, which could account, in part" HYDROLOGIC SETTING for the disparity of these estimates. About 75 percent of New York's wetlands occupy areas of less New York's wetlands have formed primarily as the result of the than 6 acres. O'Connor and Cole (1989) classified New York's fresh- interaction of geologic, physiographic, climatic, and hydrologic fac- water wetlands of at least one-half acre into 14 cover types by use tors. Geologic history and climatic regime have influenced the States of aerial-photographic methods, Their study did not consider salt- physiography and hydrology, which largely determine the location water wetlands, which compose only a small percentage of the State's and types of those wetlands. wetland acreage and are confined to the Long Island coast and the During the last ice age, which ended about 18,000 years ago, lower 30 miles of the Hudson River (Karl Schwartz, U.S. Fish and glaciers covered most of New York. Erosion caused by movement Wildlife Service, oral commun., 1993), but covers all other wetlands of the glaciers and subsequent erosion and deposition by glacial in the State. The five most common freshwater-wetland cover types meltwater and precipitation runoff shaped the present-day, topo- in New York, in order of area, are flooded deciduous trees (palustrine graphically diverse landscape. The State's physiography (fig. 2C) forested wetland); flooded shrubs (palustrine scrub-shrub wetland); ranges from lowlands to mountains, some having elevations higher flooded coniferous trees (palustrine forested wetland); drained than 5,000 feet in the Adirondack Mountains. Glacial drift (clay, muckland, which is not considered wetland under the Cowardin and sand, gravel, and boulders deposited by glaciers or transported by others (1979) classification system; and emergents (palustrine emer- glacial meltwater) of varying thickness mantles the bedrock of most gent wetlands or lacustrine or riverine nonpersistent- emergent of the State and forms the floor of stream valleys and most other wetlands). Together, these types constitute almost 88 percent of New areas of low relief. Long Island is composed largely of glacial drift York's freshwater wetland area. that was deposited at the edge of the glacier's farthest advance. The counties of upstate New York, including those in the New York has 13.5 million acres of lakes (Zembrzuski and Adirondack Mountains and the counties south and east of Lake Gannon, 1986), which are most abundant in the St. Lawrence Val- Ontario, have the largest percentages of freshwater wetland area (fig. ley, Adirondack, and Central Lowland physiographic provinces. 2B). Among New York's counties, St. Lawrence County, which has These lakes were formed in three stages by glacial activity. First, about 21,000 acres of wetlands, has the largest area of freshwater the glaciers advanced, scouring the State's landscape. Then, as the wetland, and Wayne County, which contains 12 percent of the State's glaciers retreated, large ice blocks were left behind and buried by wetland acreage, has the highest percentage of wetland area. The glacial drift. These blocks subsequently melted, releasing their urban counties of New York City and Long Island and the south- meltwater to form lakes. Other lakes, such as the Finger Lakes of ern-tier counties along the State's border with Pennsylvania have the west-central New York, are river valleys that have been deeply smallest percentage of wetland area. Counties in the Catskill Moun- scoured by glaciers. Glacial lakes are most common in northern New tains also have relatively low areal percentages of wetlands. York, especially in the Adirondack Mountains. Natural lakes of any Wetlands provide habitat for many threatened or endangered kind are scarce in the Appalachian Plateaus of southwestern New species. In New York, a species can be classified as threatened or York. There, rivers have cut deeply into the regiorfs shale to form endangered either by the State or by the Federal Government. Wet- steep-sided valleys. land plant species that are considered to be threatened or endan- Noncoastal wetlands. -Most of New York's noncoastal wet- gered in New York include heartleaf plantain, spreading globeflower, lands have formed in and around glacial lakes. Some wetlands also fringed gentian, and curlygrass fern. In addition to plants, a num- occur along river and stream corridors and in other lowlands where ber of animal species are listed, including the red-shouldered hawk, deposits of fine-grained sediments provide an underlying imperme- osprey, bog turtle, and tiger salamander (Alvin Breisch, New York able layer that prevents water from percolating below the surface. Department of Environmental Conservation, written commun., Ground water and overland precipitation runoff are the principal 1993). sources of water for glacial-lake wetlands, and river flooding is an A 4K, C D D "0 C 40 J, 44 PHYSIOGRAPHIC DIVISIONS PRECIPITATION A St. Lawrence Valley B'Adir ndack Province -40- Line of equal annual precip tation- Interval, in inches, is var C, Appolachian Plateaus able 8 D. Central L land ow 4 E. Valley and Ridge Province F. New England Province G. Piedmont Province H. Coastal Plain Figure 2. Continued. Wetland distribution in New York and physical and climatological features that affect wetland distribution in the State. C, Physiography. D, Precipitation. (Sources: C, Physiographic divisions from Fenneman, 1946; landforms data from EROS Data Center D, Zembrzuski and Gannon, 1986.) 294 National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: STATE SUMMARIES additional source for wetlands along rivers and streams. Annual Wetlands have been drained for crop production and pastur- precipitation in the State ranges from 28 inches to the west of Lake age, and they have been filled for transportation, industrialization, Champlain to more than 50 inches in the Adirondack and Catskill housing, and landfills (Tiner, 1984). Dredging for navigation and Mountains (fig. 2D). Annual precipitation substantially exceeds the construction of reservoirs, harbors, and marinas also have ad- annual evapotranspiration, resulting in an annual moisture surplus versely affected New York's wetlands. In addition to the acreage and ample water to maintain wetlands. losses caused by these activities, wetlands have been degraded by Ground water flows into wetlands from either glacial drift, point and nonpoint discharges to surface waters from agriculture, fractures in crystalline bedrock, or solution cavities in carbonate logging, industry, municipal sewerage, and urban runoff, which add bedrock, depending on local geological characteristics. Most re- contaminants and silt to surface waters. charge to ground-water systems occurs in upland areas, where pre- Some wetlands have been created as a result of the activities cipitation percolates through the surficial sediments and into the of beavers and humans. By impounding streams, beavers can cre- underlying aquifers. In stream valleys containing valley-fill aqui- ate wetlands in areas that were formerly uplands. In the last cen- fers that are composed of glacial deposits, precipitation runoff from tury, beavers were trapped in some parts of the Northeast for their valley walls also is a common source of recharge. From recharge pelts. The reduction of the population led to deterioration of their areas, ground water flows to areas of lower elevation, discharging dams and to subsequent wetland loss. In more recent times, bea- to streams, ponds, lakes, and wetlands. vers have reestablished their population and their impoundments and Vegetated wetlands formed in New York's glacial lakes when the associated wetlands. Humans also have created wetlands, inten- the lakes filled with sediment and organic material, providing a tionally through the construction of artificial wetlands and inadvert- substrate for rooted plants. Partially decomposed wetland vegeta- ently through dam and farm-pond construction. These additions, tion accumulates in the wetlands, forming a continually thickening however, probably have not compensated for the losses of natural layer of organic matter called peat. Such wetlands are known as wetlands (Tiner, 1984). peatlands (Mitsch and Gosselink, 1986), of which bogs (forested, scrub-shrub, or emergent wetlands) and fens (similar wetland classes CONSERVATION to bogs but different vegetation composition) are common types in New York. Bogs receive most or 0 of their water from precipita- Many government agencies and private organizations partici- tion and have a characteristic plant community that is composed of pate in wetland conservation in New York. The most active agen- peat (sphagnum) moss and other plants tolerant of acidic conditions. cies and organizations and some of their activities are listed in table Fens receive at least some water from ground water and are less I . acidic than bogs. Peatlands can evolve into uplands through an eco- Federal wetland activities. -Development activities in New logical process called succession, wherein the vegetative composi- York wetlands are regulated by several Federal statutory prohibi- tion of the wetland changes over time, The plant community gradu- ally evolves from one in which wetland plants predominate to one Table 1. Selected wetland-related activities of government having more upland species. Although succession of some kind occurs in most ecosystems, it is possible that a wetland will never agencies and private organizations in New York, 1993 reach a steady-state condition. It can instead cycle through forested, [Source: Classification of activities is generalized from information provided by agencies and organizations. o, agency or organization participates in open-water, emergent, and shrub phases several times as the com- wetland-related activity; agency or organization does not participate in munity evolves (Virginia Carter, U.S. Geological Survey, written wetland-related activity. MAN, management; REG, regulation; R&C, res- commun., 1994). Lakes undergo a similar process, called eutrophi- toration and creation; LAN, land acquisition; R&D, research and data col- cation, in which they fill in with decaying organic matter, which then lection; D&I, delineation and inventory] forms the substrate for plants that make up the next stage in the successional process. X Coastal wetlands. -Nearly all of New York's coastal wetlands Agency or organization are in the intertidal zone in the bays of Long Island and comprise FEDERAL mostly salt marshes, aquatic beds, and tidal flats. These wetlands Department of Agriculture receive their water from the ocean, streams, and ground-water seep- Consolidated Farm Service Agency ........................... ... ... ... ... ... age and are subject to hydrologic and salinity regimes that vary daily Forest Service ................................................................. Natural Resources Conservation Service ................ with the tides and seasonally with precipitation and streamflow. The Department of Commerce bottom material of coastal wetlands in the Northeastern United National Oceanic and Atmospheric States generally consists of peat and fine sediments derived from Administration .................................................. .............. the glacial drift that covers upland areas. Salt-marsh plant commu- Department of Defense nities contain species physiologically adapted to dynamic conditions Army Corps of Engineers .............................................. Military reservations .....................................................0... ... ... ... ... of moisture and salinity. Plant-species composition changes along Department of the Interior a gradient that corresponds to frequency of inundation and to sa- Fish and Wildlife Service ..............................................a linity range. Production of plant material is high in coastal marshes Geological Survey .......................................................... ... owing to a constant supply of nutrients (mostly nitrogen and phos- National Biological Service ......................................... ... ... ... ... phorus). Much of the plant material in estuarine marshes is washed National Park Service ...................................................0 * 0 Environmental Protection Agency .......... ....................... ...e into the estuary during the high tides of winter and becomes part STATE of the detrital food web of the estuary (Virginia Carter, U.S. Geo- Adirondack Park Agency .................................... ............. ...0 logical Survey, written commun., 1994). Department of Environmental Conservation Division of Fish and Wildlife ......................................... Department of State ................ ......................................... ... ... TRENDS PRIVATE ORGANIZATIONS Ducks Unlimited .................................................................. New York's wetlands have been drained and filled since settle- Finger Lakes Land Trust .................................................... ... ... ... . ... ment by Europeans began in the 1600's. Filling of wetlands in- The National Audubon Society ................................e creased markedly following World War 11. Between about the 1780's The Nature Conservancy ..................................................0 and the 1980's, New York lost an estimated 60 percent of its wet- The Open Space institute ................................................. ... ... lands (Dahl, 1990). Scenic Hudson .................................................................... National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: NEW YORK 295 tions and incentives that are intended to slow wetland losses. Some the State has protected a number of wetlands of unusual local im- ofthe more important ofthese are contained in the 1899 Rivers and portance (mostly in down- State areas). A major cooperative effort Harbors Act; the 1972 Clean Water Act and amendments; the 1985 is underway among Federal and State agencies and private organi- Food Security Act; the 1990 Food, Agriculture, Conservation, and zations to acquire more than 20,000 acres of wetlands and associ- Trade Act; the 1986 Emergency Wetlands Resources Act; and the ated uplands to the north of the Montezuma National Wildlife Ref- 1972 Coastal Zone Management Act. uge. This area will be a major protected wetland resource for the Section 10 of the Rivers and Harbors Act gives the U.S. Army State. Also, many State wildlife-management areas are wetland- Corps of Engineers (Corps) authority to regulate certain activities upland complexes that are managed for wetiand values. The Hudson in navigable waters. Regulated activities include diking, deepening, River National Estuarine Research Reserve is a federally designated filling, excavating, and placing of structures. The related section 404 wetland system that is managed cooperatively by the New York of the Clean Water Act is the most often-used Federal legislation Department of Environmental Conservation and NOAA. The reserve protecting wetlands. Under section 404 provisions, the Corps issues consists of four sites totaling 5,000 acres of mostly wetlands that permits regulating the discharge of dredged or fill material into are distributed along the salinity gradient of the Hudson River. The wetlands. Permits are subject to review and possible veto by the U.S. reserve's purposes are protection, research, and education. Environmental Protection Agency, and the Fws has review and ad- County and local wetland activities. -Under the Freshwater visory roles. Section 401 of the Clean Water Act grants to States Wetlands Act, a county, town, village, or municipality can take over and eligible Indian Tribes the authority to approve, apply conditions responsibility for wetland management with oversight by the De- to, or deny section 404 permit applications on the basis of a pro- partment ofEnvironmental Conservation. Under this provision, local posed activity's probable effects on the water quality of a wetland. governments review and process permit applications. The Depart- Most farming, ranching, and silviculture activities are not sub- ment approves the local procedures and also reserves the right to ject to section 404 regulation. However, the "Swampbuster" provi- oversee Class I wetlands, which are wetlands considered most in sion of the 1985 Food Security Act and amendments in the 1990 need of protection because they provide benefits that make them Food, Agriculture, Conservation, and Trade Act discourage (through particularly valuable. Any municipality is allowed to pass regula- financial disincentives) the draining, filling, or other alteration of tions that are more restrictive than the Department's guidelines. wetlands for agricultural use. The law allows exemptions from pen- When such regulations are passed, the Department defers to the local alties in some cases, especially if the farmer agrees to restore the authority. To date, only two towns and one village have taken over altered wetland or other wetlands that have been converted to agri- wetland-management responsibility, and no county government has cultural use. The Wetlands Reserve Program of the 1990 Food, opted to preempt the Department's regulations (Russell Cole, New Agriculture, Conservation, and Trade Act authorizes the Federal York State Department of Environmental Conservation, oral Government to purchase conservation easements from landowners commun., 1993). who agree to protect or restore wetlands. The Consolidated Farm Counties may facilitate wetland acquisition through the fund- Service Agency (formerly the Agricultural Stabilization and Conser- ing of bond acts. Such acts have been used extensively on Long vation Service) administers the Swampbuster provisions and Island for this purpose (Sarah Davidson, The Nature Conservancy, Wetlands Reserve Program. The Natural Resources Conservation Long Island Chapter, oral commun., 1993). Service (formerly the Soil Conservation Service) determines com- Private wetland activities. -Among the private organizations pliance with Swampbuster provisions and assists farmers in the iden- that are active in the conservation of New York's wetlands are Ducks tification of wetlands and in the development of wetland protection, Unlimited, The Nature Conservancy, the National Audubon Soci- restoration, or creation plans. ety, Scenic Hudson, the Open Space Institute, and the Finger Lakes The 1986 Emergency Wetlands Resources Act and the 1972 Land Trust. Privately organized and funded land trusts exist in many Coastal Zone Management Act and amendments encourage wetland New York counties, and these can enable wetland acquisition and protection through funding incentives. The Emergency Wetland protection (Peggy Olson, The Nature Conservancy, Eastern New Resources Act requires States to address wetland protection in their York Chapter, oral commun., 1993). Statewide Comprehensive Outdoor Recreation Plans to qualify for Federal funding for State recreational land; the National Park Ser- References Cited vice provides guidance to States in developing the wetland compo- nent of their plans. Coastal States that adopt coastal-zone manage- Cowardin, L.M., Carter, Virginia, Golet, F.C., and LaRoe, E.T., 1979, Clas- ment programs and plans approved by the National Oceanic and sification of wetlands and deepwater habitats of the United States: U.S. Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) are eligible for Federal fund- Fish and Wildlife Service Report FWS/OBS -79/31, 131 p. ing and technical assistance through the Coastal Zone Management Dahl, T.E., 1990, Wetlands-Losses in the United States, 1780's to 1980's: Act. Washington, D.C., U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Report to Congress, 13 p. State wetland activities. -State laws governing New York's Fenneman, N.M., 1946, Physical divisions of the United States: Washing- wetlands include the 1973 Tidal Wetlands Act, the 1975 Freshwa- ton, D.C., U.S. Geological Survey special map, scale 1:7,000,000. ter Wetlands Act, the Protection of Waters Act, and the Waterfront Mitsch, W.J., and Gosselink, J.G., 1986, Wetlands: New York, Van Nostrand Revitalization and Coastal Resource Act. Of these, the first three Reinhold, 539 p. are administered by the New York Department of Environmental O'Connor, Sharon, and Cole, N.B., 1989, Freshwater wetlands inventory - Conservation, and the fourth is administered by the New York De- Data afialysis: Albany, New York State Department of Environmental partment of State. Wetland activities in the Adirondack Park are Conservation, Division of Fish and Wildlife, 107 p. regulated by the Adirondack Park Agency under the 1975 Freshwater Odum, E.P., 197 1, Fundamentals of ecology: Philadelphia, Saunders, 574 p. Wetlands Act. Tiner, R.W., Jr., 1984, Wetlands of the United States -Current status and recent trends: Washington, D.C., U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 59 p. The State has extended protection to many wetlands within its Zembrzuski, T.J., and Gannon, W.B., 1986, New York surface-water re- borders. By far the largest protected area containing wetlands is the sources, in U.S. Geological Survey National water summary 1985 - Adirondack Park in northern New York. The wetland acreage within Hydrologic events and surface-water resources: U.S. Geological Sur- the park is not precisely known because the Adirondack Park Agency vey Water-Supply Paper 2300, p. 347-354. wetlands inventory is not complete. In addition to park wetlands, 296 National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: STATE SUMMARIES FOR ADDITIONAL INFORMATION: District Chief, U.S. Geological Sur- vey, James T. Foley U.S. Courthouse, P.O. Box 1669, Room 343,445 Broad- way,Albany,NY 12201; Regional Wetland Coordinator, U.S. Fish and Wild- life Service, Regional Wetland Coordinator, 300 Westgate Center Dr., Hadley, MA 01035 Prepared by Thomas H. Barringer, John S. Williams, and Deborah S. Lumia, U.S. Geological Survey U.S. Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper 2425 National Water Summary-Wetland Resources 297 North Carolina Wetland Besources Wands of North Carolina are diverse and widely distributed. deepwater habitats. Wetlands of the systems that occur in North About 5.7 million acres, or 17 percent, of the State is covered by Carolina are described below. wetlands (Dahl, 1990). About 95 percent of these wetlands are in the eastern part of the State (fig. 1). System Wetland description Wetlands affect strearriflow and water quality and provide criti- cal habitat to a variety of plants and animals. Because of the large Palustrine .................. Nonticlal and tidal-freshwater wetlands in which size of some eastern North Carolina wetlands and their proximity vegetation is predominantly trees (forested wet- to coastal waters, these wetlands are important regulators of fresh- lands); shrubs (scrub-shrub wetlands); persistent or nonpersistent emergent, erect, rooted herba- water, nutrient, and sediment inputs to North Carolina estuaries. ceous plants (persistent- and nonpersistent- Almost one-halfofNorth Carolina's wetlands are bottom-land hard- emergent wetlands); or submersed and (or) wood forests, which are valuable habitats for waterfowl breeding floating plants (aquatic beds). Also, intermit- and overwintering and for anadromous fish spawning (U.S. Fish and tently to permanently flooded open-water bod- ies of less than 20 acres in which water is less Wildlife Service, 1992). About 90 percent of the State's commer- than 6.6 feet deep. cial fish harvest is derived from estuary-dependent species. Tidal Lacustrine ...... .......... Wetlands within an intermittently to permanently and nontidal creeks surrounded by wetlands and vast beds of sub- flooded lake or reservoir largerthan 20 acres and mersed aquatic vegetation function as nursery areas for larval and (or) deeper than 6.6 feet. Vegetation, when juvenile fish and provide critical finfish and shellfish habitats for present, is predominantly nonpersistent emer- adults. Small wetlands throughout the Piedmont and Blue Ridge gent plants (nonpersistent-emergent wetlands), or submersed and (or) floating plants (aquatic Provinces of the State harbor at least 80 species of rare or endan- beds), or both. gered plants. Statewide, about 70 percent of the rare and endangered Riverine ..................... Nonticlal and ti da Hreshwater wetlands within a plants and animals depend on wetlands. channel. Vegetation, when present, is same as in the Lacustrine System. TYPES AND DISTRIBUTION Estuarine ................... Tidal wetlands in low-wave-energy environments where the salinity of the water is greater than 0.5 Wetlands are lands transitional between terrestrial and pa rt per thousand (ppt) and is variable owing to deepwater habitats where the water table usually is at or near the evaporation and the mixing of seawater and land surface or the land is covered by shallow water (Cowardin and freshwater. others, 1979). The distribution of wetlands and deepwater habitats Marine ....................... Tidal wetlands that are exposed to waves and cur- rents of the open ocean and to water having a in North Carolina is shown in figure 2A; only wetlands are discussed salinity greater than 30 ppt. herein. Wetlands can be vegetated or nonvegetated and are classified Palustrine system. -Palustrine wetlands account for most of on the basis of their hydrology, vegetation, and substrate. In this the wetland acreage in North Carolina. Palustrine wetlands in the summary, wetlands are classified according to the system proposed State include forested wetlands (bottom-land hardwood forests, by Cowardin and others (1979), which is used by the U.S. Fish and fringe wooded swamps, wet pine flatwoods, pine savannas, and Wildlife Service (FWS) to map and inventory the Nation's wetlands. hardwood flats), wetlands that are classified as forested or scrub- At the most general level of the classification system, wetlands are shrub wetlands, depending on the characteristics of the dominant grouped into five ecological systems: Palustrine, Lacustrine, Riv- vegetation (Carolina bays, pocosins, and bogs), and emergent wet- erine, Estuarine, and Marine. The Palustrine System includes only lands (nontidal and tidal fresh marshes). wetlands, whereas the other systems comprise wetlands and Bottom-land hardwood forests cover about 2.7 million acres (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 1992) and occur primarily in the Coastal Plain along the Roanoke, Tar, Neuse, and Cape Fear Riv- ers, as well as along other large interior streams (fig. 2A and 2B). The Roanoke River flood plain has one of the largest and least dis- turbed bottom-land hardwood forests in the mid-Atlantic region. Cypress, swamp gum, and black gum grow in the wetter areas of 14 the flood plain, whereas temporarily or seasonally flooded bottom- land hardwood-forest wetlands are dominated by red maple, green ash, elm, sycamore, and sweet gum. Fringe wooded swamps are the dominant shoreline type around Albemarle Sound; along the Alligator, Scuppernong, and lower C howan Rivers; and in some locations along tributaries to Pamlico S ound. These swamps cover an area of about 400,000 acres (North Carolina Department of Environment, Health, and Natural Re- sources, 1994) and are vegetated primarily by cypress (Environmen- tal Defense Fund, 1989). Wet pine flatwoods possibly occupy more than 2 million acres, Figurel. Merchants Millpond, a forested wetland in and pine savannas cover an area of about 28,000 acres (North Caro- northeastern North Carolina. (Photograph by Virginia lina Department of Environment, Health, and Natural Resources, Carter, U.S. Geological Survey.) 1994). Both ecosystems have a canopy of longleaf pine and occa- 298 National Water Surnmary-Wetland Resources: STATE SUMMARIES sional loblolly pine with an understory of wiregrass. Pine savannas such as titi and yaupon, thorny vines, and occasional taller pond have a greater density of trees than wet pine flatwoods, and pine pines projecting above the thicket. Forested pocosins are generally savannas support orchids and various small vascular plants, such dominated by red bay, sweet bay, Atlantic white cedar, loblolly bay, as pitcher plants, Venus flytrap, and sundews. Wet pine flatwoods and pond pine (Sharitz and Gibbons, 1982; Ash and others, 1983). are common throughout the western and middle regions of the Vegetation in large pocosins commonly grows in zones with shorter Coastal Plain, except in the Sand Hills, whereas pine savannas are vegetation in the center. most common in the southeastern corner of the State (Schafale and Other types of palustrine wetlands include bogs and fresh Weakley, 1990). marshes. Bogs, which occur throughout the Blue Ridge Province, Carolina bays are ovate depressions that occur across the have been subject to draining, impoundment, and clearing at lower Coastal Plain but are most common in the southeastern corner of elevation sites (Schafale and Weakley, 1990). Nontidal fresh marshes the State (Sharitz and Gibbons, 1982). Most of the bays contain cover about 46,000 acres in the Coastal Plain (Field and others, palustrine wetlands, but a few large Carolina bays, such as Lake 1991) and often grade upriver to cypress-gum swamps (forested Waccamaw, are lacustrine wetlands. The bays range in length from wetlands). About 2,200 acres of tidal fresh marshes exist in North about 150 feet to more than 5 miles. Because of variability in size, Carolina (Field and others, 1991). depth, location, and substrate, Carolina bays are not characterized Lacustrine and Riverine Systems. -Lacustrine wetlands com- by a single vegetation type. These systems are unusual in their geo- prise the shallows of natural lakes and reservoirs where there is no graphic orientation (northwest to southeast) and consistent shape persistent emergent vegetation or trees. All of the State's natural lakes (narrower at the southeast end). are located in the Coastal Plain, and many are associated with Caro- About 700,000 acres of pocosins remain in North Carolina lina bays or peatlands. More than 100 water-supply and flood-con- (Environmental Defense Fund, 1989)-about 70 percent of the trol reservoirs have been constructed throughout the Piedmont and Natiorfs pocosin wetlands (Richardson and others, 198 1). Pocosins Blue Ridge Provinces (North Carolina Department of Environment, form in poorly drained basins, including interior depressions of Health, and Natural Resources, 1992) . Riverine wetlands constitute Carolina bays (Ash and others, 1983). The typical pocosin is clas- the entire channel of small, shallow streams and shallow areas near sified as a scrub-shrub wetland. However, a pocosin can be a for- the banks in large, deep streams. The total area of lacustrine and ested wetland, depending on the successional stage of the pocosin, riverine wetlands in the State is not known but is small relative to which is commonly determined by hydrology or by fire and other the area of palustrine wetlands. disturbances (Hefner and Moorhead, 199 1). Scrub-shrub pocosins Estuarine and Marine Systems. -North Carolina contains are dominated by dense, almost impenetrable, growths of evergreens more than 3,000 miles of tidal (estuarine and ocean) shoreline (Clay Piedmont Coastal Plain Sand Hills PHYSIOGRAPHIC DIVISIONS Bisnial S_-P SM(np A 79' C .. 11-k Sound Albern.rle Wi e Sn.nd ng 36- Or go. r Inlet let to, uer < As Vill @Id P &enel tuj..Aee a C-e WETLANDS AND DEEPWATER HABITATS Sound 0 Dist ibution of wetlands and deepwater habitats- Trhlis map shows the approximate distribution of large 0.9- Sound C, wetlands in the State. Because of limitations of scale ke Bug- Inlet and source material, some wetlands are not shown k4 Predominantly wetiand 0 25 50 MILES ilmington 34@ Predominantly deepwater habitat 0 25 50 KILOMETERS Figure 2. Wetland distribution in North Carolina and physiography of the State. A, Distribution of wetlands and deepwater habitats. B, Physiography. (Sources: A, TE. Dahl, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, unpub. data, 7991. B, Physiographic divisions from Fenoeman, 1946; landforms data from EROS Data Center) National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: NORTH CAROLINA 299 and others, 1975). Between 183,000 (Cashin and others, 1992) and ground water seldom extends into the root zone. Under these con- 236,000 acres (Moorhead, 1992) of salt marsh (emergent wetlands) ditions, vegetation generally consists of low shrubs and scattered are present in the State, which constitutes about I I percent of the trees (fig. 3B). Near the outer edges of the pocosin, where the peat tidal salt marshes of the southeastern Atlantic coast (Wiegert and layer is thinner, vegetation grades into a mixture of hardwoods and Freeman, 1990). Salt marshes, also known as "low marshes," are evergreens because of the increased availability of nutrients from generally covered by smooth cordgrass. "High marshes" typically contain mixtures of species, in- cluding needlerush and shrubs such as wax myrtle A. Bottom-land hardwood forest and marsh elder. About 30,000 acres of high marsh PALUSTRINE WETLAND are present in the State (Moorhead, 1992). RIVERINE WETILAND Upt-d Most seagrass beds (aquatic beds) are subtidal a d, thus, are classified as deepwater habitats. How- F I R S T T E R R A C E SECOND n TERRACE ever, some seagrass beds in North Carolina are inter- Natural levee Bat,kswarnp tidal and are classified as wetlands. The most exten- sive beds, which typically contain eelgrass, shoalgrass, and widgeon grass, are in Bogue Sound, Core Sound, and eastern Pamlico Sound; seagrass *,Z3 beds also grow in the Pamlico River, Neuse River, and High water i Currituck Sound. Ferguson and others (1989) esti- L war., ---------- mated that 200,000 acres of seagrass beds are present between Bogue Inlet and Oregon Inlet. Alluvium Tidal flats usually consist of sand, silt, or clay regularly exposed and flooded by tides. The vegeta- tion on tidal flats is minimal because of the unstable sediments. About 44,000 acres of tidal flats are B. Pocosin present in North Carolina (Field and others, 1991), PALUSTRINE WETLAND which is about 4 percent of the national total. HYDROLOGIC SETTING Gum-cypress swamp forest Forested wetland (Tall pocasin) Scrub-shrub wetland Abundant precipitation and flat terrain in the (Short pocosin) Coastal Plain are the most important factors that con- tribute to the abundance of wetlands in North Caro- lina. Fifty-nine percent of the State's palustrine wet- lands are headwater wetlands (on streams having an average flow of less than 5 cubic feet per second), and ------- - - -- ---------------- I I percent of palustrine wetlands are hydrologically Mineral or organic soil isolated (North Carolina Department of Environment, Health, and Natural Resources, 1991). Bottom-land hardwood forests. -Water and sediment carried by rivers are responsible for the C. Estuarine wetland origin, character, and maintenance of bottom-land hardwood-forest wetlands. Erosional and depositional ESTUARINE VVETLAND processes typically result in a sinuous river channel located within a broad flood plain (fig. 3A). Sources of water to the wetlands include overbank flow dur- Upi-d High marsh ing seasonal flooding, precipitation, runoff from up- (irregularly flooded) L.. marsh (regularly flooded) land areas, ground water from regional and local aqui- Ir,tertidal fers, and tidal flow (Wharton and others, 1982). Sea- flat Estuarine sonal flooding is the primary hydrologic factor re- op- water sponsible for the existence of these wetlands. At times, Storm tide strearnflow can actually decrease in the downstream Daily high tide direction because water spreads through the flood Daily low tide plain providing increased opportunity for evapotrans- piration or loss to the shallow ground-water system. Wet pine flatwoods and pine savannas. -Wet pine flatwoods and pine savannas occur on flat or nearly flat, wet organic or sandy soils. The soils are EXPLANATION saturated seasonally by a high water table, although Average water table Scrub-shrub vegetation some sites are wet most of the year. These wetlands, Nat ra ev e B ak swarnp r ,gh W-we 4 1 particularly the savannas, also form on gently slop- Emergent vegetation ing hillsides where ground-water seepage occurs Forest vegetation (Schafale and Weakley, 1990). Peat Pocosins. -Because pocosins generally are iso- lated from streams, direct precipitation is the primary Figure 3. Cross-sectional diagrams of typical North Carolina wetlands. A, Bot- moisture source. Pocosins having a thick layer of peat tom-land hardwood forest. 8, Pocosin. C, Estuarine wetland. (Sources: A, Whar- near the center of the wetland are nutrient poor, and ton and others, 1982; Tiner 1984. B, Ash and others, 7 983. C, Tiner 1984.) 300 National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: STATE SUMMARIES ground and surface water. In some cases, however, pocosins are Atlantic white cedar was once common in Coastal Plain wet- entirely forested without the gradation from scrub-shrub to forested lands, particularly in pocosins. However, as much as 200,000 acres wetland. Vertical water movement through the peat is slight, result- of white cedar forest has been harvested from the Great Dismal ing in little loss of water to the ground-water system. Lateral water Swamp and from the peninsula between Albemarle and Pamlico movement also is typically slow, which accounts for the important Sounds. Nonetheless, the area around the Alligator River still con- role of pocosins in preventing rapid surface runoff and, thus, in fil- tains the most extensive white cedar forest in the world, including tering sediment and nutrients from runoff before it enters the estu- approximately 10,000 acres of high-quality cedar swamp forest pro- ary. tected as a North Carolina Natural Heritage Area (Laderman, 1989). Tidalfreshwater and salt marshes. - With the exception of the Estuarine wetlands have been altered less extensively than Cape Fear River, North Carolina's large coastal rivers drain to palustrine wetlands (Cashin and others, 1992). Stockton and sounds rather than to the open ocean. Consequently, tides in these Richardson (1987) reported that there was a decrease in the area of rivers are small in magnitude, resulting in limited tidal flooding and coastal wetland (salt marsh) alteration after the State adopted a a small area of tidal fresh marsh in comparison to other Southeast- strong coastal-wetiand protection program. ern States. Some land-use practices have created new wetlands or enlarged Salt marshes in areas that have high tidal amplitudes can have existing ones. Reservoir construction has increased the acreage of natural berms or levees, which are formed by tidal sedimentation lacustrine wetlands, although usually at the expense of palustrine and consist of coarse-grained material. Water flows through the wetlands. Farm ponds constructed on previously upland areas in one berms in small breaks or over the berms during extremely high tides Piedmont Province county account for about I percent of the total (fig. 3C) to flood the area landward of the berm. Vegetation char- area of the county (Newcomb, 1993). Similar conditions likely ex- acteristics landward of the berm are determined by the periodicity ist throughout the Piedmont region of the State. Interest is increas- of flooding, the salinity level in the soil, the frequency of occur- ing within the State for the use of created wetlands for treating rence of oxygen-poor conditions, and the contribution of ground wastewater. water. In salt marshes with low tidal amplitudes, such as those in estuaries and sounds protected by barrier islands, berm formation CONSERVATION is limited because of low sedimentation rates. Many government agencies and private organizations partici- TRENDS pate in wetland conservation in North Carolina. The most active agencies and organizations and some of their activities are listed in Before colonization by Europeans, the area that now is North table 1. Carolina contained about I I million acres of wetlands (Dahl, 1990). Federal wetland activities. -Development activities in North Dahl estimated that in the mid4980's, about one-half, or 5.7 mil- Carolina wetlands are regulated by several Federal statutory prohi- lion acres, remained. bitions and incentives that are intended to slow wetland losses. Some Because of the absence of reliable historical data, wetland loss of the more important of these are contained in the 1899 Rivers and can be difficult to assess. Moreover, most surveys consider the al- Harbors Act; the 1972 Clean Water Act and amendments; the 1995 teration of a wetland from its natural condition to be a "loss," Food Security Act; the 1990 Food, Agriculture, Conservation, and whereas many pine plantations and some agricultural lands on con- Trade Act; the 1986 Emergency Wetlands Resources Act; and the verted wetlands retain some of their original wetland functions and 1972 Coastal Zone Management Act. support limited wetland uses. North Carolina evaluates wetland re- Section 10 of the Rivers and Harbors Act gives the U.S. Army sources in terms of use support rather than areal coverage (North Corps of Engineers (Corps) authority to regulate certain activities Carolina Department of Environment, Health, and Natural Re- in navigable waters. Regulated activities include diking, deepening, sources, 1991). filling, excavating, and placing of structures. The related section 404 The first major alteration of wetlands in North Carolina was of the Clean Water Act is the most often-used Federal legislation associated with the completion of a canal between Phelps Lake and protecting wetlands. Under section 404 provisions, the Corps issues the Scuppernong River in 1787 (17 years before the Dismal Swamp permits regulating the discharge of dredged or fill material into Canal) that lowered the lake level and permitted farming around the wetlands. Permits are subject to review and possible veto by the U.S. lake (Heath, 1975). The State Literary Board encouraged settlement Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), and the Fws has review and on swamplands in the 1830's by providing funds for drainage ca- advisory roles. Section 401 of the Clean Water Act grants to States nals around Lake Mattamuskeet, Pungo Lake, and New Lake. Sev- and eligible Indian Tribes the authority to approve, apply conditions eral other large-scale wetland alteration projects, including the to, or deny section 404 permit applications on the basis of a pro- drainage of the 43,000-acre Lake Mattamuskeet, occurred in the late posed activity's probable effects on the water quality of a wetland. 1800's and early 1900's (Heath, 1975). Wilson (1962) estimated that Most farming, ranching, and silviculture activities are not sub- More than I million miles of drainage ditches and canals were con- ject to section 404 regulation. However, the "Swampbuster" p-rovi- structed throughout the Coastal Plain to drain wetlands. sion of the 1985 Food Security Act and amendments in the 1990 About one-third of the wetland alteration in the Coastal Plain Food, Agriculture, Conservation, and Trade Act discourage (through has occurred since the 1950's (Cashin and others, 1992). Cashin and financial disincentives) the draining, filling, or other alteration of others (1992) found that in the Coastal Plain, conversion to man- wetlands for agricultural use. The law allows exemptions from pen- aged forests was responsible for 53 percent of the wetland alteration alties in some cases, especially if the farmeT agrees to restore the during that period, and conversion to agriculture was responsible altered wetland or other wetlands that have been converted to agri- for 42 percent. cultural use. The Wetlands Reserve Program of the 1990 Food, About 2.5 million acres of pocosins existed before coloniza- Agriculture, Conservation, and Trade Act authorizes the Federal tion (Richardson and others, 1981). Wilson (1962) reported that Government to purchase conservation easements from landowners about 2.2 million acres of pocosins existed in the early 1960's and who agree to protect or restore wetlands. The Consolidated Farm estimated that more than 100,000 acres of pocosins were drained Service Agency (formerly the Agricultural Stabilization and Con- between 1950 and 1960. Between 1962 and 1972, 33 percent ofthe servation Service) administers the Swampbuster provisions and Wet- State's remaining pocosin habitat was converted to agriculture or lands Reserve Program. The Natural Resources Conservation managed forests. About 700,000 acres of pocosins remain unaltered Service (NRCS) (formerly the Soil Conservation Service) determines in North Carolina (Environmental Defense Fund, 1989). compliance with Swampbuster provisions and assists farmers in the National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: NORTH CAROLINA 301 Table 1. Selected wetland-related activities of government About 15,000 acres of cultivated land in North Carolina were en- agencies and private organizations in North Carolina, 1993 rolled in the program in 1992 (Darby, 1993). [Source: Classification of activities is generalized from information provided State wetland activities.-The State has adopted a strong by agencies and organizations. e, agency or organization participates in coastal-wetlands program as part of a broader coastal zone man- wetland-related activity; agency or organization does not participate in agement effort. The North Carolina Coastal Area Management Act wetland-related activity. MAN, management; REG, regulation; R&C, res- toration and creation; LAN, land acquisition; R&D, research and data col- of 1974 includes provisions for local land-use planning, regulation lection; D&I, delineation and inventory] forAreas ofEnvironmental Concern (including estuarine waters and coastal wetlands), and permit coordination within the 20 counties affected by the act. Uses that are not water dependent are not per- Agency or organization 13@ 0' mitted in wetlands, but uses that are water dependent may be per- FEDERAL mitted. The Division of Coastal Management administers the act Department of Agriculture and also administers the National Estuarine Research Reserve and Consolidated Farm Service Agency ..................... North Carolina Coastal Reserve systems in the State. About 32 per- Forest Service .........................................................0 0 0 0 0 cent of all Coastal Plain wetlands are publicly owned (North Caro- Natural Resources Conservation Service .......... lina Department of Environment, Health, and Natural Resources, Department of Commerce National Oceanic and Atmospheric 1991). Administration ................................................................. No State regulations exist specifically to protect freshwater Department of Defense wetlands. Moreover, Clean Water Act Section 404 regulations a]- Army Corps of Engineers .......... low up to 10 acres of headwater wetlands to be filled without a Military reservations .....................................................0 permit or public review. However, section 401 of the Clean Water Department of the Interior Fish and Wildlife Service ..............................................e Act requires that any applicant for a Federal permit or license first Geological Survey .......................................................... ... ... ... ...* obtain certification that the proposed activity, including those in National Biological Service ......................................... ... ... ... ... 0 wetlands, will comply with water-quality standards in the affected National Park Service ................................................... State. The Division of Environmental Management has developed Environmental Protection Agency .................................. a preliminary rating system for freshwater wetlands to assist in STATE Department of Agriculture ............................................... ... ... ... ... ... 0 making permitting decisions as part of the section 401 program Department of Environment, Health, and (North Carolina Department of Environment, Health, and Natural Natural Resources Resources, 1993). Some additional measure of protection of wet- Division of Coastal Management ................................ 0 lands is provided by other classifications and designations, includ- Division of Environmental Health ................................ ... ... ... ... ... ing Outstanding Resource Waters, Nutrient Sensitive Waters, High Division of Environmental Management ..................._ ... * Quality Waters, Shellfishing Waters, Primary Nursery Areas, and Division of Forestry Resources ................................... ... ... ... - 0 0 Division of Marine Fisheries ......................................... Secondary Nursery Areas. Division of Parks and Recreation ...............................* In 1986, the North Carolina Department of Transportation, in Division of Planning and Assessment ........................ ... ... ... ... ... cooperation with the North Carolina Wildlife Resources Commis- Division of Soil and Water Conservation .................. ... ... _ ... 0 sion, the FWS, and The Nature Conservancy, purchased Company Division of Water Resources .......................................*... ... ... ... ... Swamp, a 1,436-acre tract of bottom-land hardwood-forest wetland Department of Transportation ......................................... ... ... ... ... Museum of Natural Science on the Roanoke River. The wetland is being used to mitigate un- avoidable wetland losses associated with individually permitted Wildlife Resources Commission .....................................0 * 0 0 SOME COUNTY AND LOCAL GOVERNMENTS .............9 e * a section 404 activities that the Department conducts in bottom-land PRIVATE ORGANIZATIONS ...............................................e hardwood forests and that cannot be mitigated on site. This mitiga- tion bank avoids the need to establish numerous small mitigation efforts and protects a valuable wetland resource. County and local wetland activities. -Many local govern- identification of wetlands and in the development of wetland pro- ments, particularly in the 20 counties affected by the Coastal Area tection, restoration, or creation plans. Management Act, have wetland-protection policies in their land-use The 1986 Emergency Wetlands Resources Act and the 1972 plans. Local governments also use the purchase of greenways Coastal Zone Management Act and amendments encourage wetland through bond issues (for example, Mecklenburg County, which protection through funding incentives. The Emergency Wetland contains Charlotte) or as a required part of the development pro- Resources Act requires States to address wetland protection in their cess (for example, Raleigh) to protect wetlands. Carteret County Statewide Comprehensive Outdoor Recreation Plans to qualify for (which contains Morehead City) is participating in the Advanced Federal funding for State recreational land; the National Park Ser- Identification Program, an EPA program which attempts to identify vice (NPS) provides guidance to States in developing the wetland wetland parcels inappropriate for disposal of fill material and, in component of their plans. Coastal States that adopt coastal-zone some cases, wetlands that could serve as disposal sites. management programs and plans approved by the National Oceanic Private wetland activities. -private organizations in North and Atmospheric Administration are eligible for Federal funding and Carolina are active in public education, lobbying for wetland pro- technical assistance through the Coastal Zone Management Act. tection, land acquisition, and public participation in permit review Large tracts of land, many containing wetlands, are managed and policy development. The Nature Conservancy, North Carolina by the FWS, the U.S. Forest Service, the U.S. Department of De- chapter, has purchased wetlands in North Carolina for preservation, fense, and the NPS. The management plans for these lands are sub- and ownership of some of these lands has been transferred to Fed- ject to a review process that allows local groups and individuals to eral and State agencies. The North Carolina Coastal Federation, the have input into the planning process. Pamlico-Tar River Foundation, the Neuse River Foundation, the North Carolina is one of nine States participating in the U.S. Sierra Club, the National Wildlife Federation, the Environmental Department ofAgriculture's (USDA) PilotWetlands Reserve Program. Defense Fund, Ducks Unlimited, and others provide services to The purpose of the program is to restore I million acres of culti- educate the public on wetland issues and provide input to State and vated land to wetlands by 1995. Landowners receive easement pay- Federal agencies on wetland issues. ments from usDA, which pays 75 percent of the restoration costs. The NRCs and Fws assist in completion of the restoration plans. 302 National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: STATE SUMMARIES References Cited -1992, North Carolina lake assessment report: North Carolina De- partment ofErivironment, Health, and Natural Resources, Division of Ash, A.N., McDonald, C.B., Kane, E.S., and Pories, C.A., 1983, Natural Environmental Management, Water Quality Section, Report 92-02, and modified pocosins -Literature synthesis and management op- 353 p. tions: U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Report FWS/OBS-83-04, -1993, Indicators of freshwater wetland function and value for pro- 156 p. tection and management: North Carolina Department of Environment, Cashin, G.E., Dorney, J.R., and Richardson, C.J., 1992, Weiland alteration Health, and Natural Resources, Division of Environmental Manage- trends on the North Carolina Coastal Plain: Wetlands, v. 12, no. 2, ment, Water Quality Section, 50 p. p. 63-71. -1994, Water quality progress in North Carolina-] 992-1993 305(b) Clay, I.W., Orr, D.M., Jr., and Stuart, A.W., eds., 1975, North Carolina at- report: North Carolina Department ofEnvironment, Health, and Natu- las-Portrait of a changing southern state: Chapel Hill, University ral Resources, Division of Environmental Management, Water Qua] - of North Carolina Press, 33 1 p. ity Section, 96 p. and appendix. Cowardin, L.M., Carter, Virginia, Golet, F.C., and LaRoe, E.T., 1979, Clas- Richardson, C.J., Evans, R., and Carr, D., 1981, Pocosins- An ecosystem sification of wetlands and deepwater habitats of the United States: U.S. in transition, in Richardson, C.J., ed., Pocosin wetlands: Stroudsburg, Fish and Wildlife Service Report FWSIOBS-79131, 131 p. Pa., Hutchinson Ross Publishing Company, p. 3-19. Dahl, T.E., 1990, Wetlands-Losses in the United States, 1780's to 1980's: Schafale, M.P., and Weakley, A.S., 1990, Classification ofthe natural com- Washington, D.C., U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Report to Congress, munities of North Carolina, third approximation: North Carolina 13 p. Department ofEnvironment, Health, and Natural Resources, Division Darby, PX, 1993, Protection and management options for wetlands in the of Parks and Recreation, 325 p. Albemarle -Pamlico study area: Raleigh, N.C., U.S. Fish and Wild- Sharitz, R.R., and Gibbons, J.W., 1982, The ecology of southeastern shrub life Service, 46 p. bogs (pocosins) and Carolina Bays-A community profile: U.S. Fish Environmental Defense Fund, 1989, Carolina wetlands-Our vanishing and Wildlife Service Report FWS/OBS-82/04, 93 p. resource: Raleigh, N.C., 89 p. and appendix. Stockton, M.B., and Richardson, C.J,, 1987, Wetland development trends Fenneman, N.M., 1946, Physical divisions of the United States: Washing- in coastal North Carolina, USA, from 1970 to 1984: Environmental ton, D.C., U.S. Geological Survey special map, scale 1:7,000,000. Management, v. 11, no. 5, p, 649-657. Ferguson, R.L., Rivera, J.A., and Wood, L.L., 1989, Submerged aquatic Tiner, R.W., Jr., 1984, Wetlands of the United States-Current status and vegetation in the Albemarle-Pamlico estuarine system: Beaufort, N.C., recent trends: Washington, D.C., U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 59 p. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, National Marine U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 1992, Regional wetlands concept plan, Fisheries Service, Project No. 88-10, 68 p. Emergency Wetlands Resources Act, Southeast Region: Atlanta, Ga., Field, D.W., Reyer, A.J., Genovese, PX, and Shearer, B.D., 1991, Coastal U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 259 p. wetlands of the United States- An accounting of a valuable national Wharton, C.H., Kitchens, W.M., Pendleton, E.C., and Sipe, T.W., 1982, The resource: Washington, D.C., National Oceanic and Atmospheric Ad- ecology of bottomiand hardwood swamps of the southeast-A com- ministration and U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service cooperative publica- muniiy profile; U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Report FWS/OBS-81/ tion, 59 p. 37, 126 p. Heath, R.C., 1975, Hydrology of the Albemarle -Pamlico region, North Wiegert, P.G., and Freeman, B.J., 1990, Tidal salt marshes of the south- Carolina-A preliminary report on the impact of agricultural devel- eastern Atlantic coast-A community profile: U.S. Fish and Wildlife opments: U.S. Geological Survey Water-Resources Investigations Service Biological Report 85(7.29), 70 p. Report 9-75, 98 p. Wilson, K.A., 1962, North Carolina wetlands-Their distribution and man- Hefner, J.M., and Moorhead, K.K., 1991, Mapping pocosins and associated agement: Raleigh, North Carolina Wildlife Resources Commission wetlands in North Carolina: Wetlands, v. 11, p. 377-389. Project W-6-R, 169 p. Ladermari,A.D., 1989, The ecology ofAtlantic white cedar wetlands-A community profile: U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Biological Report 85(7.21), 89 p. FOR ADDITIONAL INFORMATION: District Chief, U.S. Geological Moorhead, K.K., 1992, Welland resources of coastal North Carolina: Wet- Survey, 3916 Sunset Ridge Road, Raleigh, NC 27607; Regional Wetland lands, v. 12, no. 3, p. 184-191. Coordinator, U,S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 1875 Century Building, Suite Newcomb, D.J., 1993, Positive effects on total wetland area by human ac- 200, Atlanta, GA 30345 tivities in Alarriance County, North Carolina: Chapel Hill, University of North Carolina, unpublished M.A. thesis, 72 p. North Carolina Department of Environment, Health, and Natural Resources, Prepared by 1991, Original extent, status, and trends of wetlands in North Caro- Jerad D. Bales and Douglas J. Newcomb, lina-Areport to the N.C. Legislative Study Commission on wetlands U.S. Geological Survey protection: North Carolina Department of Environment, Health, and Natural Resources, Division of Environmental Management, Water Quality Section, Report 91-01, 33 p. U.S. Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper 2425 National Water Summary-Wetland Resources 303 North Dakota Wetland Resources WtIands covered nearly 11 percent of North Dakota, about 4.9 erine, Estuarine, and Marine. The Palustrine System includes only million acres, in predevelopment times (Dahl, 1990). By the 1980's, wetlands, whereas the other systems comprise wetlands and wetlands covered about 6 percent of the State, or about 2.7 million deepwater habitats. Wetlands of the systems that occur in North acres, which represents a 45 percent reduction from the predevel- Dakota are described below. opment acreage (North Dakota Parks and Recreation Department, 1987). System Wetland description Wetlands are ecologically and economically valuable to the State. Wetlands trap, remove, and transform waterborne constitu- Palustrine .................. Wetlands in which vegetation is predominantly ents by processes such as sedimentation, plant uptake, microbial trees (forested wetlands); shrubs (scrub-shrub wetlands); persistentor nonpersistent emergent, transformation, and soil adsorption. Attenuation of runoff from erect, rooted, herbaceous plants (persistent- and snowmelt and rainfall by wetlands reduces the magnitude of poten- nonpersistent-emergent wetlands); or sub- tial flooding downstream. Riparian vegetation along watercourses mersed and (or) floating plants (aquatic beds). reduces the potential for bank and channel erosion by stabilizing Also, intermittently to permanently flooded the banks and channels. In some areas, the water held in a wetland open-water bodies of lessthan 20 acres in which recharges the local ground-water system. water is less than 6.6 feet deep, Wetlands provide habitat for furbearers, game species, and Lacustrine ................. Wetlands within an intermittently to permanently flooded lake or reservoir. Vegetation, when pres- many nongame-wildlife species. Probably the best known function ent, is predominantly nonpersistent emergent of wetlands in North Dakota is waterfowl production. The Prairie plants (nonpersistent-emergent wetlands), or Pothole Region, which extends across much of the State, contains submersed and (or) floating plants (aquatic only 10 percent of the waterfowl breeding area in North America, beds), or both. yet it accounts for 50 percent of the duck crop in an average year Riverine ..................... Wetlands within a channel. Vegetation, when pres- (Smith and others, 1964). The hunting industry in States all along ent, is same as in the Lacustrine System the Central Flyway benefit from North Dakota's prairie pothole Currently (1993), no estimate of statewide wetland acreage in wetlands. Aside from their value as breeding areas, North Dakota each of these ecological systems is available. Stewart and Kantrud wetlands also provide resting and feeding habitat for migratory (1973) estimated wetland acreages by using data collected in 1967; waterfowl and wading birds. however, their classification system differed from that of Cowardin and others (1979). Stewart and Kantrud classified wetlands accord- TYPES AND DISTRIBUTION ing to the following habitat types: natural basin wetlands, streams Wetlands are lands transitional between terrestrial and and oxbows, stock ponds and dugouts, and road ditches and drain- deepwater habitats where the water table usually is at or near the age channels. Under the Cowardin and others (1979) classification land surface or the land is covered by shallow water (Cowardin and system, natural basin wetlands would include wetlands classified others, 1979). The distribution of wetlands and deepwater habitats mostly as palustrine and a small amount as lacustrine and are esti- in North Dakota is shown in figure 2A; only wetlands are discussed mated to constitute about 91 percent, or about 2.5 million acres, of herein. the wetlands in the State. Streams and oxbows would be classified Wetlands can be vegetated or nonvegetated and are classified as palustrine or riverine and constitute about 160,000 acres. Stock on the basis of their hydrology, vegetation, and substrate. In this ponds and dugouts would be classified as palustrine or lacustrine summary, wetlands are classified according to the system proposed and constitute about 50,000 acres. Road ditches and drainage chan- by Cowardin and others (1979), which is used by the U.S. Fish and nels would be classified as palustrine and constitute about 30,000 acres. The total acres of wetlands in Stewart and Kantrud's estimate Wildlife Service (Fws) to map and inventory the Natioa wetlands. for the late 1960's is about 2.7 million acres, slightly more than the At the most general level of the classification system, wetlands are 2.5 million acres estimated by the Fws using 1980's data (Dahl, grouped into five ecological systems: Palustrine, Lacustrine, Riv- 1990). Stewart and Kantrud (1973) divided North Dakota into four biotic regions (fig. 2B). They estimated that 2.2 million acres of wetlands, or 81 percent of the wetlands in the State, are in the Prai- rie Pothole Region. Specific estimates were not available for the Agassiz Lake Plain, the Coteau Slope, or the Southwestern Slope Regions. The wetland types in the Prairie Pothole, Agassiz Lake Plain, and Coteau Slope Regions are similar; about 90 percent of _;t @_ the wetlands are in natural basins. The least amount of wetland acreage in the four regions is in the Southwestern Slope Region. About 95 percent of the wetlands in this region are riparian wet- lands along streams and around stock ponds and dugouts. More than 90 percent of the wetlands in the State are classi- fied by Stewart and Kantrud (1973) as natural basin wetlands, com- monly called prairie potholes. The prairie potholes primarily con- Figure 1. Prairie pothole wetlands about 28 miles tain persistent-emergent wetlands, variously called wet meadows, northwest of Jamestown. (Photograph by TC. Winter marshes, and fens. The distinction among these different wetlands U.S. Geological Survey.) is based in part on vegetation. The species of plants found in a 304 National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: STATE SUMMARIES wetland is a function of water availability in each year. Climatic Prairie potholes that contain submerged or floating plants are fluctuations can cause emergent wetlands to change or revert to an called aquatic-bed wetlands. Aquatic-bed vegetation commonly open-water phase in some years (Stewart and Kantruld, 1972). Wet grows in ponds and lakes that persist for weeks or longer. Most of meadows are present in the shallow pond basins and around the the plant species are bottom-rooted plants, but free-floating plants deeper ponds and lakes. Flooding persists in wet meadows for only also are common. The types of plant species present are closely a few weeks following spring snowmelt or a few days following correlated with water salinity. The plants that grow in fresh or heavy rainstorms. Plant species that characterize wet meadows are slightly brackish ponds or lakes are not present in the saline waters fine-textured grasses, rushes, and low sedges. Marshes form in pond of alkali ponds and lakes. basins where water either persists throughout the year or persists Other palustrine classes that exist but are not common in North for long periods and then evaporates or is transpired in late sum- Dakota are scrub-shrub wetlands and forested wetlands. Scrub- mer and fall. Marsh vegetation consists of grasses or grasslike plants, shrub wetlands contain willows, cottonwoods, and aspens. Forested such as sedges, bulrushes, and cattails, that are coarser and taller wetlands have formed along rivers and contain mostly cottonwoods. than the plants in the wet meadow. Fen wetlands are quagmires that The distribution and abundance of wetlands in North Dakota have floating mats of emergent vegetation. Fen wetlands are a re- are the result of the State's glacial history. The Coteau Slope, Prai- sult of ground-water seepage on sloping terrain, usually adjacent rie Pothole, and Agassiz Lake Plain Regions were glaciated during to a pond or lake. Plant species in fen wetlands can be the same as the most recent glacial period, whereas the Southwest Slope Region those in wet meadows and marshes. Fen wetlands are not common was not. Wetlands in the glaciated regions formed in depressions in North Dakota. resulting from glacial and postglacial activity. Permanently flooded 104' 10V 100. Williston 48" -409 414. 46" - 0 25 50 MILES 25 50 KILOMETERS Coteau WETLANDS AND DEEPWATER HABITATS Distribution of wetlands and deepwater habitats- Prairie This map shows the approximate distribution of large wetlands in the State. Because of limitations of scale Pothole and source material, some wetlands are not shown Region !]o Predominantly wetland Is Southwestern @15 0 Slope Region 1'. Predominantly deepwater habitat S Area typified by a high density of small wetlands BIOTIC REGIONS Figure 2. Welland distribution in North Dakota and biotic regions of the State. A, Distribution of wetlands and deepwater habitats. B, Biotic regions. (Sources: A, TE. Dahl, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, unpub. data, 199 7. B, Modified from Stewart and Kantrud, 1973.) National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: NORTH DAKOTA 305 to sentipermanently flooded wetlands generally are in areas of end moraines and stagnation moraines, which RECHARGE are most common in the Coteau Slope Region. Sea- RECHARGE WETLAND FLOW-THROUGH WETLAND FLOW-THROUGH sonally flooded to intermittently flooded wetlands WETLAND DISCHARGE WETLAND DISCHARGE generally form in areas of ground moraine and lake WETLAND WETLAND plains, which are most common in the Prairie Pothole and Agassiz Lake Plain Regions. Wetlands in the unglaciated Southwestern Slope Region are few and are present as riparian wetlands along watercourses Intermediate flow I@Ier@ediate flow and as artificially flooded wetlands around reservoirs, stock ponds, and dugouts. The Fws National Wetlands Inventory is mapping R-W@ the Nation's wetlands. Wetlands are identified on U.S. Geological Survey 7.5-minute quadrangle topographic maps, many of which are stored in digital format. EXPLANATION Currently (1993), paper maps are available for 79 per- Direction of ground-water Average water table cent of North Dakota, and digital-format maps are flow available for 31 percent of the State. Figure 4. Generalized ground-water flow in the Prairie Pothole Region. HYDROLOGIC SETTING (Source: Modified from Winter 1989.) Wetlands form where surface-water and ground-water flow a year, and the water generally has low dissolved- solids concentra- patterns cause water to be near or above the soil surface for a sig- tions. Other wetlands are flow-through systems; that is, ground water nificant period of time during the growing season. The location and flows into parts of the wetland while other parts of the wetland re- persistence of the wetland is a function of climate, topography, charge the ground-water system. Flow-through wetlands tend to hold ground-water flow patterns, surface-water flow patterns, and run- water for longer periods and generally have higher dissolved-solids off characteristics in a basin. concentrations. A third type of wetland serves only as a discharge The most common wetlands in North Dakota are prairie pot- area for ground water. These wetlands are permanently flooded and holes. These wetlands formed in glacial deposits such as end mo- typically saline. raines, stagnation moraines, ground moraines, outwash plains, and Climate has a major effect on wetland formation and perma- lake plains. The glacial deposits generally consist of silt and clay nence. Most of North Dakota is dry; average precipitation ranges through which water moves slowly. Outwash plains, however, mostly from about 13 inches in the western part of the State to about 20 consist of sorted sand, which transmits water readily. In the morainal inches along the eastern border. Average annual free-water-surface areas, no natural surface-drainage network has developed, so many evaporation ranges from 32 inches in the northeastern part of the depressions are not connected to an integrated drainage system State to about 40 inches in the southwestern part (Winter and oth- (fig. 3). ers, 1984). Because average annual free-water- surface evaporation is greater than average annual precipitation, there is an annual mois- ture deficit that inhibits wetland formation and permanence. North Dakota's harsh winters also affect the hydrology of wet- lands in the State. About 25 percent of the annual precipitation oc- curs as snow, which generally falls between October and March (Winter and others, 1984). Snow is blown off the unsheltered farm- land and accumulates in sheltered areas and depressions, such as wetlands. When the snow begins to melt in the spring, the ground 01@@' is still frozen, so snowmelt and spring rains do not readily infiltrate into the soil. As a result, snowmelt runoff and spring rains are the 4W major source of water to the prairie potholes (Shjeflo, 1968). tob Annual variations in climate affect the permanence of wetlands. Stewart and Kantrud (1973) estimated that 67 percent of the wet- lands (by area) in the Prairie Pothole Region are seasonally flooded Figure 3. Prairie pothole wetlands near Chase Lake or temporarily flooded wetlands. Because these wetlands are filled National Wildlife Refuge. Note the absence of a in the spring by snowmelt runoff, the amount of snowpack accu- surface-drainage system. (Photograph courtesy of mulated in the winter determines to what extent a wetland is filled. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service.) Temperature and windspeed determine how long the water remains in the wetland. Standing water is present from about a week in the The interaction between ground water and a wetland affects temporarily flooded wetlands to about 2 months in the seasonally the permanence and water quality of the wetland. Studies of the flooded wetlands. All of these wetlands go dry before the growing Prairie Pothole Region (Hubbard, 1988; Winter, 1989) indicate that season is complete. Following a winter of little snowfall, many ground-water flow among wetlands is complicated. Wetlands in the wetlands do not receive any water for that year, and some of them same area can discharge to different ground-water systems: one to are tilled. About 29 percent of the wetlands in the Prairie Pothole a regional system, another to an intermediate system, and still an- Region have been tilled. other to a local system (fig. 4). Forested and scrub-shrub wetlands are present along creeks Generally, wetlands in the Prairie Pothole Region have three and rivers and around most of the dugouts and small reservoirs in types of interaction with the ground-water system (Kantrud and the State. During runoff periods, particularly following snowmelt others, 1989). Some wetlands recharge the underlying ground-wa- runoff, parts of the creek and river flood plains are inundated for ter system. These wetlands tend to hold water for only a few months short periods of time. The runoff also fills the dugouts and small 306 National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: STATE SUMMARIES reservoirs. During drier parts of the year, the existence of forested Table 1. Selected wetland-related activities of government and scrub-shrub wetlands along the creeks and rivers and around agencies and private organizations in North Dakota, 1993 dugouts and small reservoirs depends on ground water. (Source: Classification of activities is generalized from information provided In some wildlife refuges, the Fws has attempted to stabilize the by agencies and organizations. *, agency or organization participates in effects that climate has on the permanence of wetlands. An example wetland-related activity; .... agency or organization does not participate in wetland-related activity. MAN, management; REG, regulation; R&C, res- is J. Clark Salyer National Wildlife Refuge. Five small dams that toration and creation; LAN, land acquisition; R&D, research and data col- can maintain about 4 feet of water over parts of the flood plain were lection; D&I, delineation and inventory] built on the Souris River. Water is regulated to sustain the desired emergent wetlands. If emergent vegetation, such as cattails, becomes too thick, the growth can be controlled by increasing the water level Agency or organization 45' 0@ 1@11 in the wetland or draining the wetland. Because the Souris River FEDERAL provides a reliable source of water, the variable climatic conditions Department ofAgriculture will not greatly affect the management of the wetlands. Consolidated Farm Service Agency ........................... ... Forest Service .................................................................0 Natural Resources Conservation Service ................ ... TRENDS Department of Defense Army Corps of Engineers ..............................................0 Predevelopment wetland acreage in North Dakota has been Military reservations .....................................................0... ... ... ... ... estimated to be about 4.9 million acres (North Dakota Parks and Department of the Interior Recreation Department, 1987; Dahl, 1990). When settlers moved Bureau of Land Management ......................................0 into the State, they noted in theirjournals many wet meadows, par- Bureau of Reclamation ................................................. ... ... Fish and Wildlife Service ..............................................0 ticularly along the Red River of the North. Farmers drained some Geological Survey ................. ........................................ ... ... ... of these wetlands to grow crops. The most recent and complete National Biological Service . ........................................ ... ... ... ... published wetland inventory was done in 1982 by the Natural Re- National Park Service ................................................... sources Conservation Service (formerly the Soil Conservation Ser- Environmental Protection Agency .................................. vice) (NRCS), which estimated that 2.7 million acres of wetlands STATE remained in the State (North Dakota Parks and Recreation Depart- Department of Health and Consolidated Laboratories ............................................... ment, 1987). The most extensive drainage has occurred in the Department of Transportation ......................................... Agassiz Lake Plain Region, where about 1.2 million acres of wet Forest Service ..................................................................... soils have been drained (North Dakota Parks and Recreation De- Game and Fish Department .....................I ........................ partment, 1987). To a lesser extent, wetlands have been drained for Parks and Tourism Department ....................................... . ... ... road construction, urban development, and surface mining. In ad- Water Commission ............................................................. ... PRIVATE dition to the loss of many wetlands due to drainage, others have been Ducks Unlimited .................................................................. ... ... degraded by siltation and chemical contamination. The Nature Conservancy .................................................. Agricultural drainage still poses the greatest threat to wetlands in the State. The wetlands that were the easiest and cheapest to drain already have been drained; therefore, economic factors limit cur- rent drainage trends. As small farms are consolidated into large Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), and the Fws has review and commercial farms, drainage might not be as large a financial bur- advisory roles. Section 401 of the Clean Water Act grants to States den, and additional wetlands might be drained. Economists feel that and eligible Indian Tribes the authority to approve, apply conditions if free-market prices remain low, Federal farm programs will have to, or deny section 404 permit applications on the basis of a pro- made wetland drainage unprofitable (North Dakota Parks and Rec- posed activity's probable effects on the water quality of a wetland. reation Department, 1987). However, if crop prices increase and Most farming, ranching, and silviculture activities are not sub- Federal programs are eliminated, drainage will be profitable and ject to section 404 regulation. However, the "Swampbuster" provi- political pressure could change the State's "no-net-loss" policy. sion of the 1985 Food Security Act and amendments in the 1990 Food, Agriculture, Conservation, and Trade Act discourage (through CONSERVATION financial disincentives) the draining, filling, or other alteration of wetlands for agricultural use. The law allows exemptions from pen- Many government agencies and private organizations partici- alties in some cases, especially if the farmer agrees to restore the pate in aspects of wetland management and conservation in North altered wetland or other wetlands that have been converted to agri- Dakota. The most active agencies and organizations and some of cultural use. The Wetlands Reserve Program of the 1990 Food, their activities are listed in table 1. Agriculture, Conservation, and Trade Act authorizes the Federal Federal welland activities. -Development activities in North Government to purchase conservation easements from landowners Dakota wetlands are regulated by several Federal statutory prohi- who agree to protect or restore wetlands. The Consolidated Farm bitions and incentives that are intended to slow wetland losses. Some Service Agency (formerly the Agricultural Stabilization and Con- of the more important of these are contained in the 1899 Rivers and servation Service) administers the Swampbuster provisions and Wet- Harbors Act; the 1972 Clean Water Act and amendments; the 1985 lands Reserve Program. The NRcs determines compliance with Food Security Act; the 1990 Food, Agriculture, Conservation, and Swarripbuster provisions and assists farmers in the identification of Trade Act; and the 1986 Emergency Wetlands Resources Act. wetlands and in the development of wetland protection, restoration, Section 10 of the Rivers and Harbors Act gives the U.S. Army or creation plans. Corps of Engineers (Corps) authority to regulate certain activities The 1986 Emergency Wetlands Resources Act encourages in navigable waters. Regulated activities include diking, deepening, wetland protection through funding incentives. The act requires filling, excavating, and placing of structures. The related section 404 States to address wetland protection in their Statewide Comprehen- of the Clean Water Act is the most often-used Federal legislation sive Outdoor Recreation Plans to qualify for Federal funding for protecting wetlands. Under section 404 provisions, the Corps issues State recreational land; the National Park Service (NPs) provides permits regulating the discharge of dredged or fill Material into guidance to States in developing the wetland component of their wetlands. Permits are subject to review and possible veto by the U.S. plans. National Water Surnmary-Wetland Resources: NORTH DAKOTA 307 Federal agencies are responsible for the proper management and Tourism Department manages 16,000 acres of land in State of wetlands on public land under their jurisdiction. In North Da- Parks but currently (1993) has no estimate of wetland acreage. The kota, the FWS manages about 290,000 acres in 63 National Wildlife North Dakota Forest Service manages 13,000 acres of land in five Refuges. The (FWS) manages about 240,000 acres in 1,000 Water- State Forests but currently (1993) has no estimate of wetland acre- fowl Protection Units. In addition, the Fws has conservation ease- age. ments to 700,000 acres of private wetlands. The Bureau of Land Private wetland activities. -Ducks Unlimited works with Fed- Management (BLM) manages about 6,800 acres of wetlands in eral, State, and private landowners to restore and enhance lands for 66,000 acres of BLM land. The U.S. Forest Service manages about wildlife production, with emphasis on waterfowl production. The 1. 1 million acres of land in three National Grasslands that have an Nature Conservancy manages about 4,000 acres of land on two estimated riparian acreage of 16,000 acres. The NPS manages 7 1,000 preserves, and about one-half of the acreage is wetlands. The Na- acres in two National Historic Sites and one National Park but cur- ture Conservancy's interest is to preserve habitat unique to endan- rently (1993) has no estimate of wetland acreage under its jurisdic- gered plant and animal species in the State, particularly species tion. The Bureau of Reclamation (BOR) has acquired land owing to unique to alkali wetlands. mitigation of projects in the State. The BOR has transferred man- agement responsibilities of about 17,000 acres to the FWS, of which References Cited 5,000 acres are wetlands. The BOR is still developing about 6,000 acres of mitigated land, of which 1,000 acres are wetlands. The BOR Cowardin, L.M., Carter, Virginia, Golet, F.C., and LaRoe, E.T., 1979, Clas- also is developing about 10,000 acres of land encompassed by its sification of wetlands and deepwater habitats of the United States: U.S. projects, of which 6,000 acres are wetlands. Eventually the man- Fish and Wildlife Service Report FWS/OBS-79/31, 131 p. agement responsibilities of all land being developed by the BOR will Dahl, T.E., 1990, Wetlands-Losses in the United States, 1780's to 1980's: be transferred to another Federal or State agency. Washington, D.C., U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Report to Congress, 13 p. State wetland activities. -State programs for wetland protec- Hubbard, D.E., 1988, Glaciated prairie wetlands functions and values-A tion are 80-acre drainage permits (North Dakota Century Code 61- synthesis of the literature: U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Biological 01-22), Senate Bill No. 2035, and the State Water Bank Program. Report 88(43), 50 p. Since 1957, North Dakota has required landowners to obtain a per- Kantrud, H.A., Krapu, G.L., and Swanson, G.A., 1999, Prairie basin wet- mit to drain wetlands that have a drainage area larger than 80 acres. lands of the Dakotas-A community profile: U.S. Fish and Wildlife Permits are reviewed by the local Water Resources District and by Service Biological Report 85(7.29), 1 If p. the North Dakota State Water Commission State Engineer. Senate North Dakota Parks and Recreation Department, 1987, North Dakota State Bill No. 2035, commonly known as the "Do-net-loss" bill, was comprehensive outdoor recreation plan addendum, wetlands priority passed in 1987. The bill maintains existing drainage regulations, but plan: North Dakota Parks and Recreation Department, 82 p. Shieflo, J.B., 1969, Evapotranspiration and the water budget of prairie pot- the bill also requires that the same acreage of wetlands will exist in holes in North Dakota: U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper the future as existed on January 1, 1987. The Water Commission 5 85 -B, 49 p. State Engineer and the Game and Fish Department Director must Smith, A.G., Stoudt, J.H., and Gollop, J.B., 1964, Prairie potholes and jointly find that the wetland proposed to be destroyed will be re- marshes, in Linduska, J.P., ed., Waterfowl tomorrow: Washington D.C., placed by an equal acreage of suitable wetland. A wetlands bank was U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, p. 39-50. established to keep track of the wetlands drained and restored. The Stewart, R.E., and Kantrud, H.A., 1972, Vegetation of prairie potholes, North wetlands bank is the responsibility of the Water Commission. Wet- Dakota, in relation to quality of water and other environmental fac- lands drained are reported as debits and wetlands created or restored tors: U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 585-D, 36 p. are reported as credits. The "no-net-loss" bill mandates that the bank -1973, Ecological distribution of breeding water fowl populations in cannot carry a net debit greater than 2,500 acres. The State Water North Dakota: Journal of Wildlife Management, v. 37, no. 1, p. 39- 50. Bank Program was created in 1981 to give landowners financial Winter, T.C., 1989, Hydrologic studies of wetlands in the northern prairie, incentive to set aside cropland to preserve the State's wetlands. The in Van Der Valk, A., ed., Northern prairie wetlands: Ames, Iowa State program is administered at the State and county levels and uses University Press, p. 16-54. private donations. Winter, T.C., Benson, R.D., Engberg, R.A., and others, 1984, Synopsis of The Department of Health and Consolidated Laboratories re- ground-water and surface-water resources of North Dakota: U.S. views section 404 permit applications to ensure compliance with Geological Survey Open-File Report 84-732, 127 p. water-quality regulations. Also, the Department submits a biennial assessment of the State's surface-water quality, including wetlands, to the EPA and the U.S. Congress, according to Clean Water Act FOR ADDITIONAL INFORMATION: District Chief, U.S. Geological Section 305(b) requirements. Survey, 821 East Interstate Avenue, Bismarck, ND 58501; Regional Wet- State agencies also are responsible for the proper management land Coordinator, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Fish and Wildlife Enhance- of wetlands on public land under their jurisdiction. The North Da- ment, P.O. Box 25486, Denver Federal Center, Denver, CO 80225 kota Game and Fish Department manages 80,000 acres in fee or title ownership, and many of these acres are wetlands. The North Da- Prepared by kota Department of Transportation manages 195,000 acres of right- Wayne R. Berkas, of-ways along the highways in the State and uses best-management U.S. Geological Survey practices to avoid unnecessary disturbances of wetlands while main- taining or constructing highways. Unavoidable filling of wetlands is mitigated through wetland restoration or creation. The State Parks 308 National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: STATE SUMMARIES U.S. Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper 2425 National Water Summary-Wetland Resources 309 Ohio Wetland Resources Obio's wetlands cover about 1. 8 percent of the State (Dahl, 1990). Palustrine wetlands such as swamps (forested wetlands), wet Though greatly reduced in acreage since colonial times, these wet- prairies (emergent wetlands), coastal and embayment marshes lands are an important economic and environmental resource. Wet- (emergent wetlands), peatlands (wetlands that have organic soils), lands can lessen the effects of floods by storing floodwater and re- and wetlands along stream margins and backwaters collectively are leasing it gradually. Wetlands also help regulate water quality, and the most important Ohio wetlands. Lacustrine and riverine wetlands wetland vegetation can provide bank stabilization and reduce ero- constitute only a small percentage of the State's wetland acreage. sion. Wetlands provide habitat for migratory birds, waterfowl, and Many wetlands have formed on poorly drained soils that are of gla- fish and are prominent attractions in a well-developed State system cial origin. Remnants of once extensive forested wetlands and wet of nature areas, preserves, and parks (fig. 1). Ohio wetlands attract prairies are widely distributed across glaciated parts of northern, large numbers of hunters, fishermen, and naturalists. Historically, central, and western Ohio. Wetlands in these areas include the wetlands have provided timber and peat and have been converted swamps, oak forests, and wet prairies that were part of a large wet- into some of the most fertile farmland in the State. land system known historically as the Great Black Swamp (Ohio Department of Natural Resources, 1988) and the wet prairies and TYPES AND DISTRIBUTION wet mixed-oak forests of south-central Ohio (Forsyth, 1970). Ohio peatlands comprise bogs and fens. Bogs receive mois- Wetlands are lands transitional between terrestrial and ture mostly from precipitation and typically contain large numbers deepwater habitats where the water table usually is at or near the of mosses that are tolerant of acidic conditions. Fens generally re- land surface or the land is covered by shallow water (Cowardin and ceive drainage from surrounding mineral soils and commonly sup- others, 1979). The distribution of wetlands and deepwater habitats port communities of grasses, sedges, or reeds (Mitsch and Gosse- in Ohio is shown in figure 2A; only wetlands are discussed herein. link, 1986). Bogs and fens are located in glaciated areas of north- Wetlands can be vegetated or nonvegetated and are classified em and western Ohio (Andreas and Knoop, 1992). Bogs are con- on the basis of their hydrology, vegetation, and substrate. In this centrated in the Southern New York Section of the Appalachian summary, wetlands are classified according to the system proposed Plateaus of northeastern Ohio, and fens are common in the Till by Cowardin and others (1979), which is used by the U.S. Fish and Plains of the Central Lowland of western Ohio (fig. 2B) (Denny, Wildlife Service (Fws) to map and inventory the Nation's wetlands. 1979). At the most general level of the classification system, wetlands are Large coastal marshes border the southwestern shore and grouped into five ecological systems: Palustrine, Lacustrine, Riv- Sandusky Bay of Lake Eric (fig. 2A). These marshes generally range erine, Estuarine, and Marine. The Palustrine System includes only from I to 2 miles in width and are interrupted by points of higher wetlands, whereas the other systems comprise wetlands and land and developed areas. Undisturbed shores of western Lake Erie deepwater habitats. Wetlands of the systems that occur in Ohio are have marshes fronted by low barrier beaches and interspaced with described below. river mouths. These wetlands are protected by constructed earthen and rock dikes. Two sand spits separate Sandusky Bay from Lake System Wetland description Erie and protect extensive wetlands in the bay. East of Sandusky Bay, low, marshy backshores grade into low bluffs, and wetlands in this Palustrine .................. Wetlands in which vegetation is predominantly area are restricted to mouths of tributaries such as the Huron River trees (forested wetlands); shrubs (scrub-shrub and Old Woman Creek. A large wetland, Mentor Marsh, occupies wetlands); persistent or nonpersistent emergent, erect, rooted, herbaceous plants (persistent- and the former valley and delta of the Grand River. Twelve bedrock is- non persi stent-emerg ent wetlands); or sub- lands in western Lake Erie have rocky shores, but small embayments mersed and (or) floating plants (aquatic beds). on large islands contain wetlands (Herdendorf, 1992). Also, intermittently to permanently flooded open-water bodies of less than 20 acres in which water is less than 6.6 feet deep. Lacustrine ................. Wetlands within an intermittently to permanently flooded lake or reservoir. Vegetation, when pres- ent, is predominantly nonpersistent emergent plants (nonpersistent-emergent wetlands), or submersed and (or) floating plants (aquatic beds), or both. Riverine ..................... Wetlands within a channel. Vegetation, when pres- ent, is same as in the Lacustrine System. There is no published comprehensive inventory of Ohio wet- lands. Dahl (1990) provided the only recent estimate oftotal area- about 483,000 acres. Two inventories are presently (1993) in progress. The National Wetlands Inventory has been completed for northern and eastern Ohio. State and Federal agencies began the Ohio Wetland Inventory in 1991 and have located and classified wetlands in 50 of 89 Ohio counties. This inventory locates wetlands Figure 1. Cedar Run in Cedar Bog Nature Preserve. on LANDSAT satellite images and, in some cases, verifies wetland Cedar Run drains bog meadows and marl meadows of identification and classification by ground reconnaissance (Ohio Cedar Bog, a relict alkaline fen. (Photograph by Ralph Department of Natural Resources, 1992; Yi and others, 1994). E. Ramey, Columbus, Ohio). 310 National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: STATE SUMMARIES Numerous riverine and palustrine wetlands are located in the As ice of the most recent glaciation receded to the southern drainages of the Muskingum, Scioto, and Great Miami Rivers (fig. shore ofLake Erie, it blocked the northward drainage ofmeltwater 2A). These wetlands extend from glaciated headwaters into and formed a large lake (Lake Maumee) in northwestern Ohio. As unglaciated sections. To date, the hydrology and ecology of these ice sheets continued to recede, Lake Maumee drained, and sand wetlands have been little studied. deposits from ancient dunes and flat deposits that formed the lakebed were left behind. Lake deposits contained large amounts HYDROLOGIC SETTING of silt and clay and formed poorly drained soils that at one time supported extensive swamps (Forsyth, 1970). Wetlands form where ground water or surface water saturates Sand deposits left by Lake Maumee were inhabited by oak poorly drained or impermeable soils. Wetlands typically develop in forests and wet prairies. Oak forests developed where precipitation depressions or other low areas that are intermittently to permanently drained through thick sand of ancient dunes and accumulated on flooded by runoff, ground-water discharge, or precipitation. Water underlying clay till. The surfaces of these sand deposits were rela- is removed primarily by runoff, evaporation, and transpiration. In tively dry and supported only dr-y-tolerant, oak forests. Where sand areas that develop into wetlands, moisture is maintained at or near deposits were thin, ground water saturated the sandy soil and cre- the surface by fine-grained, hydric soils. These water-saturated soils ated swamps or shallow lakes. These areas developed into wet prai- support the growth of specialized plants (hydrophytes) that are ries (Forsyth, 1970). adapted to low oxygen concentrations and, in some cases, extreme Lake deposits from early glaciation and glacial outwash from acidity, alkalinity, or low nitrogen concentrations. more recent glaciations have been deposited in valleys of the Many Ohio wetlands are located on fine-grained soils that were Kanawha Section of the Appalachian Plateaus of southeastern Ohio deposited by an extensive system of glacial lakes. These lakes were (fig. 2B). Following the retreat of the last glacier, wetlands have created as advancing glaciers blocked the flow of preglacial streams developed along streams that drain these deposits. These wetlands or when receding glaciers blocked the flow of meltwater, As the lakes typically are located on saturated loam soils and include oak-maple drained, their beds became extensive deposits of fine-grained silts associations on clays; elm, sycamore, and birch associations on al- and clays known as till. These deposits cover extensive areas of luvial bottoms; and American elm, ash, and maple associations in northwestern Ohio (Spooner, 1982). better drained and aerated soils (Spooner, 1982). Sedges, button- 14" d A Mentor le 01 1Z, S-d,.ky Marsh D 82" W level d mck Cuyahi ga Vall 11 I@Cfeqo n 41' Canton@ Li c V C8dl 0 B PHYSIOGRAPHIC DIVISIONS .P Central Lowland A. Eastern Lake Section lumbus B. Till Plains Intorior Low Plateaus 0 'A Nsli_ I C. Lexington Plain wwoe Fo Appalachian Plateaus D. Southern New York Section Natio E. Kanawha Section Ohio fliver Islands NWR f A WETLANDS AND DEEPWATER HABITATS Ohl Distribution of wetlands and deepwater habitats- This map shows the approximate distribution of large wetlands in the State. Because of limitations of scale and source material, some wetlands are not shown _rcroin)t 0 25 50 MILES Predominantly wetland i I I Predominantly deepwater habitat 0 25 50 KILOMETERS Figure 2. Wetland distribution in Ohio and physiography of the State. A, Distribution of wetlands and deepwater habitats. 8, Physiography. (Sources: A, T E. Dahl, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, unpub. data, 199 1. 0, Physiographic divisions from Fenneman, 1946; landforms data from EROS Data Center.) National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: OHIO 311 bush, willow, alder, and maple grow in the wettest areas. Swamp Changing water levels are important in the formation and forests consist of swamp white oak, black willow on wetter sites, maintenance of Lake Erie wetlands. Water levels in Lake Erie and and American elm, sycamore, and maple stands in less wet areas. in bordering coastal marshes are subject to long-term and short- Recent beaver activity has killed trees and created wetter and more term fluctuations. Long-term fluctuations are caused by changes open wetlands (Spooner, 1982). in inflow that result from extended periods of wet or dry weather in In the glaciated part of Ohio, peatlands are located on lakebed the upper Great Lakes drainage. Wind action produces short-term deposits (Dachnowski, 1912) and in areas where glacial deposits changes in water level called seiches. These changes can cause water formed topographic features that favor the retention of water and chemical exchanges similar to those in salt marshes during tidal (Andreas, 1985). These features provided the poorly drained soils flow (Mitsch, 1992). Fluctuating water levels promote wetland for- and hydrologic setting necessary for the formation and maintenance mation by producing barrier bars, deltas, beaches, spits, lagoons, of peatlands (Andreas, 1985; Andreas and Knoop, 1992). A com- and natural levees. Water-level fluctuations also rejuvenate existing mon glacially derived feature, kettle holes, formed as ice was trapped coastal wetland communities and preclude the conversion of veg- in glacial deposits and then melted. As these ice pieces slowly etated marshes into dry fields (Herdendorf, 1992). Water levels at thawed, meltwater eroded the surrounding deposits into funnel- Cleveland have fluctuated almost 5 feet during the past 130 years. shaped depressions (Goldthwait, 1959). Large kettle holes devel- oped into lakes that eventually were filled by peat from accumu- TRENDS lated and consolidated plant debris (Denny, 1979). The resultant wetlands developed plant communities dominated by mosses and From the 1780's to the 1980's, wetland area in Ohio declined evergreens. by 90 percent, from about 5,000,000 acres to about 483,000 acres Hydrologic and biological differences separate peatlands into (Dahl, 1990). For the conterminous 48 States, the percentage of acidic (pH 3.5 - 4.5) bogs and circumneutral (pH 5.5 - 8.0) fens. In wetland loss in Ohio is second only to that of California. Drainage Ohio, fens develop where springs emerge from glacial deposits and of wetlands for agriculture has been the primary cause of wetland produce a continuous flow of cool, mineral-rich water. Primarily loss, but recreational use, fluctuating water levels, urban develop- sedges and grasses, not sphagnum, are adapted to this environment ment, mining, logging, and fire also have contributed (Andreas and and in fens form most of the peat. Bogs develop as water-saturated Knoop, 1992). organic materials decay slowly at low pH and temperature to form The swamps of the Great Black Swamp in northwestern Ohio thick peat deposits (Denny, 1979). and the marshes bordering Lake Erie were once the State's two larg- The relation of glacial geology to wetland hydrology has been est wetland systems. Before European settlement of the area, the thoroughly studied in Cedar Bog, a typical Ohio fen located in the Great Black Swamp occupied nearly 900,000 acres. Beginning in Mad River Valley (figs. I and 2A). Cedar Bog developed in the Mad 1859, a series of drainage projects converted the swamp into some River Valley Train (fig. 3), an outwash made up of highly perme- of the most productive farmland in Ohio. Today only 5 percent of able, calcium carbonate gravel (Quinn, 1974). In the Mad River the original swamp forest remains (Andreas and Knoop, 1992). Valley, ground water generally is 10 feet below the land surface. Coastal wetlands along the Ohio shore of Lake Erie have been However, Cedar Bog has developed on hydric soils that were pro- destroyed as agriculture, real-estate development, and recreational duced where ground water discharges on the eastern side of the areas have expanded (Heath, 1992). From 1850 to 1993, about valley. The water that sustains Cedar Bog is derived mainly from 95 1,000 of 988,000 acres of coastal wetlands were destroyed along glacial outwashes to the north and east (Forsyth, 1974). These the southwestern coast of Lake Erie (Herdendorf, 1992). Only 10 outwashes consist of coarse calcium carbonate gravel and rise about percent of the original marsh along Lake Erie exists today (Andreas 100 feet above the fen. Ground water flows through the outwashes and Knoop, 1992). Since 1988, public agencies and private organi- until it reaches the base of an escarpment along the eastern border zations involved in the Lower Great Lakes Joint Venture of the North of Cedar Bog. Here, cool, alkaline ground water discharges in American Waterfowl Management Plan have purchased and restored springs, saturates soils, and flows across the fen. The continuously about 5,240 acres of Lake Erie wetlands (Ohio Department of Natu- seeping ground water produces a perpetually cool, moist microen- ral Resources, 1992). vironment that maintains a flora composed of many species nor- Before 1780, about 183,000 acres (0.5 percent of Ohio's total mally found much farther north (Frederick, 1974). As surface wa- area) were covered by peatlands (Dachnowski, 1912). In 1912, ter accumulates, it is drained by Cedar Run and the Mad River Dachnowski conducted a comprehensive, county-by-county survey (Hillman and Kenoyer, 1989). of glaciated parts of Ohio and located 206 peatlands that had a com- EXPLANATION Direction of ground-water MAD RIVER VALLEY TRAI N flow Average water table Cedar bog vilt/ Marl meadow Gurl4at till Herbaceous meadow Scrub-shrub vegetation Glacial till Arb rvitae stand Glacial till Glacial otwast, Bedrock Deciduous forest Bedrock Figure 3. Generalized geohydrologic setting and vegetation of Cedar Bog. (Sources: Forsyth, 1974; Frederick, 1974.) 312 National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: STATE SUMMARIES bined area of about 150,000 acres. Andreas and Knoop (1992) field- Table 1. Selected wetland-related activities of government inventoried the flora of 125 peatlands and estimated that between agencies and private organizations in Ohio, 1993 1900 and 1991, 76,500 of 79,500 acres of peatland were destroyed, [Source: Classification of activities is generalized from information provided and only 2 percent of these wetlands today contain plant commu- by agencies and organizations. e, agency or organization participates in nities associated with peatlands. wetland-related activity; agency or organization does not participate in wetiand-related activity. MAN, management; REG, regulation; R&C, res- toration and creation; LAN, land acquisition; R&D, research and data col- CONSERVATION lection; D&I, delineation and inventoryl Many government agencies and private organizations partici- pate in wetland conservation in Ohio. The most active agencies and Agency or organization <@@ organizations and some of their activities are listed in table 1. FEDERAL Federal wetland activities. -Development activities in Ohio Department of Agriculture wetlands are regulated by several Federal statutory prohibitions and Consolidated Farm Service Agency ........................... ...9. ... ... ... incentives that are intended to slow wetland losses. Some of the more Natural Resources Conservation Service ................ important of these are contained in the 1899 Rivers and Harbors Department of Defense Army Corps of Engineers .............................................. ... Act; the 1972 Clean Water Act and amendments; the 1985 Food Department of the Interior Security Act; the 1990 Food, Agriculture, Conservation, and Trade Fish and Wildlife Service., ............................................ Act; the 1986 Emergency Wetlands Resources Act; and the 1972 Geological Survey ............. ............................................ ... ... ... ... . Coastal Zone Management Act. National Biological Service ......................................... ... ... ... ... . Section 10 of the Rivers and Harbors Act gives the U.S. Army National Park Service ...................................................0e. ... Environmental Protection Agency .................................. ... . ... ... Corps of Engineers (Corps) authority to regulate certain activities STATE in navigable waters. Regulated activities include diking, deepening, Department of Highways ........................ ......................... ... .. .. ... ... filling, excavating, and placing of structures. The related section 404 Department of Natural Resources of the Clean Water Act is the most often-used Federal legislation Division of Natural Areas and Preserves ..................* protecting wetlands. Under section 404 provisions, the Corps issues Division of Parks .............................................................0 Division of Soil and Water ............................................ ... ... ... ... permits regulating the discharge of dredged or fill material into Division of Wildlife ............................... ...........9 0 0 wetlands. Permits are subject to review and possible veto by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency .................................. ... Environmental Protection Agency, and the FwS has review and ad- PRIVATE ORGANIZATIONS visory roles. Section 401 of the Clean Water Act grants to States Ducks Unlimited .................................................................. ... ... and eligible Indian Tribes the authority to approve, apply conditions The Nature Conservancy .................................................. to, or deny section 404 permit applications on the basis of a pro- posed activity's probable effects on the water quality of a wetland. Most farming, ranching, and silviculture activities are not sub- and on Ohio River islands. Wetlands on designated islands and in ject to section 404 regulation. However, the "Swampbuster" provi- embayments could become part of the Ohio River Islands National sion of the 1985 Food Security Act and amendments in the 1990 Wildlife Refuge. The FwS also manages wetlands along the Lake Erie Food, Agriculture, Conservation, and Trade Act discourage (through shore in the Ottawa National Wildlife Refuge, surveys flora and financial disincentives) the draining, filling, or other alteration of fauna of Ohio wetlands, and reviews all section 404 permit appli- wetlands for agricultural use. The law allows exemptions from pen- cations and section 401 water-quality certifications. The U.S. For- alties in some cases, especially if the farmer agrees to restore the est Service (Fs) manages wetlands in the Wayne National Forest in altered wetland or other wetlands that have been converted to agri- cooperation with the Ohio Department of Natural Resources. The cultural use. The Wetlands Reserve Program of the 1990 Food, Fs has obtained three wetlands as part of eight recent land acquisi- Agriculture, Conservation, and Trade Act authorizes the Federal tions. In addition, three wetlands recently have been constructed. Government to purchase conservation easements from landowners No specific inventories of wetland plants and animals have been who agree to protect or restore wetlands. The Consolidated Farm initiated by the FS, but recent inventories of amphibians, reptiles, Service Agency (formerly the Agricultural Stabilization and Con- and fish have included wetland areas. The NPS manages wetlands in servation Service) administers the Swampbuster provisions and Wet- the Cuyahoga Valley National Recreation Area between Cleveland lands Reserve Program. The Natural Resources Conservation Ser- and Akron. The NPs also protects all wetlands on fee-purchased vice (formerly the Soil Conservation Service) (NRcs) determines lands, allows wetlands to develop naturally on all acquired lands, compliance with Swampbuster provisions and assists farmers in the and purchases easements that protect wetlands on adjacent proper- identification of wetlands and in the development of wetland pro- ties. The NRCS confirms wetland boundaries for the Ohio Wetland tection, restoration, or creation plans. Inventory and notifies farmers when they are not in compliance with The 1986 Emergency Wetlands Resources Act and the 1972 the Food Security Act of 1985. Coastal Zone Management Act and amendments encourage wetland State wetland activities. -Ohio designates all wetlands as protection through funding incentives. The Emergency Wetland State Resource Waters. As such, wetland water quality is protected Resources Act requires States to address wetland protection in their from any degradation that may interfere with designated uses. The Statewide Comprehensive Outdoor Recreation Plans to qualify for designation of Ohio wetlands as State Resource Waters protects them Federal funding for State recreational land; the National Park Ser- from the addition of toxic substances and addition or removal of any vice (NPS) provides guidance to States in developing the wetland earthen material. Any dredging or filling of an Ohio wetland requires component of their plans. Coastal and Great Lakes States that adopt a section 404 permit issued by the Corps and a section 401 water- coastal-zone management programs and plans approved by the quality certification issued by the Ohio Environmental Protection National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration are eligible for Agency (Ohio Environmental Protection Agency, 1992). Typical Federal funding and technical assistance through the Coastal Zone activities that might affect wetlands and, consequently, require a ManagementAct. section 404 permit and section 401 water-quality certification are Several Federal agencies have managerial and regulatory re- construction of boat ramps, placement of rip-rap for erosion pro- sponsibilities for specific Ohio wetlands. The Fws is presently tection, placing fill, construction of dams or dikes, and stream (1993) surveying Ohio wetlands located in Ohio River embayments channelization or diversion. National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: OHIO 313 The Division of Wildlife has worked with conservation groups Dachnowski, Alfred, 1912, Peat deposits of Ohio -Their origin, formation and government groups such as the Fws and NRCS to purchase, re- and uses: Columbus, Ohio Geological Survey, 4th series, Bulletin 16, store, and construct wetlands for waterfowl and other migratory 424 p. birds. An important part of this effort has been the Lower Great Dahl, T.E., 1990, Wetlands-Losses in the United States, 1780's to 1980's: Lakes Joint Venture ofthe North American Waterfowl Management Washington, D.C., U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Report to Congress, 13 p. Plan. This program purchases and manages wetlands in five focus Denny, G.L., 1979, Bogs, in Lafferty, M.B., ed., Ohio's natural heritage: areas. The Division also has initiated an Ohio income tax check- Columbus, The Ohio Academy of Science and the Ohio Department off option that provides monies for a nongame-wildlife management of Natural Resources, p. 134-157. program and the Habitat Restoration Program, which protects wild- Fenneman, N.M., 1946, Physical divisions of the United States: U.S. Geo- life habitat. The Division regulates and manages wetlands in 46 logical Survey special map, scale 1:7,000,000. public wildlife areas throughout the State. Forsyth, J.L., 1970, A geologist looks at the natural vegetation map of Ohio: The Ohio Natural Areas Act of 1970.: established a statewide The Ohio Journal of Science, v. 70, no. 3, p. 180-19 1. system of natural areas and nature preserves that are managed ei- -1974, Geologic conditions essential for the perpetuation of Cedar ther by the Division of Natural Areas and Preserves or by a cooper- Bog, Champaign County, Ohio: The Ohio Journal of Science, v. 74, no. 2, p. 116-139. ating managing agency. Twenty-five natural areas and preserves in Frederick, C.M., 1974,A natural history ofthe vascular floraofCedar Bog, the State contain 4,505 acres of wetlands. Wetlands constitute ap- Champaign County, Ohio: ne Ohio Journal of Science, v. 74, no. 2, proximately one-fourth of all natural-area and preserve acreage in p. 65 -115. Ohio (Ohio Department of Natural Resources, 1988). The Division Goldthwait, R.P., 1959, Scenes in Ohio during the last ice age: The Ohio of Parks and Recreation manages wetlands in 59 State parks. Man- Journal of Science, v. 59, no. 4, p. 193 - 216. agement responsibilities are coordinated with the Division of Wild- Heath, R.T., 1992, Nutrient dynamics in Great Lakes coastal wetlands- life, the Corps, and other governmental agencies. Future directions: Journal ofGreat Lakes Research, v. 18 no. 4, p. 590- The Division of Soil and Water Conservation has initiated the 602. Ohio Land Capability Analysis Program. The program provides Herdendorf, C.E., 1992, Lake Erie coastal wetlands -An overview: Jour- nal of Great Lakes Research, v. 18, no. 4, p. 533 -551 @ information on wetlands in the form of computer-generated maps Hillman, D.L., and Kenoyer, Galen, 1989, An analysis of the Cedar Bog and data relating to soil types, mineral resources, vegetation, and hydrologic system through the use of a three-dimensional groundwa- land use to local governments and private landowners. ter flow model, in Glotzhober, R.C., Kochman, Anne, and Schultz, The Department of Highways recently initiated programs that W.T., eds., Cedar Bog Symposium 11: Columbus, Ohio Historical identify wetlands likely to be affected by road construction. These Society, p. 65-74. programs provide for the purchase or development of wetlands to Mitsch, W.J., 1992, Combining ecosystem and landscape approaches to mitigate wedand loss. Great Lakes wetlands: Journal of Great Lakes Research, v. 18, no. 4, Wetland management in the future will be coordinated by a p. 552-570. statewide task force consisting of about 30 individuals from State, Mitsch, W.J., and Gosselink, J.G., 1986, Wetlands: New York, Van Nostrand Reinhold, 539 p. county, and municipal governments; environmental and advocacy Ohio Department of Natural Resources, 1988, Ohio wetlands priority con- organizations; and business and industry affiliates. The Commis- servation plan: Columbus, Ohio Department of Natural Resources, sion on Dispute Resolution and Conflict Management will chair the Office of Outdoor Recreational Services, 67 p. task force. The task force will attempt to reach consensus on the -1992, North American Waterfowl Management Plan, Lower Great public values of wetlands, wetlands assessment, wetlands regulation, Lakes Joint Venture, 1988-1991: Columbus, Ohio Department of and wetlands creation and restoration. Natural Resources, 27 p. Private wetland activities. - The Nature Conservancy has es- Ohio Environmental Protection Agency, 1992, Fact sheet-Section 401 tablished the following preserves that contain wetlands: 7 sites water quality certification: Columbus, Ohio Environmental Protection (3,240 acres of wetlands) in the Eastern Lakes Section of the Cen- Agency, Division of Water Quality Planning and Assessment, 3 p. Quinn, M.J., 1974, The late glacial history of the Cedar Bog area, in King, tral Lowland Province; 6 sites (1,000 acres of wetlands) in the Till C.C., and Frederick, C.M., eds., Cedar Bog Symposium: Columbus, Plains Section; I I sites (2,510 acres of wetlands) in the Southern The Ohio State University, p. 7-12. New York Section of the Appalachian Plateaus; and 2 sites (125 acres Spooner, D.M., 1982, Wetlands in Teays-stage valleys in extreme southeast- of wetlands) in the Kanawha Section. Thirteen of these sites are ent Ohio-Formation and flora, in McDonald, B.R., ed., Proceed- managed by a cooperating public or private agency. Ducks Unlim- ings of the Symposium on Wetlands of the Unglaciated Appalachian ited has been influential in developing and preserving wetlands, Region, West Virginia University, Morgantown, May 26-28: particularly coastal marshes along Lake Erie. The organization's Morgantown, West Virginia, p. 89-99. activities have included the purchase, restoration, and enhancement Yi, Gi-Chul, Risley, David, Koneff, Mark, and Davis, Craig, 1994, Devel- of wetlands. The Oak Harbor Conservation Club, Wildlife Legisla- opment of Ohio's GIS-based wetlands inventory: Journal of Soil and tive Fund of America, Ohio Plan Clubs, Lake Erie Wildflowers, Water Conservation, v. 49, p. 23-28. Maumee Valley Audubon Club, Ohio Historical Society, Izaak Walton League, Sierra Club, League of Ohio Sportsmen, and other conservation groups contribute significantly to wetland conserva- FOR ADDITIONAL INFORMATION: District Chief, U.S. Geological tion. Survey, 975 West Third Avenue, Columbus, OH 43212; Regional Weiland Coordinator, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, BHW Building, 1 Federal References Cited Drive, Fort Snelling, MN 55111 Andreas, B.K., 1985, The relationship between Ohio peatland distribution Prepared by and buried river valleys: The Ohio Journal of Science, v. 85, no. 3, Michael Little and Marcus C. Waldron, p. 116-125. U.S. Geological Survey Andreas, B.K., and Knoop, J.D., 1992, 100 years of changes in Ohio peatlands: The Ohio Journal of Science, v. 92, no. 5, p. 130-138. Cowardin, L.M., Carter, Virginia, Golet, F.C., and LaRoe, E.T., 1979, Clas- sification of wetlands and deepwater habitats ofthe United States: U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Report FWS/OBS -79/31, 131 p. 314 National Water Surnmary-Wetland Resources: STATE SUMMARIES U.S. Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper 2425 National Water Summary-Wetland Resources 315 Oklahoma Wetland Resources Wtlands cover about 950,000 acres (2 percent) of Oklahoma- Palustrine wetlands constitute most of Oklahoma's wetland a decrease of about 67 percent over the last 200 years (Dahl, 1990). acreage. Palustrine wetlands in the State include forested wetlands Oklahoma's wetland acreage places the State twenty-third in total such as bottom-land hardwood forests and swamps; emergent wet- wetland acreage among the 48 conterminous States. lands such as marshes and wet meadows; aqqatic-bed wetlands Wetlands are environmentally and economically valuable to the characterized by submersed or floating plants in ponds, takes, riv- State. They reduce flood peaks by dispersing water over a large area ers, and sloughs; and sparsely vegetated wetlands such as small, and releasing it gradually to downstream areas, thus reducing the intermittently flooded playa lakes. severity of floods. Wetlands in flood plains (fig. 1) improve the Palustrine forested wetlands are most common on river flood quality of water in rivers and streams by trapping or absorbing sedi- plains and along some streams in the moist, eastern part of Okla- ment, nutrients, and toxins. Wetland vegetation helps stabilize homa in the Ozark Plateaus, Ouachita, Coastal Plain, and eastern streambanks and provides food for wildlife. The vegetation also Central Lowland physiographic provinces (fig. 2B). A survey con- reduces wind and water erosion. ducted in the early 1980's indicated that forested wetlands covered Wetlands provide important wildlife habitat. Most of the State Is about 240,000 acres of the eastern one-third of the State at that time fish and wildlife, during some part of their life cycle, depend on (Brabander and others, 1985). The degree and duration of river riparian (streamside) habitats that include wetlands. Wetlands also flooding generally influence which tree species predominate in a provide important stopover, feeding, overwintering, and breeding forested wetland and what common name is applied to the wetland. grounds for migratory waterfowl, wading birds, and shore birds. The Commonly, forested wetlands that are deeply flooded for much of tourist industry benefits from the scenic beauty of the State's diverse the year are termed "swamps," whereas those that are flooded in- wetlands, which afford opportunities for recreational activities such termittently or only during the wettest parts of the year are termed as hunting, fishing, birdwatching, nature photography, camping, "bottom-land hardwood forests." hiking, and boating. Riparian wetlands are palustrine wetlands that form along the banks of streams, rivers, and lakes. These wetlands can be domi- TYPES AND DISTRIBUTION nated by herbaceous emergent plants (emergent wetland), shrubs and saplings (scrub-shrub wetland), or trees (forested wetland). Wetlands are lands transitional between terrestrial and deep- Riparian wetlands are especially important to fish and wildlife in water habitats where the water table usually is at or near the land the grasslands of the plains and prairie regions because they pro- surface or the land is covered by shallow water (Cowardin and oth- vide shelter and moisture in a landscape that is otherwise sparsely ers, 1979). The distribution of wetlands and deepwater habitats in vegetated by trees or shrubs and lacks year-round sources of water. Oklahoma is shown in figure 2A; only wetlands are discussed herein. In Oklahoma, riparian wetlands range in area from about 10 Wetlands can be vegetated or nonvegetatcd and are classified to 2,000 acres (Oklahoma Tourism and Recreation Department, on the basis of their hydrology, vegetation, and substrate. In this 1987). The largest expanses of riparian wetland are along the summary, wetlands are classified according to the system proposed Cimarron, Canadian, Washita, and Red Rivers and their tributaries. by Cowardin and others (1979), which is used by the U.S. Fish and Examples of these wetland are the numerous small marshes on river Wildlife Service (Fws) to map and inventory the Nation's wetlands. terraces along the Cimarron River. A recent study of riparian lands At the most general level of the classification system, wetlands are in western Oklahoma (Stinnett and others, 1987) indicated that ri- grouped into five ecological systems: Palustrine, Lacustrine, Riv- parian areas that are frequently flooded cover about 621,000 acres erine, Estuarine, and Marine. The Palustrine System includes only along 5,200 miles of streams west of about the longitude of Okla- wetlands, whereas the other systems comprise wetlands and homa City. Forests cover from 22 to 28 percent of the riparian flood deepwater habitats. Wetlands of the systems that occur in Oklahoma plains. are described below. System Wetland description Palustrine .................. Wetlands in which vegetation is predominantly trees (forested wetlands); shrubs (scrub-shrub wetlands); persistent or nonpersistent emergent, _j erect, rooted, herbaceous plants ipersistent- and non persistent-e mergent wetlands); or sub- a 0 mersed and (or) floating plants (aquatic beds). Also, intermittently to permanently flooded open-water bodies of less than 20 acres in which water is less than 6.6 feet deep. Lacustrine ....... ......... Wetlands within an intermittently to permanently flooded lake or reservoir. Vegetation, when pres- ent, is predominantly nonpersistent emergent plants (non persistent-emergent wetlands), or submersed and (or) floating plants (aquatic beds), or both. Figure 1. Stinchcomb Wildlife Refuge above Lake Riverine ..................... Wetlands within a channel. Vegetation, when pres- Overholser, Oklahoma. (Photograph courtesy of U.S. ent, is same as in the Lacustrine System. Fish and Wildlife Service.) 316 National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: STATE SUMMARIES 100. 98. 96' tie) o th IN k e Grut M A, Lk NWR 16 Id A ulsa ho R 136, 0 25 50 MILES 511 0 KILOMETERS Muskogee. 0 25 city .k@ Norma C idmw Nat a on A tion 48P 34- Great Plains Ozark Plateaus WETLANDS AND DEEPWATER HABITATS Distribution of wetlands and deepwater habitats- B This map shows the approximate distribution of large wetlands in the State. Because of limitations of scale and source material, some wetlands are not shown Central Lowland Predominantly wetland Ouachita Predominantly cleepwater habitat Province- F Coastal Plain PHYSIOGRAPHIC DIVISION 24 35 C 20 0.1 ci o@" 44 D 7 14 PRECIPITATION '0.5 -36- Line of equal annual precipitation- Interval 4 inches RUNOFF F -PI-sr.- -16- Line of equal annual runoff- Interval, in inches, is variable Figure 2. Wetland distribution in Oklahoma and physical and climatological features that control wetland distribution in the State. A, Distribution of wetlands and cleepwater habitats. 8, Physiography. C, Average annual precipitation. D, Average annual runoff. (Sources: A, TE. Dahl, U.S, Fish and Wildlife Service, unpub. data, 199 1. B, Physiographic divisions from Fenneman, 1946; landforms data from EROS Data Center. C and D, Blumer 1986). National Water Surnmary-Wetland Resources: OKLAHOMA 317 Oklahoma's playa lakes are mostly in the panhandle region. wetlands. Flood-plain forests and swamps delay runoff and provide They provide overwintering and resting habitat for waterfowl mi- surface-water storage. Organic soils in the forested wetlands func- grating along the Central Flyway (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, tion somewhat like sponges, increasing water-storage capacity and 1990). The number of playa lakes in the State is about 1,200, total- retarding evapotranspiration (Wilkinson and others, 1987). ing about 9,000 acres, and the lakes range in area from less than I Riparian wetlands in south-central Oklahoma are in areas clas- acre to more than 200 acres (Oklahoma Department of Wildlife sified as rolling to gently rolling prairie and savannah. These wet- Conservation, unpub. data, 1990). Playa lakes are sand- or mud- lands have formed on flood plains of pen-nanent streams and are bottomed lakes that receive most of their moisture from precipita- maintained by frequent or seasonal flooding or by a high water table. tion runoff and have little external drainage. They range from dry Riparian-wetland vegetation typically consists of emergent herba- lakebeds to shallow lakes that can be freshwater or saline. Fresh- ceous plants, shrubs, or trees. Soil types range from sandy loam to water playas are numerous, small to medium in size, and serve as clay loam underlain by sandstone and shale. Average annual precipi- zones of recharge to the underlying aquifer (Osterkamp and Wood, tation in the region ranges from 30 to 34 inches. Lake evaporation 1987). Saline playas are larger in size and fewer in number than the is about 63 inches annually (Barclay, 1980). Because of the exten- freshwater playas and are areas of discharge from the underlying sive channelization of streams, which has lowered the water table, aquifer. and the many impoundments, which have reduced flooding, a large Playa lakes smaller than 20 acres typically are intermittently percentage of the riparian wetlands once present in this part of the flooded, whereas larger playa lakes generally are continuously State have been lost (Barclay, 1980). flooded. Small playas are classified as palustrine wetlands; the A study by Taylor and others (1984) describes the riparian larger, more permanent playa lakes are lacustrine wetlands and wetlands along the north side of the Cimarron River in north-cen- bordered by palustrine emergent wetlands. Flooded playa lakes, tral Oklahoma as marshes and ponded water in surface depressions especially those containing vegetation, provide optimum wildlife of terrace deposits along the river. The terrace surface is generally habitat. level to gently sloping, and sand dunes line the river. The wetlands Most lacustrine wetlands in Oklahoma are in the larger playa began to appear in formerly dry depressions in 1975 because of a lakes and in the shallows of the many reservoirs on rivers statewide. rise in the water table. The depressions have flat bottoms and are Because of their depth, reservoirs typically contain more deepwater assumed to be formed by wind. The areal extent of these wetlands habitat than wetland; however, wetlands in the shallow margins of has increased since 1975, owing to a further rise in ground-water reservoirs can be extensive in areas of low relief. Siltation (as in levels. The terrace and associated deposits consist of dune sands Great Salt Plains Lake on the Arkansas River) or declining water and alluvial and wind-blown sediments overlying bedrock. Soils in levels caused by low strearnflow in dry years or reservoir leakage the nonwetland areas of the terrace are sandy loam or loamy sand, (as in Optima Lake) can create additional wetland acreage in reser- whereas soils in the wetlands are clayey with some characteristics voirs. Lacustrine wetlands in reservoirs and large playa lakes and of hydric soils. the adjacent palustrine marshes provide valuable habitat for resi- The riparian wetlands in western Oklahoma are on the flood dent and migratory waterfowl. Both Great Salt Plains Lake and plains of perennial streams in an area of the State that is transitional Optima Lake are National Wildlife Refuges. between the and lands of the west and the humid, temperate for- Riverine wetlands include beds of small streams and the shal- ests of the east (Stinnett and others, 1987). These wetlands are lows of rivers. Riverine wetlands are restricted to the channels of maintained by periodic flooding, ground water, and local precipi- streams and undarnmed rivers and do not include wetlands in their tation. During drought, the wetlands can dry up, causing the ripar- flood plains. Because of the many miles of streams and rivers in ian vegetation to disappear. Soil types in the area range from loamy Oklahoma, the State has extensive riverine wetlands. However, res- fine sand to sandy clay loam. Average annual precipitation in this ervoir construction converted many formerly riverine wetlands into region ranges from 18 to 34 inches. Annual lake evaporation in west- lacustrine wetlands or deepwater habitat. em Oklahoma ranges from 56 to 64 inches. Evaporation is greatest in the panhandle (Stinnett and others, 1987). HYDROLOGIC SETTING The major perennial streams that have riparian wetlands in west-central Oklahoma are the Canadian and Washita Rivers, which Wetlands form where a persistent water supply is at or near flow southeasterly through rolling hills of mixed-grass and tall-grass the land surface. The location, abundance, and persistence of the prairie. The major perennial stream that has riparian wetlands in water supply is a function of physiographic, climatic, and hydro- the southwestern part of the State is the Red River, which flows east- logic factors, such as topography, precipitation and runoff patterns, erly through level to gently rolling topography that supports mixed- evapotranspiration rate, and configuration of the water table. grass vegetative cover (Stinnett and others, 1987). Precipitation and runoff rates differ annually, with the seasons, Historically, the area of playa takes in the panhandle was short- and geographically. The average annual precipitation in Oklahoma grass and mixed-grass prairie. However, much of the area of playa ranges from about 16 inches in the western panhandle to more than lakes is now under cultivation. The physiography of the playa lake 52 inches in southeastern Oklahoma (fig. 2C). Spring is the wet- area is characterized by relatively flat terrain. Because of the flat- test season, and May is the wettest month. Runoff ranges widely ness of the terrain, there is generally little stream drainage; conse- across the State. The average annual runoff ranges from about 0.1 quently, playa lakes collect most of the surface runoff. The playa inch in the western panhandle to more than 20 inches in the south- lakes are shallow depressions that have large surface area relative eastern corner of the State (fig. 2D). Evaporation is greatest in to the total volume of water contained in them. Consequently, most western Oklahoma and least in the eastern part of the State. playa lakes have small storage capacities. Osterkamp and Wood The forested wetlands (bottom-land hardwood forests) of east- (1987) indicate that freshwater playa lakes in the Great Plains origi- ern Oklahoma are primarily on flood plains in alluvial river valleys. nate wherever surface depressions collect precipitation. The lakes Flood-plain wetlands generally depend on river flooding in spring enlarge as a result of dissolution of carbonates by water infiltrating for much of their moisture. Annual flooding of the rivers generally the unsaturated zone above the underlying aquifer and subsequent is confined to the main channel or lowlands that border a river, but subsidence of the lakebed. Over time, the older, central lakebeds floods of 5- to 100-year recurrence intervals typically overflow the acquire a layer of clay-rich deposits that largely restricts movement banks, leaving residual water in backswamps, pools, sloughs, ox- of water between the playa lake and the underlying aquifer. Water bows, and depressions. Rainfall is also a source of moisture to these probably is removed from freshwater playa lakes primarily by re- 318 National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: STATE SUMMARIES charge to the underlying aquifer from the outer areas of the lake, wetlands, an increase from 12,975 acres to 24,210 acres in shrub where lakebed sediments have not yet accumulated (Osterkamp and wetland, an increase from 199 acres to 520 acres in open-water and Wood, 1987) and by evaporation (Nelson and others, 1983). There mudflat wetlands, a decrease from 12,599 acres to 4,670 acres of is no general agreement on the origin of saline playa lakes; how- emergent wetlands, and a decrease from 68,602 acres to 11,960 acres ever, Wood and Jones (1990) propose that the source of the salinity of river and sandbar wetlands during a 30-year period. Riverine is the concentration by evaporation of runoff and shallow, fresh wetlands decreased from 72 percent to 23 percent of the total wet- ground water that discharges from the underlying aquifer. land acreage and palustrine wetlands increased from 28 percent to 77 percent of the total wetland acreage. The clianges probably were TRENDS caused by lower strearnflow resulting from the upstream construc- tion of Lake Meredith Reservoir in the Texas panhandle. The Fws has estimated that from the 1780's to the 1980's, the The quality and number of playa lakes available to wetland wetland area in Oklahoma decreased from about 2,840,000 acres wildlife in the Oklahoma panhandle has declined significantly. The to about 950,000 acres (Dahl, 1990). This decrease represents a decline has been attributed to cultivation of playa lake areas, field change in wetland acreage from 6.4 percent of the State's surface leveling, cattle grazing, and modification for irrigation and livestock area to 2.1 percent. watering (Oklahoma Department ofWildlife Conservation, unpub. ne major causes of bottom-land hardwood-forest loss in east- data, 1990). About 61 percent of the playas are cultivated. The ag- em Oklahoma have been the cutting of virgin timber and the con- ricultural conversions in the playa lake area have resulted in a sub- version of flood plains to cropland and pasture. These practices have stantial change in land use from short-grass and mixed-grass prai- resulted in the loss of about 1,653,000 acres of bottom-land hard- rie to cropland. wood forest (Wilkinson and others, 1987), or about 75 percent of the original forested area, much of which contained wetlands. An CONSERVATION area in east-central Oklahoma that has had considerable losses of bottom-land hardwood-forest wetlands is the flood plain of the Deep Many government agencies and private organizations partici- Fork River. In this river basin, the flood plain on the upper one-third pate in wetland conservation in Oklahoma. The most active agen- of the river lost most of its wetlands because of channelization be- cies and organizations and some of their activities are listed in table tween 1912 and 1923. The flood plain on the lower two-thirds of I . the river was altered or degraded in some parts; however, much of the unchannelized area in the lower two-thirds of the river repre- Table 1. Selected wetiand-related activities of government sents one of the few areas in the State where extensive strands of agencies and private organizations in Oklahoma, 1993 bottom-land hardwood forest remain (Alan Stacey, Oklahoma De- [Source: Classification of activities is generalized from information provided partment of Wildlife Conservation, written commun., 1994). by agencies and organizations. 9, agency or organization participates in wetland-related activity; agency or organization does not participate in Another major cause of wetland loss in eastern, Oklahoma has wetland-related activity. MAN, management; REG, regulation; R&C, res- been reservoir construction. Twenty-eight major reservoirs in east- toration and creation; LAN, land acquisition; R&D, research and data col- ern Oklahoma have inundated about 240,000 acres, or about 10 lection; D&I, delineation and inventory] percent of the bottom-land hardwood forests. Nine additional ma- jor reservoirs have been proposed, the construction of which would result in inundation of an additional 50,000 acres of bottom-land Agency or organization hardwood forest (Wilkinson and others, 1987). FEDERAL The Canadian, Washita, and Red Rivers and their tributaries Department of Agriculture have undergone extensive channelization and impoundment, result- Consolidated Farm Service Agency ....................... ... . ... ... ... ... ing in loss of many riparian wetlands. A study by Barclay (1980) of Forest Service .................................................................0 0 0 * 0 Natural Resources Conservation Service ................ ... two prairie streams that are tributaries to the Washita River in south- De pa rtme nt of D efense central Oklahoma showed that channelization of these streams re- Army Corps of Engineers ..............................................0 sulted in an 86-percent reduction in bottom-land forest and the loss Military reservations .....................................................0 of all the wetlands, about 1,800 acres, or 6.2 percent of the flood Department of the Interior plain of the two streams. Other losses of wetlands in this area are Bureau of Land Management .. ..................................... Bureau of Reclamation ............ .................................... ... ... attributable to reservoir construction and conversion of wetlands to Fish and Wildlife Service ....................................0 agricultural use. Geological Survey ................................................ ......... ... ... ... ... 0 A rise in water levels beginning in 1975 in the terrace depos- National Biological Service ......................................... ... ... ... ... 0 its along the Cimarron River (Taylor and others, 1984) resulted in National Park Service ...................................................* 0 0 0 the restoring of some riparian wetlands in north-central Oklahoma. Environmental Protection Agency .................................. ... These wetlands have increased in area since 1975 owing to a con- STATE Oklahoma Conservation Commission ............................* tinning rise in water levels and surface pooling. Activities that lower Oklahoma Water Resources Board ................................e. ... ... the water levels, such as channelization or drainage of land for crop- Oklahoma Department of Wildlife Conservation e 0 - 0 ping or pasture, could cause the loss of wetlands. Terrace wetlands SOME COUNTY AND LOCAL GOVERNMENTS ............. ... e ... ... ... ... are at risk from petroleum-production activities, timber harvesting, PRIVATE ORGANIZATIONS and farming and grazing (Taylor and others, 1984). However, Tay- Ducks Unlimited ........................................................ lor and others (1984) indicate that with proper management prac- The Nature Conservancy .................................................. tices, the terrace marshes and other riparian wetlands can be retained as a wildlife habitat and a water resource without significantly af- Federal wetland activities. -Development activities in Okla- fecting landowners. homa wetlands are regulated by several Federal statutory prohibi- From the mid-1950's to the mid-1980's, wetlands associated tions and incentives that are intended to slow wetland losses. Some with the Canadian River in western Oklahoma decreased in area of the more important of these are contained in the 1899 Rivers and by about 45 percent (Stinnett and others, 1987). Additionally, wet- Harbors Act; the 1972 Clean Water Act and amendments; the 1985 land types changed substantially. Results of aerial-photograph analy- Food Security Act; the 1990 Food, Agriculture, Conservation, and sis indicate an increase from 1, 145 acres to 10,873 acres in forested Trade Act; and the 1986 Emergency Wetlands Resources Act. National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: OKLAHOMA 319 Section 10 of the Rivers and Harbors Act gives the U.S. Army and restore riparian-wetland areas on lands administered by the BLM Corps of Engineers (Corps) authority to regulate certain activities in Oklahoma. The acreage of riparian wetlands on lands adminis- in navigable waters. Regulated activities include diking, deepening, tered by the BLM in Oklahoma, Kansas, and New Mexico is 27,600 filling, excavating, and placing of structures. The related section 404 acres (Bureau of Land Management, 1990). The BOR'S jurisdiction of the Clean Water Act is the most often-used Federal legislation extends over their project areas. The Fs manages lands and resources protecting wetlands. Under section 404 provisions, the Corps issues in the two National Grasslands in western Oklahoma and the permits regulating the discharge of dredged or fill material into Ouachita National Forest in eastern Oklahoma. The NPS manages wetlands. Permits are subject to review and possible veto by the U.S. the Chickasaw National Recreation Area in south-central Oklahoma Environmental Protection Agency, and the FwS has review and ad- to preserve the natural and cultural resources of the area. visory roles. Section 401 of the Clean Water Act grants to States State wetland activities. -The State agencies most involved and eligible Indian Tribes the authority to approve, apply conditions in wetland conservation are the Oklahoma Conservation Commis- to, or deny section 404 permit applications on the basis of a pro- sion, the Oklahoma Water Resources Board, and the Oklahoma De- posed activity's probable effects on the water quality of a wetland. partment of Wildlife Conservation. The Conservation Commission Most farming, ranching, and silviculture activities are not sub- develops the strategy for wetland management. The strategy includes ject to section 404 regulation. However, the "Swampbuster" provi- defining wetlands, enumerating the beneficial uses of wetlands, sion of the 1985 Food Security Act and amendments in the 1990 inventorying wetlands, and recommending measures to mitigate Food, Agriculture, Conservation, and Trade Act discourages losses and protect wetlands. The Water Resources Board prepares (through financial disincentives) the draining, filling, or other al- the State's water-quality standards, and certifies that permits issued teration of wetlands for agricultural use. The law allows exemptions by the Corps to dredge and fill will not violate the State water-qual- from penalties in some cases, especially if the farmer agrees to re- ity standards. The Department of Wildlife Conservation protects, store the altered wetland or other wetlands that have been converted enhances, and restores wetlands in wildlife-management areas for to agricultural use. The Wetlands Reserve Program of the 1990 Food, the benefit of wildlife. The Department also provides technical Agriculture, Conservation, and Trade Act authorizes the Federal assistances to owners of wetlands and works cooperatively with Government to purchase conservation easements from landowners other organizations on wetland programs. who agree to protect or restore wetlands. The Consolidated Farm Private wetland activities. -The Nature Conservancy provides Service Agency (formerly the Agricultural Stabilization and Con- leadership in the acquisition of land for the preservation of wild- servation Service) administers the Swampbuster provisions and Wet- life. The Conservancy has established 14 preserves in Oklahoma. lands Reserve Program. The Natural Resources Conservation The organization also participates in a program that enlists land- Service (formerly the Soil Conservation Service) determines com- owners to voluntarily protect rare species on their property. Ducks pliance with Swampbuster provisions and assists farmers in the iden- Unlimited and many other organizations in Oklahoma advocate the tification ofvvetlands and in the development ofwetland protection, preservation and restoration of wildlife habitats. restoration, or creation plans. The 1986 Emergency Wetlands Resources Act encourages References Cited wetland protection through funding incentives. The act requires States to address wetland protection in their Statewide Comprehen- Barclay, J.S., 1980, Impact of stream alteration on riparian communities in sive Outdoor Recreation Plans to qualify for Federal funding for southcentral Oklahoma: U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Report FWS/ State recreational land; the National Park Service (NPS) provides OBS-80/17,91 p. guidance to States in developing the wetland component of their Blumer, S.P., 1986, Oklahoma surface-water resources, in U.S. Geological plans. Survey, National water summary 1985-Hydrologic events and sur- face-water resources: U.S. Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper The wetland-related activities of the Fws in Oklahoma include 2300, p. 375-382. acquiring bottom land along the Deep Fork River and along the Brabander, J.J., Masters, R.E., and Short, R.M., 1985, Bottomland hard- Little River for the benefit of wetland-dependent wildlife (Oklahoma woods ofeastem Oklahoma-A special study oftheir status, trends, Conservation Commission, 1991). The Fws also has prepared art and values: Tulsa, Okla., U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 147 p. Oklahoma Wetlands Priority Plan that identifies 13 priority wetland Bureau of Land Management, 1990, New Mexico riparian-wetiand 2000 - areas in the State encompassing nearly 175,000 acres. The Fws, in A management strategy: Santa Fe, N. Mex., Bureau of Land Manage- 1990, enrolled 10 landowners in their program of providing tech- ment, 25 p. nical and financial assistance for the restoration of wetlands on pri- Cowardin, L.M., Carter, Virginia, Golet, F.C., and LaRoe, E.T., 1979, Clas- vate lands in Oklahoma. Seven National Wildlife Refuges in Okla- sification of wetlands and deepwater habitats of the United States: U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Report FWS/OBS -@9/31, 131 p. homa are managed by the FWS. Dahl, T.E., 1990, Wetlands-Losses in the United States, 1780's to 1980's: The North American Waterfowl Management Plan is a joint Washington, D.C., U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Report to Congress, effort by the U.S. and Canadian Governments to slow the rate of 13 p. waterfowl-habitat loss. Mexico has signed an agreement to aid in Fenneman, N.M., 1946, Physical divisions of the United States: Washing- the effort, which seeks to protect more then 6 million acres of wet- ton, D.C., U.S. Geological Survey special map, scale 1:7,000,000. lands. The Fws coordinates two joint venture projects of the North Forsythe, S.W., and Aldrich, JW., 1989, Eastern Oklahoma wetland plan - American Waterfowl Management Plan that includes two areas of A State implementation plan: Tulsa, Okla., U.S. Fish and Wildlife Oklahoma. One is the Playa Lakes Joint Venture, which is intended Service and Oklahoma Department ofWildlife Conservation coopera- to ensure the continual accommodation of waterfowl overwintering tive publication, 20 p. Nelson, W.R., Logan, W.J., and Weller, L.C., 1983, Playa wetlands and in, migrating through, and breeding in the panhandle region. A sec- wildlife on the southern Great Plains -A characterization of habi- ond is the Lower Mississippi Valley Joint Venture, which has the tat: U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Report FWS/OBS - 83/28, 99 p. goal Of Protecting the bottom-land hardwood forests in eastern Oklahoma Conservation Commission, 199 1, Background paper-Wetlands Oklahoma (Forsythe and Aldrich, 1989). management in Oklahoma: Oklahoma City, Oklahoma Conservation Other Federal Agencies in Oklahoma, such as the Bureau of Commission, 30 p. Land Management (BLM), the Bureau of Reclamation (BOR), the U.S. Oklahoma Tourism and Recreation Department, 1987, Oklahoma statewide Forest Service (FS), and the NPS, are charged with the responsible comprehensive outdoor recreation plan: Oklahoma City, Oklahoma management of public lands, including wetlands, under their juris- Tourism and Recreation Department, 216 p. diction. The BLM'S wetland-related goals are to protect, maintain, 320 National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: STATE SUMMARIES Osterkamp, W.R., and Wood, W.W., 1987, Playa lake basins on the south- ern High Plains ofTexas and New Mexico-Part 1, Hydrologic, geo- morphic, and geologic evidence for their development: Geologic So- ciety of America Bulletin, v. 99, no. 2, p. 215 -223. Stinnett, D.P., Smith, R.W., and Conrady, S.W., 1987, Riparian areas of western Oklahoma- A special study of their status, trends, and val- ues: Tulsa, Okla., U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 80 p. Taylor, T.J., Erickson, N.E., Tumlison, Reno, Ratzlaff, J.A., and Cunningham, K.D., 1984, Groundwater wetlands of the Cimarron Terrace, north-central Oklahoma: Stillwater, Oklahoma State Univer- sity, 58 p. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 1990, Region 11 wetlands regional concept plan-Oklahoma wetlands: Albuquerque, N. Mex., U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 185 p. Wilkinson, D.L., McDonald, K.S., Olson, R.W., and Auble, G.T., 1987, Synopsis of wetland functions and values-Bottomland hardwoods with emphasis on eastern Texas and Oklahoma: U.S. Fish and Wild- life Service Biological Report 87(12), 132 p. Wood, W.W., and Jones, B.F., 1990, Origin of saline lakes and springs on the southern HighPlains ofTexas andNewMexico, in Gustavson,T.C., ed., Geological framework and regional hydrology -Upper Cenozoic Blackwater Draw and Ogallala Formation, Great Plains: Austin, Texas, Bureau of Economic Geology, p. 193-208. FOR ADDITIONAL INFORMATION: District Chief, U.S. Geological Survey, Building 7, 202 W 66 St., Oklahoma City, OK 73116; Regional Wetland Coordinator, U.S. Fish and Wildlife, Fish and Wildlife Enhance- ment, 500 Gold Ave., SW, Albuquerque, NM 87102 Prepared by B.D. Jones, U.S. Geological Survey U.S. Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper 2425 National Water Summary-Wetland Resources 321 Oregon Wetland Resources Oregon's diverse wetlands are the result of climate and physio- Oregon has between 1.2 and 1.5 million acres of wetlands (J.R graphy that range from wet and mountainous to dry and flat. Wet- Watson, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, written commun., 1993). lands can be found statewide, even in the deserts of the central and Palustrine, lacustrine, and estuarine wetlands constitute most of the southeastern parts of the State (fig. 1). State's wetland acreage. The area of marine and riverine wetlands Although wetlands cover little more than 2 percent of Oregon, is small relative to that in the other systems. their ecological and economic benefits make them valuable to the Coastal wetlands. - The steep slopes of Oregon's Coast Range State. Among the beneficial hydrologic functions of wetlands are mountains extend to the Pacific Ocean along much of the coast, flood attenuation, erosion and storm-damage reduction, water-qual- leaving little area for wetland formation. Thus, coastal wetlands are ity maintenance, and water supply. Coastal and inland wetlands confined mainly to areas of accumulated sediment near the mouths provide stopover, feeding, and breeding habitat to migratory water- of rivers that have cut through the mountains and to the dune re- fowl and shorebirds; habitat for native fish and wildlife; and out- gions that have formed where the Coast Range front is distant from door recreation. About one-half of commercially harvested Pacific the ocean. Ocean fish and shellfish species depend on wetlands for food, Estuarine wetlands have developed in the shallow, low-gradi- spawning, or nursery habitat during some stage of life (Oregon ent reaches near the mouths of Oregon's coastal rivers and in their Division of State Lands and Oregon State Parks and Recreation deltas. Estuarine wetlands cover about 55,600 acres, and there are Division, 1989). about 10,000 acres of tidal fresh marsh, mostly in the Columbia River estuary (Oregon Division of State Lands and Oregon State TYPES AND DISTRIBUTION Parks and Recreation Division, 1989). Akins and Jefferson (1973) identified three major types of estuarine wetlands in Oregon: Wetlands are lands transitional between terrestrial and deep- tideflats, eelgrass beds, and salt marshes. water habitats where the water table usually is at or near the land Tideflats (unconsolidated- shore wetlands) are mostly nonveg- surface or the land is covered by shallow water (Cowardin and oth- etated and exist where accumulations of sediment (sand, silt, clay, ers, 1979). The distribution of wetlands and deepwater habitats in or gravel) are flooded and exposed daily by tides. Eelgrass-bed Oregon is shown in figure 2A; only wetlands are discussed herein. (aquatic-bed) wetlands are tideflats that have been extensively colo- Wetlands can be vegetated or nonvegetated and are classified nized by eelgrass, a plant that can tolerate high salinity and periods on the basis of their hydrology, vegetation, and substrate. In this of exposure. Salt marshes (emergent wetlands) are regularly to ir- summary, wetlands are classified according to the system proposed regularly flooded emergent wetlands vegetated by salt-tolerant plants by Cowardin and others (1979), which is used by the U.S. Fish and such as rushes, sedges, glasswort, and arrowgrass. Most of Oregon's Wildlife Service (Fws) to map and inventory the Nation's wetlands. large estuaries also contain areas of diked marsh, former salt At the most general level of the classification system, wetlands are marshes that have been diked and drained. Diked wetlands are com- grouped into five ecological systems: Palustrine, Lacustrine, Riv- monly used for cattle grazing. erine, Estuarine, and Marine. The Palustrine System includes only Coastal nontidal fresh marshes, swamps, bogs, and ponds are wetlands, whereas the other systems comprise wetlands and palustrine wetlands that have formed around and in lakes and wind- deepwater habitats. Wetlands of the systems that occur in Oregon scoured depressions among sand dunes (Akins and Jefferson, 1973). are described below. The areas containing most of the coastal nontidal wetlands are the Clatsop Plains, which extend from the Columbia River to Gearhart, System Wetland description the broad dune sheet that extends from Haceta Head to Coos Bay, and the low dunes between Bandon and Cape Blanco. Isolated dune Palustrine .................. Nontidal and ti da [-freshwater wetlands in which areas containing wetlands are present between Tillamook Bay and vegetation is predominantly trees (forested wet- Waldport. lands); shrubs (scrub-shrub wetlands); persistent or nonpersistent emergent, erect, rooted herba- ceous plants (persistent- and nonpersistent- emergent wetlands); or submersed and (or) floating plants (aquatic beds). Also, intermit- tently to, permanently flooded open-water bod- ies of less than 20 acres in which water is less than 6.6 feet deep. Vr- Lacustrine ................. Nontidal and tidal-freshwater wetlands within an intermittently to permanently flooded lake or reservoir larger than 20 acres and (or) deeper than 6.6 feet. Vegetation, when present, is pre- -7 dominantly nonpersistent emergent plants (non- persistent-emergent wetlands), or submersed and (or) floating plants (aquatic beds), or both. Riverine ..................... Nontidal and tidal-freshwater wetlands within a channel. Vegetation, when present, is same as in the Lacustrine System. Estuarine ................... Tidal wetlands in low-wave-energy environments where the salinity ofthe water is greaterthan 0.5 part perthousand (ppt) and is variable owing to evaporation and the mixing of seawater and freshwater. Marine ....................... Tidal wetlands that are exposed to waves and cur- rents of the open ocean and to water having a Figurell. Wetlands in the Malheur National Wildlife Refuge. (Photo- salinity greater than 30 ppt. graph courtesy of the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service.) 322 National Water Surnmary-Wetland Resources: STATE SUMMARIES 40 80 ,z I-N2 5- If 120 120 a Basin 160 60 120 100 Sue Mountains IM 4-5 7, so 14 0 60 Snake River Basin/ ;t Eastern Hich Deseq Cascades AD 30 1, Slope$ and j 'Slorra, roothills Oda 45 20 Northern Basin Snake Ri er Basin/ and Range ECOREGIONS High Desert C PRECIPITATION -80- Une of equal annual precipitation- Interval, in inches, is variable c'-0'1@1 23- 119, 117- t"a Hormoville Dam TM..O.k B.Y P n q, th LWO G d 45@ am Ri-, H-@t- fl-d ugane 'J'. Go. Buy .1heu, W ,,r Ch Lk,@ T. bull r 43- D L4ke Wlhgu C-M B1 ke Jr@ ib 0. Klamath Ab@t u V tak. .dl,rd' L.W. *Al-,d h 0 25 50 MILES A WETLANDS AND DEEPWATER HABITATS j I I I j Distribution of wetlands and deepwater habitats- 0 25 50 KILOMETERS This map shows the approximate distribution of large wetlands in the State . Because of limitations of scale and source material, some wetlands are not shown 0 Predominantly wetland El Predominantly deepwater habitat Figure 2. Wetland distribution, ecoregions, and precipitation in Oregon. A, Distribution of wetlands and cleepwater habitats. B, Ecoregions. C, Precipitation. (Sources: A, TE. Dahl@ U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, unpub. data, 1991. B, Ecoregions from Omernik, 1987; landforms data from EROS Data Center. C, Hubbard, 1986.) National Water Surnmary-Wetland Resources: OREGON 323 Coastal nontidal fresh marshes form in dune lake basins and HYDROLOGIC SETTING along their tributary streams. Some shallow lakes are completely covered by marsh vegetation. Interdunal marshes form between Wetlands form where water persists at or near the land surface dunes in wind-scoured depressions. Interdunal marshes are flooded for extended periods. Depending on its hydrologic setting, a wet- seasonally or perennially and typically contain slough sedge, silver land receives moisture from direct precipitation; surface runoff; weed, bog St. Johnswort, creeping buttercup, and western lilaeopsis flooding from streams, rivers, or lakes; inundation by ocean tides; (Akins and Jefferson, 1973). Other coastal-zone freshwater wet- ground-water discharge; or a combination of those sources. The lands - swamps, bogs, and ponds - constitute a small percentage wide variety of hydrologic settings in Oregon has resulted in diverse of the coastal-zone wetland acreage, but they are of value to wild- wetland types statewide, but wetlands in each region have common life and also are of scientific interest. hydrologic characteristics owing to common climatic, geologic, and Mountain wetlands. -The Coast Range and Klamath Moun- topographic conditions. tains have few takes, and the stream valleys (except near the coast) Coastal wettands.-Much ofOregon's coast is rocky, precipi- are steep sided and provide few places for wetlands to form; there- tous, and exposed to high-energy ocean waves. Wetlands in that fore, wetlands in the coastal mountains generally are small and scat- environment are in the Marine System, as are ocean beaches. Those tered. However, glacial takes are common in the Cascade Range and wetlands constitute only a small percentage of the State's wetland Wallowa Mountains. Such lakes can support marsh vegetation acreage. The most extensive coastal wetlands are estuarine or around their shores, and their shallow zones are themselves classi- palustrine. fied as wetlands. The wider mountain valleys in the Cascade Range Estuarine wetlands develop where stream velocity and wave also have areas of wetlands -predominantly marshes and wet mead- energy are low enough to permit sediment carried in streams to settle ows (emergent wetlands) vegetated by sedges and other herbaceous out of the water and accumulate to above the low-tide level, result- plants. Intermountain basins such as those on the Silvies, Powder, ing in a tideflat (Akins and Jefferson, 1973). Tideflats are a transi- and Grande Ronde Rivers -all in the Blue Mountains Ecoregion tional stage between deepwater habitat and salt marsh and thus are (fig. 2B) -have or once bad areas of marsh, wet prairie, and wet located between those areas. Tideflats typically are composed of silt meadow. and clay mixed with sand and gravel. Where they are sufficiently Willamette River Valley wetlands. - The Willamette River Val- stable, tideflats are colonized by submersed vegetation, predomi- ley is an intermountain basin located between the Coast Range and nantly eelgrass and arrowgrass, which traps more sediment. As the the Cascade Range (fig. 2B). The flat valley floor once had vast areas tideflat becomes higher and more stable, marsh vegetation gradu- of fresh marsh and wet prairie, and the flood plains of the Willamette ally becomes established, and the tideflat becomes a salt marsh. River and the lower reaches of its tributaries contained extensive Salt marshes are subject to a wide range of hydrologic condi- shrub swamps and swamp forests. However, drainage for agricul- tions. For most of the year, tides alternately expose the marsh and tural and urban development and realignment of the river's main stem then inundate it with brackish to very salty water. Winter flooding have eliminated much of the former wetland area. Although greatly can inundate the marsh with freshwater. As sediment and dead veg- reduced in area, valley wetlands provide stopover and overwinter- etation accumulate, the substrate gradually rises until the marsh is ing habitat for thousands of migratory waterfowl (Loy, 1976). subject to less frequent inundation by either tides or river flooding. Desert wetlands. -Oregon's desert wetlands are in the Snake In Oregon, such "high marsh" has commonly been altered by diking River Basin/High Desert Ecoregion (fig. 2B). Many desert wetlands and draining to facilitate cattle grazing. are valuable to wildlife because of the moisture they provide in an Tidal fresh marsh occurs inland from salt marshes in many otherwise and environment. Desert wetlands include saltwood and estuaries. Some fresh marsh is present in coastal rivers upstream greasewood flats (scrub-shrub wetlands), shallow lakes (unconsoli- from the most upstream extent of saltwater at high tide. Other fresh dated-shore wetlands), marshes, and riparian (strearnside, typically marshes form in low-lying areas of flood plains that are flooded scrub-shrub or emergent) wetlands. when rivers are, effectively, dammed by high tides. Most of the area shown as wetland in figure 2A comprises shal- Oregon's other major coastal wetlands have formed in the sand- low, slightly to very saline lakes that range from typically flooded dune regions that extend along about one-half the length of the coast. to typically dry. Among lakes that contain water in many or most Inland marshes develop in and around dune lake basins and along years are Malheur Lake (fig. 1), Harney Lake, Goose Lake, Lake the small, slow-flowing streams that feed the lakes. The lakes form Abert, Summer Lake, Crump Lake, and Hart Lake (Loy, 1976). when shifting sand dams the small coastal streams that are fed by These perennial lakes provide stopover and nesting habitat for mi- ground water in the dunes. Flow in these streams is insufficient to gratory waterfowl. Lakes that are dry in most years include Alvord wash away the sand dams, so most dune lakes are permanent. In Lake, Christmas Lake, Turnbull Dry Lake, and the lakes north of shallow lakes, vegetation can extend from shore to shore. Hart Lake in the Warner Valley. Vegetated areas of flooded desert Interdunal marshes form between sand dunes where wind has lakes typically contain submersed and mars *h vegetation. scoured the sand down to the water table. The process of wind scour- Perennial or seasonal rivers that flow into desert lakes com- ing is known as deflation, and the scoured area is called a deflation monly have areas ofriparian wetlands, which are vegetated predomi- plain. Interdunal marshes are sustained almost entirely by ground nantly by shrubs, trees, or herbaceous emergent vegetation. Ripar- water. Because the water table declines to below the bottom of some ian wetlands provide habitat for plants and animals that otherwise deflation plains in the dry season (midsummer to early fall), some could not exist in the harsh desert environment. of these marshes are seasonal. Interdunal marshes are prone to fill- Other wetlands. -The upper Klamath River Basin is in the ing by windblown sand and typically succeed to shrub swamp or Eastern Cascades Slopes and Foothills Ecoregion (fig. 2B). The upland habitat. basin contains vast areas of marsh-notably in Klamath Marsh, Willamette River Valley wetlands. -The physiography and cli- along the Sprague River, and in the upper part of Upper Klamath mate of the Willamette River Valley are ideal for wetland forma- Lake-that supply stopover habitat for millions of ducks and geese tion. The wide valley floor, which is underlain primarily by allu- migrating along the Pacific Flyway (Loy, 1976). Other wetlands vial deposits, is nearly flat, and the valley is surrounded by moun- important to waterfowl include marsh, scrub-shrub, and open-water tains that receive large amounts of precipitation (fig. 2C). Water wetlands on the Columbia and Snake Rivers. Croplands near those from that precipitation, in the form of rainfall runoff or snowmelt, rivers contribute significantly to the birds'food supply. flows in streams and rivers into the valley, where it enters the ground- 324 National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: STATE SUMMARIES water system or remains in stream channels. The valley's wetlands Deserts receive little direct precipitation because they are in the are sustained by ground-water discharge, stream flooding, or both. precipitation shadow of the Cascade Range. Basins collect snow- Because there is little elevation change from the valley mar- melt from the surrounding mountains, where precipitation amounts gins to the Willamette River, the water table is at or near the land are higher than on the basin floor (fig. 2C). Water reaches the ba- surface over large areas. Before widespread drainage for agricul- sin floor in streams or springs. The collected water forms shallow tural development (fig. 3), the saturated or flooded valley soils from lakes, which can range in size from less than I acre to tens of thou- the base of the surrounding mountains to the river flood plain sus- sailds of acres and in wetness from flooded to nearly always dry, tained extensive marshes and wet prairies. Until the mid- I 800's, the depending on climatic cycles and local hydrologic characteristics. prairie landscape was maintained by fires regularly set by Native Nonetheless, even a wetland that is temporarily dry probably will American inhabitants of the valley for game and food-plant man- contain water at some time in the future unless the hydrologic set- agement and for defense (Johannessen and others, 197 1). ting is altered by human activities or long-term climate change. Some desert lakes, such as Lake Abert and the Warner Valley lakes, are the result of faulting; others, such as Malheur and Harney Lakes, are topographic depressions in the basin floor. Evaporation of wa- ter in the shallow lakes leaves mineral deposits in the lakebed sedi- ments. These deposits make the lakebed less penneable, inhibiting .96- infiltration into the subsurface. Desert wetlands form along streams, around springs, and around and in the shallow lakes. The wetness of a desert wetland is controlled by several interrelated factors, including local topogra- phy, the depth to the water table, and the balance between water input and evaporation. In some flats near streams and lakes, the water table 3W is at or near the land surface, but water generally does not pond on the land surface because shallow standing water quickly evaporates during most of the year. Soil in these wetlands commonly is saline A because evaporation removes water but not the dissolved salts. The saturated soils of these flats commonly support salt-tolerant emer- gent and scrub vegetation. Most desert takes that are flooded but that cannot overflow also are saline-some more so than seawater- Figure 3. Drained agricultural land in the Willamette River Valley near because of evaporation. Lakes that can overflow, such as Malheur Salem. Formerly a lakebed, this cropland is now farmed for Lake, are not saline in most years and support extensive marsh veg- onions. (Photograph by Dennis A. Wentz, U.S. Geological Survey.) etation. Other major wetlands. -The upper Klamath River Basin, al- though it receives little precipitation, contains large areas of wet- Owing to the gentle south-north gradient of the valley, the lands. Wetlands are widespread because the basin floor has little Willamette River is slow-flowing and meandering and has a wide topographic relief and the natural water table is at or near the land flood plain. At one time, winter and spring flooding and the water surface over wide areas. Basin wetlands receive water from snow- table sustained a nearly continuous expanse of forested and shrub melt, which reaches the basin floor either in streams or as springs. wetlands in the flood plain. However, drainage and flood control to Drainage to facilitate agricultural development has lowered the water facilitate agricultural and urban development have greatly reduced table in many areas, resulting in widespread conversion of wetlands the extent of those wetlands. to upland (fig. 4). Mountain wetlands. -Oregon's mountain wetlands are near seeps and springs, in and along rivers, and in lakes and small de- pressions. The State's mountains, especially the Coast and Cascade Ranges, receive large amounts of precipitation (fig. 2C). However, steep mountain slopes are not conducive to the long-term retention ofwater, so largerwetlands generally are present in river flood plains and lakes, where runoff, mostly from snowmelt, can accumulate as ground or surface water. Flood-plain wetlands form where river flood plains are wide enough to sustain a water table at or near the land surface, gener- ally in wide valleys and intermountain basins. Mountain-lake wet- lands can be found in lakes of several origins. Some mountain lakes were formed when lava flowed across the stream and water ponded behind the lava dam (Phillips and others, 1965). Landslides also have dammed streams with similar results. Beavers impound streams, forming ponds and small lakes behind the dams. Most of the State s mountain lakes that contain wetlands, however, were formed b y glaciers. The most common of Oregon's glacial lakes are cirque lakes, small lakes that are also known as tarns, which formed when water filled depressions scoured by a glacier. Figure4. Grazing land, formerly wetland, in the upper Klamath Desert wetlands. -Oregon's desert basins contain large ex- River Basin. Much ofthe grazing land in the basin was once wet- panses of flat terrain from which water does not readily drain. Most land. Drainage systems, consisting of ditches, sluice gates, and desert basins are internally drained; that is, water that enters them pumps, keep ground-water levels sufficiently below the land sur- can leave only through evaporation, transpiration, or discharge 1o face to allow the development of pasture. (Photograph byDaniel the ground-water system rather than by way of surface drainage. T Snyder, U.S. Geological Survey.) National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: OREGON 325 The Columbia and Snake River wetlands developed in the few Table 1. Selected wetland-related activities of government areas where the flood plains are wide enough for sediment to accu- agencies and private organizations in Oregon, 1993 mulate and support emergent vegetation. The wetlands are sustained [Source: Classification of activities is generalized from information provided by ground-water discharge and river flooding; near the coast, by agencies and organizations. o, agency or organization participates in marshes in the Columbia River are regularly flooded by saltwater wetland-related activity; agency or organization does not participate in wetland-related activity. MAN, management; REG, regulation; R&C, res- as well. Flow in the Columbia River is affected by tides as far up- toration and creation; LAN, land acquisition; R&D, research and data col- stream as the Bonneville Dam, and wetlands commonly are flooded lection; D&I, delineation and inventory] during high tides. In the Snake River Valley, irrigation recharges aquifers and sustains ground-water discharge to streams and wet- lands during the summer-fall dry season (Kjelstrom, 1992). Agency or organization FEDERAL TRENDS Department of Agriculture Consolidated Farm Service Agency ........................... ... ... ... ... ... Wetlands covered as much as 2.3 million acres (about 3.6 per- Forest Service .................................................................00 * 0 0 cent) of what is now Oregon as of the late 1700's (Dahl, 1990). Since Natural Resources Conservation Service ................ ... that time, wetland acreage has decreased by more than one-third, Department of Defense Army Corps of Engineers ................. ............................0 mostly owing to conversion of wetlands to agricultural uses by dik- Military reservations .....................................................*. ... ... ... ing, draining, or both. Other causes of wetland loss or degradation Department ofthe Interior have been urbanization, industrial development, flood-control Bureau of Land Management ...................I................... projects, surface-water diversion and ground-water pumping for Bureau of Reclamation ................................................. ... ...0 0 irrigation, stream snagging, land clearing, grazing, and beaver trap- Fish and Wildlife Service ...................................- e - 0 0 0 Geological Survey .......... .................................... .......... ... ... ... ... ping. The greatest losses were of estuarine marshes, eastern Oregon National Biological Service ......................................... ... ... ... ... riparian wetlands, Willamette River Valley wet prairies and ripar- National Park Service ........................................ ..........0 ian wetlands, and upper Klamath River Basin marshes (Oregon Environmental Protection Agency .................................. ...* Division of State Lands and Oregon State Parks and Recreation STATE Division, 1989). Department of Agriculture .................... ...................... ...0 Department of Environmental Duality ...................... ... 0 Recent evidence suggests that losses of estuarine wetlands have Department of Fish and Wildlife .....................................&e slowed substantially since the mid-1900's (Oregon Division ofState Department of Forestry .....................................................00 Lands and Oregon State Parks and Recreation Division, 1989). Most Department of Land Conservation continuing losses are due to conversion of tidal land to urban use. and Development .............................................................. More than 90 percent of remaining estuarine wetlands are protected, Division of State Lands .......................................... Parks and Recreation Department ..................... ........... commonly through local planning and zoning. The State and Fed- Water Resources Department ......................................... ... eral governments have identified coastal wetlands, Willamette River SOME COUNTY AND LOCAL GOVERNMENTS Valley wetlands, riparian wetlands in eastern Oregon, desert-lake PRIVATE ORGANIZATIONS wetlands, and upper Klamath River Basin wetlands as priority ar- Ducks Unlimited ................................................................ eas for conservation. Pacific Coast Joint Venture ....................... .................... The Nature Conservancy ........................... .................... CONSERVATION Many government agencies and private organizations partici- Food, Agriculture, Conservation, and Trade Act discourage (through pate in wetland conservation in Oregon. The most active agencies financial disincentives) the draining, filling, or other alteration of and organizations and some of their activities are listed in table 1. wetlands for agricultural use. The law allows exemptions from pen- Federal wettand activities. -Development activities in Oregon alties in some cases, especially if the farmer agrees to restore the wetlands are regulated by several Federal statutory prohibitions and altered wetland or other wetlands that have been converted to agri- incentives that are intended to slow wetland losses. Some of the more cultural use. The Wetlands Reserve Program of the 1990 Food, important of these are contained in the 1899 Rivers and Harbors Agriculture, Conservation, and Trade Act authorizes the Federal Act; the 1972 Clean Water Act and amendments; the 1995 Food Government to purchase conservation easements from landowners Security Act; the 1990 Food, Agriculture, Conservation, and Trade who agree to protect or restore wetlands. The Consolidated Farm Act; the 1986 Emergency Wetlands Resources Act; and the 1972 Service Agency (formerly the Agricultural Stabilization and Con- Coastal Zone Management Act. servation Service) administers the Swampbuster provisions and Section 10 of the Rivers and Harbors Act gives the U.S. Army Wetlands Reserve Program. The Natural Resources Conservation Corps of Engineers (Corps) authority to regulate certain activities Service (formerly the Soil Conservation Service) determines com- in navigable waters. Regulated activities include diking, deepening, pliance with Swampbuster provisions and assists farmers in the iden- filling, excavating, and placing of structures. The related section 404 tification of wetlands and in the development of wetland protection, of the Clean Water Act is the most often-used Federal legislation restoration, or creation plans. protecting wetlands. Under section 404 provisions, the Corps issues The 1986 Emergency Wetlands Resources Act and the 1972 permits regulating the discharge of dredged or fill material into Coastal Zone Management Act and amendments encourage wetland wetlands. Permits are subject to review and possible veto by the U.S. protection through funding incentives. The Emergency Wetlands Environmental Protection Agency, and the FWs has review and ad- Resources Act requires States to address wetland protection in their visory roles. Section 401 of the Clean Water Act grants to States Statewide Comprehensive Outdoor Recreation Plans to qualify for and eligible Indian Tribes the authority to approve, apply conditions Federal funding for State recreational land; the National Park Ser- to, or deny section 404 permit applications on the basis of a pro- vice provides guidance to States in developing the wetland compo- posed activity's probable effects on the water quality of a wetland. nent of their plans. Coastal States that adopt coastal-zone manage- Most farming, ranching, and silviculture activities are not sub- ment programs and plans approved by the National Oceanic and ject to section 404 regulation. However, the "Swampbuster" provi- Atmospheric Administration are eligible for Federal funding and sion of the 1985 Food Security Act and amendments in the 1990 technical assistance through the Coastal Zone Management Act. 326 National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: STATE SUMMARIES Federal agencies are responsible for the proper management Private wetland activities. -The Oregon Coastal Wetlands of wetlands on public land under their jurisdiction. The U.S. Forest Joint Venture, the State's part of the Pacific Coast Joint Venture of Service (FS) manages 13 National Forests in Oregon and is devel- the North American Waterfowl Management Plan, is a cooperative oping a process to evaluate values and functions of wetlands in those effort of local citizens, conservation organizations, private compa- forests. The Bureau of Land Management (BLM) manages about 16 nies, and State and Federal agencies. The primary goal of the joint million acres of rangeland, of which about 1.2 percent is riparian venture is to reverse the downward trend in waterfowl populations wetland (Bureau of Land Management, 1991). The BLM is assess- in coastal areas and to address concerns about coastal wetlands. ing the status of riparian wetlands and has ongoing or planned Land acquisition, wetland-habitat improvement, and small wetland- projects to develop or enhance many of those wetlands. The Fws restoration projects are among the organization's activities. A con- manages nine National Wildlife Refuges in Oregon that have exten- cept plan for another joint venture that would include eastern Or- sive wetlands. The FWS funds wetland-restoration projects under the egon has been prepared (Ratti and Kadlec, 1992). Partners for Wildlife Program. Fws National Wetlands Inventory The Nature Conservancy and Ducks Unlimited have partici- maps are available for all of Oregon. The Corps manages wetlands pated in projects involving land acquisition and restoration of wet- within its project areas, researches ways to identify and enhance land habitat in Oregon. The Wetlands Conservancy owns and man- wetlands, and evaluates losses of wetland area and functions caused ages several small wetlands totaling about 60 acres, mainly in the by filling and dredging. The Bureau of Reclamation conducts multi- Portland metropolitan area. These and many other conservation purpose wetland-restoration projects; all enhance waterfowl habi- organizations provide information to the public on the values and tat in accordance with the 1986 North American Waterfowl Man- functions of wetlands or promote wetland protection. agement Plan. The Environmental Protection Agency has awarded grants to State and local agencies to plan coordinated wetland- References Cited protection efforts, inventory wetlands, and conduct a watershed-pro- tection pilot study. The BLM, Corps, FS, and FWs and several State Akins, G.J., and Jefferson, C.A., 1973, Coastal wetlands of Oregon: Flo- agencies have developed a Memorandum of Understanding concern- rence, Oregon Coastal Conservation and Development Commission, ing the management and protection of Oregon's wetland resources 190 P. on public lands (Oregon Division of State Lands, 1993). Bureau of Land Management, 1991, Riparian wetland initiative for the State wetland activities. -To improve the effectiveness and 1990's: Bureau of Land Management Report BLMIWO/GI-911 001+4340, 50 p. efficiency of Oregon's efforts to conserve, restore, and protect wet- Cowardin, L.M., Carter, Virginia, Golet, F.C., and LaRoe, T.E., 1979, Clas- lands, the State has developed a Welland Conservation Strategy sification of wetlands and deepwater habitats of the United States: U.S. (Oregon Division of State Lands, 1993). The strategy provides the Fish and Wildlife Service Report FWS/OBS -79/31, 131 p. focus and framework for an integrated State wetland program de- Dahl, T.E., 1990, Wetlands -Losses in the United States, 1780's to 1980's: signed to conserve, protect, and manage the State's wetland re- Washington, D.C., U.S. Fish and Wildlife Report to Congress, 13 p. sources. The strategy is based on the recommendations of advisory Hubbard, L.L., Oregon surface-water resources, in National Water Summary committees representing Federal, State, and local agencies and in- 1985 -Hydrologic events and surface-water resources: U.S. Geologi- terest groups. cal Survey Water-Supply Paper 2300, p. 383-390. In Oregon, the regulatory programs that are implemented at Johannessen, C.L., Davenport, W.A., Millet, Artimus, and McWilliams, Steven, 1971, The vegetation of the Willamette Valley: Annals of the the State level are the State Removal-Fill Law, the Oregon Weiland Association of American Geographers, v, 61, p. 286-302. Inventory and Welland Conservation Plans, and the Clean Water Act Kjelstrom, L.C., 1992, Strearnflow gains and losses in the Snake River and Section 401 program. The Oregon Removal-Fill Law, administered ground-water budgets for the Snake River plain, Idaho and eastern by the Division of State Lands, is similar to section 404 of the Clean Oregon: U.S. Geological Survey Open-File Report 90-172, 71 p. Water Act but in some respects is more comprehensive. Oregon has Loy, W.G., 1976, Atlas of Oregon: Eugene, University of Oregon Books, adopted the FWs National Wetlands Inventory as a basis for a State 215 p. Welland Inventory. The statewide inventory is being supplemented Omernik, J.M, 1987, Ecoregions of the conterminous United States-Map by detailed local information that is suitable for planning and regu- supplement: Annals of the Association of American Geographers, latory purposes. The Wetland Conservation Plans program estab- v. 77, no. 1, scale 1:7,500,000. Oregon Division of State Lands, 1993, Oregon's wetland conservation strat- lished a local planning process that provides local governments an egy: Salem, Oregon Division of State Lands, 100 p. opportunity to address wetland-resource decisions in a context with Oregon Division of State Lands and Oregon State Parks and Recreation other land-use needs. Pursuant to section 401 of the Clean Water Division, 1989, Oregon wetlands priority plan: Salem, Oregon Divi- Act, the Department of Environmental Quality reviews Federal sion of State Lands and Oregon State Parks and Recreation Division, permits and licenses affecting wetlands for compliance with 75 p. Oregon's water-quality standards. A section 404 permit is not issued Phillips, K.N., Newcomb, R.C., Swenson, H.A., and Laird, L.B., 1965, Water by the Corps without certification of compliance by the Department. for Oregon: U.S. Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper 1649, 150 p. Weiland mitigation is another important State regulatory func- Ratti, J.T., and Kadlec, J.A., 1992, Concept plan for the preservation of tion. The Division of State Lands has the authority to establish wetland habitat of the intermountain west- North American Water- fowl Management Plan: Portland, Oreg., U.S. Fish and Wildlife Ser- mitigation banks to be used when mitigation of unavoidable impacts vice, 146 p. caused by construction is not possible onsite; compensation may be made by the offsite creation, restoration, or enhancement of wetlands. FOR ADDITIONAL INFORMATION: District Chief, U.S. Geological County and local wetland activities. -Oregon's Comprehen- Survey, 10615 S.E. Cherry Blossom Drive, Portland, OR 97216; Regional sive Land Use Planning Act requires local governments to adopt Weiland Coordinator, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 911 N.E. I Ith Avenue, planning and regulatory programs consistent with statewide plan- Portland, OR 97232 ning goals. ne State Wetland Conservation Plans program allows local governments to balance wetland protection with other land- Prepared by use needs (Oregon Division of State Lands, 1993). Some county and Luther C. Kjelstroin and John S. Williams, city governments have regulatory or land-acquisition programs that U.S. Geological Survey provide additional wetland protection. U.S. Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper 2425 National Water Summary-Wetland Resources 327 Pe nsylvania Wetiand Resources Wflands cover about 2 percent of Pennsylvania (Tiner, 1990). surface or the land is covered by shallow water (Cowardin and oth- Although once regarded as wastelands, wetlands now are recognized ers, 1979). The distribution of wetlands and deepwater habitats in as ecologically and economically valuable ecosystems. Fish and Pennsylvania is shown in figure 2A; only wetlands are discussed wildlife use these highly productive areas for feeding, breeding, herein. nesting, and refuge. More than 80 percent of the animals on Wetlands can be vegetated or nonvegetated and are classified Pennsylvania's list of endangered and threatened species depend on on the basis of their hydrology, vegetation, and substrate. In this wetlands during their life cycle (Brooks, 1990). Wetlands also are summary, wetlands are classified according to the system proposed home to most of Pennsylvania's rare, threatened, or endangered by Cowardin and others (1979), which is used by the U.S. Fish and plants (Pennsylvania Department of Environmental Resources, Wildlife Service (FWS) to map and inventory the Nation's wetlands. 1988). The Long Pond area of Tunkhannock Creek (fig. 1) has the At the most general level of the classification system, wetlands are State's largest known concentration of endangered species (Roger grouped into five ecological systems: Palustrine, Lacustrine, Riv- Latham, University of Pennsylvania, written commun., 1993). erine, Estuarine, and Marine. The Palustrine System includes only Wetlands trap suspended sediments and organic and inorganic wetlands, whereas the other systems comprise wetlands and contaminants in soils and plant tissue, thus enhancing water qual- deepwater habitats. Wetlands of the systems that occur in Pennsyl- ity. Wetland vegetation also retards erosion by decreasing water vania are described below. velocity and increasing soil stability. During floods, riparian (streamside) wetlands regulate strearnflow by temporarily storing System Wetland description floodwater and then slowly releasing it to the stream or river, greatly reducing flooding downstream. Of particular interest in Pennsyl- Palustrine .................. Wetlands in which vegetation is predominantly vania is the use of constructed wetlands as an effective passive treat- trees (forested wetlands); shrubs (scrub-shrub wetlands); persistent or noripersistent emergent, ment of coal-mine drainage, which can be highly acidic and con- erect, rooted, herbaceous plants (persistent- and tain elevated concentrations of iron, manganese, sulfate, aluminum, nonpersistent-emergent wetlands); or sub- and other trace elements (Hedin, 1989). Constructed wetlands also mersed and (or) floating plants (aquatic beds). are used to reduce nutrient loads from agricultural drainage. Also, intermittently to permanently flooded open-water bodies of less than 20 acres in which water is less than 6.6 feet deep. Lacustrine ................. Wetlands within an intermittently to permanently flooded lake or reservoir. Vegetation, when pres- ent, is predominantly nonpersistent emergent plants (nonpersistent-emergent wetlands), or submersed and (or) floating plants (aquatic beds), or both. Riverine ..................... Wetlands within a channel. Vegetation, when pres- ent, is same as in the Lacustrine System. About 1.4 percent (404,000 acres) of Pennsylvania's land sur- face is covered by wetlands. About 97 percent of these wetlands are palustrine, about 2 percent are lacustrine, and I percent are river- ine. Pennsylvania's 392,000 acres of palustrine wetlands consist of 178,000 acres of deciduous and evergreen forested wetlands, 62,000 acres of open water, 52,000 acres of emergent wetlands, 49,000 acres 7-' of deciduous and evergreen scrub-shrub wetlands, 25,000 acres of Figure 1. Wetland at Tunkhannock Creek near mixed deciduous scrub-shrub and emergent wetlands, and 26,000 Long Pond. This wetland contains the State's acres of other types (Tiner, 1990). Pennsylvania wetlands are known largest known concentration of endangered plants by a variety of local names, the most common of which are swamp and animals, (Photograph by Annette C Heist, (forested wetland) and marsh (emergent wetland typically dominated U.S. Geological Survey.) by sedges and grasses). Many of Pennsylvania's palustrine wetlands line major rivers or surround lakes and reservoirs. Peatlands (wet- Wetlands are productive ecosystems, yielding a large amount lands that have organic soils, such as bogs and fens) are common of plant material for both wildlife and human consumption, Prod- in mountainous or glaciated areas and commonly contain sphag- ucts harvested from wetlands include cranberries, blueberries, and num moss, tamarack or black spruce trees, a variety of low trees wild rice. Pennsylvania's tourist industry benefits from the recre- and shrubs, or sedges, grasses, and other herbaceous plants. ational opportunities that wetlands provide, including hunting, fish- About 42 percent of Pennsylvania wetlands are in the glaci- ing, boating, and camping. Many wetland areas throughout the State ated parts of the northwestern and northeastern comers of the State also provide educational opportunities for schools and the general (Tiner, 1990). Wetlands in the northwest are primarily deciduous public. forested and scrub-shrub wetlands. Those in the northeast are pri- marily deciduous and evergreen forested wetlands. Most of the cen- TYPES AND DISTRIBUTION tral and southern parts of the State were not glaciated. In the nonglaciated parts of the State, wetlands are most commonly asso- Wetlands are lands transitional between terrestrial and deep- ciated with the headwaters and flood plains of streams (Brooks and water habitats where the water table usually is at or near the land others, 1987). The largest area of lacustrine wetlands (5,650 acres) 328 National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: STATE SUMMARIES is along the Lake Erie shoreline. Minor amounts of tidal riverine areas where the water table is near the Surface provide ideal condi- wetlands are along the Delaware River in southeastern Pennsylva- tions for wetland formation. Wetlands commonly form at ground- nia. water discharge sites where permeable rocks intersect the land sur- face or at the base of slopes where the water table intersects the land HYDROLOGIC SETTING surface (Novitzki, 1989). Wetlands are most densely distributed in the northwestern and Wetland characteristics are determined by the balance between northeastern parts of the State, which were glaciated at least twice inflow and outflow of water, surface contours of the land, soil type, and possibly three times (fig. 2B). The latest glaciation occurred and geology (Mitsch and Gosselink, 1986). Topographic depressions between 18,000 and 22,000 years ago. Glacial scouring and depo- caused by glacial or stream-related processes, areas with imperme- sition left surface depressions and impen-neable soils that are ideal able substrates that prevent infiltration of water into the ground, and for wetland development (Bushnell, 1989). Outside the glaciated A I Q ie 76' 42' 7T_ Nn eaur ,Con ea Ed NWR Abg* IS Ir 4@1 rest V, atuni cr to& I Warn 4 6on To to W af Gap Area MWJ Pittsbu In He sburg ter 40' Ira Friendsho Hil John einz N n Vonunnenl.@ no WETLANDS AND DEEPWATER HABITATS 0 25 50 MILES i I I __j Distribution of wetlands and deepwater habitats- 0 25 50 KILOMETERS This map shows the approximate distribution of large wetlands in the State, Because of limitations of scale and source material, some wetlands are not shown Predominantly welland Predominantly deepwater habitat C B B '@c F E G PHYSIOGRAPHIC DIVISIONS Province A. Central Lowland B. Appalachian Plateaus GLACIATION C. Valley and Ridge D. Blue Ridge Glacial extent during E. Piedmont most recent glacial F New Engiand maximum G. Coastal Plain Figure 2. Wetland distribution in Pennsylvania and physical features that control wetland distribution in the State. A, Distribution of wetlands and deepwater habitats. 8, Extent of most recent glaciation. C, Physiography. (Sources: A, TE, Dahl, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, unpub. data, 1991. B, Pennsylvania Bureau of Topographic and Geologic Survey, 1989. C, Physiographic divisions from Fenneman, 1946; landforms data from EROS Data Center) National Water Surnmary-Wetland Resources: PENNSYLVANIA 329 areas, wetlands typically are associated with streams and rivers. large blocks of ice remained after glacial retreat and melted to form Some wetlands gain moisture from stream flooding, whereas oth- spring-fed lakes that have no surface inlet or outlet. ers are fed by ground water and drain into streams. Riparian wet- Peatlands in the Pocono Mountains of northeastern Pennsyl- lands develop when lateral erosion and deposition widen a river vania are the southernmost peatlands of recent glacial origin and valley or when accumulated sediment fills and flattens a valley. In are considered rare habitats in Pennsylvania (Brooks and others, riparian areas, a depositional substrate of silt, mud, and clay and 1987). Peatlands can develop where drainage is slow and where the shallow water table near a river combine to create ideal condi- precipitation normally exceeds evapotranspiration. Fens and bogs tions for the formation of small lakes and swamps. However, many are two types of peatlands found in Pennsylvania. Fens are fed by of the large rivers in Pennsylvania are in deep, narrow valleys and mineral-rich ground water. Bogs are fed mostly or entirely by rain- lack extensive riparian areas (Bushnell, t989). water and, as a result, are mineral poor. The process of peat forma- Pennsylvania has abundant precipitation. Average annual pre- tion follows a general evolution. Clay from glacial tills accumulates cipitation ranges from about 36 inches in the north and west to about on the bottom of ponds, trapping the organic material. Under the 48 inches in the east. Precipitation in eastern Pennsylvania is dis- oxygen-poor conditions in the bottom substrate, slow decomposi- tributed evenly throughout the year, whereas the western part of the tion allows the formation of peat. As peat accumulates, the pond State receives most of the precipitation in the spring and summer. shrinks and a marsh commonly forms. As more peat accumulates, Statewide, an average of about 25 inches of the annual precipita- the surface of the peatland rises to such an extent that the substrate tion returns to the atmosphere by evaporation or transpiration is saturated, but there is little standing water. At that stage, trees, (Wetzel, 1986). shrubs, and sphagnurn moss become common. Eventually, as the Pennsylvania lies in parts of seven physiographic provinces accumulating peat brings the land surface above the water table, (fig. 2C): the Central Lowland, Appalachian Plateaus, Valley and shrubs and trees advance until a scrub-shrub or forested wetland is Ridge, New England, Blue Ridge, Piedmont, and Coastal Plain. formed. Flooding of the peatland by natural or artificial changes in Each province has unique characteristics that control the distribu- drainage will cause the peatland to return to a marsh. If the water tion and types of wetlands. table is lowered for any sustained period of time, the soils will un- Central Lowland. -The Central Lowland is underlain mainly dergo aeration, and the organic content of the soil will decrease by sedimentary rocks, including sandstone, shale, dolomite, and (Cameron, 1970). limestone (Krothe and Kempton, 1988). The region includes areas Valley andRidge Province.-The Valley and Ridge Province of both thick and thin glacial till, which is a mixture of clay, sand, is underlain mainly by sedimentary rocks, including sandstone, and boulders deposited by a melting glacier. The low permeability conglomerate, shale, siltstone, dolomite, and limestone, that are of the glacial till allows the formation of wetlands in depressions tilted and folded (Seaber and others, 1988). The structure and weath- and low-lying areas. The region is flat to gently sloping except where ering pattern of the rocks combine to yield the characteristic alter- cut by streams. Most of the streams in the Central Lowland of Penn- nating valley and ridge topography. Some of the limestone valleys sylvania flow northward to Lake Erie. The streams have steep gra- have an extensive karst or underground drainage system that pre- dients and flow over or have cut deeply into bedrock, resulting in cludes extensive wetland development (Bushnell, 1989). In contrast, few associated wetlands (Richards and others, 1987). Lacustrine limestone outcrops along the western edge of the province are the wetlands associated with Lake Erie comprise nearly two-thirds of source of many springs and seeps that supports wetlands. Most total wetland acreage in this part of the State (Tiner and Anderson, wetlands are associated with the Susquehanna River and its tribu- 1986). taries (Bushnell, 1989), especially in the upper, glaciated regions Appalachian Plateaus. -The Appalachian Plateaus Province of the river. is underlain by interbedded shale, sandstone, and some limestone An unexpected wetland lies in a valley between the peaks of (Bushnell, 1989). The rocks of this province are gently folded to Sharp Mountain and Stony Mountain, about 15 miles northeast of nearly flat-lying. Fracturing and jointing are common (Seaber and Harrisburg. The wetland lies along the axis of a syncline that is others, 198 8). The northeastern and northwestern parts of the prov- underlain by resistant beds of rock that have low permeability ince have been glaciated. (Bushnell, 1989). The wetland consists of forested and emergent In the nonglaciated areas, palustrine wetlands have formed in wetlands that contain sphagnum moss, swamp azalea, red maple, riparian areas along the major rivers and streams. Some wetlands and black gum. also are present in and around impoundments. Locally, small wet- New England Province. -The New England Province is an lands are present on hilltops where clayey soils and shale support area of high hills and ridges that are composed principally of meta- shallow water tables. Wetlands also form along the valley sides and morphic rocks, and igneous rocks, and limestone (Wood and oth- heads of streams where erosion has exposed aquifers or where joints ers, 1972). Because the province has steep topography and is well break the continuity of confined aquifers (Bushnell, 1989). drained, few wetlands have formed there. Most wetlands are in ri- In the northwestern part of the province, before glaciation, parian areas along the Delaware River. rivers flowed north to Lake Erie (Leggette, 1936). Advancing ice Blue Ridge and Piedmont Provinces. -The Blue Ridge and blocked the north-flowing rivers, forining lakes and forcing drain- Piedmont Provinces are underlain by fractured-rock, water-table age southward. Present drainage patterns were created as ice melted aquifers. Deformed igneous and metamorphic rocks, commonly and glacial sediments were carried in south- and southeast-sloping mantled with weathered rock and soil, characterize the bedrock of channels. The largest wetlands in this area, including Conneaut the region (LeGrand, 1988). The Piedmont Province also has gen- Marsh and Pyinatuning Swamp, developed on the glacial sediments tly dipping beds of sedimentary rock. The region has small ground- that filled deep, preglacial valleys. Numerous smaller wetlands also water units, each confined to a small basin in which a perennial formed in the irregular, hummocky topography of the end and stream flows. Ground water flows continuously toward streams and ground moraines, which are landscape features formed by glacially discharges as small springs and as channel seepage into the streams formed sediments (Bushnell, 1989). (LeGrand, 1988). Most wetlands are in stream valleys where the In the glaciated northeast, wetlands are associated mainly with water table is near the land surface. Others are in upland areas where end and ground moraines and have developed as lakes, swamps, and there are clayey, impermeable soils or local ground-water discharge peatlands in glacially scoured depressions (Bushnell, 1989). Many (Bushnell, 1989). wetlands also were formed by the damming of preglacial valleys by Coastal Plain. -The Coastal Plain, limited to the southeast- glacial debris. In addition, "kettle-hole" lakes were created where ern edge of Pennsylvania, is underlain mainly by permeable soils 330 National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: STATE SUMMARIES composed of sand, silt, and clay (Meissler and others, 1988). Most Table 1. Selected wetland-related activities of government wetlands in this area are associated with the Delaware River and its agencies and private organizations in Pennsylvania, 1993 riparian areas. Approximately 19 percent of the freshwater tidal [Source: Classification of activities is generalized from information provided marshes and flats in the Delaware River Basin are in this province by agencies and organizations. 9, agency or organization participates in within Pennsylvania (Tiner and Wilen, 1988), including the largest wetland-related activity; agency or organization does not participate in wetland-related activity. MAN, management; REG, regulation; R&C, res- freshwater tidal marsh in the State, the John Heinz National Wild- toration and creation; LAN, land acquisition; R&D, research and data col- life Refuge at Tinicum. lection; D&I, delineation and inventory) TRENDS Agency or organization 9@ The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service has estimated that, from FEDERAL the 1780's to the 1980 's, wetland area in Pennsylvania decreased by Department of Agriculture more than one-half (Dahl, 1990). Activities such as conversion to Federal cropland, channelization, forestry, mining, urban development, and Consolidated Farm Service Agency ........................... ... ... ... ... the construction of impoundments have contributed to widespread Forest Service ................................................................. Natural Resources Conservation Service ................ ... wetland loss or degradation. Department of Commerce Between 1956 and 1979, Pennsylvania lost about 28,000 acres National Oceanic and Atmospheric (nearly 7 percent) of its vegetated wetlands. More than one-half of Administration ................................................................. ... the vegetated wetland losses took place in the northeastern (9,700 Department of Defense acres) and northwestern (4,600 acres) parts of the State. The lead- Army Corps of Engineers .............................................. ing cause of losses was conversion to ponds, lakes, and reservoirs Department of the Interior Bureau of Mines ............................................................. ... ... (46 percent); farmland (17 percent); urban land (14 percent); and Fish and Wildlife Service ..............................................0 other land uses, mostly by channelization and drainage (23 percent) Geological Survey .......................................................... ... ... ... ...* (Tiner, 1990). Peat mining in the Pocono Mountains region also has National Biological Service ......................................... ... ... ... ...0 contributed to the loss of wetlands (Timer, 1987). After peat has been National Park Service ...................................................00 0 0 0 removed from the wetland, the area commonly is converted to a pond Environmental Protection Agency ............ .......... ... STATE orlake. Department of Environmental Resources The loss of vegetated wetland by conversion to pond wetland Bureau of Dams, Waterways, and Wetlands ...........e cannot be interpreted as a simple "no net loss" exchange. The im- Bureau of Forestry .........................................................0 portance of the gain in pond acreage in terms of fish and wildlife Bureau of Land and Water species, as well as the impact on wetland functions such as flood (Coastal Zone management) ........................................0 Bureau of State Parks ...................... ............................* and erosion control, has not been adequately assessed. In contrast, Department of Transportation ......................................... ... ... the loss of vegetated wetlands is known to cause the loss of valu- Pennsylvania Fish and Boat Commission ..................... . ... ... able fish and wildlife species as well as of other ecological and eco- Pennsylvania Game Commission ..................................-... 0 nomical benefits (Tiner and Finn, 1986). Pennsylvania State University ......................................... ... ... ... ... The Delaware River estuary and Lake Erie coastal zones con- Other State universities .................................................. . ... ... ... ... COUNTY AND LOCAL tain habitats that are rare in Pennsylvania, and small losses of wet- Some county and local governments ..........I...............-0* lands there could be significant. In Pennsylvania, the Delaware River Some county conservation districts .. ............................*0 estuary coastal zone consists of approximately 50 square miles along PRIVATE ORGANIZATIONS the Delaware River south of Philadelphia. Although only 129 acres The Nature Conservancy ..................................................0 of emergent wetlands have been lost in the Delaware River estuary Pennsylvania Academy of Natural Sciences ............... ... ... coastal zone since the mid- 1 970's, this represented a 22-percent loss Western Pennsylvania Conservancy ............................. for the area. Major causes were the construction of a sewage-treat- ment plant and highway construction (Tiner, 1990). The Lake Erie coastal zone consists of approximately 63 square Section 10 of the Rivers and Harbors Act gives the U.S. Army miles in the Lake Erie area. There were no significant changes in Corps of Engineers (Corps) authority to regulate certain activities wetland acreage in the Lake Erie coastal zone between the mid- in navigable waters. Regulated activities include diking, deepening, 1970's and 1986 (Tiner, 1990). However, between 1986 and 1989, filling, excavating, and placing of structures. The related section 404 approximately 50 acres of wetlands were lost. Most of those losses of the Clean Water Act is the most often-used Federal legislation (91 percent) were due to housing construction (Smith and Tiner, protecting wetlands. Under section 404 provisions, the Corps issues 1992). permits regulating the discharge of dredged or fill material into wetlands. Permits are subject to review and possible veto by the U.S. CONSERVATION Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), and the Fws has review and advisory roles. Section 401 of the Clean Water Act grants to States Many government agencies and private organizations partici- and eligible Indian Tribes the authority to approve, apply conditions pate in wetland conservation in Pennsylvania. The most active agen- to, or deny section 404 permit applications on the basis of a pro- cies and organizations and some of their activities are listed in table posed activity's probable effects on the water quality of a wetland. I . Most farming, ranching, and silviculture activities are not sub- Federal wetland activities. - Development activities in Penn- ject to section 404 regulation. However, the "Swampbuster" provi- sylvania wetlands are regulated by several Federal statutory prohi- sion of the 1985 Food Security Act and amendments in the 1990 bitions and incentives that are intended to slow wetland losses. Some Food, Agriculture, Conservation, and Trade Act discourage (through of the more important of these are contained in the 1899 Rivers and financial disincentives) the draining, filling, or other alteration of Harbors Act; the 1972 Clean Water Act and amendments; the 1985 wetlands for agricultural use. The law allows exemptions from pen- Food Security Act; the 1990 Food, Agriculture, Conservation, and alties in some cases, especially if the farmer agrees to restore the Trade Act; the 1986 Emergency Wetlands Resources Act; and the altered wetland or other wetlands that have been converted to agri- 1972 Coastal Zone Management Act. cultural use. The Wetlands Reserve Program of the 1990 Food, National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: PENNSYLVANIA 331 Agriculture, Conservation, and Trade Act authorizes the Federal protection of wetland resources through zoning, regulating, and land Government to purchase conservation easements from landowners acquisition. Some county conservation districts manage public and who agree to protect or restore wetlands. The Consolidated Farm private lands that contain wetlands. Service Agency (formerly the Agricultural Stabilization and Con- Private wetland activities. -Private organizations in Pennsyl-. servation Service) administers the Swampbuster provisions and Wet- vania are involved in wetland activities that include policy planning, lands Reserve Program. The Natural Resources Conservation land acquisition and management, research, and public education. Service (formerly the Soil Conservation Service) determines com- Some of the organizations active in Pennsylvania are The Nature pliance with Swampbuster provisions and assists farmers in the iden- Conservancy and the Western Pennsylvania Conservancy (land tification of wetlands and in the development of wetland protection, acquisition and management), the Sierra Club and Chesapeake Bay restoration, or creation plans. Foundation (policy planning and education), and the Pennsylvania The 1986 Emergency Wetlands Resources Act and the 1972 Academy of Natural Sciences (research). About 50 conservancy Coastal Zone Management Act and amendments encourage well and organizations throughout the State work to protect and preserve protection through funding incentives. The Emergency Welland natural lands, including wetlands, on a local level. Resources Act requires States to address wetland protection in their Statewide Comprehensive Outdoor Recreation Plans,to qualify for References Cited Federal funding for State recreational land; the National Park Ser- vice (NPs) provides guidance to States in developing the wetland Brooks, R.P., 1990, Wetlands and deepwater habitats in Pennsylvania, in component of their plans. Coastal and Great Lakes States that adopt Majuindar, S.K., Miller, E.W., and Parizek, R.R., eds., Water resources coastal-zone management programs and plans approved by the in Pennsylvania- Availability, quality and management: Easton, The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration are eligible for Pennsylvania Academy of Science, p. 71-79. Federal funding and technical assistance through the Coastal Zone Brooks, R,R, Arnold, D.E., and Bellis, E.D., 1987, Wildlife and plant com- munities of selected wetlands -Pocono Region of Pennsylvania: Na- MainagementAct. tional Wetlands Research Center Open File Report 87-02, 27 p. Federal agencies are responsible for the management of wet- Bushnell, Kent, 1989, Geology of Pennsylvania wetlands, in Majuindar, S.K., lands on public land under their jurisdiction. The FWS manages two and others, eds., Wetlands ecology and conservation -Emphasis in wildlife refuges in Pennsylvania, the John Heinz National Wildlife Pennsylvania: Easton, The Pennsylvania Academy of Science, p. 39 - Refuge at Tinicum and the Erie National Wildlife Refuge. The U.S. 46. Forest Service manages about one-half million acres of land in the Cameron, C.C., 1970, Peat deposits of northeastern Pennsylvania: U.S. Allegheny National Forest. The NPS manages I I sites in Pennsyl- Geological Survey Bulletin 1317-A, 90 p. vania, including the Delaware Water Gap National Recreation Area. Cowardin, L.M., Carter, Virginia, Golet, F.C., and LaRoe, E.T., 1979, Clas- Wetlands are inventoried on these lands as part of resource man- sification of wetlands and deepwater habitats of the United States: U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Report FWS/OBS -79/31, 131 p, agement plans developed for each park. The U.S. Bureau of Mines Dahl, T.E., 1990, Wetlands -Losses in the United States, 1780's to 1980's: has been involved in research into the creation of wetlands for the Washington, D.C., U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Report to Congress, passive treatment of acid-mine drainage. One such experimental 13 p. wetland was created by the U.S. Bureau of Mines and the NPS on Fennerrian, N.M., 1946, Physical divisions of the United States: Washing- the Friendship Hill National Historic Site. ton, D.C., U.S. Geological Survey special map, scale 1:7,000,000. State wetland activities. -The Pennsylvania Department of Hedin, R.S., 1989, Treatment of coal mine drainage with constructed wet- Environmental Resources' Bureau of Dams, Waterways, and Wet- lands, in Majuindar, SK, and others, eds., Wetlands ecology and con- lands, is the principal State agency responsible for wetland regula- servation -Emphasis in Pennsylvania: Easton, The Pennsylvania tion. Wetlands are regulated as "bodies of water" under the Dam Academy of Science, p. 349- 362. Krothe, N.C., and Kempton, J.P., 1988, Region 14, central glaciated plains, Safety and Encroachments Act of 1978. The wetland regulations are in Back, William, Rosenshein, J.S., and Seaber, P.R., eds., The geol- found at 25 Pa. code Chapter 105, Dam Safety and Waterway Man- ogy of North America, v. 0-2-Hydrogeology: Boulder, Colo., Geo- agement, amended October 31, 1991. Virtually any structure or logical Society of America, p. 129 -132. activity that in any manner changes, expands, or diminishes the Leggette, R.M., 1936, Ground water in northwestern Pennsylvania: Penn- course, current, or cross section of any wetland requires a chapter sylvania Geological Survey, 4th series, Bulletin W3, 215 p. 105 permit in addition to any Federal permits that are required for LeGrand, H.E., 1988, Region 21, Piedmont and Blue Ridge, in Back, Wil- the project. liam, Rosenshein, J.S., and Seaber, P.R., eds., The geology of North Pursuant to section 305(b) of the Clean WaterAct, the Depart- America, v. 0-2-Hydrogeology: Boulder, Colo., Geological Soci- ment of Environmental Resources submits to the EPA and the U.S. ety of America, p. 201-208. Meissler, Harold, Miller, J.A., Knobel, L.L., and Wait, R.L., 1988, Region Congress a biennial assessment of the State's surface-water quality, 22, Atlantic and eastern Gulf Coastal Plain, in Back, William, including that of wetlands. The Department's Bureau of Land and Rosenshein, J.S., and Seaber, P.R., eds., The geology of North Water Division of Coastal Zone Management conducts a yearly America, v.-O-2-Hydrogeology: Boulder, Colo., Geological Soci- wetlands monitoring program in the Delaware River estuary and ety of America, p. 209-218. Lake Erie coastal zones. Mitsch, W.J., and Gosselink, J.G., 1986, Wetlands: NewYork, Van Nostrand The Bureau of State Parks and the Bureau of Forestry inven- Reinhold Company, 539 p. tory wetlands as part of their resource-management plans. Monies Novitzki, R.P., 1989, Wetland Hydrology, in Majumdar, S.K., and others, from the Land and Water Conservation Fund are used by the De- eds., Wetlands ecology and conservation -Emphasis in Pennsylva- partment of Community Affairs, the Department of Environmen- nia: Easton, The Pennsylvania Academy of Science, p. 47-64. Pennsylvania Bureau of Topographic and Geologic Survey, 1989, Physi- tal Resources, the Fish and Boat Commission, the Game Commis- ographic provinces of Pennsylvania: Harrisburg, Pennsylvania Bureau sion, and the Historical and Museum Commission for planning, of Topographic and Geologic Survey, scale 1:2,000,000. acquisition, and development of outdoor recreation areas, includ- Pennsylvania Department of Environmental Resources, 1988, Pennsylvania's ing wetlands. Land acquisition also is made possible through the recreation plan 1986 -1990-Wetlands addendum: Harrisburg, Penn- Recreational Improvement and Rehabilitation Act and the Federal sylvania Department of Environmental Resources, 48 p. Land and Water Conservation Fund. Richards, D.B., McCoy, H.J., and Gallaher, J.T., 1987, Groundwater re- County and local wetland activities. -Most regulation of ac- sources of Erie County, Pennsylvania: Pennsylvania Topographical and tivities in wetlands is carried out through State and Federal laws. Geological Survey Water Resources Report 62, 59 p. However, some county and local governments are involved in the 332 National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: STATE SUMMARIES Scaber, P.R., Brahana, JX, and Hollyday, E.F., 1988, Region 20, Appala- Wetzel, Kim, 1986, Pennsylvania surface-water resources, in U.S. Geological chian Plateaus and Valley and Ridge, in Back, William, Rosenshein, Survey, National water summary 1985 -Hydrologic events and sur- J.S., and Seaber, RR., eds., The geology of North America, v. 0-2- face-water resources: U.S. Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper Hydrogeology: Boulder, Colo., Geological Society of America, p. 189- 2300, P. 391-398. 200. Wood, C.R., Flippo, H.N., Jr., Lescinsky, J.B., and Barker, J.L., 1972, Wa- Smith, G.S., and Tiner, R.W., JT,, 1992, Current status and recent trends in ter resources of Lehigh County, Pennsylvania: Pennsylvania Geologi- wetlands of the Lake Erie and Delaware Estuary coastal zones of Penn- cal Survey, 4th series, Water Resource Report 31, 263 p. sylvania (1986-1989): Newton Comer, Mass., U.S. Fish and Wild- life Service, 7 p. Tiner, R.W., Jr., 1987, Mid-Atlantic wetlands -A disappearing natural trea- FOR ADDITIONAL INFORMATION: District Chief, U.S. Geological sure: Newton Comer, Mass., U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service and U.S. Survey, 840 Market Street, Lemoyne, PA 17043; Regional Wetland Coordi- Environmental Protection Agency cooperative publication, 28 p. nator, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 300 Westgate Center Drive, Hadley, -1990, Pennsylvania's wetlands -Current status and recent trends: MA 01035 Newton Comer, Mass., U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 104 p. Tiner, R.W., Jr., and Anderson, J.C., 1986, Current status and recent trends in wetlands of the Lake Erie coastal zone of Pennsylvania: U.S. Fish Prepared by and Wildlife Service, Newton Comer, Mass., p. 12. Annette C. Heist and Andrew G. Reif, Tiner, R.W., Jr., and Finn, J.T., 1986, Status and recent trends of wetlands U.S. Geological Survey in five Mid-Atlantic States -Delaware, Maryland, Pennsylvania, Vir- ginia, and West Virginia: Newton Corner, Mass., U.S. Fish and Wild- life Service, 40 p. Tiner, R.W., Jr., and Wilen, B.O., 1988, Wetlands of the Delaware River Basin, in Majumdar, S.K., Miller, E.W., and Sage, L.E., eds., Ecol- ogy and restoration of the Delaware River Basin: Easton, Pennsylva- nia Academy of Science, p. 187-201. National Water Summary-Wetland Resources 333 Puerto Rico Wetland Resources The island of Puerto Rico, located in the northern Caribbean Sea, served in the area. Also, the beaches associated with these urban and its principal offshore islands of Vieques, Culebra, and Mona wetlands provide nesting sites for the endangered hawksbill and have abundant wetland resources. The subtropical climate, abundant leatherback turtles (del Llano and others, 1986). rainfall, and complex topographic and geologic features of these islands give rise to wetlands ranging from the rare and unusual cloud TYPES AND DISTRIBUTION forests in the highlands to extensive mangrove forests, seagrasses, and coral reefs along the northern and southern coasts. However, Wetlands are lands transitional between terrestrial and deep- wetland resources of Puerto Rico have declined during the last sev- water habitats where the water table usually is at or near the land eral hundred years as a result of an increase in agricultural devel- surface or the land is covered by shallow water (Cowardin and oth- opment, population, and tourism. Some types of wetlands, such as ers, 1979). The distribution of wetlands and deepwater habitats in the bloodwood (Pterocarpus officinalis) forests (fig. 1), have been Puerto Rico is shown in figure 2A; only wetlands are discussed reduced to only a few remnants. herein. Wetlands are among the most biologically productive areas in Wetlands can be vegetated or notivegetated and are classified the islands. The wetlands associated with the rain forest in the inte- on the basis of their hydrology, vegetation, and substrate. In this rior highlands of Puerto Rico contain many rare plant and animal summary, wetlands are classified according to the system proposed species not found in other parts of the island. Runoff from wetlands by Cowardin and others (1979), which is used by the U.S. Fish and in the higher elevations of the island provides a source of water used Wildlife Service (Fws) to map and inventory the Nation's wetlands. for public supply by several cities. Coastal wetlands, such as man- At the most general level of the classification system, wetlands are grove forests, seagrass beds, and coral reefs, provide breeding grouped into five ecological systems: Palustrine, Lacustrine, Riv- grounds and nursery areas for a variety of juvenile fish, crustaceans, erine, Estuarine, and Marine. The Palustrine System includes only and other species in the food web (L6pez and others, 1988). In this wetlands, whereas the other systems comprise wetlands and manner, coastal wetlands contribute to the biological productivity deepwater habitats. Wetlands of the systems that occur in Puerto of shallow marine waters around the islands. Wetlands also stabi- Rico are described below. lize shorelines by trapping and holding unconsolidated sediments and dampen potentially damaging storm surges and wave action. System Wetland description The value of Puerto Rican wetlands to wildlife is well docu- mented. For example, the salt flats of Cabo Rojo, on the southwest- Palustrine .................. Nonticlal and tidal-freshwater wetlands in which em coast, provide resting and feeding areas for thousands of mi- vegetation is predominantly trees (forested wet- gratory shorebirds en route between North and South America. lands); shrubs (scrub-shrub wetlands); persistent or noripersistent emergent, erect, rooted herba- Before the drainage of coastal wetlands for agricultural purposes, ceous plants (persistent- and nonpersistent- freshwater marshes like those of the Laguna Cartagena, Laguna emergent wetlands); or submersed and (or) Gudnica, and Ci6naga El Anegado provided habitat for more than floating plants (aquatic beds). Also, intermit- 100 species of resident and migratory birds. The wetlands of the tently to permanently flooded operi-water bod- ies of less than 20 acres in which water is less central highlands are the last stronghold of the endangered Puerto than 6.6 feet deep. Rican parrot. Even wetlands like those within metropolitan San Juan Lacustrine ................. Nontidal and tidal-freshwater wetlands within an (Laguna LaTorrecilla, Torrecilla Baja, Laguna de Pifiones to Punta intermittently to permanently flooded lake or Vacia Talega) provide excellent wildlife habitat, support economi- reservoir larger than 20 acres and (or) deeper cally valuable fisheries, and provide recreation and educational than 6.6 feet. Vegetation, when present, is pre- opportunities for an urban populace. Thirty-eight species of finfish dominantly nonpersistent emergent plants (non- persistent-emergent wetlands), or submersed and shellfish and 46 bird species, some rare or endangered like the and (or) floating plants (aquatic beds), or both. yellow-shouldered blackbird, brown pelican, masked duck, West Riverine ..................... Nonticlal and tidal-freshwater wetlands within a Indian whistling duck, and white-crowned pigeon, have been ob- channel. Vegetation, when present, is same as in the Lacustrine System. Estuarine ................... Tidal wetlands in low-wave-energy environments where the salinity of the water is greater than 0.5 -0- part perthousand (ppt) and isvariable owing to evaporation and the mixing of seawater and freshwater. Marine ....................... Tidal wetlands that are exposed to waves and cur- rents of the open ocean and to water having a salinity greater than 30 ppt. In Puerto Rico, the Lacustrine and Riverine Systems consist largely of deepwater habitats. Lacustrine wetlands are limited to + shallow areas of lakes and reservoirs. Riverine wetlands are lim- ited to the shallows of river channels and canals. Where the stream current is swift, these wetland areas typically are nonvegetated. Figure 1. Bloodwood trees at Pterocarpus Forest When vegetated, lacustrine and riverine wetlands generally are char- near Humacao, Puerto Rico. (Photograph courtesy acterized by plants that grow in aquatic beds on or below the surface of Conservation Trust of Puerto Rico.) of the water. Some of the more common plants in these wetlands 334 National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: STATE SUMMARIES are rooted aquatic plants, such as water lily, fanwort, pondweed, roots that form kneelike structures (Bacon, 1990). The largest of hornwort, and southern naiad, and floating aquatic plants such as the remaining bloodwood forests in Puerto Rico is the Pterocarpus duckweed, bladderwort, and water hyacinth. Forest (fig. 1), which has an area of 370 acres and is located near Most of the wetlands in Puerto Rico and its principal offshore Humacao on the eastern coast. Much smaller stands of bloodwood islands are palustrine or estuarine. One type of palustrine wetland trees exist in the Sierra de Luquillo Mountains (fig. 2B) and at sites that is of particular interest in Puerto Rico is the bloodwood forest. near Dorado, Mayagiiez, and Patillas (fig. 2A). Bloodwood forests, which are common in parts of Central and South Three other important palustrine wetland types, the cloud for- America, are now rare in Puerto Rico. Bloodwood trees tolerate low est, colorado forest, and palm forest (forested or scrub-shrub wet- salinity and can grow in nearly pure stands at the brackish limits of lands), exist throughout Puerto Rico on the high mountain slopes. the Estuarine System or form swamps (forested wetlands) in the On the highest mountaintops are the cloud forests, in which gnarled interior. Bloodwood forests share numerous characteristics with evergreen trees 15 to 20 feet tall predominate. The more common cypress swamps of the Southeastern United States. Like cypress, trees in these areas include roble de Sierra, nemocd, jusillo, oreganil- bloodwood trees exist in nearly pure stands or mixed with a variety lo, and guayabota (Ewel and Whitmore, 1973). Trees in the cloud of other species of trees and shrubs. Epiphytes (plants that grow on forest stay moist from nearly continuous cloud cover and support other plants) are common on the trees, and typically ferns are the an abundance of epiphytic growth. Palo colorado, called titi in the prevalent understory species (Alvarez-L6pez, 1990). Growth forms Southeastern United States, is the dominant tree species in colorado of these two trees are similar; both cypress and bloodwood can forests, which are most common at elevations greater than about develop buttressed trunks and commonly have modified surface 2,500 feet and below cloud forests. This species is shrublike in the A N T I E A A, Ci6naga Laguna de Ci6naga de Ins Laguna de San Pearo Cucharilla., Puiones 18,30, 7brluguero Dorado I San Torrecilla PuniaVacfa a n , -- lega La Cabezas 'j, ib 'Manati Ci6naga desSo" Juan Cafio Rio rpnde Laguna Baia de ain rd orrecilla Culebra 1 , Ri Gra cle Fajard b..@ia' 77burones 1 n LasC-abezas rov4 M*ow de San Juan Rio Gr d, I @77 a Nature Preserve io I rest oosevelt Roads May guez Naval Res F e terocarpus st acao Lajas r 65'30' Vieques 1 "DO, on till. 8"Do' 66'30' Cabo Rqj0 Laguna 67'00' Cariagena Laguna 06naga Gu6nica El Anegodo CA I? I B B E A N S A Mona A WETLANDS AND DEEPWATER HABITATS Distribution of wetlands and deepwater habitats- This map shows the approximate distribution of large 0 110 20 MILES 18,00, - - wetlands in the State. Because of limitations of scale i , -T@ and source material, some wetlands are not shown 0 10 20 KILOMETERS 68'00' 67'45' Predominantly wetland Predominantly deepwater habitat Gulf and land moisture 60 it @a@j -on 200 60 00 so Trade wind MOISTURE DELIVERY moisture C PRECIPITATION si,offs de 40 - Line of average annual precipitation - Interval, in inches, is variable Figure 2. Wetland distribution in Puerto Rico and physical and climatic factors that affect wetland distribution in the Commonwealth. A, Distribution of wetlands and deepwater habitats. B, Principal sources and patterns of delivery of moisture into Puerto Rico. C, Average annual precipitation in Puerto Rico. (Sources: A, TE. Dahl, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, unpub. data, 1991. B, Col6n-Dieppa and others, 1991. C, Col6n-Dieppa, 7986.) National Water Surnmary-Wetland Resources: PUERTO RICO 335 United States, but in Puerto Rico it can grow to a height of more bed wetlands, and in areas where coral reefs are exposed at extreme than 30 feet and have a trunk diameter of more than 6 feet (Lugo low tides, they too are considered wetlands. and Brown, 1988). At elevations between 1,500 and 3,000 feet, mountain slopes generally are covered by palm forests, where nearly HYDROLOGIC SETTING pure stands of sieffa palms predominate. The sierra palm is also an important component of flood-plain wetlands. Some investigators The hydrologic setting of Puerto Rico is the major factor that believe that these montane palm forests are an early successional controls the diversity and uniqueness of wetlands on the island. stage in areas subject to landslides or other forms of severe erosion Local geohydrologic characteristics differ throughout the island (Beard, 1955). Although the total acreage of Puerto Rico's montane largely because of variations in the geology, topography, and cli- wetlands is unknown, the Caribbean National Forest in the Cordil- mate. In the mountainous Cordillera Central and Sierra de Luquillo lera Central supports an estimated 933 acres of cloud forest, 8,490 (fig. 2B), which have peak elevations that exceed 4,300 feet above acres of colorado forest, and 5,08 8 acres of palm forest. sea level, rainfall and runoff rates are high. The axis of the central Freshwater marshes (palustrine emergent wetlands) are com- mountain range, the Cordillera Central, trends east-west, and the mon throughout the island, especially along the northern coast. In core of the mountains is composed primarily of folded, faulted, some areas, these freshwater marshes have been drained for sugar intrusive volcanic rocks and sedimentary rocks. Along the north- cane cultivation and pasture. Among the largest freshwater marshes ern flank of the mountains, a series of northward-dipping limestone are Caho Tiburones near Arecibo, Laguna Cartagena at Lajas, formations dissected by streams and collapsed subterranean drain- Ci6naga de San Pedro and Ci6naga de las Cucharillas along the age features forms a band of mature karst topography that extends northern coast, and Ci6naga Baja near Rfo Grande. In the deeper nearly to the coastline. These limestone formations constitute some marshes, cattail is the most common emergent plant, although of the most productive aquifers on the island. A flat coastal plain sawgrass and giant sedge also are common. The shallower marshes lies near the coast in many parts of the island. The coastal plain is have a more complex species composition and soils that are satu- particularly prominent along the southern coast where fan deltas rated for shorter periods during the year. Common plants in shal- from the southern drainages coalesce. In addition to alluvial fans, low marshes are swamp fern, sedges, river grass, spike rush, panic there are landslide, marine-terrace, coastal-dune, beach, swamp, and grass, joint grass, and beakrush (U.S. Army Engineer Environmental other recent deposits that overlie the older rocks on both the northern Laboratory, 1978). The large marsh complex at Laguna Tortuguero and southern coasts (P.G. Olcott, U.S. Geological Survey, written near Manati is the only documented spring- and seep-fed marsh in commun., 1993). On the eastern end of the island, the topography Puerto Rico (Quifiones-MArquez; and Fust6, 1978). Water that en- is characterized by steep-sided valleys and on the western end by ters the limestone aquifers in the karstic region of the island's inte- broad, alluvial valleys that overlie volcanic rocks and limestone rior discharges upward in the form of springs and seeps and keeps lenses. the soil saturated. Nearly 700 plant species, many of which are rare, The climate is classified as subtropical according to the life endangered, or endemic to Puerto Rico, have been identified in this zone maps of the Holdridge classification system commonly used marsh (Lugo and Brown, 1988). in Puerto Rico (Ewell and Whitmore, 1973). Winter is the coolest The most extensive estuarine wetlands are the mangrove for- and driest season. During winter, there generally are at least 2 ests (forested or scrub-shrub wetlands) in which red, black, and months of low precipitation when the region is under the influence white mangrove and buttonwood predominate. Mangroves stabilize of a subtropical high-pressure system. Precipitation in winter and nearshore overwash islands, fringe the coastal shoreline, form ex- spring generally is associated with moisture-laden frontal systems tensive forests along estuarine rivers, and grow in basins that trap that approach the islands from the northwest (fig. 2B). Summers saltwater (Lugo and Brown, 1988). The largest mangrove stand in are hot and humid. During summer, the islands are no longer under Puerto Rico is located just east of metropolitan San Juan in an area the influence of high atmospheric pressure, and there is a steady that includes about 2,500 acres of wetlands, beaches, and associ- westward flow of moist air from the Atlantic Ocean (the trade winds) ated open-water habitats. In areas along the southern coast of the that is the primary source of summer and fall precipitation. island, which are subject to drier climatic conditions, salt flats or Precipitation on Puerto Rico's main island varies geographi- salinas wetlands (primarily unconsolidated-shore wetlands) com- cally as well as seasonally. Average annual precipitation ranges from monly exist, generally in association with mangrove-dominated less than 35 inches in some southwestem coastal valleys to more habitats. These extremely saline environments develop where tidal than 200 inches in parts of the montane rain forests (fig. 2C) and saltwater is trapped and evaporated. The high salt content of soils averages about 70 to 72 inches per year islandwide. The geographic in the flats can be tolerated by only a few plants, and the most sa- variation in precipitation is primarily the result of topography and line of the flats are nonvegetated. An excellent example of this wet- the predominant weather patterns. The northern and southern parts land type is the wetland at Cabo Rojo, in the extreme southwestem of Puerto Rico's main island are separated by an east-west-trending part of Puerto Rico. mountain range, the Cordillera Central, which joins the southwest- Estuarine marshes (emergent wetlands) are uncommon in northeast-trending Sierra de Luquillo in the eastern part of the is- Puerto Rico. They usually form a narrow transition zone between land. Precipitation rates are high in the mountains because when mangrove-dominated wetlands and adjacent freshwater wetlands. atmospheric moisture in the weather systems is forced up the slopes Plant species in estuarine marshes typically include sawgrass, cat- into the cooler air of the higher elevations, the moisture condenses tails, and leather ferns. and falls as rain. Along much of the southern coast, annual rainfall Open-water areas of the Estuarine and Marine Systems con- totals are low relative to the rest of the island because this area lies tain deepwater habitats and wetlands. The substrate and associated in the rain shadow of the surrounding mountains, which intercept plants, rocks, or coral of a permanently flooded area constitute the prevailing westward- or southeastward-moving weather systems. deepwater habitat, whereas areas that are exposed during even the The ratio of precipitation to evapotranspiration also is a factor lowest spring tide are classified wetland. In Puerto Rico, open-water that affects the type and diversity of wetlands in Puerto Rico. As estuarine wetlands can be nonvegetated or vegetated. The non-veg- the ratio of precipitation to evaporation increases, the diversity of etated estuarine wetlands are primarily beaches, sand bars, and tidal wetlands also increases. For example, on the leeward (southern) side flats (unconsolidated-shore wetlands), and the vegetated wetlands of the island, where precipitation is low and evapotranspiration is are mostly seagrass beds (aquatic-bed wetlands). Similarly, Puerto high, estuarine wetlands predominate. On the windward (northern) Rico's marine wetlands include unconsolidated shore and aquatic- side of the island, where precipitation is high, palustrine wetlands 336 National Water Surnmary-Wetland Resources: STATE SUMMARIES are more common. These freshwater wetlands extend along peren- The principal types of wetlands in Puerto Rico and their dis- nial streams from coastal basins inland to some of the mountain tribution with respect to elevation are shown in figure 3. The almost slopes and exist in the rain forests at higher elevations (Zack and continuous precipitation and thin soil layers over insoluble rocks Romdn-Mds, 1988). in the higher mountain elevations assure water saturation of the root In the northern part of Puerto Rico, freshwater wetlands re- zone, as well as nearly continuous water-vapor saturation of the ceive nearly continuous precipitation in the montane rain forests, atmosphere surrounding the canopy of the montane wetlands. This and wetlands on the coastal plain receive overland runoff and abundance of water also provides high runoff volumes for the suc- ground-water discharge from the limestone aquifer system (fig. 3). cessional wetlands at lower elevations. The water moves downslope Near the coast, estuarine wetlands receive water from both the ocean into rivers, where it recharges the limestone aquifers. Farther and inland sources. In the coastal wetlands on the northern side of downgradient, the aquifers discharge to rivers and springs, provid- the island, direct precipitation is insignificant relative to the other ing water for the lowland and coastal wetlands. moisture sources. However, the farther inland a wetland is and the greater its elevation, the more important direct precipitation be- TRENDS comes (Lugo and others, 1980). Because the southern part of Puerto Rico receives less precipi- Reliable estimates of Puerto Rico's original wetland acreage are tation and has higher evapotranspiration rates than the northern part not available, but the wetlands of the island have been greatly re- of the island, it is considered and in relation to other parts of the duced in number and size as a result of agricultural development island. Even though precipitation is not abundant in this part of the and the growth in population. Virtually every wetland, with the island, it is important to coastal-plain wetlands. Precipitation pro- exception of those in the highlands, has been damaged to some ex- duces surface runoff, fills the rivers, and recharges the ground-water tent by attempts to drain the land for other uses. The small size of system. Overland flow, streamflow, and ground water are major many of the wetlands increases their susceptibility to destruction sources of moisture for the southern coast's freshwater wetlands and (Lugo and Brown, 1988). are important sources for its estuarine wetlands. The ground-water More than one-half of the original 30,000 acres of mangrove system of southern Puerto Rico is entirely contained in the sedi- forests in Puerto Rico has been destroyed. Although mangrove for- mentary aquifers of the coastal plain. Recharge to the aquifers occurs ests are protected by law (Lugo, 1988), mangrove wetlands continue where the coastal plain meets the southern flank of the mountains to be filled for housing developments, transportation facilities, high- at river valleys. The southerly flowing rivers are generally ephem- ways, and landfills. Some mangrove wetlands are also destroyed by eral, reaching the Caribbean Sea and the estuarine wetlands only excavation for marinas and canals. A proposed expansion of Luis during periods of high flow in summer and fall. At other times of Muhoz Marfn International Airport at Isla Verde would destroy an the year, ground water discharges to the sea and is the only major additional 160 acres of mangrove forest (Fernando J. Rodriguez and source of moisture for nontidal wetlands. Associates, 1991). Ground water in the valleys on the eastern and western ends Only a few bloodwood forests remain in Puerto Rico. Cintr6n of Puerto Rico generally is limited to local alluvial aquifers and is (1983) estimated that by 1977, only 14 stands of bloodwood trees eventually discharged to the ocean. This ground-water discharge having a combined area of about 600 acres existed on the island. supports narrow, discontinuous wetlands along the coast in these Although the species probably was, atone time, distributed through- areas. out the highlands of the interior, it is now limited to the Sierra de Cloud glope Col 4 fo Marsh Bloodwood swamp Mangrove swamp Sea Coral grasses ree s PALUSTRINE WETLANDS 7- P WETLANDS Figure 3. Generalized geohydrologic setting of wetlands in Puerto Rico. (Source: Wetland types from Lugo and Brown, 1988.) National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: PUERTO RICO 337 Luquillo (Alvarez-L6pez, 1990). A number of coastal stands that Section 10 ofthe Rivers and Harbors Act gives the U.S. Army were documented earlier this century no longer exist. Although the Corps of Engineers (Corps) authority to regulate certain activities large bloodwood forest at Humacao was recently brought under in navigable waters. Regulated activities include diking, deepening, public ownership, most wetlands of this type are privately owned. filling, excavating, and placing of structures. The related section 404 Over a period of several hundred years, large acreages of of the Clean Water Act is the most often-used Federal legislation palustrine wetland were converted to agricultural use in the coastal- protecting wetlands. Under section 404 provisions, the Corps issues plain regions of Puerto Rico. For example, the Caiio Tiburones permits regulating the discharge of dredged or fill material into wetland originally covered more than 6,000 acres but has, since wetlands. Permits are subject to review and possible veto by the U.S. 1917, been drained by pumping for land reclamation (Zack and Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), and the Fws has review and Class-Cacho, 1984). The remaining mangrove swamp encompasses advisory roles. Section 401 of the Clean Water Act grants to States about 250 acres (A.L. Zack, U.S. Geological Survey, written com- and eligible Indian Tribes the authority to approve, apply conditions mun., 1994). This trend has been reversed in recent years because to, or deny section 404 permit applications on the basis of a pro- of the declining profitability of sugar cane production. Agricultural posed activity's probable effects on the water quality of a wetland. areas that required intensive water management by draining and Most farming, ranching, and silviculture activities are not sub- pumping are now being allowed to go fallow. Water levels in these ject to section 404 regulation. However, the "Swampbuster" provi- areas have risen, and the abandoned farms are reverting to marsh. sion of the 1985 Food Security Act and amendments in the 1990 However, many of these areas are now subject to conversion for Food, Agriculture, Conservation, and Trade Act discourage (through commercial development. financial disincentives) the draining, filling, or other alteration of wetlands for agricultural use. The law allows exemptions from pen- CONSERVATION alties in some cases, especially if the farmer agrees to restore the altered wetland or other wetlands that have been converted to agri- Many govemment agencies and private organizations partici- cultural use. The Wetlands Reserve Program of the 1990 Food, pate in wetland conservation in Puerto Rico. The most active agen- Agriculture, Conservation, and Trade Act authorizes the Federal cies and organizations and some of their activities are listed in table Government to purchase conservation easements from landowners I . who agree to protect or restore wetlands. The Consolidated Farm Federal wetland activities. - Development activities in Puerto Service Agency (formerly the Agricultural Staibilization and Con- Rico wetlands are regulated by several Federal statutory prohibi- servation Service) administers the Swampbuster provisions and Wet- tions and incentives that are intended to slow wetland losses. Some lands Reserve Program. The Natural Resources Conservation Ser- of the more important of these are contained in the 1899 Rivers and vice (formerly the Soil Conservation Service) compliance with Harbors Act; the 1972 Clean Water Act and amendments; the 1985 Swampbuster provisions and assists farmers in the identification of Food Security Act; the 1990 Food, Agriculture, Conservation, and wetlands and in the development of wetland protection, restoration, Trade Act; the 1986 Emergency Weiland Resources Act; and the or creation plans. 1972 Coastal Zone Management Act. In the following description The 1986 Emergency Weiland Resources Act and the 1972 of wetland-related Federal legislation, regulations that apply to Coastal Zone Management Act and amendments encourage wetland States also apply to Puerto Rico. protection through funding incentives. The Emergency Weiland Resources Act requires States to address wetland protection in their Statewide Comprehensive Outdoor Recreation Plans to qualify for Table 1. Selected wetland-related activities of government Federal funding for State recreational land; the National Park Ser- agencies and private organizations in Puerto Rico, 1993 vice provides guidance to States in developing the wettand compo- [Source: Classification of activities is generalized from information provided nent of their plans. Coastal and Great Lakes States that adopt coastal- by agencies and organizations. *, agency or organization participates in zone management programs and plans approved by the National wetland-related activity, agency or organization does not participate in wetiand-related activity. MAN, management; REG, regulation; R&C, res- Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration are eligible for Federal toration and creation; LAN, land acquisition; R&D, research and data col- funding and technical assistance through the Coastal Zone Manage- lection; D&I, delineation and inventory] ment Act. Federal agencies acquire and manage wetlands at numerous locations in Puerto Rico. The Caribbean National Forest, adminis- Agency or organization 4 o, 0 <@? trated by the U.S. Forest Service, encompasses the rain forest wet- FEDERAL lands of El Yunque and the surrounding highlands. The Fws also Department of Agriculture actively manages wetlands as part of the National Wildlife Refuge Consolidated Farm Service Agency ........... system and has recently acquired the freshwater wetlands of Laguna Forest Service ................................................. Cartagena. Management and restoration plans for the lagoon are Natural Resources Conservation Service ................ Department of Commerce being developed cooperatively with the municipality of Lajas. The National Oceanic and Atmospheric U.S. Navy manages wetlands on their reservations at Roosevelt Administration ... .................................. .................... Roads and on the island of Vieques. Department of Defense Commonwealth wetland activities. -Many of Puerto Rico's Army Corps of Engineers ..............................................* 0 0 wetlands are in public ownership. Theoretically, under the Spanish Military reservations :,- ............................*..........0 ... ... ... ... ... law still in effect, all mangrove forests axe owned by the Common- Department of the Interior Fish and Wildlife Service ..............................................* o e * wealth of Puerto Rico because they are within the maritime (inter- Geological Survey ................................................... ...... ... ... ... ...0 tidal) zone (Lugo, 1988). Large areas of mangrove forests, having National Biological Service .................................. ...... ... ... ... - 0 been set aside years ago as a future source of fuel, are managed by National Park Service ...................................................o e 0 0 a the Puerto Rico Department of Environmental and Natural Re- Environmental Protection Agency .................................. ... COMMONWEALTH sources as part of the Commonwealth forest system. Weiland man- Department of Environmental and agement by the Department is not limited to estuarine habitats. Natural Resources ............................................................. Freshwater wetlands in the Pterocarpus Forest and Laguna PRIVATE Tortuguero are also under the Department's control. Conservation Trust of Puerto Rico ................... Under the authority of the Coastal Zone Management Act, the 338 National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: STATE SUMMARIES Commonwealth has developed a comprehensive management plan Dahl, T.E., 1991, Weiland Resources of the United States: St. Petersburg of which wetland protection, particularly of mangrove wetlands, is Fla., U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service special map, scale 1:3,168,000. an integral parL Certification of consistency with the plan is required del Llano, Manuel, Col6n, J.A., and Chabert, J.L., 1986, A directory of before any Federal permits or licenses are granted for activities in neotropical wetlands, in Scott, D.A., and Carbonell, Montserrat (com- the coastal zone. The Planning Board of the Commonwealth is the pilers): Cambridge, U.K., International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources and Slimbridge, U.K., International primary agency responsible for administration of the plan. Waterfowl Research Bureau, p. 559-571. A number of other planning documents have been developed Ewel, J.J., and Whitmore, J.L., 1973, The ecological life zones of Puerto to guide wetland-management activities. The Department of Envi- Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands: U.S. Forest Service Research Paper ronmental and Natural Resources, FWS, and EPA have independently ITF- 18, 72 p. prepared prioritized listings of important wetland-resource areas. Fernando J. Rodriguez and Associates, 1991, Environmental assessment, The Natural Heritage Program within the Department of Environ- proposed master plan report improvements-Luis Mufioz Marfn In- mental and Natural Resources has also developed restoration and ternational Airport (prepared for Puerto Rico Ports Authority): San management plans for wetlands of exceptional importance such as Juan, Puerto Rico, Fernando J. Rodriguez and Associates, Report No. those at Caho Tiburones and Laguna Gudnica. 81.06 [Revised 1992], [400 p.]. L6pez, J.M., Stoner, A.W., Garcia, J.R., and Garcia-Mufiiz, lvdn, 1989, Private wetland activities. - ne Conservation Trust of Puerto Marine food webs associated with Caribbean islands mangrove wet- Rico is the principal private organization actively involved in the lands: Acta Cientifica, v. 2, no. 2-3 p. 94-123. preservation and management of wetlands in Puerto Rico. The Lugo, A.E., 1988, The mangroves of Puerto Rico are in trouble: Acta Conservation Trust is a privately funded institution that acquires and Cientifica, v. 2, no. 2-3, p. 124. manages wetlands and other historical properties of notable and Lugo, A.E., and Brown, Sandra, 1988, The wetlands of the Caribbean Is- cultural significance in Puerto Rico. For example, the Conserva- lands: Acta Cientifica, v. 2, no. 2 - 3, p. 48 - 6 1. tion Trust, in cooperation with the Puerto Rico Department of En- Lugo, A.E., Twilley, R.R., Patterson-Zucca, Carol, 1980, The role of black vironmental and Natural Resources, manages the Department's lands mangrove forests in the productivity of coastal ecosystems in South at Las Cabezas de San Juan Nature Reserve near Fajardo at the east- Florida-Report to the Southern Forest Experiment Station, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency: Gainesville, University of Florida, em end of the island. Center for Wetlands, 281 p. Quifiones-Mdrquez, Ferdinand, and Fust6, L.A., 1978, Limnology of La- References Cited guna Tortuguero, Puerto Rico: U.S. Geological Survey Water-Re- sources Investigations Report 77 - 122, 84 p. Alvarez-1,6pez, Migdalia, 1990, Ecology ofPterocarpus officinalis forested U.S. Army Engineer Environmental Laboratory, 1978, Preliminary guide wetlands of Puerto Rico, in Lugo, A.E., Brinson, Marlo, and Brown, to wetlands of Puerto Rico: U.S. Army Engineer Waterways Experi- Sandra, eds., Forested wetlands, Ecosystems of the World, v. 15: New ment Station Technical ReportY-79-3,77 p. York, Elsevier, p. 251-265, Zack, A.L., and Class-Cacho, Angel, 1984, Restoration of freshwater in the Bacon, P.R., 1990, Ecology and management of swamp forests in the Cafio Tiburones area, Puerto Rico: U.S. Geological Survey Water- Guianas and Caribbean region, in Lugo, A.E., Brinson, Marlo, and Resources Investigations Report 83 - 4071, 33 p., I plate. Brown, Sandra, eds., Forested wetlands -Ecosystems of the World, Zack, Allen, and Romdn-Mds, Angel, 1988, Hydrology of the Caribbean v. 15: New York, Elsevier, p. 213 - 225. Islands Wetlands: Acta Cientifica, v. 2, no. 2-3 p. 65-73. Beard, J.S., 1955, The classification of tropical American vegetation types: Ecology, v. 3 6, no. 1, p. 89 -100. Cintr6n, B.B., 1983, Coastal freshwater swamp forests -Pueno Rico's most FOR ADDITIONAL INFORMATION: District Chief, U.S. Geological endangered ecosystem?, in Lugo, A.E., ed., Los Bosques de Puerto Survey, P.O. Box 364424, San Juan, PR 00936; Regional Wetland Coordi- Rico: Rio Piedras, Puerto Rico, U.S. Department ofAgriculture For- nator, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 1875 Century Building, Atlanta, GA est Service, Institute of Tropical Forestry, p. 249-282. 30345 Col6n-Dieppa, Eloy, 1986, Puerto Rico Surface-Water Resources, in U.S. Geological Survey, National water summary 1985-Hydrologic events and surface water resources: U.S, Geological Survey Water-Supply Prepared by Paper 2300, p. 399-406. D. Briane Adams, U.S. Geological Survey, and John M. Hefner, Col6n-Dieppa, Eloy, Torres-Sierra, Heriberto, and Col6n J.A., 1991, Puerto U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Rico floods and droughts, in U.S. Geological Survey, National water summary, 1988 -89 -Hydrologic events and floods and droughts: U.S. Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper 2375, p. 475-481. Cowardin, L.M., Carter, Virginia, Golet, F.C., and LaRoe, E.T., 1979, Clas- sification ofwetlands and deepwater habitats ofthe United States: U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Report FWS/OBS -79/31, 131 p. U.S. Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper 2425 National Water Summary-Wetland Resources 339 Rhode Island Wetland Resources Wands cover about 10 percent of Rhode Island's land surface The most recent inventory of Rhode Island wetlands mapped (Tiner, 1989) and are an important component of the State's natural about 65,000 acres of wetlands statewide (Tiner, 1989). Wetlands resources. Rhode Island's wetlands are valued for the environmen- were mapped from aerial photographs taken from 1974 through tal and economic benefits they provide, such as wildlife habitat, 1977 for the FWs National Wetlands Inventory Project. Most of the water-quality improvement, flood and erosion control, recreational State's wetlands were classified as palustrine (fig. 2B). Palustrine activities, and esthetic beauty (fig. 1). Wetlands provide important forested wetlands can be found throughout the State and are the most food, shelter, breeding, and nursery habitats for shellfish, fish, birds abundant wetland type, accounting for 73 percentofRhode Island's and other wildlife. Undeveloped flood-plain wetlands along the riv- wetlands (Tiner, 1989, table 5). Most of these forested wetlands are ers in the State provide natural storage that helps regulate flood- deciduous, red maple swamps. Red maple grows in most inland waters. Weiland vegetation can inhibit flood erosion when streams wetlands because it tolerates a wide range of flooding and soil satu- swell but of their banks. Acquiring flood-plain wetlands to protect ration conditions (Metzler and Tiner, 1992). The vegetation found them from development was found to be the most cost-effective with red maple, in the understory and intermixed or codominating approach to limit future flood damage along the Pawtuxet River near in the canopy, differs according to nutrient availability and water Warwick (U. S. Army Corps of Engineers, 199 1). regime. Atlantic white cedar wetlands, which are palustrine evergreen- TYPES AND DISTRIBUTION forested wetlands, are most abundant in southwestem Rhode Island (Laderman and others, 1987). These freshwater wetlands contain a Wetlands are lands transitional between terrestrial and deep- distinctive plant community that grows under conditions too extreme water habitats where the water table usually is at or near the land for most other northeastern trees: standing water for one-half of the surface or the land is covered by shallow water (Cowardin and oth- growing season or longer, highly acidic waters, and low nutrient ers, 1979). The distribution of wetlands and deepwater habitats in availability. Atlantic white cedar swamps were once more common Rhode Island is shown in figure 2A; only wetlands are discussed in Rhode Island; many cedar swamps have changed over time to red herein. maple and other types of swamps (Tiner, 1989). Wetlands can be vegetated or nonvegetated and are classified on the basis of their hydrology, vegetation, and substrate. In this summary, wetlands are classified according to the system proposed by Cowardin and others (1979), which is used by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (Fws) to map and inventory the Nation's wetlands. At the most general level of the classification system, wetlands are grouped into five ecological systems: Palustrine, Lacustrine, Riv- erine, Estuarine, and Marine. The Palustrine System includes only wetlands, whereas the other systems comprise wetlands and deepwater habitats. Wetlands of the systems that occur in Rhode Island are described below. System Wetland description Palustrine .................. Nonticlal and tidal-freshwater wetlands in which vegetation is predominantly trees (forested wet- lands); shrubs (scrub-shrub wetlands); persistent or noripersistent emergent, erect, rooted herba- Figure 1. Rhode Island's estuarine wetlands benefit ceous plants (persistent- and nonpersistent- both humans and wildlife. (Photograph courtesy of emergent wetlands); or submersed and (or) the Audubon Society of Rhode Island.) floating plants (aquatic beds). Also, intermit- tently to permanently flooded open-water bod- ies of less than 20 acres in which water is less Palustrine scrub-shrub wetlands account for 8 percent of the than 6.6 feet deep. State's wetlands. Highbush blueberry, swamp azalea, sweet pepper- Lacustrine ................. Nonticlal and tidal-freshwater wetlands within an bush, northern arrowwood, alder, willow, and young red maples are intermittently to permanently flooded lake or common. Bogs are palustrine scrub-shrub wetlands that are char- reservoir larger than 20 acres and (or) deeper acterized by nutrient-poor, acidic water, constant saturation, and than 6.6 feet. Vegetation, when present, is pre- dominantly nonpersistent emergent plants (non- peaty soils. Organic matter decays slowly in bogs and forms deep persistent-emergent wetlands), or submersed peat accumulations that can seal off vegetation from direct contact and (or) floating plants (aquatic beds), or both. with mineral soil or mineral-rich ground water (Damman and Riverine ..................... Nontidal and tidal-freshwater wetlands within a French, 1987). Bogs generally have a well-developed sphagnum mat channel. Vegetation, when present, is same as that contains shrubs such as leatherleaf, sheep laurel, black huck- in the Lacustrine System. leberry, and blueberry. Pitcher plants and sundews commonly are Estuarine ................... Tidal wetlands in low-wave-energy environments present- trapped insects provide an important source of nutrients where the salinity ofthe water is greaterthan 0.5 to these plants. Trees are commonly the dominant plants at the outer part per thousand (ppt) a nd is variable owing to evaporation and the mixing of seawater and borders of bogs, where nutrient-enriched seepage water is dis- freshwater. charged from the adjacent upland, or they grow as stunted individu- Marine ....................... Tidal wetlands that are exposed to waves and cur- als scattered across the bog mat. Tree species may grade from those rents of the open ocean and to water having a requiring high nutrient levels (hemlock, larch, and red maple) near salinity greater than 30 ppt. the bog's outer border to those with lower nutrient requirements 340 National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: STATE SUMMARIES (Atlantic white cedar) near the inner border (Damman and French, beaches and rocky shores, are present along the shoreline of the 1987). State. Vernal pools are small, generally temporary palustrine wet- lands that occur throughout Rhode Island. Because these wetlands HYDROLOGIC SETTING dry up by late summer or earlier, they are devoid of fish and thus provide a safe breeding habitat for many amphibian and invertebrate Wetlands occur in geologic, topographic, and hydrologic set- species. , tings that enhance the accumulation and retention of ground water Lacustrine and riverine wetlands compose only a small per- and surface water. Hydrologic processes are the primary factor de- centage of Rhode Island's wetland acreage. Lacustrine wetlands in termining the existence of wetlands; even if the geologic and topo- the State include aquatic-bed and nonpersistent-emergent wetlands. graphic settings are favorable for wetland formation, unfavorable Riverine wetlands are present in all of the State's freshwater rivers hydrologic conditions can inhibit wetland formation (Winter, 1988). and their tributaries. Most riverine wetlands in Rhode Island are On an annual basis, precipitation exceeds evapotranspiration losses nonvegetated, but nonpersistent emergent vegetation is visible in in Rhode Island (Johnston, 1986). Hydrologic conditions, therefore, slow-flowing, shallow water in the lower reaches of many of the favor the formation and maintenance of wetlands throughout the State's rivers and streams, and aquatic beds are established in the deeper water of some clear rivers and streams. Estuarine wetlands account for 7,000 acres, or about I I per- cent, of the State's wetland acreage. Estuarine wetlands have devel- Estuarine wetlands oped behind the barrier beaches of the State's southern coast, from 10.8 percent (7,020 acres) Marine wetlands the Connecticut border to Narragansett Bay, and in protected coves 1.4 percent (931 acresi and embayments of Narragansett Bay and Block Island. Rhode Lacustrine wetlands Island's vegetated estuarine wetlands are primarily salt and brack- 0.2 percent 199 acres) ish marshes (emergent wetlands) that are commonly vegetated by grasses, bulrushes, or cattails. Nonvegetated estuarine intertidal flats and beaches, alternately flooded by tide or exposed to air, also are an important wetland type in Rhode Island. Palustrine wetlands Marine wetlands account for only I percent of the State's total 87.6 percent wetland acreage. Marine wetlands, composed primarily of intertidal 157,100 acres) A 42@ 71- 30' B RELATIVE AND ACTUAL ACREAGE 41N OF WETLAND TYPES IN RHODE ISLAND C P ence A _4AA R 9 14 Ell Pon@@%. 41 0 Indian 'dlvjS '@ FD '. Sach roina NWR 0 P-t.& @ & 0 Chaprnan Sw WR Wt 0 5 10 15 MILES J.di,h P-d P-d Ni Tr P-d 0 5 10 15 KILOMETERS a Gle- Hill P-d Ninignat NWR Evi-p-g ond h..t..g P-d WETLANDS AND DEEPWATER HABITATS Block Island Distribution of wetlands and deepwater habitats- Nwnl@ This map shows the approximate distribution of large wetlands in the State. Because of limitations of scale SURFACE MATERIALS and source material, some wetlands are not shown Predominantly wetland Tilllbed,ocl Stratified drift Predominantly deepwater habitat Moraine Figure 2. Wetland distribution and acreage in Rhode Island and distribution of surface materials across the State. A, Distribution of wet- lands and cleepwater habitats. B, Relative and actual acreage of the most common wetland types, mid-1 970's. (No data are available for riverine wetlands.) C, Distribution of surface materials. (Sources: A, TE Dahl, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, unpub. data, 1991. B, Tiner, 1989. C, Rhode Island Department of Environmentdl Management, Groundwater Division.) National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: RHODE ISLAND 341 State, and wetland location is determined primarily by geologic and smith, 1982). The high topography of the Charlestown moraine, near topographic controls. Charlestown, roughly paralleling the coast, and the Old Saybrook Rhode Island was completely covered by ice during the last moraine, just north of the Pawcatuck River, mark pauses in the re- glaciation. Large quantities of glacial drift (sediment derived from treat of the ice sheet (Goldsmith, 1982). Drainage of surface water glacial action) were produced and deposited over bedrock through- in many valleys or lowland areas is blocked or slowed by the higher out the State (fig. 2C). Drift deposited directly by the ice is called topography of glacial moraines or mounds of ice-contact stratified unstratified drift or till. Till is exposed at the land surface in about drift, Some of the largest stands of Atlantic white cedar in Rhode two-thirds of the State (Johnston and Barlow, 1988), primarily on Island and also the State's largest wetlands-the 2,150-acre upland hilltops and slopes. Because till was deposited directly from Chapman Swamp, the 960-acre Indian Cedar Swamp, and the 2,970- glacial ice, it is a poorly sorted mixture of boulders, gravel, sand, acre Great Swamp (Laderman, 1989) -occur in basins blocked by and silt. Sediment that was eroded and reworked by glacial melt- moraines. Many other large, shallow wetlands are present in val- water is called stratified drift. Because stratified drift was depos- leys throughout the State owing to drainage blocked by ice-contact ited by flowing water in either riverine or lake environments, it stratified drift. consists of well-sorted gravel, sand, and silt. Stratified drift is ex- Some of Rhode Island's palustrine wetlands are lowland areas posed at the land surface in the remaining one-third of the State and modified by the recent erosion and deposition by rivers -in aban- is commonly 75 to 125 feet thick. These deposits are present in doned river channels, in flood-plain areas, behind levees and topographically low areas, such as narrow stream and river valleys, overbank sediments adjacent to rivers, and in backswamp areas. or occur as broad, flat plains beyond former ice margin positions. These wetlands receive moisture from river flooding and ground- Ice-contact stratified drift was deposited directly against ice by gla- water discharge. cial-meltwater streams; often these deposits have higher relief due Tidal wetlands form a narrow fringe along coastal areas of the to the control of sedimentation by the ice or valley walls or both. State. Tidal wetlands receive freshwater from upland areas through Wetlands occur throughout Rhode Island in topographic de- ground-water discharge and surface-water runoff. Floodwater re- pressions within glacial drift or bedrock. Closed topographic de- suiting from high tides or storm flows is temporarily stored on the pressions called kettle holes pit the surface of glacial drift. Kettle wetland surface but drains into the tidal river or estuary as the river holes resulted from melting ice blocks that were embedded in gla- stage recedes. The drainage of floodwater and surface-water run- cial sediments. Surface runoff and ground-water discharge collect off from the wetland surface is slowed by the low slope of coastal in small hollows, kettle holes, and other topographic depressions, areas. leading to the formation and maintenance of wetlands. Retention As the last ice sheet melted and water stored as glacial ice re- of moisture occurs in depressions which have no outflow or have turned to the sea, sea level rose and encroached upon land, flood- drainage controlled by bedrock sills, glacial drift, beaver dams, or ing many stream and river valleys to form estuaries. Narragansett manmade structures. Seepage wetlands commonly form where the Bay is an estuary formed in such a "drowned" river valley. Tidal ground-water table intersects the land surface -on concave slopes wetlands have either migrated inland along estuaries, river valleys, and at breaks in slope; however, the wetlands are perennial only if and coastal slopes, or the wetlands have been completely submerged ground-water discharge is also perennial (Winter, 1988). by the rising sea. Some kettle holes were flooded by saltwater, re- After the glaciers retreated, vegetation colonized the landscape sulting in a change from freshwater to tidal wetlands (Boothroyd in response to the warming climate; open-water depressions filled and others, 1985). The interconnected Point Judith and Potter Ponds, in with sediment and organic matter to become freshwater wetlands located perpendicular to the State's southern coast, formed when the or remained lakes with wetlands fringing open water. The availabil- sea flooded a series of individual kettle holes. The shallow, elon- ity of nutrients determines the types of plants that grow in wetlands. gate salt ponds paralleling the barrier beaches of the State's south- As water moves through soil and surficial materials, it is enriched em coast-Green Hill, Ninigret, Quonochontaug, Trustom, and in nutrients that enhance plant growth. The longer the flow path Winnapaug Ponds-have formed through the gradual rise in sea beneath the surface, the more the water is enriched. Wetlands in level over low-slope outwash plains. Presently, tidal wetlands exist upland till and bedrock depressions are primarily areas of discharge between rising sea level and expanding coastal development and have from nutrient-poor, local ground-water flow systems, whereas wet- little area for future inland migration. lands in lowland valleys underlain by stratified drift receive dis- charge from rlutrient-enriched, longer ground-water flow systems. TRENDS Results from a 7-year study of water-table activity in Atlantic white cedar wetlands (Golet and Lowry, 1987) illustrate the effect There are no statewide estimates of recent wetland losses or of geologic setting on wetland hydrology. Water levels fluctuated alteration; however, wetland losses and alterations continue in Rhode primarily in response to variations in annual precipitation in all Island despite Federal and State regulation. In the first 5 months of wetlands studied (Golet and Lowry, 1987). However, seasonal wa- 1993, more than 230 preliminary-determination applications were ter-level activity differed between wetlands because of different submitted to the Department of Environmental Management for sources and amounts of moisture input. Ell Pond and its associated work proposed in or near freshwater wetlands in the State (Chuck wetlands overlie a deep bedrock fracture (Laderman and others, Horbert, Department of Environmental Management, oral com- 1987). Water levels in this wetland fluctuated significantly in re- mun., 1993). Of these applications for wetland alteration, 149 were sponse to precipitation input and transpiration losses (Golet and approved because the projects would result in insignificant wetland Lowry, 1987). Diamond Bog is a deep kettle-hole wetland within alterations, 17 required formal applications because the projects permeable stratified drift, and it receives significant ground-water would cause significant wetland alterations, and the remaining input. In contrast to Ell Pond, water levels within Diamond Bog projects were not near wetlands. Generally, the functions for which remained relatively high even during periods of high evapotranspi- wetlands are valued operate at a drainage basin or landscape scale, ration losses. not at the pen-nit site or single-wetlaild scale. The contribution of a As the last glacier retreated northward, a succession of till single wetland to landscape functions can depend not only on the ridges or moraines was deposited at the edge of each ice front. actual size of the wetland but also on its setting within a landscape Moraines on Long Island in New York, Block Island in Rhode Is- system (Bedford and Preston, 1988). The cumulative impact of in- land, and Martha's Vineyard and Nantucket Island in Massachusetts dividually insignificant, but collectively significant, wetland losses mark the maximum extent of the last ice front (Sirkin, 1982; Gold- could lead to serious impairment of beneficial wetland functions. 342 National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: STATE SUMMARIES Studies of the sediments deposited in wetlands show that wet- Table 1. Selected wetland-related activities of government. lands have been strongly affected by activities within their drain- agencies and private organizations in Rhode Island, 1993 age basins. Postsettlement agricultural and industrial practices in [Source: Classification of activities is generalized from information provided the uplands of northeastern Connecticut were found to be the most by agencies and organizations, 9, agency or organization participates in important ecological influence on wetlands since glaciation wetland-related activity; agency or organization does not participate in wetand-related activity. MAN, management; REG, regulation; R&C, res- (Thorson, 1990, 1992; Thorson and Harris, 1991). Both the fre- toration and creation; LAN, land acquisition; R&D, research and data col- quency of transitions between wetland types and the rate of sedi- lection; D&I, delineation and inventory] ment accumulation increased by at least one order of magnitude after colonial settlement as compared to the thousands of years before s@ settlement. Cores of bottom sediments from Narragansett Bay show Agency or organization 0 a distinct increase in the percentage of organic accumulation 2 to 3 FEDERAL feet below the surface; the increase marks a change in wetland type Department of Agriculture from intertidal sand flats to salt marshes. This change in wetland Consolidated Farm Service Agency ........................... ... ... ... ... ... type was caused when dams, built across upstream tributaries for Forest Service ................................................................. ... ... ... ... ... power generation, decreased the downstream transport of sediment Natural Resources Conservation Service ................ ... ... Department of Commerce (Bricker-Urso and others, 1989). Other wetlands have formed as a National Oceanic and result of the numerous dams and impoundments built along rivers Atmospheric Administration ........................................ throughout the State and the subsequent rise in local water tables; Department of Defense flood-plain wetlands along the Pawcatuck River are examples Army Corps of Engineers .............................................. ... (Schafer, 1968). These studies indicate that even human activities Military reservations .....................................................0... ... ... ... ... Department of the Interior not located directly within a wetland can affect wetlands owing to Fish and Wildlife Service ..............................................* the response of wetlands to changing geologic and hydrologic con- Geological Survey ......................................... ___ .......... ... .. ditions within the landscape system. National Biological Service ......................................... ... ... Environmental Protection Agency .................................. ...0 11 . ... ... STATE CONSERVATION Coastal Resources Management Council .................... 0 Department of Environmental Management Many government agencies and private organizations partici- Fish, Wildlife, and Estuarine Resources Division pate in wetland conservation in Rhode Island. The most active agen- Freshwater Wetlands Division ..................................... ... cies and organizations and some of their activities are listed in table Parks and Recreation Division ....................................0 ... -. ... ... ... I Water Resources Division ............................................ ... ... ... ... ... Federal wetland activities. -Development activities in Rhode University of Rhode Island ...............................................* PRIVATE ORGANIZATIONS Island wetlands are regulated by several Federal statutory prohibi- Audubon Society of Rhode Island ..................................* tions and incentives that are intended to slow wetland losses. Some Ducks Unlimited .................................................................. ... of the more important of these are contained in the 1899 Rivers and The Champlin Foundation ................................................. Harbors Act; the 1972 Clean Water Act and amendments; the 1985 The Nature Conservancy .................................................. Food Security Act; the 1990 Food, Agriculture, Conservation, and Trade Act; the 1986 Emergency Wetlands Resources Act; and the 1972 Coastal Zone Management Act. lands Reserve Program. The Natural Resources Conservation Section 10 of the Rivers and Harbors Act gives the U.S. Army Service (formerly the Soil Conservation Service) determines com- Corps of Engineers (Corps) authority to regulate certain activities pliance with Swampbuster provisions and assists farmers in the iden- in navigable waters. Regulated activities include diking, deepening, tification of wetlands and in the development of wetland protection, filling, excavating, and placing of structures. The related section 404 restoration, or creation plans. of the Clean Water Act is the most often-used Federal legislation The 1986 Emergency Wetlands Resources Act and the 1972 protecting wetlands. Under section 404 provisions, the Corps issues Coastal Zone Management Act and amendments encourage wetland permits regulating the discharge of dredged or fill material into protection through funding incentives. The Emergency Wetland wetlands. Permits are subject to review and possible veto by the U. S. Resources Act requires States to address wetland protection in their Environmental Protection Agency, and the FWS has review and ad- Statewide Comprehensive Outdoor Recreation Plans to qualify for visory roles. Section 401 of the Clean Water Act grants to States Federal funding for State recreational land; the National Park Ser- and eligible Indian Tribes the authority to approve, apply conditions vice provides guidance to States in developing the wetland compo- to, or deny section 404 permit applications on the basis of a pro- nent oftheirplans. Coastal and GreatLakes States that adopt coastal- posed activity's probable effects on the water quality of a wetland. zone management programs and plans approved by the National Most farming, ranching, and silviculture activities are not sub- Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) are eligible for ject to section 404 regulation. However, the "Swampbuster" provi- Federal funding and technical assistance through the Coastal Zone sion of the 1985 Food Security Act and amendments in the 1990 Management Act. Food, Agriculture, Conservation, and Trade Act discourage (through Federal agencies are responsible for the proper management financial disincentives) the draining, filling, or other alteration of of wetlands on public lands under their jurisdiction. The FWS pro- wetlands for agricultural use. The law allows exemptions from pen- tects and manages salt marsh and freshwater wetlands in the Ninigret alties in some cases, especially if the farmer agrees to restore the National Wildlife Refuge. Wetlands are also protected in the Block altered wetland or other wetlands that have been converted to agri- Island National Wildlife Refuge, the Trustom Pond National Wild- cultural use. The Wetlands Reserve Program of the 1990 Food, life Refuge, and Sachuest Point National Wildlife Refuge. Agriculture, Conservation, and Trade Act authorizes the Federal State wetland activities. -Wetlands are regulated primarily at Government to purchase conservation easements from landowners the State level in Rhode Island; separate agencies regulate coastal who agree to protect or restore wetlands. The Consolidated Farm and freshwater wetlands. The Coastal Resources Management Pro- Service Agency (fon-nerly the Agricultural Stabilization and Conser- gram requires that pen-nits be obtained from the Coastal Resources vation Service administers the Swampbuster provisions and Wet- Management Council for any dredging, filling, or other physical National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: RHODE ISLAND 343 alteration of coastal wetlands and directly contiguous areas, includ- for the protection of existing uses in wetlands and the level of water ing contiguous freshwater wetlands. Coastal wetlands are defined quality necessary to maintain those uses. No degradation is allowed as any salt marsh that borders on tidal waters and contains certain in areas designated as "Outstanding National Resource Waters" such plant species. Activities in coastal ponds and contiguous upland as National Wildlife Refuges, National Parks, State Parks, wildlife areas, extending no more than 200 feet inland, also are regulated in areas, and other areas of ecological significance. order to preserve the integrity of tidal wetlands. The Coastal Re- Private wetland activities. -Regulation of wetlands in Rhode sources Management Council has regulatory, planning, and man- Island includes consideration of local concerns and issues. Local agement powers within these specified coastal areas. land-use controls are an additional wetland-protection measure. Under the Freshwater Wetlands Act, permits must be obtained Fifteen of Rhode Island's 39 communities have established local land from the Department of Environmental Management's Division of trusts (Rhode Island Department of Administration, 1992). Freshwater Wetlands for any dredging, filling or other type of al- Many of Rhode Island's natural resources have been acquired teration to inland wetlands, including adjacent upland areas. Areas and protected through cooperative efforts involving private orga- subject to regulation as freshwater wetlands include, but are not lim- nizations, local land trusts, and State and local governments. The ited to, any swamp, marsh, bog, pond, vernal pool, river, stream, Nature Conservancy, the Champlin Foundation, and State and lo- riverbank, flood plain (as defined by a 100-year-frequency storm), cal governments together have protected endangered-species habi- areas subject to flooding and storm flows, emergent and submerged tats and unique areas on Block Island. Block Island contains some plant communities in any body of water, and the area of land within of the State's rarest ecosystems and most valuable natural habitats; 50 feet of any bog, swamp, marsh, or pond. the island has recently been designated as one of 12 bioreserves in The Department of Environmental Management is the primary the Western Hemisphere by The Nature Conservancy. The Champlin land-management agency in Rhode Island. The Department has Foundation provides funds for land acquisition to the State, The responsibility for developing and operating some 87,000 acres of Nature Conservancy, and The Audubon Society of Rhode Island. State-owned open space, including parks, beaches, water-supply The GreenSpace 2000 Project is a statewide plan to protect critical areas, wildlife-habitat reserves, and conservation areas (Rhode Is- open-space values and functions through a network of tracts and land Department of Administration, 1992). About 2,000 acres of land greenways; the plan establishes protection priorities and strategies have recently been acquired on six of the islands in Narragansett to reach its goals (Rhode Island Department of Administration, Bay. This land is part of the State's Bay Island Park System and 1992). Save The Bay, the State's largest private, nonprofit environ- provides recreation, conservation, environmental education, and mental group, the Conservation Fund, a national nonprofit group research opportunities. More than 2,000 acres of fish and wildlife that promotes greenways, and State and local officials are cooper- habitat and wetlands along the Wood, Pawcatuck, and Moosup Riv- ating to implement the plan's goals. Wetlands are identified as criti- ers have been acquired by using State and Federal funds. The cal geographic -resource areas by the plan, and many are priority Department's Fish, Wildlife and Estuarine Resources Division is protection areas in the GreenSpace 2000 Project. focusing on anadromous-fish restoration programs on these rivers, The Audubon Society of Rhode Island owns and manages more The Narragansett Bay National Estuarine Research Reserve is than 6,000 acres of land, containing many freshwater and saltwater cooperatively managed by the Department of Environmental Man- wetlands, for recreational and educational purposes. Ducks Unlim- agement and NOAA'S Office of Ocean and Coastal Resource Man- ited provides technical and financial assistance to Federal and State agement. The 4,950-acre reserve was created under section 315 of agencies to protect waterfowl habitat in Rhode Island. the Federal Coastal Zone Management Act and contains undisturbed salt marshes, tidal flats, and open-water habitats. The reserve serves References Cited as a natural laboratory and is the site of several interagency research projects. Bedford, B.L., and Preston, E.M., 1988, Developing the scientific basis for The Rhode Island Natural Heritage Program compiles and up- assessing cumulative effects of wetland loss and degradation on land- dates rare and endangered animal and plant lists within the State. scape functions- Status, perspectives, and prospects: Environmen- The program comments on State freshwater-wetlands permit appli- tal Management, v. 12, p. 751-77 1. cations, Clean Water Act Section 404 permit applications, and lo- Boothroyd, J.C., Friedrich, N.E., and McGinn, S.R., 1985, Geology of cal comprehensive plans. Certain wetland types and rare biological microtidal coastal lagoons -Rhode Island: Marine Geology, v. 63, p. 35-76. communities are identified by the program for priority protection, Bricker-Urso, Suzanne, Nixon, S.W., Cochran, J.K., Hirschberg, D.J., and The Natural Heritage program, along with nongame research and Hunt, C.D., 1989, Accretion rates and sediment accumulation in Rhode management projects, is funded by the nongame-wildlife fund, a Island salt marshes: Estuaries, v. 12, p. 300-317. voluntary contribution on State income tax forms. Cowardin, L.M., Carter, Virginia, Golet, F.C., and LaRoe, E.T., 1979, Clas- The Department of Environmental Management's Freshwater sification of wetlands and deepwater habitats of the United States: U.S. Wetlands Division requires water-quality certification from the Fish and Wildlife Service Report FWS/OBS -79/31, 131 p. Department of Environmental Management's Water Resources Di- Darnman, AW.H., and French, T.W., 1987, The ecology of peat bogs of the vision before approval of any significant wetland alterations. Un- glaciated northeastern United States -A community profile: U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Biological Report 85(7.16), 100 p. der section 40t of the Federal Clean Water Act, any activity that Goldsmith, Richard, 1982, Recessional moraines and ice retreat in south- results in a discharge, including that of fill into wetlands or State eastern Connecticut, in Larson, G.J., and Stone, B.D., eds., Late waters, must obtain a section 401 water-quality certification stat- Wisconsinan glaciation of New England: Dubuque, Iowa, Kendall/ ing that the activity will not result in violation of State surface-water- Hunt Publishing Company, p. 61-76. quality standards. Normal maintenance and improvement of agri- Golet, F.C., and Lowry, D.J., 1987, Water regimes and tree growth in Rhode cultural lands are exempt from State and Federal authority under Island Atlantic white cedar swamps, in Laderman, A.D., ed., Atlantic this program. However, any discharge from exempted activities that white cedar wetlands: Boulder, Colo., Westview Press, p. 91 - 110. might convert open-water areas or wetlands to dry land, impede Johnston, H.E., 1986, Rhode Island surface-water resources, in U.S. Geo- circulation, or reduce the size of a wetland or water body is subject logical Survey, National water summary 1985-Hydrologic events and surface-water resources: U.S. Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper to section 404 regulation. Enforcement of the antidegradation provi- 2300, p. 407-412. sions of State surface-water-quality standards for wetlands provides Johnston, H.E., and Barlow, P.M., 1988, Rhode Island ground-water qual- enhanced wetland protection. Antidegradation provisions provide ity, in U.S. Geological Survey, National water summary 1986-Hy- 344 National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: STATE SUMMARIES drologic events and ground-water quality: U.S. Geological Survey -1992, Remaking the wetlands in Lebanon, Connecticut -Cultural Water-Supply Paper 2325, p. 443-448. and natural changes in the postglacial epoch: University of Connecti- Laderman,A.D., 1989, The ecology of Atlantic white cedar wetlands -A cut, School of Engineering, Final Report JHR 92 - 215, 157 p. community profile: U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Biological Report Thorson, R.M., and Harris, S.L., 1991, How "natural" are inland wetlands? 85(7.21), 114 p. An example from the Trail Wood Audubon Sanctuary in Connecticut, Laderman, A.D., Golet, F.C., Sorrie, B.A., and Woolsey, H.L., 1987, Atlan- USA: Environmental Management, v. 15, p. 675 - 687. tic white cedar in the glaciated northeast, in Laderman, A.D., ed., Tiner, R.W., 1989, Wetlands of Rhode Island: Newton Comer, Mass., U.S. Atlantic white cedar wetlands: Boulder, Colo., Westview Press, p. 19- Fish and Wildlife Service, National Wetlands Inventory, 71 p., I app. 33. U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, 199 1, Water resources development- The Metzler, K.J., and Tiner, R.W., 1992, Wetlands of Connecticut: Connecti- work of the U.S Army Corps of Engineers in Rhode Island 1991: cut Geological and Natural History Survey Report of Investigations Waltham, Mass., U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, 60 p. 13, 115 p. Winter, T.C., 1988, A conceptual framework for assessing cumulative im- Rhode Island Department ofAdministration, 1992, Ocean State outdoors- pacts on the hydrology of nontidal wetlands: Environmental Manage- Rhode Island's comprehensive outdoor recreation plan: Rhode Island ment, v. 12, p. 605 -620. Department of Administration, Division of Planning Report 76. Schafer, J.P., 1968, Surficial geologic map of the Ashaway quadrangle, Connecticut-Rhode Island: U.S. Geological Survey Geologic Quad- FOR ADDITIONAL INFORMATION: Chief, Rhode Island Office, U.S. rangle Map GQ-712, scale 1:24,000. Geological Survey, 237 Pastore Federal Building, Providence, RI 02903; Sirkin, Les, 1982, Wisconsinan glaciation of Long Island, New York, to Regional Wetlands Coordinator, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 300 Block Island, Rhode Island, in Larson, GJ, and Stone, B.D., eds., Late Westgate Center, Hadley, MA 01035 Wisconsinan glaciation of New England: Dubuque, Iowa, Kendall/ Hunt Publishing Company, p. 35 - 57. Thorson, R.M., 1990, Development of small upland wetlands -A strati- Prepared by graphic study in northeastern Connecticut: University of Connecti- Sandra L. Harris, cut, School of Engineering, Final Report JHR 90-191, 285 p. U.S. Geological Survey U.S. Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper 2425 National Water Summary-Wetland Resources 345 South Carolina Wetland Resources South Carolina has about 4.6 million acres of wetlands, account- System Wetland description ing for about 23.4 percent of the surface area of the State (Dahl, Palustrine .................. Nontidal and tidal-freshwater wetlands in which 1990). Only two other States, Florida and Louisiana, have a higher vegetation is predominantly trees (forested wet- percentage of land area as wetlands. Freshwater forested wetlands lands); shrubs (scrub-shrub wetlands); persistent (fig. 1) are the most common type of wetland in South Carolina. or nonpersistent emergent, erect, rooted herba- The benefits of South Carolina's wetlands include enhanced ceous plants (persistent- and nonpersistent- emergent wetlands); or submersed and (or) water quality, fish and wildlife productivity, and socioeconomic floating plants (aquatic beds). Also, intermit- values. Wetlands enhance water quality by intercepting upland run- tently to permanently flooded open-water bod- off and filtering out nutrients, wastes, and sediment. Fish and wild- ies of less than 20 acres inwhich water is less life benefit from the abundance of habitat and food that wetlands than 6.6 feet deep. provide. For example, South Carolina wetlands serve as wintering Lacustrine ................ . Nontidal and tidal-freshwater wetlands within an areas for migrating waterfowl, supporting greater than 30 percent intermittently to permanently flooded lake or reservoir larger than 20 acres and (or) deeper each of American green-winged teal, northern shovelers, mallards, than 6.6 feet. Vegetation, when present, is pre- northern pintails, American wigeon, and gadwall that traverse the dominantly nonpersistent emergent plants (non- Atlantic Flyway (Gordon and others, 1989). Socioeconomic values persistent-emergent wetlands), or submersed of wetlands include flood protection, erosion control, and ground- and (or) floating plants (aquatic beds), or both. water recharge as well as opportunities for hunting, fishing, tour- Riverine ..................... Nonticlal and tidal-freshwater wetlands within a ism, and other recreational activities that are economically impor- channel. Vegetation, when present, is same as tant to the State. in the Lacustrine System. Estuarine ................... Tidal wetlands in low-wave-energy environments where the salinity ofthe water is greater than 0.5 TYPES AND DISTRIBUTION partperthousand (ppt) and is variable owing to evaporation and the mixing of seawater and Wetlands are lands transitional between terrestrial and deep- freshwater. water habitats where the water table usually is at or near the land Marine ....................... Tidal wetlands that are exposed to waves and cur- surface or the land is covered by shallow water (Cowardin and oth- rents of the open ocean and to water having a ers, 1979). The distribution of wetlands and deepwater habitats in salinity greater than 30 ppt. South Carolina is shown in figure 2A; only wetlands are discussed Ninety percent of South Carolina's wetlands are freshwater herein. (palustrine, lacustrine, and riverine) wetlands and occur primarily Wetlands can be vegetated or nonvegetated and are classified in the Coastal Plain and the flood plains of rivers and streams in on the basis of their hydrology, vegetation, and substrate. In this the Blue Ridge and Piedmont Provinces (fig. 2A and 2B). Palustrine summary, wetlands are classified according to the system proposed forested wetlands encompass 3.7 million acres in South Carolina by Cowardin and others (1979), which is used by the U.S. Fish and and constitute 80 percent of the wetlands in the State. Palustrine Wildlife Service (Fws) to map and inventory the Nation's wetlands. wetlands include areas commonly referred to as wet pine flatwoods, At the most general level of the classification system, wetlands are pocosins, Carolina bays, beaver ponds, bottom-land hardwood for- grouped into five ecological systems: Palustrine, Lacustrine, Riv- ests, swamps, and tidal-freshwater marshes. erine, Estuarine, and Marine. The Palustrine System includes only Wet pine flatwoods (forested wetlands) are extensive flat areas wetlands, whereas the other systems comprise wetlands and deepwater habitats. Wetlands of the systems that occur in South that have a shallow water table and are dominated by pine (longleaf, Carolina are described below. loblolly, slash, and pond). These wetlands occur primarily in the Coastal Plain. Although acreage estimates are not available, exten- sive tracts of wet pine flatwoods occur in the Francis Marion Na- tional Forest. Pocosins (scrub-shrub wetlands) are wetlands vegetated by evergreen shrubs or low-growing trees, such as sweet bay or pond pine. However, vegetation in severely burned pocosins may be domi nated by herbaceous plants. The word pocosin is derived from an Indian word meaning low marshy ground or swamp. South Caro- 1; j lina pocosins can be found throughout the Coastal Plain. Carolina bay wetlands are isolated freshwater wetlands formed in elliptical depressions. Because of their variability in size, depth, and substrate conditions, Carolina bays support plant communities ranging from grass-sedge prairies (emergent wetlands) to cypress- are scattered gum swamps (forested wetlands). Carolina bays throughout the Coastal Plain. The State Heritage Trust Program has identified 2,651 Carolina bays that are 2 acres or larger (Bennett and Nelson, 199 1). Beaver ponds are freshwater forested, scrub-shrub or emergent wetlands typically associated with river flood plains and can be Figure 1. A freshwater forested wetland at the upper found throughout the State. As beavers impound a stream and flood end of Lake Marion in South Carolina. a bottom-land area, many of the trees are killed, thus opening the 346 National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: STATE SUMMARIES canopy and allowing for growth of herbaceous vegetation. Plant Tidal-freshwater marshes (emergent wetlands) occur along communities associated with South Carolina beaver-pond wetlands South Carolina's coast, where they are tidally influenced, but fresh- include water oak, sweet gum, red maple, buttonbush, and rice water input from precipitation and rivers prevents significant salt- cutgrass. The structure of the plant community is influenced by water intrusion from the ocean. Dominant plants in tidal-freshwater factors such as the age, topography, and substrate soil characteris- marshes include yellow pond lily, arrowheads, and sedges. There tics of the pond. Amer and Hepp (1989) reported that a 1976 sur- are an estimated 46,300 acres of tidal-freshwater marshes in South vey revealed that beavers have created an estimated 4,400 acres of Carolina (Field and others, 1991), mostly occurring along the Santee wetlands in South Carolina. River and the rivers that form Winyah Bay (the Sampit, Black, Pee Bottom-land hardwood forests and swamps are woody com- Dee, and Waccamaw), Charleston Harbor (the Cooper and Ashley), munities that are found primarily on alluvial flood plains. These and Saint Helena Sound (the Ashepoo, Edisto, and Combahee). wetlands, found along the rivers of South Carolina, occur in the Lacustrine wetlands include the shallows of permanently Piedmont Province and Coastal Plain. Bottom-land hardwood for- flooded lakes and reservoirs and inten-nittent lakes. Common lacus- ests support a variety of tree species including oaks, ashes, maples, trine wetland plants include American lotus, pickerelweed, hackberries, cypress, and tupelo. The presence of extensive wetlands duckweed, arrowheads, and sedges. Lacustrine wetlands occur along a 45-mile segment ofthe Congaree River has resulted in con- throughout the State, most notably along major reservoirs and in as- sideration of the Congaree River for the State Scenic Rivers Pro- sociation with ephemeral lakes such as Carolina bays. Along the gram. Within this section of the Congaree River flood plain is the shores of Lake Marion is the Santee National Wildlife Refuge, a Congaree Swamp National Monument, a 15,000-acre wetland that 15,000-acre wetland used by migrating waterfowl. contains one of the few remaining tracts of old-growth bottom-land The Riverine and Marine Systems contain mostly deepwater hardwoods. The Sumter National Forest in the upper Savannah River habitat. Riverine wetlands are limited to shallow freshwater river Basin contains about 1,500 acres of bottom-land hardwood-forest and stream channels or, in the case of deep rivers, to shallow areas wetlands, and the U.S. Department of Energy's Savannah River Site near the bank. South Carolina riverine wetlands can contain float- contains approximately 34,500 acres of bottom-land hardwood-for- ing aquatic plants, such as water lily and nonpersistent emergent est wetlands (Bebber, 1988). plants such as pickerelweed. The Marine System is limited to the B Blue Ridge Piedmont 82@ A 351 Sumter N Coastal Plain r"n 'Ile Car. 1 80. iter .0 Wa !ki Fal- PHYSIOGRAPHIC DIVISIONS re Inp 1.k- Sraplt R Savannah -Wiyh Bay River Site 33- Cape Ronnain NWR 0 C-p- Ri-, Charl@ton Harbor WETLANDS AND DEEPWATER HABITATS Cornbahee-Edisto Oman NWR and Distribution of wetlands and deepwater habitats- National Estuarine Research Reserve This map shows the approximate distribution of large t IM- S,..d wetlands in the State. Because of limitations of scale 0 25 50 MILES Pickn sl N and source material, some wetlands are not shown 0 25 50 KILOMETERS E@] Predominantly wetland = Predominantly deepwater habitat Figure 2. Wetland distribution in South Carolina and physiography of the State. A, Distribution of wetlands and deepwater habitats. 8, Physiography. (Sources: A, TE. Dahl, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, unpub. data, 199 1. B, Physiographic divisions from Fenneman, 1946; landforms data from EROS Data Center.) National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: SOUTH CAROLINA 347 open ocean overlying the continental shelf and its associated coast- flooded for several months during the winter and during storms. line. Near the coast, daily tides back up freshwater onto these flood Estuarine wetlands include intertidal flats and irregularly and plains. Bottom-land hardwood forests dominated by trees that are regularly tidally flooded salt marshes dominated by emergent veg- tolerant of a long dormant season and occasional flooding during etation such as saltmeadow cordgrass, black needlerush, and smooth the growing season are particularly well developed on these wide cordgrass. Intertidal flats are generally devoid of vegetation as a flood plains. result of unstable sand or mud sediments that are regularly exposed As the rivers flow into the sea, freshwater riverine flow mixes and flooded by tides. There are about 32,000 acres of intertidal flats with daily tidal influxes from the ocean. The hydrology of the mix- and 366,000 acres of salt-marsh wetlands in South Carolina (Field ing area is poorly understood. However, a combination of factors and others, 1991). The Cape Romain National Wildlife Refuge, a including freshwater input, tidal influx, and wind direction and 64,000-acre salt-marsh wetland, is located near the mouth of the velocity create an environment suitable for tidal-freshwater wet- Santee River. At the mouth of the Coosawhatchie River is Pickney lands. Island National Wildlife Refuge, a 4,053-acre expanse of salt-marsh The flood plains near the mouths of these large rivers and the wetlands. Nearby axe the Ashepoo - Combahee -Edisto Basin Na- bays behind the barrier island provide protection from destructive tional Wildlife Refuge (18,000 acres of salt marsh), and the 144,000- waves and storms. These protected areas allow for the accretion of acre Ashepoo- Combahee - Edisto National Estuarine Research Re- clay and silt sediments and the establishment of vegetation. The serve. extensive estuarine wetlands of South Carolina are formed and maintained by incursions of brackish water over these sediments. HYDROLOGIC SETTING Wetlands generally develop where the land surface is relatively TRENDS flat and the water table is shallow. Most of South Carolina's wet- Wetland losses in South Carolina have occurred as a result of lands occur in the Coastal Plain where alluvial, marginal-marine, both natural and human influences. Natural factors have included and marine sediments have been deposited and sometimes reworked sea-level rise, natural succession, erosion and accretion, animal in lowland flats or upland depressions. Coastal Plain deposits con- activity, droughts, and major storms. Human factors have included sist of consolidated and unconsolidated sediments of continental and draining and clearing wetlands for agriculture, pond and reservoir marine origin that range in thickness from a few feet at the Fall Line construction, urban development, coastal impoundment construc- to more than 4,000 feet at the southern tip of the State. The gently tion, and pollution. Wetland loss in South Carolina from the 1780's rolling hills of the Piedmont Province and the mountains of the Blue to 1980's has been estimated to be 27 percent (Dahl, 1990). During Ridge Province are underlain by metamorphosed sedimentary, vol- the period from 1974 through 1983 alone, South Carolina had an canic, and igneous rocks. Where hydric soils occur in the Blue Ridge estimated wetland loss of about 1.3 percent, approximately 6 1,000 and Piedmont Provinces, they are commonly overlain by 2 to 5 feet acres of wetlands (John Hefner, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, oral of loam and clay as a result of erosion from agricultural areas (Larry commun., 1993). Robinson, Natural Resources Conservation Service, oral commun., Freshwater-wetland losses in South Carolina are not well docu- 1993). Thus, identification of wetlands in the Blue Ridge and Pied- mented but appear to be less extensive than in some other South- mont Provinces based on the presence of hydric soils has been dif- eastern States. However, studies conducted by the South Carolina ficult. Heritage Trust Program indicated that Carolina bay wetlands have The State's moist climate produces ample precipitation, which been extensively disturbed and altered. Of the 2,651 Caxolina bays finds its way to the wetlands by way of overland runoff, periodic that are 2 acres or larger identified by the State Heritage Trust Pro- flooding by rivers, and ground-water discharge. Average annual gram in 1983 (Bennett and Nelson, 1991), more than 80 percent precipitation is 80 inches in the Blue Ridge Province, decreasing have been significantly altered and degraded. Many of South to approximately 48 inches in the Piedmont Province and most of Carolina's tidal-freshwater marshes were diked, impounded, and the Coastal Plain, and then increasing to about 50 inches near the converted to rice fields during the 18th and 19th centuries. Esti- coast (Purvis and others, 1990). Rainfall is greatest during spring mates of changes in wetland areas as a result of Hurricane Hugo and summer and least in fall. Average annual runoff ranges from 10 are difficult to determine, but as much as 90 percent of the wet pine inches in the Coastal Plain Province to about 50 inches in the Blue flatwoods of the Francis Marion National Forest may have been Ridge Province. Annual potential evapotranspiration ranges from damaged by the wind. about 30 inches in the Blue Ridge Province to about 47 inches in Loss of freshwater wetlands has also been caused by changes the Coastal Plain. Most evaporation occurs during summer (about in the hydrologic regime of South Carolina rivers. Alteration of the 3 to 5 inches per month) and the least occurs during winter (about normal hydrologic regime by construction of dams on the upper Sa- l inch per month). vannah, Santee, and Pee Dee Rivers has changed the natural pat- Pocosins and Carolina bays are examples of isolated wetlands tem of annual flooding and has directly affected forested-wetland that characteristically have no tributary streams, are not spring fed, regeneration in South Carolina wetlands. Conversely, beaver-pond and rely on direct precipitation and overland runoff to maintain water wetlands are thought to be increasing in South Carolina, though volume (Sharitz and Gibbons, 1982). Ground-water recharge has information on changes in beaver-pond wetland acreage is limited been suggested as an additional source in some situations (Schalles (Amer and Hepp, 1989). and Shure, 1989). Pocosiris are typically characterized by poorly drained mineral soils and peats. Carolina bays, generally found in CONSERVATION sandy terrain but typically having a clay layer, are aligned in a north- west-southeast direction. Many government agencies and private organizations partici- The structure and function of South Carolina's bottom-land pate in wetland conservation in South Carolina. The most active hardwood-forest wetlands are determined primarily by the hydro- agencies and organizations and some of their activities are listed in logic regime of the State's large rivers (Patterson and others, 1985). table 1. The principal river basins in South Carolina-the Pee Dee, Santee, Federal wetland activities. -Development activities in South Edisto, and Savannah -contain rivers that flow eastward through Carolina wetlands are regulated by several Federal statutory prohi- the Coastal Plain to the sea. They have broad flood plains that are bitions and incentives that are intended to slow wetland losses. Some 348 National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: STATE SUMMARIES of the more important of these are contained in the 1899 Rivers and Table 1. Selected wetland-related activities of government Harbors Act; the 1972 Clean Water Act and amendments; the 1985 agencies and private organizations in South Carolina, 1993 Food Security Act; the 1990 Food, Agriculture, Conservation, and [Source: Classification of activities is generalized from information provided Trade Act; the 1986 Emergency Wetlands Resources Act; and the by agencies and organizations. *, agency or organization participates in 1972 Coastal Management Act. wetland-related activity; agency or organization does not participate in Section 10 of the Rivers and Harbors Act ivestheU.S.ArTny wetland-related activity. MAN, management; REG, regulation; R&C, res- 9 toration and creation; LAN, land acquisition; R&D, research and data col- Corps of Engineers (Corps) authority to regulate certain activities lection; D&I, delineation and inventory] in navigable waters. Regulated activities include diking, deepening, filling, excavating, and placing of structures. The related section 404 of the Clean Water Act is the most often-used Federal legislation Agency or organization protecting wetlands. Under section 404 provisions, the Corps issues FEDERAL permits regulating the discharge of dredged or fill material into Department of Agriculture wetlands. Permits are subject to review and possible veto by the U.S. Consolidated Farm Service Agency ........................... ...0 Environmental Protection Agency, and the Fws has review and ad- Natural Resources Conservation Service ........ ... * visory roles. Section 401 of the Clean Water Act grants to States Department of Commerce National Oceanic and Atmospheric and eligible Indian Tribes the authority to approve, apply conditions Administration .................................................................00 to, or deny section 404 permit applications on the basis of a pro- Department of Defense posed activity's probable effects on the water quality of a wetland. Army Corps of Engineers ..............................................*a Most farming, ranching, and silviculture activities are not sub- Department of the Interior ject to section 404 regulation. However, the "Swampbuster" provi- Fish and Wildlife Service ..............................................e Geological Survey .......................................................... ... ... ... ...0 sion of the 1985 Food Security Act and amendments in the 1990 National Biological Service ......................................... ... ... ... ...0 Food, Agriculture, Conservation, and Trade Act discourage (through National Park Service ...................................................0-000 * financial disincentives) the draining, filling, or other alteration of Environmental Protection Agency .................................. ... wetlands for agricultural use. The law allows exemptions from pen- STATE alties in some cases, especially if the farmer agrees to restore the Belle W. Baruch Institute ................................................. ... ... Clemson University ............................................................ ... ... ... altered wetland or other wetlands that have been convened to agri Coastal Council ................................................................... ... ... ... ... cultural use. The Wetlands Reserve Program of the 1990 Food, Department of Health and Environmental Agriculture, Conservation, and Trade Act authorizes the Federal Control .................................................................................. ... ... ... ... ... Government to purchase conservation easements from landowners Department of Highways and Public who agree to protect or restore wetlands. The Consolidated Farm Transportation ..................................................................... ... ... Service Agency (formerly the Agricultural Stabilization and Con- Department of Parks, Recreation, and Tourism ..........* Forestry Commission .........................................................0... ... ... ... servation Service) administers the Swampbuster provisions and Wet- Land Resources Commission ...........................................*... ... ... ... lands Reserve Program. The Natural Resources Conservation Sail and Water Conservation District ............................* Service (formerly the Soil Conservation Service) determines com- University of Georgia pliance with Swampbuster provisions and assists farmers in the iden- Savannah River Ecology Lab ....................................... ... ... tification of wetlands and in the development of wetland protection, University of South Carolina ............................................ ... ... ... ... Water Resources Commission ........................................ ...@ restoration, or creation plans. Department of Natural Resources ................................. ... ... . ... ... The 1986 Emergency Wetlands Resources Act and the 1972 Heritage Trust Program .................................................e Coastal Zone Management Act and amendments encourage wetland PRIVATE protection through funding incentives. The Emergency Welland Ducks Unlimited ..................................................................0 Resources Act requires States to address wetland protection in their South Carolina Waterfowl Association .........................9 Statewide Comprehensive Outdoor Recreation Plans to qualify for The Nature Conservancy ..................................................* Federal funding for State recreational land; the National Park Ser- vice provides guidance to States in developing the wetland compo- nent of their plans. Coastal and Great Lakes States that adopt coastal- zone management programs and plans approved by the National The South Carolina Department of Health and Environmental Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration are eligible for Federal Control is active in wetland conservation through the section 401 funding and technical assistance through the Coastal Zone Mariage- and 402 requirements of the Clean Water Act. Section 401 requires ment Act. that a permit applicant provide certification from the State that a State wetland activities. -South Carolina regulates coastal discharge will comply with water-quality standards. The certifica- wetlands under the South Carolina Coastal Management Act. 'The tion from the Department is necessary before a permit from the act authorizes the South Carolina Coastal Council to regulate any Corps can be obtained. Section 402 of the Clean Water Act requires activities that fill, remove, dredge, drain, construct, or in any way that permits be obtained for discharges of treated wastewater to alter any critical area within the eight coastal counties that are un- wetlands and other water bodies under the National Pollutant Dis- der its jurisdiction. The State Coastal Management Act provides 10 charge Elimination System program. The Department of Health and criteria to guide the Coastal Council in determining whether to issue Environmental Control is the State agency delegated to administer a permit. Two of the key criteria are (1) a comparison of economic this program. benefits to preservation benefits and (2) the extent to which all fea- Another State program that has relevance to wetlands is the sible safeguards to avoid adverse economic impact are considered. South Carolina Navigable Waters Permitting Program administered Under the Coastal Council regulations, dredging and filling wetlands by the South Carolina Water Resources Commission in association is undertaken only if the activity is water dependent and no feasible with the State Budget and Control Board. Under this program, a alternatives exist. Applications are denied for purposes other than permit is required for any kind of construction or alteration activ- access, navigation, mining, or drainage unless an overriding public ity in what the State considers navigable waters, similar to the re- interest can be demonstrated. The Coastal Council regulates fresh- quirements of Section 10 of the Federal Rivers and Harbors Act water wetlands indirectly through review of other State or Federal Program. However, most wetlands in the State are outside the juris- permits required in coastal areas. diction of the Navigable Waters Permitting Program. National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: SOUTH CAROLINA 349 The Heritage Trust Program of the South Carolina Department Dahl, T.E., 1990, Wetlands - Losses in the United States, 1780's to 1980's: of Natural Resources has been involved in the study and acquisi- Washington, D.C., U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Report to Congress, tion of Carolina bay wetlands. The Department manages about 13 p. 42,000 acres of wetlands contained within Wildlife Management Fenneman, N.M., 1946, Physical divisions of the United States: Washing- Areas. The Department of Parks, Recreation, and Tourism manages ton, D.C., U.S. Geological Survey special map, scale 1:7,000,000. Field, D.W., Reyer, A.J., Genovese, PX, and Shearer, B.D., 199 1, Coastal approximately 15,000 acres of wetlands included in the South Caro- wetlands of the United States: Washington, D.C., National Oceanic and lina State Park system. The South Carolina Forestry Commission Atmospheric Administration and U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service co- and South Carolina Land Resources Commission have developed operative report, 59 p. best-management practices for activities in forested wetlands. Un- Gordon, D.H., Gray, B.T., Perry, R.D., Prevost, M.B., Strange, T.H., and der the South Carolina Scenic Rivers Act, the South Carolina Water Williams, R.K., 1989, South Atlantic coastal wetlands, in Smith, L.M., Resources Commission and the Department of Natural Resources Pederson, R.L., and Kaminski, R.M., Habitat management for migrat- share responsibilities for planning, acquisition, regulation, and en- ing and wintering waterfowl in North America: Lubbock, Texas Tech forcement. University Press, p. 57-92. Private wetland activities. -The Nature Conservancy has Patterson, G.G., Speiran, G.K., and Whetstone, B.H., 1985, Hydrology and acquired more than 35,000 acres of wetlands in South Carolina and its effects on distribution of vegetation in Congaree Swamp National Monument, South Carolina: U.S. Geological Survey Water-Resources currently manages about 9,000 acres of wetlands. Ducks Unlimited Investigations Report 85-4256, 31 p. and the South Carolina Waterfowl Association are actively involved Purvis, J.C., Tyler, Wes, and Sidlow, Scott, 1990, General characteristics of in wetland acquisition and management of waterfowl. One focus of South Carolina's climate: Columbia, South Carolina Water Resources the Association is to work with landowners who wish to flood former Commission, 22 p. rice fields to increase tidal freshwater marsh acreage. The South Schalles, IT., and Shure, D.J., 1989, Hydrology, community structure, and Carolina Wildlife Federation promotes education concerning the productivity patterns of a dystrophic Carolina bay wetland: Ecologi- importance of wetlands and also reviews permit applications. cal Monographs, v. 59, p. 365-385. Sharitz, R.R., and Gibbons, J.W., 1982, The ecology of southeastern shrub bogs (pocosins) and Carolina bays -A community profile: U.S. Fish References Cited andWildlife ServiceReport, FWS/OBS-82/04,93 p. Amer, D.H, and Hepp, G.R., 1989, Beaver pond wetlands-A southem perspective, in Smith, L.M., Pederson, R.L., and Kaminski, R.M., Habitat management for migrating and wintering waterfowl in North FOR ADDITIONAL INFORMATION: District Chief, U.S. Geological America: Lubbock, Texas Tech University Press, p. 130-177. Survey, 720 Gracem Road, Stephenson Center, Suite 129, Columbia, SC Bebber, T.L., 1988, Soutl@ Carolina wetlands study-A component of the 29210; Regional Weiland Coordinator, U.S. Fish andWildlife Service, 1875 State Comprehensive Outdoor Recreation Plan: Columbia, South Century Building, Suite 200, Atlanta, GA 30345 Carolina Department of Parks, Recreation, and Tourism, 235 p. Bennett, S.H., and Nelson, J.B., 1991, Distribution and status of Carolina bays in South Carolina: Columbia, South Carolina Wildlife and Ma- Prepared by rine Resources Department, 88 p. Michael R. Meador, Cowardin, L.M., Carter, Virginia, Golet, F.C., and LaRoe, E.T., 1979, ClasL U.S. Geological Survey sification of wetlands and deepwater habitats of the United States: U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Report FWS/OBS-79/31, 131 p. 350 National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: STATE SUMMARIES U.S. Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper 2425 National Water Summary-Wetland Resources 351 South Dakota Wetland Resources Although wetlands cover only 3.6 percent of South Dakota (Dahl, There is no current (1993) estimate of statewide wetland acre- 1990), they are of substantial ecological and economic importance age in each of the systems. Final mapping and digitizing for the Fws to the State and Nation. Depressional wetlands in the glaciated east- National Wetlands Inventory has been completed for eastern South ern part of South Dakota, commonly referred to as prairie potholes, Dakota, but only preliminary draft mapping has been completed for and wetlands associated with reservoirs provide important breed- the remainder of the State (Chuck Elliot, U.S. Fish and Wildlife ing and resting. habitat for migratory and resident waterfowl (fig. Service, oral commun., 1993). Final mapping and digitizing for the 1). South Dakota wetlands also provide important habitat to many entire State may be completed within a few years. other nongame and game wildlife species, including pheasants An inventory of wetland and open-water areas conducted in (Sather-Blair and Linder, 1980; Soil Conservation Service, 1985) 1973 -74 estimated that 71 percent of South Dakota's wetlands were and whitetail deer (Kramlich, 1985), which are economically valu- palustrine (Ruwaldt and others, 1979); 19 percent were mixed lacus- able to the State. trine and palustrine associated with prairie ponds and lakes and Hydrologic functions of wetlands include water retention and marmiade stock ponds and dugouts; and 10 percent were riverine. flood attenuation (Hubbard and Linder, 1986) and, on a local basis, Stock ponds are impoundments constructed by damming deep ground-water recharge (Hubbard, 1988a). Hunting, trapping, fish- draws; dugouts are constructed by excavating a depression and do ing, bird watching, nature photography, camping, hiking, and boat- not have dams (Ruwaldt and others, 1979). Palustrine wetlands in ing are some of the recreational opportunities provided by wetlands, South Dakota primarily include emergent wetlands such as marshes and the South Dakota tourist industry relies heavily on the recre- and sloughs, in which coarse, herbaceous vegetation like cattails and ational and esthetic value of the State's wetlands. Other important bulrushes are predominant; wet meadows, in which low, herbaceous benefits of wetlands in South Dakota include livestock forage vegetation like grasses and sedges are predominant; and vegetated, (Hubbard, 1088b), bait-fish production (Carlson and Berry, 1990), shallow-water zones of stock ponds and dugouts (Stewart and and mineral mining. These benefits are provided by diverse wet- Kantrud, 1971). Lacustrine wetland areas occur in the numerous lands distributed across South Dakota's plains and the Black Hills. glacial lakes in the eastern part of the State and in artificial impound- ments throughout the State. Submersed vegetation like widgeongrass TYPES AND DISTRIBUTION and pondweed are common in lacustrine wetlands. Prairie potholes (a palustrine emergent wetland) that contain erect, rooted, herba- Wetlands are lands transitional between terrestrial and ceous hydrophytes are by far the most common wetland type in deepwater habitats where the water table usually is at or near the South Dakota (Kantrud, Krapu, and Swanson, 1989). land surface or the land is covered by shallow water (Cowardin and Wetlands occupy about 1.8 million acres (3.6 percent) of South others, 1979). The distribution of wetlands and deepwater habitats Dakota (Dahl, 1990). In the Great Plains (fig. 2B), the natural drain- in South Dakota is shown in figure 2A; only wetlands are discussed age system generally is well developed, and there are few natural herein. wetlands. Wetlands in the Great Plains generally are associated with Wetlands can be vegetated or nonvegetated and are classified manmade stock ponds. The Central Lowland is entirely within the on the basis of their hydrology, vegetation, and substrate. In this glaciated part of South Dakota (fig. 2C), and most wetlands are in summary, wetlands are classified according to the system proposed depressions among ground moraines deposited by the glaciers. by Cowardin and others (1979), which is used by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (Fws) to map and inventory the Nation's wetlands. HYDROLOGIC SETTING At the most general level of the classification system, wetlands are grouped into five ecological systems: Palustrine, Lacustrine, Riv- Wetlands form where there is a persistent water supply at or erine, Estuarine, and Marine. The Palustrine System includes only near the land surface. The location and persistence of the supply is wetlands, whereas the other systems comprise wetlands and a function of interdependent climatic, physiographic, geologic, and deepwater habitats. Wetlands of the systems that occur in South Dakota are described below. System Wetland description Palustrine .................. Wetlands in which vegetation is predominantly trees (forested wetlands); shrubs (scrub-shrub wetlands); persistent or nonpersistent emergent, erect, rooted, herbaceous plants (persistent- and nonpersistent-emergent wetlands); or sub- mersed and (or) floating plants (aquatic beds). Also, intermittently to permanently flooded open-water bodies of less than 20 acres in which water is less than 6.6 feet deep. Lacustrine ................. Wetlands within an intermittently to permanently flooded lake or reservoir. Vegetation, when pres- ent, is predominantly nonpersistent emergent plants (non pe rsistent-emergent wetlands), or Figure 1. Palustrine wetland in the Sand Lake National Wildlife submersed and (or) floating plants (aquatic Refuge. This refuge encompasses about 22,000 acres (mostly beds), or both. palustrine and lacustrine wetlands) and is an important nesting and Riverine ..................... Wetlands within a channel. Vegetation, when pres- staging area for migratory waterfowl. (Photograph by Bill Schultze, ent, is same as in the Lacustrine System. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service.) 352 National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: STATE SUMMARIES hydrologic factors such as precipitation and runoff patterns, evapo- Precipitation and runoff rates in South Dakota differ annually ration, topography, and configuration of the water table. In South and with season and location. The normal annual precipitation in Dakota, the dominant factors influencing the distribution of wet- South Dakota ranges from about 16 inches in the northwest to about lands are moisture deficit, topography, and composition of surficial 24 inches in the Black Hills and the southeast (Benson, 1986). About materials. 70 percent of annual precipitation occurs during the growing sea- 104' 102- 100. 98. 45@ P Rapi ity d 43@ A WETLANDS AND DEEPWATER HABITATS Distribution of wetlands and deepwater habitats- This ma p shows the approximate distribution of large 0 25 50 MILE S wetlands in the State. Because of limitations of scale i . I I and source material, some wetlands are not shown 0 25 50 KILOMETERS Predominantly wetland Predominantly cleepwater habitat Area typified by a high density of small wetlands Central Great 1, 1; plans Lowland Black Hills B PHYSIOGRAPHIC DIVISIONS C GLACIATION Glacial extent during most recent glacial maximum Figure 2. Wetland distribution in South Dakota and physical features that control wetland distribution in the State. A, Distribution of wetlands and deepwater habitats. 8, Physiography. C, Extent of most recent glaciation. (Sources: A, TE. Dahl, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, unpub. data, 1991. B, Physiographic divisions from Fenneman, 1946; landform data from EROS Data Center C, South Dakota Geological Survey, 1971). National Water Summary@Wetland Resources: SOUTH DAKOTA 353 son (May through October). The average annual runoff ranges from of water on the surface and extensive ponding, (3) low permeabil- about 0.2 inch in the northwest to about 2 inches in the Black Hills. ity of the geologic materials (soils and fine-grained glacial till) re- A large percentage of runoff occurs as a result of snowmelt and sults in minimal infiltration of water, and (4) in the spring, when rainfall in the spring and early summer. Precipitation and snowmelt most of the annual precipitation and runoff occurs, frozen soils fur- runoff are the principal water sources for prairie pothole wetlands ther restrict infiltration of water and cause the water to pond (Win- (Shjeflo, 1968). ter, 1989). About 90 percent of the wetland area of the glaciated Annual lake evaporation in South Dakota ranges from about eastern part of South Dakota is associated with prairie ponds and 38 inches in the northeast to about 48 inches in the southwest lakes (primarily palustrine emergent wetlands); the remaining 10 (Benson, 1986). About 75 percent of the annual evaporation occurs percent is divided between riverine wetlands and those associated during the growing season. In South Dakota, evaporation exceeds with stock ponds or dugouts (Ruwaldt and others, 1979). precipitation in most years, and there is a net statewide annual Ground-water interactions with palustrine wetlands in the prai- moisture deficit that ranges from about 20 inches along the eastern rie region can be complex (Winter, 1989). The flat topography pro- border of the State to about 32 inches in the southwest. Evapora- vides opportunity for infiltration, but the impermeable substrate tion is the principal source of water loss from prairie pothole wet- inhibits infiltration. Because the glacial till in eastern South Da- lands (Shjeflo, 1968). kota generally is composed of fine-grained materials and has a high Climatic, topographic, and hydrologic characteristics differ smectite-clay content, it expands greatly on wetting and becomes among and sometimes within physiographic provinces. The two impermeable (Hubbard and others, 1988). Water can flow through major physiographic provinces in South Dakota (fig. 2B), the Great fractures in the till; but even where fractures occur, permeability is Plains and the Central Lowland, generally have very different hy- low (Winter, 1989; Grisak, 1975). Greater interaction between wet- drologic settings for wetland formation. lands and ground water can exist in areas of glacial outwash where The Great Plains physiographic province generally is lenses of coarser grained, more permeable materials exist (Lewis unglaciated, and the natural drainage system is well developed. Howells, U.S. Geological Survey, oral commun., 1993). However, Steeper topography, a better developed drainage system, and a gen- interaction between wetlands and ground water in eastern South erally more and climate are factors that result in substantially fewer Dakota generally is small and typically accounts for about 5 to 25 wetlands in the Great Plains than in the Central Lowland in eastern percent of water exchange (Winter and Woo, 1990). South Dakota. Wetlands in the Great Plains occur primarily in as- Hubbard (1988a) and Winter (1989) have discussed a general sociation with manmade stock ponds and perennial and ephemeral model of ground-water flow systems underlying prairie wetlands streams (Brewster and others, 1976; Ruwaldt and others, 1979). (fig. 3). A local flow system (of which most shallow ground water Most of the wetland areas associated with perennial streams are is a part) occurs where ground water moves from an adjacent up- classified as riverine, whereas those associated with ephemeral land into a wetland or between adjacent wetlands. Intermediate flow streams generally arc palustrine because of the presence of emer- systems generally underlie local flow systems, and water flowing gent plants (Hubbard, 1988a). Wetlands associated with stock ponds in intermediate flow systems may pass under some streams and and dugouts generally are classified as palustrine or lacustrine. wetlands. Regional flow systems underlie both local and interme- About 60 percent of the wetlands in the unglaciated western part diate systems and discharge at major topographic lows such as large of South Dakota occur in association with stock ponds. Although rivers, lakes, and wetlands. Factors that determine which ground- several studies have indicated that stock ponds do not equal natural water flow systems a prairie pothole wetland is interacting with wetlands in habitat quality, the stock ponds provide valuable habi- include the topographic setting, position of the water table, thick- tat for plants and animals, especially during drought (Duebbert, ness and hydraulic characteristics of the aquifer material, and the 1972; Flake, 1979). A small part of the Great Plains lies east of the configuration of the underlying bedrock (Hubbard and others, Missouri River in a glaciated region known as the Missouri Coteau. 1988). Prairie pothole wetlands are common in this region. Depending on their location within the local, intermediate, and In the glaciated Central Lowland, several factors result in re- regional ground-water flow systems, individual wetlands can serve tention of water on the land surface and the occurrence of numer- as discharge areas, recharge areas, or both (flow-through wetlands). ous prairie pothole wetlands: (1) the generally flat topography re- In the prairie pothole region, wetland water quality is affected by sults in a poorly developed drainage system and low runoff veloci- the interaction between wetlands and ground water: recharge wet- ties, (2) depressions in the glaciated topography result in retention lands tend to have low dissolved-solids concentrations, discharge EXPLANATION PALUSTRINE WETLANDS Direction of ground-water flow i2 PALUSTRINE WETLANDS Average water table PALUSTRINE WETLANDS C; Scrub-shrub vegetation A_@ RIVERINE WETLAND L E Trees Local fjol,, Emergent vegetation Glacial drift In ____ W Syster, Glacial drift Avion all fit ow -, ,t.m Figure 3. Generalized hydrologic setting of South Dakota wetlands. (Source: Hydrologic concepts from Winter 1989.) 354 National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: STATE SUMMARIES wetlands tend to have high dis solved- solids concentrations, and Tablel. Selected wetland-related activities of government flow-through wetlands tend to have intertnediate dissolved- solids agencies and private organizations in South Dakota, 1993 concentrations (LaBaugh and others, 1987; Hubbard and others, [Source: Classification of activities is generalized from information provided 1988). There can be seasonal reversals in the direction of water by agencies and organizations. e, agency or organization participates in exchange between a wetland and the ground water (Winter, t989). wetland-related activity; ..., agency or organization does not participate in wetland-related activity. MAN, management; REG, regulation; R&C, res- In spring, water can seep from a wetland to the ground water when toration and creation; LAN, land acquisition; R&D, research and data col- wetland water levels are high and can then reverse later in summer lection; D&I, delineation and inventory) as evapotranspiration creates a discharge point for ground water. Although recharge of water from individual wetlands to the inter- mediate and regional ground-water flow system generally is small, Agency or organization on a regional basis the total contribution of recharge from prairie FEDERAL pothole wetlands to deep aquifers might be substantial (Winter, Department of Agriculture 1989). Consolidated Farm Service Agency ................. ......... ... ... ... ... ... Wetlands also significantly affect the surface-water hydrology Forest Service ..................................................................0 0 0 of eastern South Dakota. The glacial depressions retain runoff, ef- Natural Resources Conservation Service ................ ... Department of Commerce fectively reduce the contributing drainage area of a drainage basin, National Oceanic and and result in attenuation of flood peaks (Hubbard, 1988a; Hubbard Atmospheric Administration ........................................ ... ... and Linder, 1986). Antecedent moisture conditions affect the ca- Department of Defense pacity of prairie pothole wetlands to retain runoff. Army Corps of Engineers .............................................. Military reservations ..................................................... . ... ... Department ofthe Interior TRENDS Bureau of Land Management ......................................e Bureau of Reclamation ................................................. ... ... The Fws has estimated that, from the 1780's to the 1980's, Fish and Wildlife Service .............................................. wetland area in South Dakota decreased by about 35 percent-from Geological Survey .......................................................... about 2.7 million to about 1.8 million acres (Dahl, 1990). Histori- National Biological Service ......................................... ... ... ... ... cally, agricultural conversions have accounted for most wetland National Park Service ...................................................*-0 * Environmental Protection Agency .................................. ... losses in South Dakota. Kantrud, Millar, and van der Valk (1989) TRIBAL discussed the effects of agricultural disturbances in wetlands in the Cheyenne River Sioux Tribe .............................................0 prairie pothole region. In cropland areas, wetland losses have re- Crow Creek Sioux Tribe .....................................................0 sulted from tilling for crop production and from draining and fill- Lower Brule Sioux Tribe ....................................................9 ing to increase crop-producing land area and to avoid the inconve- Oglala Sioux Tribe ...............................................................0 Rosebud Sioux Tribe ..........................................................0 nience of maneuvering farm machinery around wet spots. High Sisseton-Wahpoton Sioux Tribe .....................................* erosion rates in agricultural areas due to exposed soils in cropland Standing Rock Sioux Tribe ................................................. areas and overgrazed parts of range and pastureland areas also have Yankton Sioux Tribe ............................................................* contributed to wetland degradation and loss. STATE Other practices that have had an adverse effect on South Da- Department of Agriculture ............................................... ... ... Department of Environment and kota wetlands include inundation of wetlands during reservoir fill- Natural Resources ............................................................. ... ing, timber harvesting, dugout construction (for livestock watering) Department of Game, Fish and Parks ............................* in existing wetlands, and contamination from inadequately treated Department of Transportation .........................................* sewage and industrial waste. In urban areas, wetlands have been State universities ............................................................... ... ... drained and filled for residential and commercial expansion. Stream PRIVATE ORGANIZATIONS channelization and road construction have adversely affected wet- Ducks Unlimited .................................................................. The National Wildlife Federation .................................... lands directly by draining wetlands within construction areas and The Nature Conservancy .................. ___ ................. indirectly by providing convenient drainage outlets that encourage unauthorized wetland drainage by adjacent landowners (Erickson bitions and incentives that are intended to slow wetland losses. Some and others, 1979; Smith and others, 1989). ofthe more important ofthese are contained in the 1899 Rivers and Some land-use practices have created new wetlands or enlarged Harbors Act; the 1972 Clean Water Act and amendments; the 1985 existing ones. Seepage associated with distribution and application Food Security Act; the 1990 Food, Agriculture, Conservation, and of irrigation water has increased wetland acreage, especially on the Trade Act; and the 1986 Emergency Wetlands Resources Act. large Bureau of Reclamation (BOR) irrigation projects in western Section 10 of the Rivers and Harbors Act gives the U.S. Army South Dakota (primarily Belle Fourche and Angostura Reservoirs). Corps of Engineers (Corps) authority to regulate certain activities In many parts of South Dakota, flowing artesian wells constructed in navigable waters. Regulated activities include diking, deepening, for livestock watering or fish production have increased wetland filling, excavating, and placing of structures. The related section 404 area. Stock ponds and dugouts constructed for livestock watering of the Clean Water Act is the most often-used Federal legislation constitute an important part of South Dakota wetlands, especially protecting wetlands. Under section 404 provisions, the Corps issues in the unglaciated western part of the State. Reservoir construction permits regulating the discharge of dredged or fill material into has undoubtedly increased the acreage of lacustrine wetlands. wetlands. Permits are subject to review and possible veto by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), and the FWS has review and CONSERVATION advisory roles. Section 401 of the Clean Water Act grants to States and eligible Indian Tribes the authority to approve, apply conditions Many govemment agencies and private organizations partici- to, or deny section 404 permit applications on the basis of a pro- pate in wetland conservation in South Dakota. The most active agen- posed activity's probable effects on the water quality of a wetland. cies and organizations and some of their activities are listed in table Most farming, ranching, and silviculture activities are not sub- I . ject to section 404 regulation. However, the "Swampbuster" provi- Federal wetland activities. -Development activities in South sion of the 1985 Food Security Act and amendments in the 1990 Dakota wetlands are regulated by several Federal statutory prohi- Food, Agriculture, Conservation, and Trade Act discourages National Water Surnmary-Wetland Resources: SOUTH DAKOTA 355 (through financial disincentives) the draining, filling, or other al- ing developed by the BOR (Rick Nelson, Bureau of Reclamation, oral teration of wetlands for agricultural use. The law allows exemptions commun., 1993). The BOR has been involved in wetlands creation from penalties in some cases, especially if the farmer agrees to on its jurisdictional land, but there are no estimates of total acres restore the altered wetland or other wetlands that have been con- involved, verted to agricultural use. The Wetlands Reserve Program of the Tribal wetland activities. -There are eight Indian reservations 1990 Food, Agriculture, Conservation, and Trade Act authorizes the in South Dakota, and the different tribes have varying levels of in- Federal Government to purchase conservation easements from land- volvement in wetland management and enhancement on their lands. owners who agree to protect or restore wetlands. The Consolidated Most of the tribes are developing wetland-managcment plans for Farm Service Agency (formerly the Agricultural Stabilization and their reservations, and four tribes are participating financially with Conservation Service) administers the Swampbuster provisions and the FWS in wetland-creation programs on tribal lands. Wet-lands Reserve Program. The Natural Resources Conservation State wetland activities. -Although South Dakota currently Service (formerly the Soil Conservation Service) determines com- (1993) has no comprehensive wetland-protection program, the State pliance with Swampbuster provisions and assists farmers in the iden- is developing a wetland policy. The State, with the assistance of an tification of wetlands and in the development of wetland protection, EPA grant, has created a wetlands -coordinator position whose re- restoration, or creation plans. sponsibility it is to develop a wetland-protection program. The po- The 1986 Emergency Wetlands Resources Act encourages sition is within the South Dakota Department of Agriculture under wetland protection through funding incentives. The act requires the oversight of a committee that has members from four State agen- States to address wetland protection in their Statewide Comprehen- cies: the Department of Agriculture; the Department of Game, Fish sive Outdoor Recreation Plans to qualify for Federal funding for and Parks; the Department of Environment and Natural Resources; State recreational land; the National Park Service (NPS) provides and the Department of Transportation. guidance to States in developing the wetland component of their Several State agencies participate in aspects of Federal pro- plans. grams, and wetlands are enhanced or protected under some State Federal agencies are responsible for the proper management programs. The Department of Game, Fish and Parks has diverse of wetlands on public land under their j Lirisdiction and also are in- wetland responsibilities under the mission statement of the Divi- volved in other wetland-enhancement and protection activities. With sion of Wildlife: to manage South Dakota's wildlife and fisheries the mission to conserve, protect, and enhance fish and wildlife popu- resources and their associated habitats for their sustained and eq- lations and their habitats, the FWS is perhaps the most active Fed- uitable use and for the benefit, welfare, and enjoyment of the citi- eral agency in wetlands management and protection in South Da- zens of South Dakota and its visitors. Specific activities of the agency kota. The FWS manages about 47,000 acres in six National Wildlife include providing technical advice regarding effects on fish, wild- Refuges that are predominantly wetlands, and about 146,000 acres life, and habitat for section 404 permit applications; providing tech- in numerous waterfowl-production areas in the eastern part of the nical expertise to the Department of Transportation to mitigate State. The FWS protects wetlands on private lands through its Wet- wetland impacts from road-construction activities; being actively lands Easement Program, in which private landowners agree not to involved in educational programs to teach landowners and school- drain, bum, level, or fill specified wetlands in exchange for mon- age children the importance of wetland habitats; managing State- etary payment. About 500,000 acres of wetlands are protected by owned recreational and wildlife-production lands to protect and this program. The FWS also is involved in a program to construct maintain wetland areas; and acquiring new land for wetland pro- 3,000 acres of new wetlands on private and Indian-reservation lands tection. in South Dakota (Carl Madsen, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, The Department of Environment and Natural Resources' Di- written commun., 1993). vision of Environmental Regulation reviews section 404 permit The U.S. Forest Service (FS) manages about 2.1 million acres applications to ensure compliance with State water-quality laws. A in three National Forests and three National Grasslands in South permit is not issued by the Corps without a Clean Water Act sec- Dakota. The Fs is in the process of compiling estimates of wetlands tion 401 certification of such compliance. Pursuant to section 305(b) and other riparian areas on their jurisdictional lands in South Da- of the Clean Water Act, the Department's Division of Water Re- kota. A preliminary estimate is that about I percent Of FS lands are sources Management submits to the EPA and the U.S. Congress a wetlands or other riparian areas (Barry Parrish, U.S. Forest Service, biennial assessment of the State's surface-water quality, including oral commun., 1993). The Fs also is involved in wetland-creation that of wetlands. The Department's Division of Geological Survey activities on their land. and Division of Water Resources collects wetland hydrologic and The Bureau of Land Management (BLM) manages about water-quality data. 273,000 acres in South Dakota, of which about 1,560 acres are in The Department of Transportation attempts to mitigate and riparian areas (Eric Luse, Bureau of Land Management, oral minimize impacts to wetlands that result from its road-construction commum., 1993). The FS and the BLM have riparian-area manage- activities. The Department is the most frequent applicant for sec- ment plans whose goals include restoring, maintaining, and protect- tion 404 permits and avoids wetland alteration unless there is no ing riparian areas; educating the public concerning the importance feasible alternative. When wetland alteration is considerable, new of healthy riparian areas; and cooperating with private landown- wetland areas equal to or greater than the size of the losses typi- ers, resource users, and other Federal agencies in the protection of cally are created within the project area. When orisite mitigation is riparian areas (Bureau of Land Management, 1991). The NPS man- not possible, a Wetlands Bank program is used to create new wet- ages about 274,000 acres in two National Parks, one National Monu- lands outside the project area that are equal to or greater than the ment, and one National Memorial in South Dakota, but currently size of the altered wetland. there are no estimates of wetland acreage on those lands. State universities in South Dakota, including South Dakota . The BOR has jurisdiction over about 63,500 acres in South State University, Northern State University, and the South Dakota Dakota, including land in existing irrigation projects and land in School of Mines and Technology, are active in wetlands research. proposed, but not yet constructed, projects (Loren Hindbjorgen, South Dakota State University participates in the National Wetlands Bureau of Reclamation, oral commun., 1993). Currently, there are Inventory program of the FWs and is coordinating an EPA-funded no estimates of wetland acreage on BOR lands in the State. The BOR study of the effects of global climate change on wetlands in the does not have a specific wetland-management plan, but a wetland United States (Carter Johnson, South Dakota State University, writ- and riparian-habitat element is being included in an initiative be- ten commun., 1993). 356 National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: STATE SUMMARIES Private wetland activities. -Ducks Unlimited owns about _1988b, Using your wetland for forage: South Dakota State Univer- 2,000 acres and manages those lands for wetlands enhancement sity, Department of Wildlife and Fisheries Sciences, 4 p. (Rick Warhurst, Ducks Unlimited, oral commun., 1993). The organ- Hubbard, D.E., and Linder, R.L., 1986, Spring runoff retention in prairie ization also has participated in cost-shared purchases ofabout 2, 100 pothole wetlands: Journal of Soil and Water Conservation, v. 41, wetland acres with the Department of Game, Fish and Parks and p. 122-125. Hubbard, D.E., Richardson, J.L., and Malo, D.D., 1988, Glaciated prairie has implemented wetland creation, restoration, and enhancement wetlands - Soils, hydrology, and land-use implications in Kusler, J.A., projects on about 9,500 acres of State or federally owned lands. The and Brooks, eds., Proceedings of the National Wetland Hydrology National Wildlife Federation is active in educating the public con- Symposium, September, 1987: Chicago, Ill., Association of State cerning wetland issues and has shared costs of land purchases with Wetland Managers Technical Report 6, p. 137-143. the Department of Game, Fish and Parks and the Fws (Dan Limmer, Kantrud, H.A., Krapu, G.L., and Swanson, G.A., 1989, Prairie basin wet- National Wildlife Federation, oral commun., 1993). The Nature lands of the Dakotas -A community profile: U. S. Fish and Wildl ife Conservancy owns about 8,000 acres of wetlands in South Dakota Service Biological Report 85(7.28). and is active in monitoring and protecting endangered species on Kantrud, H.A., Millar, J.B., and van der Valk, A.G., 1989, Vegetation of those lands (Joe Satrom, The Nature Conservancy, oral commun., wetlands in the prairie pothole region, in van der Valk, A.G., ed., Northern prairie wetlands: Ames, Iowa State University Press, p. 132- 1993). Other organizations that participate in wetland-protection 197. activities in the State include the Izaak Walton League, the National Kramlich, T.J., 1985, Evaluation of seasonal habitat use by white-tailed deer Audubon Society, and the Sierra Club. The South Dakota Associa- in eastern South Dakota: Brookings, South Dakota State University, tion of Conservation Districts (an organization closely associated Masters thesis, 36 p. with the South Dakota Department of Agriculture) also has been LaBaugh, JW., Winter, TC., Adomaitis, V.A., and Swanson, G.A., 1987, involved in wetlands enhancement, with most of the 69 conserva- Hydrology and chemistry of selected prairie wetlands in the Cotton- tion districts in the State participating financially in wetland-cre- wood Lake area, Stutsman County, North Dakota: U.S. Geological ation programs of the FWS. Survey Professional Paper 1431, 26 p. Ruwaldt, J.J., Flake, L.D., and Gates, J.M., 1979, Waterfowl pair use of natural and man-made wetlands in South Dakota: Journal of Wildlife References Cited Management, v. 43, p. 375-383. Sather-Blair, Signe, and Linder, R.L., 1980, Pheasant use of South Dakota Benson, R.D., 1986, South Dakota surface-water resources, in National wetlands during the winter: Proceedings of the South Dakota Acad- water summary 1985-Hydrologic events and surface-water re- emy of Sciences, v. 59, p. 147-155. sources: U.S. Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper 2300, p. 419- Shjeflo, J.B., 1968, Evapotranspiration and the water budget of prairie pot- 424. holes in North Dakota: U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper Brewster, W.G., Gates, J.M., Flake, L.D., 1976, Breeding waterfowl popu- 585-B, 49 p. lations and their distribution in South Dakota: The Journal of Wild- Smith, B.J., Browers, H.W., Dahl, T.E., Nomsen, D.E., and Higgins, K.F., life Management, v. 40, p. 50-59. 1989, Indirect wetland drainage in association with Federal highway Bureau of Land Management, 1991, Riparian-wetland initiative for the projects in the prairie pothole region: Wetlands, v. 9, p. 27-39. 1990's: Bureau of Land Management Report BLM[WO/GI-91/ Soil Conservation Service, 1985, Duck and pheasant use of water bank pro- 00 1 +4340, 50 p. gram agreement areas in east-central South Dakota: Soil Conserva- Carlson B.N., and Berry, C.R., 1990, Population size and economic value tion Service, 67 p. of aquatic bait species in palustrine wetlands of eastern South Dakota: South Dakota Geological Survey, 197 1, Generalized glacial map of South Prairie Naturalist, v. 22, p. 119 -128. Dakota: South Dakota Geological Survey Educational Series, Map 2, Cowardin, L.M., Carter, Virginia, Golet, F.C., and LaRoe, E.T., 1979, Clas- I sheet. sification of wetlands and deepwater habitats ofthe UnitedStates: U.S. Stewart, R.E., and Kantrud, H.A., 197 1, Classification of natural ponds and Fish and Wildlife Service, FWS/OBS-79/31, 131 p. lakes in the glaciated prairie region: U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Dahl, T.E., 1990, Wetlands-Losses in the United States, 1780's to 1980's: Resource Publication 92, 57 p. Washington, D.C., U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Report to Congress, Winter, T.C., 1989, Hydrologic studies of wetlands in the Northern Prairie, 13 p. in van der Valk, A.G., ed., Northern prairie wetlands: Ames, Iowa State Duebbert, H.F., 1972, Ducks on stock ponds in north central South Dakota, University Press, p. 16 - 54, in Miller, H.W., ed., Wildlife on man-made water areas -Reports and Winter, T.C., and Woo, M.K., 1990, Hydrology of lakes and wetlands, in discussions at the second seminar, April 15 -16, 1970, Jamestown, N. Wolman M.G., and Riggs, H.C., eds., The Geology of North America, Dak.: U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Northern Prairie Wildlife Re- Surface water hydrology: Boulder, Colo., Geological Society of search Center, p. 33-35. America, v. 0-1, p. 159-187. Erickson, R.E., Linder, R.L., and Harmon, K.W., 1979, Stream channelization (P.L. 83-566) increased wetland losses in the Dako- tas: The Wildlife Society Bulletin, v. 7, p. 71-78. FOR ADDITIONAL INFORMATION: District Chief, U.S. Geological Fermeman, N.M., 1946, Physical divisions of the United States: Washing- Survey, 1608 Mountain View Road, Rapid City, SD 57702; Regional Wet- ton, D.C., U.S. Geological Survey special map, scale 1:7,000,000. land Coordinator, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Fish and Wildlife Enhance- Flake, L.D., 1979, Wetland diversity and waterfowl, in Greeson, P.E., Clark, ment, P.O. Box 25486, Denver Federal Center, Denver, CO 80225 J.R., and Clark, J.E., eds., Proceedings of the National Symposium on Wetlands, November 1978: Minneapolis, Minn., American Water Resources Association, p. 312-319. Prepared by Grisak, G.E., 1975, The fracture porosity of glacial till: Canadian Journal Steven K. Sando, of Earth Science, v. 12, p. 513 -515. U.S. Geological Survey Hubbard, D.E., 1988a, Glaciated prairie wetlands functions and values- A synthesis of the literature: U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Biologi- cal Report 88(43), 50 p. U.S. Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper 2425 National Water Summary-Wetland Resources 357 Tennessee Wetland Resources Recent surveys have indicated that Tennessee has between 640,000 Palustrine System. -Palustrine wetlands are the predominant and 787,000 acres of wetlands (Tennessee Department of Conser- wetlands in Tennessee. Most of these wetlands are in the Coastal vation, 1988; Dahl, 1990). Another recent, unpublished survey de- Plain in the western part of the State along alluvial flood plains of termined that the State might have as much as 1.4 million acres of the Mississippi River and its tributaries (fig. 2A and 2B). Tennessee's wetlands (D.L. Porter, Tennessee Valley Authority, written commun., palustrine wetlands include bottom-land hardwood forests and up- 1993). Although wetlands constitute a small percentage of Tenn- land swamps (forested wetlands), scrub-shrub wetlands, beaver essee's total area, wetlands, such as the bottom-land hardwood forest ponds (unconsolidated-bottom, aquatic-bed, or emergent wetlands), shown in figure 1, are ecologically and economically important to wet meadows and marshes (emergent wetlands), and highland bogs the State. (forested, scrub-shrub, or emergent wetlands that have organic The benefits of Tennessee's wetlands include enhanced water soils). quality, fish and wildlife productivity, and socioeconomic values. Bottom-land hardwood forests are the most common wetlands Wetlands enhance water quality by filtering nutrients, wastes, and in Tennessee. These forests have formed primarily in the flat flood sediment from upland runoff. Fish and wildlife benefit from the plains along streams that drain into the Mississippi and Tennessee abundance of habitat and food that wetlands provide. More than 95 Rivers in western Tennessee. Unaltered bottom-land hardwood-for- plant, 65 mollusk, and 44 vertebrate species listed by the State as est wetlands in western Tennessee typically contain bald cypress, rare are found in Tennessee's wetlands (Tennessee Department of water tupelo, oaks, sweet gum, red and silver maple, river birch, box Conservation, 1988). Socioeconomic values of wetlands include elder, and green ash (Hupp, 1992). Scrub-shrub wetlands are present flood-damage reduction through temporary storage of floodwaters, along downstream reaches of channelized streams in western Ten- erosion control, and, in a few areas, ground-water recharge. Ten- nessee. These areas support dense thickets of buttonbush and alder. nessee wetlands also provide economically important recreational opportunities, such as hunting, fishing, boating, wildlife photogra- phy, hiking, and bird watching for residents and tourists. TYPES AND DISTRIBUTION Wetlands are lands transitional between terrestrial and deep- water habitats where the water table usually is at or near the land Q surface or the land is covered by shallow water (Cowardin and oth- ers, 1979). The distribution of wetlands and deepwater habitats in Tennessee is shown in figure 2A; only wetlands are discussed herein. Wetlands can be vegetated or nonvegetated and are classified on the basis of their hydrology, vegetation, and substrate. In this summary, wetlands are classified according to the system proposed by Cowardin and others (1979), which is used by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (FWS) to map and inventory the Nation's wetlands. At the most general level of the classification system, wetlands are grouped into five ecological systems: Palustrine, Lacustrine, Riv- erine, Estuarine, and Marine. The Palustrine System includes only lot_- J wetlands, whereas the other systems comprise wetlands and deepwater habitats. Wetlands of the systems that occur in Tennes- see are described below. System Wetland description Palustrine ...... ........ Wetlands in which vegetation is predominantly trees (forested wetlands); shrubs (scrub-shrub wetlands); persistent or nonpersistent emergent, erect, rooted, herbaceous plants (persistent- and nonpersistent-emergent wetlands); or sub- mersed and (or) floating plants (aquatic beds). Also, intermittently to permanently flooded Figurel. Forested wetland along the Hatch ie open-water bodies of less than 20 acres in which River in western Tennessee. (Photograph by Cliff water is less than 6.6 feet deep. R. Hupp, U.S. Geological Survey.) Lacustrine ................. Wetlands within an intermittently to permanently flooded lake or reservoir. Vegetation, when pres- Isolated forested wetlands known locally as upland swamps are ent, is predominantly nonpersistent emergent found in the Highland Rim, Central Basin, Cumberland Plateau, plants (nonpersistent-emergent wetlands), or submersed and (or) floating plants (aquatic Valley and Ridge, and Blue Ridge Provinces. The predominant trees beds), or both. in upland swamps are sweet gum, sycamore, and species of oak, Riverine ..................... Wetlands with in a channel. Vegetation, when pres- willow, and maple. Anderson Pond (72 acres), Cedar Hill Swamp ent, is same as in the Lacustrine System. (207 acres), and Mingo Swamp (563 acres), located in the High- 358 National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: STATE SUMMARIES land Rim, are examples of upland swamps. Each represents land- HYDROLOGIC SETTING forms that were once commonplace and have been recommended for consideration as National Natural Landmarks (Ellis and Chester, Wetland hydrology is a complex interaction of local and re- 1989). gional factors, including topography, climate, soil characteristics, Beaver ponds, typically associated with flood plains, are and geology. Wetlands typically form along the margins of rivers present throughout the State. As beavers impound water in a hot- and lakes that are subject to flooding and in depressions where the tom-land area, many of the less flood-tolerant trees are killed, thus water table is at or near the land surface. Some wetlands form on opening the canopy and allowing for growth of herbaceous vegeta- highland slopes and are associated with ground-water-discharge tion. The vegetation, which is determined by factors such as the age points such as springs or seeps. of the pond, topography, and soil characteristics, commonly includes Tennessee has a diverse topography, ranging from rolling hills cattails and sedges. The acreage of Tennessee wetlands attributable and broad flood plains in the Coastal Plain in western Tennessee to to beaver activity is unknown (Arner and Hepp, 1989). the mountains and valleys in the cast. Annual precipitation averages Wet meadows are most common in the western and central about 50 inches statewide and ranges from approximately 47 inches parts of Tennessee. Grasses, sedges, and rushes are the predomi- in the west to 80 inches in the mountains in the east. About 20 per- nant plants. These wetlands typically are covered by shallow water cent of the precipitation infiltrates into the ground to recharge the for only short periods during the growing season, typically after State's aquifers. Average annual runoff ranges from approximately heavy rains. In dry years, wet meadows may be grazed by cattle. 18 to 40 inches. During winter and spring, when evapotranspira- Such grazing generally alters the vegetation community. tion is low, flooding is common. The abundance of water in the State Freshwater marshes exist throughout Tennessee. Freshwater enhances the potential for wetland development and persistence. marshes, vegetated primarily by smartweed and southern wild rice, The structure and function of Tennessee's bottom-land hard- can be found along the shores of 15,500-acre Reelfoot Lake, a res- wood-forest wetlands are determined primarily by the hydrologic ervoir in northwestern Tennessee. Extensive freshwater marshes also regime of the State's rivers. Annual flooding for as long as 60 days are present along the shores of the Tennessee River. in winter and early spring is typical of Tennessee's larger river sys- Highland bogs have formed in the Valley and Ridge Province tems such as the Tennessee, Hatchie, and Mississippi (Carter and of eastern Tennessee. Sedges, ferns, and manna grass are typical Burbank, 1978). Rivers of western Tennessee lie almost entirely examples of emergent vegetation in these bogs. Buttonbush and tag within the nearly flat Coastal Plain and include the Obion, Forked alder (scrub-shrub vegetation) commonly are prevalent, and under Deer, Hatchie, Loosahatchie, and Wolf. Low stream gradients, which some conditions, red maple and river birch also are present. contribute to the frequency and severity of flooding, and broad flood Lacustrine and Riverine Systems. -In Tennessee, lakes plains provide a suitable environment for bottom-land hardwood (mainly reservoirs) and rivers contain mostly deepwater habitat. forests dominated by trees tolerant of a long dormant season and However, aquatic beds consisting of floating and submersed aquatic occasional growing-season flooding. plants, such as water lily and coontail, and nonpersistent-emergent Many streams in western Tennessee have been channelized to wetlands consisting of plants such as pickerelweed and American enhance drainage of adjacent wetlands (fig. 3), making cultivation lotus are associated with Tennessee's rivers, lakes, and reservoirs. possible. However, these streams flow through unconsolidated and 8 7g' 111@- - 7-- __77 - 0 A der ---------- Pa 7'1/J ;JI 0 36- 0 d Y k -h-C mphis 0 25 50 MILES W. i I MT; P sit 00 a 0 25 50 KILOMETERS 35. WETLANDS AND DEEPWATER HABITATS Distribution of wetlands and cleepwater habitats- This map shows the approximate distribution of large wetlands in the State. Because of limitations of scale andB source material, some wetlands are not shown EM Predominantly wetland E E:1 Predominantly cleepwater habitat A D G B PHYSIOGRAPHIC DIVISIONS A. Coastal Plain Province E. Cumberland Plateau Section B. western Valley F. Sequatchie Valley C. Highland Rim Section G. Valley and Ridge Province D. Central Basin H. Blue Ridge Province Figure 2. Wetland distribution in Tennessee and physiography of the State. A, Distribution of wetlands and cleepwater habitats. B, Physio- graphy. (Sources: A, TE. Dahl, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, unpub, data, 1991. 13, Physiographic divisions from Fenneman, 1946, and Miller 7974; landforms data from EROS Data Center) National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: TENNESSEE 359 reestablishment of bottom-land hardwood forests takes at least 65 years (Hupp, 1992). Although agricultural conversions could be decreasing, future losses of wetlands might occur as a result of ur- ban conversion, transportation construction, and channelization. A Iso, though wetland losses are most notable in the western part of the State, significant losses of upland swamps, freshwater marshes, and bottom-land hardwood forests have occurred and could con- tinue to occur in middle and eastern Tennessee (Tennessee Depart- ment of Conservation, 1988). In 1988, the Governor of Tennessee established the Interagency Wetlands Committee in response to concerns over the significant losses of wetlands, The purpose of this committee is to exchange information and coordinate programs of Federal, State, and local agencies, conservation organizations, and private landowners to manage, conserve, or restore wetlands for beneficial uses. Figure 3. Channelized creek in western Tennessee. (Photograph CONSERVATION by Cliff R. Hupp, U.S. Geological Survey) Many government agencies and private organizations partici- pate in wetland conservation in Tennessee. The most active agen- erodible alluvial deposits, and channelization causes the streams to cies and organizations and some of their activities are listed in table erode their channel beds and banks in some reaches, whereas other I reaches fill with the material eroded from upstream (Robbins and Federal wetland activities. -Development activities in Tennes- Simon, 1983; Simon and Hupp, 1992). Thus, channelization has had see wetlands are regulated by several Federal statutory prohibitions a direct influence on wetland hydrologic processes in Tennessee by and incentives that are intended to slow wetland losses. Some of the reducing flooding and lowering the water table in upper reaches of more important of these are contained in the 1899 Rivers and Har- streams but increasing downstream deposition of sediment and bors Act; the 1972 Clean Water Act and amendments; the 1985 Food contributing to downstream flooding (Shankman and Samson, 199 1; Security Act; the 1990 Food, Agriculture, Conservation, and Trade Hupp, 1992). Act; and the 1986 Emergency Wetlands Resources Act. Isolated wetlands, such as highland bogs and upland swamps, Section 10 ofthe Rivers and Harbors Act gives the U.S. Army are not associated with streams and typically are formed in lime- Corps of Engineers (Corps) authority to regulate certain activities stone sinkholes or depressions on stream terraces. These wetlands in navigable waters. Regulated activities include diking, deepening, rely on direct precipitation and runoff, ground-water discharge, or filling, excavating, and placing of structures. The related section 404 both, to maintain water volume. Whereas water levels associated of the Clean Water Act is the most often-used Federal legislation with these wetlands fluctuate and can be no more than a few inches deep during dry seasons, complete drying rarely occurs. Soils of Table 1. Selected wetland-related activities of government these wetlands typically are poorly drained, organic, and acidic. agencies and private organizations in Tennessee, 1993 tSource: Classification of activities is generalized from information provided by agencies and organizations. e, agency or organization participates in TRENDS wetland-related activity; agency or organization does not participate in wetland-related activity. MAN, management; REG, regulation; R&C, res- The Fws National Wetland Inventory has estimated that Ten- toration and creation; LAN, land acquisition; R&D, research and data col- nessee lost as much as 59 percent of its wetland area in the 200 years lection; D&I, delineation and inventory] before the 1980's (Dahl, 1990). Although wetland loss can occur as a result of natural ecological succession, human activities such as livestock grazing, draining, and clearing for agriculture, logging, Agency or organization 01 op 01 pond and lake construction, and urban development are most often FEDERAL the cause. Losses have been particularly extensive in western Ten- Department of Agriculture nessee. Consolidated Farm Service Agency ........................... ...* ... ... ... ... Logging of western Tennessee bottom lands proceeded rapidly Natural Resources Conservation Service ................ ... 0 after about 1880, and favorable agricultural prices provided an eco- Department of Defense Army Corps of Engineers ..............................................*0 nomic incentive to cultivate marginal lands in the area. Drainage Military reservations .....................................................0 districts were formed to establish dredging and channelization Department of the Interior projects to drain the bottom lands to exploit their agricultural po- Fish and Wildlife Service ..............................................* tential. By the 1930's, many dredged channels in western Tennes- Geological Survey .................................................... see were partially or completely filled by sediment from agricul- National Biological Service ......................................... ... ... ... ... National Park Service ....................................................... . 0 tural operations. This sedimentation has altered the hydrology of Environmental Protection Agency .................................. ... the bottom lands and caused changes in vegetation patterns and Tennessee Valley Authority .......................................0 wetland types (Wolfe and Diehl, 1993). As much as 83 percent of STATE the original bottom-land hardwood-forest wetlands in the Obion and Department of Environment and Conservation ........... * Forked Deer River Basins alone have been lost (Tennessee Depart- Department of Transportation ......................................... ... Tennessee Technological University .............................. ... .1 . ... ... ment of Conservation, 1988). University of Tennessee .................................................... ... ... ... ... The Hatchie and Wolf Rivers are the remaining major rivers Wildlife Resources Agency ............ ....... . ........................ in western Tennessee that have not been channelized along substan- PRIVATE tial parts of their courses. Most other streams, including tributaries The Nature Conservancy... ............................................... ... ... ... . ... to the Hatchie River, have been repeatedly channelized from their Ducks Unlimited ............. ............. ................ ................ mouths nearly to the drainage divides. Following channelization, Farm Bureau Federation .................................._ .............. ... ... 360 National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: STATE SUMMARIES protecting wetlands. Under section 404 provisions, the Corps issues Water Conservation Act of 1965, the Department is active in wet- permits regulating the discharge of dredged or fill material into land-program planning by amending and updating the Statewide wetlands. Permits are subject to review and possible veto by the U.S. Comprehensive Outdoor Recreation Plans to identify wetlands that Environmental Protection Agency, and the FWs has review and ad- have high recreation potential. visory roles. Section 401 of the Clean Water Act grants to States The Tennessee Wildlife Resources Agency administers the and eligible Indian Tribes the authority to approve, apply conditions Wetlands Acquisition Fund. The Tennessee Wetlands Acquisition Act to, or deny section 404 permit applications on the basis of a pro- of 1986 sets aside a part of the State real estate transfer tax for ac- posed activity's probable effects on the water quality of a wetland. quisition of wetlands. The acquisition of wetlands through the Wet- Most farming, ranching, and silviculture activities are not sub- lands Acquisition Fund must be approved by the Director of the ject to section 404 regulation. However, the "Swampbuster" provi- Wildlife Resources Agency and the Commissioner ofAgriculture. sion of the 1985 Food Security Act and amendments in the 1990 The Tennessee Department of Transportation conducts wetland Food, Agriculture, Conservation, and Trade Act discourage (through restorations along its construction projects to mitigate unavoidable financial disincentives) the draining, filling, or other alteration of wetland destruction. The Department of Transportation also con- wetlands for agricultural use. The law allows exemptions from pen- structs wetlands as large as 450 acres to compensate for unavoid- alties in some cases, especially if the farmer agrees to restore the able losses. altered wetland or other wetlands that have been converted to agri- County and local wetland activities. -There has been little cultural use. The Wetlands Reserve Program of the 1990 Food, involvement by county and local governments in wetlands issues Agriculture, Conservation, and Trade Act authorizes the Federal in Tennessee. Notable exceptions include Knoxville, Nashville, Government to purchase conservation easements from landowners Chattanooga, and Memphis. These metropolitan areas have devel- who agree to protect or restore wetlands. The Consolidated Farm oped plans for the construction of greenway recreational areas, some Service Agency (formerly the Agricultural Stabilization and Con- of which will contain wetlands. However, as of 1993, the only city servation Service) administers the Swampbuster provisions and Wet- that had begun implementing its plan was Chattanooga. lands Reserve Program. The Natural Resources Conservation Private wetland activities. - Several private groups are actively Service (formerly the Soil Conservation Service) determines com- involved in wetlands issues in Tennessee. The Farm Bureau Fed- pliance with Swampbuster provisions and assists farmers in the iden- eration promotes funding and research concerning the use of con- tification of wetlands and in the development of wetland protection, structed wetlands for water-quality improvement. The Nature Con- restoration, or creation plans. servancy cooperates with the State in acquiring areas for preserva- The 1986 Emergency Wetlands Resources Act encourages tion. The Tennessee Conservation League and the Sierra Club pro- wetland protection through funding incentives. The act requires mote public use and conservation of wetlands. Through its national States to address wetland protection in their Statewide Comprehen- headquarters in Memphis, Ducks Unlimited cooperates with the sive Outdoor Recreation Plans to qualify for Federal funding for Tennessee Wildlife Resources Agency in acquiring and managing State recreational land; the National Park Service provides guidance wetlands and assists private landowners in constructing wetlands. to States in developing the wetland component of their plans. The Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA) does not directly regu- late wetland activities but conducts a wetlands review for any action References Cited affecting TVA-controlled properties. Through the review process, the Amer, D.H., and Hepp, G.R., 1989, Beaver pond wetlands-A southern TVA attempts to minimize the destruction, loss, or degradation of perspective, in Smith, L.M., Pederson, R.L., and Kaminski, R.M., eds., wetlands. In cooperation with the FWS, the TVA operates projects in Habitat management for migrating and wintering waterfowl in North western Tennessee that provide wetland habitat for migratory America: Lubbock, Texas Tech University Press, p. 130-177. waterfowl. In addition, the TVA promotes the use of constructed wet- Carter, Virginia, and Burbank, J.H., 1978, Weiland classification system for lands as a means of wastewater treatment. the Tennessee Valley Region: Tennessee Valley Authority Technical State wetland activities. -The Tennessee Department of En- Note B 24, 3 6 p. viroament and Conservation was created in 1990 by combining the Cowardin, L.M., Carter, Virginia, Golet, F.C., and LaRoe, E.T., 1979, Clas- Department of Conservation and the Department of Health and sification ofwetlands and deepwater habitats ofthe United States: U.S. Environment. The Department of Environment and Conservation Fish and Wildlife Service Report FWS/OBS-79/31, 131 p. regulates development activities in wetlands through sections 401 Dahl, T.E., 1990, Wetlands -Losses in the United States, 1780's to 1980's: Washington, D.C., U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Report to Congress, and 402 of the Clean Water Act. The section 401 program requires 13 p. that a section 404 pen-nit applicant provide certification from the Ellis, W.H., and Chester, E.W., 1989, Upland swamps ofthe Highland Rim State that a discharge will comply with State water-quality standards. of Tennessee: Journal of the Tennessee Academy of Science, v. 64, The section 401 certification from the Department is necessary no.3,p.97-101. before a section 404 permit can be obtained from the Corps. Sec- Fermeman, N.M., 1946, Physical divisions of the United States: Washing- tion 402 of the Clean Water Act requires that permits be obtained ton, D.C., U.S. Geological Survey special map, scale 1:700,000. for discharges of treated wastewater to wetlands under the National Hupp, C.R., 1992, Riparian vegetation recovery patterns following stream Pollutant Discharge Elimination System Program. The Department channelization: A geomorpbic perspective: Ecology, v. 73, no. 4, of Environment and Conservation is the State agency delegated to p. 1,209-1,226. Miller, R.A., 1974, The geologic history of Tennessee: Tennessee Division administer this program. The Tennessee Water Quality Control Act of Geology Bulletin 74, 63 p, of 1977 requires that a State permit be obtained if changes are pro- Robbins, C.H., and Simon, Andrew, 1983, Man-induced channel adjustment posed to an existing aquatic environment; agricultural and forestry in Tennessee streams: U.S. Geological Survey Water-Resources Inves- activities are exempted. tigations Report 82- 4098, 129 p. Through the Tennessee Natural Areas Preservation Act of 197 1, Shankman, David, and Samson, S.A., 1991, Channelization effects on Obion the Department of Environment and Conservation has assumed the River flooding, western Tennessee: Water Resources Bulletin, v. 27, former Department of Conservation's responsibility for acquiring no. 2, p. 247-254. wetlands that represent outstanding examples of the State's natural Simon, Andrew, and Hupp, C.R., 1992, Geomorphic and vegetative recov- landscape. The Tennessee Oil and Gas Law enables the Department ery processes along modified stream channels of western Tennessee: U.S. Geological Survey Open-File Report 91-502, 142 p. to regulate oil and gas drilling by placing special conditions on Tennessee Department of Conservation, 1988, Tennessee wetlands plan: drilling activities near wetlands. As a result of the U.S. Land and Nashville, Tennessee Department of Conservation, I 18 p. National Water Surnmary-Wetland Resources: TENNESSEE 361 Wolfe, W.J., and Diehl, T.H., 1993, Recent sedimentation and surface-wa- ter flow patterns on the flood plain of the North Fork Forked Deer River, Dyer County, Tennessee: U.S. Geological Survey Water-Re- sources Investigations Report 92-4082, 22 p. FOR ADDITIONAL INFORMATION: District Chief, U.S. Geological Survey, 810 Broadway, Suite 500, Nashville, IN 37203; RegionalWetland Coordinator, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 1875 Century Building, Suite 200, Atlanta, GA 30345 Prepared by Michael R. Meador, U.S. Geological Survey 362 National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: STATE SUMMARIES I U.S. Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper 2425 National Water Summary-Wetland Resources 363 Texas Wetland Resources Wtlands cover about 7.6 million acres of Texas -a decrease of d .eepwater habitats. Wetlands of the systems that occur in Texas are about 52 percent from the State's original wetland acreage (Dahl, described below. 1990). Wetlands have considerable environmental and economic value. In river basins, wetlands provide flood attenuation, bank sta- System Wetland description bilization, and water-quality maintenance. ne tourist industry ben- efits from the scenic beauty of the State's many and diverse wetlands, Palustrine .................. Nontidal and tidal-freshwater wetlands in which which afford opportunities for recreational activities that include vegetation is predominantly trees (forested wet- hunting, fishing, bird watching, nature photography, camping, and lands); shrubs (scrub-shrub wetlands); persistent or nonpersistent emergent, erect, rooted herba- hiking. Coastal wetlands (fig. 1) are essential to maintaining im- ceous plants lpersistent- and nonpersistent- portant fish and shellfish population and habitat, which in turn pro- emergent wetlands); or submersed and (or) vide an economic benefit from the recreational and commercial floating plants Jacluatic beds). Also, intermit- tently to permanently flooded open-water bod- harvesting of these resources (Tiner, 1984). ies of less than 20 acres in which water is less Wetlands provide important wildlife habitat. For example, than 6.6 feet deep. about 90 percent of overwintering waterfowl in the High Plains Lacustrine ................. Nontidal and tidal-freshwater wetlands within an inhabit playa lake wetlands (Nelson and others, 1983). Statewide intermittently to permanently flooded lake or riparian and coastal wetlands provide stopover, feeding, and breed- reservoir larger than 20 acres and (or) deeper ing grounds to migratory waterfowl and habitat to nonmigrating than 6.6 feet. Vegetation, when present, is pre- wildlife. Among the migrants from Canada that stop at riparian dominantly nonpersistent emergent plants (non- persistent-emergent wetlands), or submersed wetlands and overwinter in wetlands along the Texas coast are snow and (or) floating plants (aquatic beds), or both. geese, Canada geese, and whooping cranes (an endangered species). Riverine ..................... Nontidal and tidal-freshwater wetlands within a Some of the migratory ducks that reside on coastal marshes are channel. Vegetation, when present, is same as American widgeon, mallard, green-winged teal, and blue-winged in the Lacustrine System. teal. The mottled duck is a common year-round resident on coastal Estuarine ................... Tidal wetlands in low-wave-energy environments marshes (Britton and Morton, 1989). where the salinity of the water is greaterthan 0.5 part perthousand (ppt) and isvariable owing to evaporation and the mixing of seawater and TYPES AND DISTRIBUTION freshwater. Wetlands are lands transitional between terrestrial and deep- Marine ....................... Tidal wetlands that are exposed to waves and cur- rents of the open ocean and to water having a water habitats where the water table usually is at or near the land salinity greater than 30 ppt. surface or the land is covered by shallow water (Cowardin and oth- ers, 1979). The distribution of wetlands and deepwater habitats in Most Texas wetlands are palustrine; estuarine wetlands are next Texas is shown in figure 2A; only wetlands are discussed herein. in area. Lacustrine, riverine, and marine wetlands are ecologically Wetlands can be vegetated or nonvegetated and are classified significant but cover a smaller area. The most extensive wetlands on the basis of their hydrology, vegetation, and substrate. In this are the bottom-land hardwood forests and swamps (forested and summary, wetlands are classified according to the system proposed scrub-shrub wetlands) of East Texas (the part of the State east of by Cowardin and others (1979), which is used by the U.S. Fish and about 96 degrees longitude); the marshes (emergent wetlands), Wildlife Service (FWS) to map and inventory the Nation's wetlands. swamps, and tidal flats (unconsolidated-shore wetlands) of the Gulf At the most general level of the classification system, wetlands are of Mexico coast; the playa lakes of the High Plains; and the small, grouped into five ecological systems: Palustrine, Lacustrine, Riv- shallow, inland depressional basins called potholes found in coastal erine, Estuarine, and Marine. The Palustrine System includes only areas from Brownsville to Port O'Connor. wetlands, whereas the other systems comprise wetlands and Most of the State's wetlands are palustrine bottom-land hard- wood forests and swamps, and most of these are in the flood plains of East Texas rivers. A recent inventory estimated that, as of the early 1980's, forested wetlands in the State consisted of about 6,068,000 acres, including 5,973,000 acres of bottom-land hardwood forest and other riparian vegetation and 95,000 acres of swamp (Frye, Jh 1987). East Texas contains about 7 1 percent of the forested wetlands, and the remaining 29 percent is located along rivers and streams throughout the rest of the State. Data from LANDSAT images taken from 1972 through 1980 provided the basis for the preceding acreage estimates. The use of P the LANDSAT images enabled the Texas Parks and Wildlife De art- ment to determine the distribution and types of forested wetlands. Five principal vegetative groups were determined. They include (1) cottonwood-hackberry-salt cedar brush/woods, (2) pecan-elm for- est, (3) water oak-elm-hackberry forest, (4) willow oak-water oak- Figure 1. Wetlands in Welder Flats Coastal Preserve. The blackgum forest, and (5) bald cypress-water tupelo swamp preserve was established to manage sensitive and productive (McMahan and others, 1984). estuarine wetlands and protect the endangered whooping Texas coastal wetlands -wetlands that are either on the coast, cranes that overwinter there. (Photograph by B.D. Jones, in or adjacent to estuaries, or in or near the tidal reaches of the U.S. Geological Survey) rivers-extend the entire length of the coast. Palustrine wetlands, 364 National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: STATE SUMMARIES such as swamps and fresh nI occupy the flood plains and line B the shores of tidal freshwater reaches of sluggish coastal rivers. Pot- hole wetlands are small, circular bodies of water fringed by emer- High Plains gent vegetation. The pothole wetlands are found inland from the coast and generally contain freshwater. Estuarine wetlands such as salt marshes (emergent wetlands) and tidal flats (mostly unconsoli- dated-shore, unconsolidated-bottom, and aquatic-bed wetlands) form in tidal reaches of rivers and in sounds and bays, where the Central Lowland salinity of the water can range from slightly more salty than fresh- water to nearly as salty as seawater. Great A recent inventory of coastal wetlands performed by the Na- tional Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) (Field and Coastal others, 1991) estimated the area covered by fresh marsh to be Plains Plain 530,300 acres. Estuarine wetlands comprised most of the coastal acreage-710,300 acres. Of the estuarine wetlands, 432,100 acres A PHYSIOGRAPHIC DIVISIONS 35. 97' liens EJ Poso, 31- Awtin on Glvaif.. Boy ldl@ WETLANDS AND DEEPWATER HABITATS Distribution of wetlands and deepwater habitats- elde Pon O'Connor This map shows the approximate distribution of large wetl:nds in the State. Because of limitations of scale S- A-1. By and ource material, some wetlands are not shown M Predominantly wetland Predominantly cleepwater habitat 27@ 0 50 100 MILES Area typified by a high density of small wetlands 1 , , . 0 50 100 KILOMETERS Dams (storage capacity at least 5,000 acre/feet) Brownsville Figure 2. Wetland distribution in Texas and physical and climatological features that control wetland distribution in the State. A, Dis- tribution of wetlands and deepwater habitats. 8, Physiography. (Sources: A, TE. Dahl, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, unpub. data, 1991. B, Physiographic divisions from Fenneman, 1946; landforms data from EROS Data Center.) National Water Surnmary-Wetland Resources: TEXAS 365 were salt marsh, 275,300 acres were tidal flats, and 2,900 acres were HYDROLOGIC SETTING forested or scrub-shrub wetlands. The acreage summaries were produced using a grid-sampling procedure and wetland maps from Wetlands form where there is a persistent water supply at or the National Wetland Inventory project of the FwS (Tiner, 1984). near the land surface. The location and persistence of the water The Welder Flats Coastal Preserve (fig. 1) consists of approxi- supply is affected by many factors, such as climate, physiography, mately 1,400 acres of wetlands adjacent to San Antonio Bay (Texas and hydrology. Parks and Wildlife Department, 1990). These wetlands are a part Precipitation and runoff rates in Texas vary annually and with of a dynamic estuarine system that has developed in response to the location and season. The average annual precipitation in the State physical, chemical, and biological processes of the Guadalupe ranges from about 8 inches at El Paso in the Basin and Range Prov- River-San Antonio Bay estuary. The wetlands consist of salt ince to about 56 inches in the lower Sabine River valley in the marshes, submersed vegetation known as seagrass beds (aquatic Coastal Plain of extreme eastern Texas (fig. 2B and 2C). The wet- beds), nonvegetated mud and sand flats, and shallow saltwater ponds test seasons are spring and late summer (Jones, 1991). Evaporation and lagoons. Welder Flats is near the Aransas National Wildlife Ref- is highest in West Texas and is lowest in East Texas (fig. 2D). In West uge, which provides critical shelter and plant food for a large vari- Texas, annual lake evaporation is 4 to 5 times annual precipitation, ety of bay waterfowl, estuarine fishes, and bottom-dwelling organ- whereas in East Texas, annual precipitation approaches annual isms. It is also an overwintering area for endangered whooping evaporation. The areas with the highest annual precipitation and cranes, a migration stopover for shorebirds, and a roosting and for- lowest evaporation are also the areas that have the most wetlands. aging area for nonmigrating wildlife. East Texas contains more than one-half of the wetland acres in the The State's playa lakes are predominantly within the High State. Plains. The natural landscape is grassland except along the south- Bottom-land hardwood or flood-plain forests in East Texas are eastern border of the area of playa lakes, where it becomes grass- diverse wetland ecosystems dominated by woody vegetation land and forest. The playa lakes, which range from dry lakebeds to (Wilkinson and others, 1987). These wetlands form in alluvial sedi- shallow lakes, have been estimated to total 296,000 acres, or about ments deposited in flood plains when streams overflow their banks. 4 percent of Texas' wetland area (Guthery and Bryant, 1982). The The wetlands are maintained by fluctuating water levels resulting estimated 20,000 or more playa lakes range in size from about 1 from flooding, by stream meanders that retard flow, and by the ad- acre to more than 100 acres and in salinity from freshwater to sa- aptation of woody vegetation to an environment in which the roots line. The freshwater playas are numerous, small to medium in size, are in organic soils that are inundated or saturated during the grow- and serve as zones ofrecharge to the underlying aquifer (Osterkamp ing season. and Wood, 1987). The saline playas are fewer, larger, and are areas In East Texas, abundant precipitation and annual flooding in of discharge from the underlying aquifer. The density ofplaya lakes the seven major river basins cause fluctuation of water levels in is generally highest in the central part of the High Plains (Nelson stream channels, bottom lands, flood plains, and backwater areas, and others, 1983). which promotes the development and maintenance of forested wet- The playas can be dry for extended periods. In wet conditions, lands. Other conditions conducive to wetland development and the playa wetlands are either shallow lakes having little or no veg- maintenance in East Texas are low evaporation rates, shallow ground etation or lakes having aquatic vegetation (Nelson and others, 1983). water, many springs, and nutrient-rich, clayey bottom-land soils. Most of the playas are palustrine wetlands. However, playa lakes that The estuaries of the Gulf of Mexico coast were formed when exceed 20 acres are classified as lacustrine wetlands. water from melting glaciers caused sea level to rise and inundate C N11 D 20 12 -lop 12 4 40 Ts 32 A PRECIPITATION LAKE-SURFACE EVAPORATION I -16- Line of equal annual precipffirtion- -so- Line of equal annual evaporation- Interval 4 inches Interval 10 inches Figure 2. Continued. Wetland distribution in Texas and physical and climatological features that control wetland distribution in the State. C, Average annual precipitation. D, Average annual gross lake-surface evaporation. (Sources: C, Woodward, 1986. D, Kane, 1967.) 366 National Water Surnmary-Wetland Resources: STATE SUMMARIES coastal river valleys. These drowned valleys were separated from type have been affected. Some of these losses can be attributed to the open sea by barrier islands, forming the bays and lagoons of the natural causes, but a large percentage were caused by human ac- present shoreline. The bays and lagoons became shallow as they tivities. In rural agricultural areas, losses can be attributed to con- received sediment from rivers and wind to form estuaries. A vari- version to cropland, declining water levels due to pumpage for irri- ety of habitats develop in an estuary. Each habitat's ecological char- gation, and overgrazing of wetland vegetation by livestock, which acteristics are the result of the stability of the substrate, rates of sedi- can increase erosion and evaporation. In urban areas, wetland losses ment accumulation or erosion, water depth, cuffent flow, and other occur because of encroachment by residential and commercial con- variables (Britton and Morton, 1989). The salinity of coastal wet- struction and industrial development. Wetland degradation has re- lands depends upon whether the source of most of the water enter- sulted from the discharge of inadequately treated sewage and indus- ing the estuary is from ocean tides or inland streams. trial waste into wetlands. Other activities that can cause wetland The soils that support wetlands on the coast have level to de- losses are filling, water diversion, drainage and river channelization, pressed relief and low permeability. These soils typically are poorly clearcutting, burning, lowering or disturbing the shallow water table, drained and have a high clay content and a moderate to high water- and the construction of dams, reservoirs, flood-control ditches, holding capacity (Barrera and Kelly, 1990). levees, irrigation canals, and barge and ship canals. In recent years, Rainfall along the coast ranges from 56 inches per year in the several State agencies have begun to develop wetland plans and strat- subhumid east to 26 inches per year in the semiarid south at the egies to reduce wetland losses (Texas Parks and Wildlife Depart- Mexico border. Other principal factors in the climate of the coast ment, 1988). are windspeed and direction. Wind, in combination with rainfall, Bottom-land-hardwood-forest acreage has declined from about evaporation, humidity, and temperature, affects most of the natural 16 million acres in early Texas history (Kier and others, 1977) to coastal processes. Evaporation generally exceeds precipitation in about 5.9 million acres (Frye, 1987), a 63 percent loss. A study by summer owing to high winds and temperatures. During fall and the Texas A&M University Remote Sensing Center conducted in the winter, there is generally a water surplus because of lower tempera- early 1980's indicated that some areas of eastem and southeastern tures and increased rainfall from tropical storms. Severe tropical Texas had wetland increases, and some areas had decreases (R.G. storms cause flooding of tidal flats, streams, and hummocky, wind- Frye, Texas Parks and Wildlife Department, written commun., blown depressions that have poor drainage. Flooding from these 1985). The FWs has reported, on the basis of U.S. Forest Service tropical storms also results in widespread pending and development (FS) statistics, that commercial bottom-land forests decreased by 18 of a shallow water table in the wind-deposited sand overlying older percent between 1935 and 1975 and by 10 percent between 1975 deposits that have very low permeability. and 1985 (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 1984). Lake and reser- The playa lakes of the High Plains typically are shallow de- voir construction, based on the Texas Water Plan to meet projected pressions that have a large surface area relative to the volume of water needs, would further reduce these wetlands by about 262,000 water contained in them. Consequently, most playa lakes have a acres if the 44 reservoirs proposed by the plan were constructed small storage capacity. Osterkamp and Wood (1987) stated that playa (Texas Department of Water Resources, 1984). lakes form in the Great Plains wherever surface depressions col- Some of the fresh and salt marshes along the Gulf of Mexico lect water. The lakes enlarge as a result of dissolution of carbon- coast have been lost because of dredging, agricultural drainage, and ates by water infiltrating the unsaturated zone above the underly- industrialization and urbanization. On the basis of estimates of ing aquifer and subsequent subsidence of the lakebed. There is no coastal-wetland area (fresh and salt marshes) made in 1956 and 1980 general agreement on the origin of saline lakes; however, the source (Texas Parks and Wildlife Department, 1988), the estimated loss in of the salinity might be the concentration by evaporation of shal- wetland acreage was about 35 percent during that period. Seagrass low ground water that discharges from the underlying aquifer (Wood beds in the Galveston Bay estuarine system decreased from about and Jones, 1990). 2,500 acres in the 1950's to about 700 acres in 1989 (White and The playa-lake area has topography classified as either smooth others, 1993). The decrease was attributed to Hurricane Carla, land- plains, irregular plains, or tablelands (Nelson and others, 1983). surface subsidence, and human activity. A study of six coastal coun- Smooth plains are largely on upland terrain, and irregular plains and ties found a 41 percent loss in pothole wetlands from 1955 to 1979 tablelands are mostly on lowland terrain. Because of the flatness of (Spiller and French, 1986). Most of the loss was attributed to con- the terrain, there is generally little stream drainage; consequently, version to agriculture. It also is probable that many of the remain- playa lakes collect most of the surface runoff. Water probably is ing coastal wetlands have been degraded by land subsidence, salt- removed from playa lakes by evaporation that can range as high as water intrusion, and pollution from industry, shipping, and urban- 96 to 112 inches per year (Nelson and others, t983) and by slow ization (D.W. Moulton, Texas Parks and Wildlife Department, writ- leakage to the ground-water system (Osterkamp and Wood, 1987). ten commun., 1990). The playa-lake beds generally have a layer ofclay that retards move- The playa lakes of the High Plains have been affected by in- ment of water from the playa lakes to the underlying aquifer. tense cultivation and irrigation for the last 50 years. It has been Annual precipitation in the playa-lake area ranges from 15 estimated that about 90 percent of the playas have been modified inches along the westem edge of the High Plains to 21 inches along (W.W. Wood, U.S. Geological Survey, written commun., 1994), and the eastem edge. On average, more than an inch of rain falls each that more than two-thirds of the larger playas (10 acres or more) have month between April and October. Windspeeds can range between been modified drastically (Guthery and Bryant, 1982). However, no 40 and 60 miles per hour for as long as a day in March, April, and comprehensive estimates of acreage losses exist for the playa-lakes May. Extreme winter temperatures range from -8'F in the south to area. Losses of other types of wetlands, such as freshwater springs -I 8'F in the north. Extreme summer temperatures range from 109'F and riparian wetlands, have occurred throughout the State. to 1 120F (Nelson and others, 1983). Some land-use practices have led to the creation of new wet- lands or the enlargment of existing wetlands. Rice farming near the TRENDS gulf coast might have contributed to increases in wetland acreage, and construction of lakes and reservoirs undoubtedly has increased The Fws has estimated that from the 1780's to the 1980's, wet- the acreage of lacustrine wetlands. However, those gains cannot land acreage in Texas decreased by 52 percent-from about 16 offset the losses of wetland acreage, function, and value that have million to about 7.6 million acres (Dahl, 1990). Wetlands of every occurTed in the State. National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: TEXAS 367 Table 1. Selected wetland-related activities of government Most farming, ranching, and silviculture activities are not sub- agencies and private organizations in Texas, 1993 ject to section 404 regulation. However, the "Swampbuster" provi- [Source: Classification of activities is generalized from information provided sion of the 1985 Food Security Act and amendments in the 1990 by agencies and organizations. a, agency or organization participates in Food, Agriculture, Conservation, and Trade Act discourage (through wetland-related activity; ..., agency or organization does not participate in financial disincentives) the draining, filling, or other alteration of wetland-refated activity. MAN, management; REG, regulation; R&C, res- toration and creation; LAN, land acquisition; R&D, research and data col- wetlands for agricultural use. The law allows exemptions from pen- lection; D&I, delineation and inventory] alties in some cases, especially if the farmer agrees to restore the altered wetland or other wetlands that have been converted to agri- cultural use. The Wetlands Reserve Program of the 1990 Food, Agency or organization \Y 1;:;@ Agriculture, Conservation, and Trade Act authorizes the Federal FEDERAL Government to purchase conservation easements from landowners Department of Agriculture who agree to protect or restore wetlands. The Consolidated Farm Consolidated Form Service Agency ........................... ... Service Agency (formerly the Agricultural Stabilization and Con- Forest Service .................................................................* servation Service) administers the Swarripbuster provisions and Wet- Natural Resources Conservation Service ................ ... lands Reserve Program. The Natural Resources Conservation Set- Department of Commerce National Oceanic and Atmospheric vice (formerly the Soil Conservation Service) determines compli- Administration .................................................................0 ance with Swampbuster provisions and assists farmers in the iden- Department of Defense tification of wetlands and in the development of wetland protection, Army Corps of Engineers ..............................................0 restoration, or creation plans, Military reservations... ...................................................4... ... ... ... ... The 1986 Emergency Wetlands Resources Act and the 1972 Department of the Interior Coastal Zone Management Act and amendments encourage wetland Fish and Wildlife Service ..............................................*0 0 0 * Geological Survey .......................................................... ... ... ... ...0 protection through funding incentives. The Emergency Weiland National Biological Service ......................................... ... Resources Act requires States to address wetland protection in their National Park Service ...................................................* Statewide Comprehensive Outdoor Recreation Plans to qualify for Environmental Protection Agency ..................................0 Federal funding for State recreational land; the National Park Ser- STATE vice (NPS) provides guidance to States in developing the wetland Department of Agriculture ............................................... ... ... ... ... Department of Transportation ......................................... ... ...0 component of their plans. Coastal and Great Lakes States that adopt Forest Service ............................................ ........................ ... ... ... ... coastal-zone management programs and plans approved by NOAA General Land Office .................................. ........................ ... ... are eligible for Federal funding and technical assistance through the Parks and Wildlife Department .......................................e* Coastal Zone Management Act. Railroad Commission ......................................................... ...0... ... ... ... Federal agencies that have public land under their jurisdiction Water Development Board ............................................... ...0 SOME COUNTIES AND LOCAL GOVERNMENTS a * ... ... ... ... are responsible for the proper management of any wetlands that exist PRIVATE ORGANIZATIONS on these lands. In Texas, the FS manages about 636,000 acres of Ducks Unlimited ......................................... ........................0 forested land and riparian habitat and about 148,600 acres of grass- National Audubon Society ............................................... ... ... land (Dallas Morning News, 1992). About 8,500 acres of this land The Conservation Fund ..................... ................ ... ... ... is estimated to be wetlands. The FS goal is to provide for healthy, The Nature Conservancy .................................................. Trust for Public Land .................................... ............... diverse, and productive ecosystems that will sustain a variety of public benefits now and in the future. The Fws manages about 396,000 acres in 14 National Wildlife CONSERVATION Refuges in Texas, About 228,000 acres of this land is estimated to be wetlands (D.W. Moulton, Texas Parks and Wildlife Department, Many government agencies and private organizations partici- written commun., 1990). The FWS mission is to conserve, protect, pate in wetland conservation in Texas. The most active agencies and and enhance fish, wildlife, and their habitats. organizations and some of their activities are listed in table 1. The NPS manages about 260,000 acres of land in Texas, and Federal wetland activities. -Development activities in Texas more than 99,000 acres of this land is protected waterfowl habitat wetlands are regulated by several Federal statutory prohibitions and (D.W. Moulton, Texas Parks and Wildlife Department, written incentives that are intended to slow wetland losses. Some of the more commun., 1990). Regional water-resource coordinators are respon- important of these are contained in the 1899 Rivers and Harbors sible for wetlands programs within their respective regions. The Act; the 1972 Clean Water Act and amendments; the 1985 Food mission of the NPS is to conserve, preserve, and manage resources Security Act; the 1990 Food, Agriculture, Conservation, and Trade of the lands in the National Park system. Act; the 1986 Emergency Wetlands Resources Act; and the 1972 State wetland activities. -Several State agencies participate Coastal Zone Management Act. in managing natural resources. Agencies whose responsibilities in- Section 10 of the Rivers and Harbors Act gives the U.S. Army clude some aspect of wetland conservation and a brief description Corps of Engineers (Corps) authority to regulate certain activities of their activities follow: in navigable waters. Regulated activities include diking, deepening, The Texas Railroad Commission is responsible for the regula- filling, excavating, and placing of structures. The related section 404 tion of surface coal mining and oil and gas production and trans- of the Clean Water Act is the most often-used Federal legislation port. The regulations are oriented toward production stabilization protecting wetlands. Under section 404 provisions, the Corps issues and include prevention of pollution of wetlands. permits regulating the discharge of dredged or fill material into The Texas Department of Transportation is responsible for wetlands. Permits are subject to review and possible veto by the U.S. avoiding damage to wetlands while constructing roads and bridges. Environmental Protection Agency, and the FWS has review and ad- They also are responsible for acquiring upland disposal areas for visory roles. Section 401 of the Clean Water Act grants to States maintenance material from the Gulf Intracoastal Waterway. and eligible Indian Tribes the authority to approve, apply conditions The Texas Forest Service and Texas Department of Agriculture to, or deny section 404 permit applications on the basis of a pro- are involved in wetlands primarily in an advisory capacity to land- posed activity's probable effects on the water quality of a wetland. owners. The agencies assist private owners in the management of 368 National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: STATE SUMMARIES forested land and use of land in crop production, including land ministration and U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service cooperative publica- containing wetlands. tion, 59 p. The Texas Water Development Board prepares the State Water Frye, R.G., 1987, Current supply, status, habitat quality and future impacts Plan and administers funds for reservoir construction and flood from reservoirs, in McMahan, C.A., and Frye, F.G., eds., Bottomland control. The State Water Plan must consider the effect of upstream hardwoods in Texas -Proceedings of an interagency workshop on status and ecology, May 6- 7, 1986, Nacogdoches, Tex.: Texas Parks development on bays and estuaries. and Wildlife Report PWD -RP-7100-133 -3/87, p. 24 - 28. The Texas Natural Resource Conservation Commission regu- Guthery, F.S., and Bryant F.C., 1982, Status ofplayas in the southern Great lates the allocation of State waters. The effects on fish and wildlife Plains: Wildlife Society Bulletin, v. 10, no. 4, p. 309-317. must be considered in permit application for allocations of 5,000 Jones, B.D., 1991, Texas floods and droughts, in U.S. Geological Survey, acre-feet or more. The Commission is involved in the process for National watersummary 1988 -89 -Hydrologic events and floods and granting permits for draining, channelizing, levee improvement, droughts: U.S. Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper 2375, p. 513 - construction of wastewater-treatment facilities, and wastewater dis- 520. charge. The degradation of waters and wetlands in the State is con- Kane JW., 1967, Monthly reservoir evaporation rates for Texas, 1940 sidered in all permit applications. iturough 1965: Texas Water Development Board Report 64, 111 p., 7 pls., scale 1:5,000,000. The Texas General Land Office has management responsibil- Kier, R.S., Garner, L.E., and Brown, L.F., Jr., 1977, Land resources of ity for 15 large bays totaling over 1.5 million acres. The Land Of- Texas-A map ofTexas lands classified according to natural suitabil- fice manages State lands and leases and grants easements to these ity and use considerations: University of Texas at Austin, Bureau of lands under rules and regulations that require protection of natural Economic Geology, 42 p., 4 map sheets, scale 1:500,000. resources, including fish and wildlife habitats. McMahan, C.A., Frye, R.G., and Brown, K.L., 1984, The vegetation types The Texas Parks and Wildlife Department manages the State of Texas-Including cropland: Texas Parks and Wildlife Department, Park system, which features many wetland habitats. The Department PWD Bulletin 7000-120, 40 p., map, scale 1: 1,000,000. acquires lands for the preservation, management, and study of wild- Nelson, R.W., Logan, W.J., and Weller, E.C., 1983, Playa wetlands and life. It also conducts research on management practices for waters wildlife on the southern Great Plains -A characterization of habi- tat: U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Report FWS/OBS -93/28, 163 p. and wetlands necessary to promote and sustain fisheries. As the State Osterkamp, W.R., and Wood, W.W., 1987, Playa take basins on the south- agency responsible for fish and wildlife, it reviews permit applica- ern High Plains ofTexas and New Mexico-Part 1. hydrologic, geo- tions submitted to Federal and other State permitting agencies and morphic, and geologic evidence for their development: Geological evaluates their impact on wildlife habitat. Society of America Bulletin, v. 99, p. 215 -223. Counties and local wetland activities. -Counties and cities Spiller, S.F., and French, J.D., 1986, The value and status of inland pothole in Texas differ greatly in their commitment to the protection of wet- wetlands in the lower Rio Grande Valley, Texas: U.S. fish and Wild- land resources. A few municipalities, such as Austin and San Marcos life Service Special Report, 18 p. have implemented watershed-development controls to protect wa-' Texas Department ofWater Resources, 1984, Water for Texas-Acompre- ter quality and riparian wetlands. Some counties and cities have S hensive plan for the future: Texas Department of Water Resources Report G-P-4-1, 2 volumes, 72 p. acquired wetlands in order to protect them. Texas Parks and Wildlife Department, 1988, The Texas wetlands plan- Private wetland activities. -Private organizations have an Addendum to the 1985 Texas outdoor recreation plan: Austin, Texas important function as advocates of wetland conservation and pro- Parks an&Wildlife Department, 35 p. tection. Texas has many private groups that inform the public, or- 1990, Welder Flats Coastal Preserve- Baseline studies report: Aus- ganize citizen groups, and lobby governments for the protection of tin, Texas Parks and Wildlife Department [variously paged]. wetlands. The Conservation Fund, National Audubon Society, The Tiner, R.W., Jr., 1984, Wetlands of the United States -Current status and Nature Conservancy, and Trust for Public Land havd programs for recent trends: Washington, D.C., U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 59 p. the purchase of wetlands for preservation. These lands can be trans- U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 1984, Texas bottomland hardwood preser- ferred to State or Federal ownership or, in some cases, may remain vation program: Albuquerque, N. Mex., U.S. Fish and Wildlife Ser- vice, 378 p. in private ownership. Groups that provide information, education, White, W.A., Tremblay, T.A., Wermund, E.G., Jr., and Handley, L.R., 1993, evaluation, and technical help to both public and private owners of Trends and status of wettand habitats in the Galveston Bay system, wetlands include Ducks Unlimited, Galveston Bay Foundation, Si- Texas: U.S. Fish and Wildlife Publication GBNEP- 31, 225 p. erra Club, and the Texas Committee on Natural Resources. Wilkinson, D.L., Schneller-McDonald, Karen, Olson, R.W., and Auble, G.T., 1987, Synopsis of wetlands functions and values -Bottomland hard- woods with special emphasis on eastern Texas and Oklahoma: U.S. References Cited Fish and Wildlife Service Biological Report 87(12), 131 p. Barrera, T.A., and Kelly, Nivra, 1990, Weiland creation and enhancement Wood, W.W., and Jones, B.F., 1990, Origin of saline lakes and springs on on private lands along the mid to lower gulf coast of Texas under the the southern High Plains ofTexas and New Mexico, in Gustavson, T.C., north American waterfowl management plan: U.S. Fish and Wildlife ed., Geological framework and regional hydrology-Upper Cenozoic Service Report CCSU-9002-CCS, 62 p. Blackwater Draw and Ogallala Formation, Great Plains: Austin, Tex., Britton, J.C., and Morton, Brian, 1989, Shore ecology of the Gulf ofMexico: Bureau of Economic Geology, p. 193 -208. Austin, University of Texas Press, 289 p. Woodward D.G., 1986, Texas surface-water resources, in National water Cowardin, L.M., Carter, Virginia, Golet, F.C., and LaRoe, E.T., 1979, Clas- summary 1995 -Hydrologic events and surface-water resources: U.S. sification of wetlands and deepwater habitats of the United States: U.S. Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper 2300, p. 431-440. Fish and Wildlife Service Report FWS/OBS-79/31, 131 p. Dahl, T.E., 1990, Wetlands -Losses in the United States, 1780's to 1980's: Washington, D.C., U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Report to Congress, FOR ADDITIONAL INFORMATION: District Chief, U.S. Geological 13 p. Survey, 8011 Cameron Road, Building A, Austin, TX 78754; Regional Dallas Morning News, 1992, 1990-91 Texas Almanac: Dallas, Texas Weiland Coordinator, U.S. Fish andWildlife Service, 500GoIdAvenue, SW, Monthly Press, 607 p. Room 4012, Albuquerque, NM 87103 Fenneman, N.M., 1946, Physical divisions of the United States: Washing- ton, D.C., U.S. Geological Survey special map, scale 1:7,000,000. Prepared by Field, D.W., Reyer, A.J., Genovese, PX, and Shearer, B.D., 1991, Coastal B.D. Jones, wetlands of the United States-An accounting of a valuable national resource: Washington, D.C., National Oceanic and Atmospheric Ad- U.S. Geological Survey U.S. Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper 2425 National Water Summary-Wetland Resources 369 U.S. Virgin Islands Wetland Resources The wetlands of the U.S. Virgin Islands, which comprise St. Croix, by Cowardin and others (1979), which is used by the U.S. Fish and St. Thomas, St. John, and about 50 smaller islands, are limited in Wildlife Service (FWS) to map and inventory the Nation's wetlands. area but are an important natural resource. The U.S. Virgin Islands At the most general level of the classification system, wetlands are are located on the northeastern edge of the Caribbean Sea east of grouped into five ecological systems: Palustrine, Lacustrine, Riv- Puerto Rico's Vieques and Culebra islands in the arc of the Lesser erine, Estuarine, and Marine. The Palustrine System includes only Antilles, which curves southward toward South America. The wet- wetlands, whereas the other systems comprise wetlands and lands of these islands generally are coastal wetlands such as man- deepwater habitats. Wetlands of the systems that occur in the U.S. grove forests and saltponds (fig. 1). Many of these valuable wetlands Virgin Islands are described below. are threatened by development. Wetlands on the U.S. Virgin Islands are biologically produc- System Wetland description tive. They support food webs intricately linked to seagrasses and coral reefs of the nearshore waters of the Caribbean Sea by provid- Palustrine .................. Nontidal and tidal-freshwater wetlands in which ing nursery and feeding habitat for marine fish and shellfish (Lopez vegetation is predominantly trees (forested wet- and others, 1988). Seagrass beds provide foraging for the threat- lands); shrubs (scrub-shrub wetlands); persistent or noripersistent emergent, erect, rooted herba- ened green turtle and important nursery grounds for lobster and ceous plants (persistent- and nonpersistent- conch. Ninety percent of the U.S. Virgin Islands' resident and mi- emergent wetlands); or submersed and (or) gratory bird species use wetlands (Philibosian and Yntema, 1977). floating plants (aquatic beds). Also, intermit- One-hundred twenty-one species of birds have been observed in tently to permanently flooded open-water bod- ies of less than 20 acres in which water is less coastal wetlands (William Knowles, U.S. Virgin Islands Department than 6.6 feet deep. of Planning and Natural Resources, written commun., 1994). En- Riverine ..................... Nontidal and tidal-freshwater wetlands within a dangered species, such as the peregrine falcon and brown pelican, channel. Vegetation, when present, is same as and other rare species, such as the white-cheeked pintail and white- in the Lacustrine System. crowned pigeon, nest and feed within the wetlands. Sandpipers, Estuarine ................... Tidal wetlands in low-wave-energy environments plovers, snipe, and other shorebirds depend on these areas during wherethe salinity ofthe water is greaterthan 0.5 migration. The wetlands also maintain water quality by trapping part per thousand (ppt) and is variable owing to sediments transported in runoff from the island interior, protect the evaporation and the mixing of seawater and shoreline from wave erosion, and dampen the effects of storm surges. freshwater. Marine ....................... Tidal wetlands that are exposed to waves and cur- rents of the open ocean and to water having a TYPES AND DISTRIBUTION salinity greater than 30 ppt. Wetlands are lands transitional between terrestrial and deep- As a result of steep terrain, small drainage basins, and limited water habitats where the water table usually is at or near the land rainfall, freshwater wetlands and deepwater habitats are scarce on surface or the land is covered by shallow water (Cowardin and oth- the U.S. Virgin Islands. St. Thomas, about 28 square miles in area, ers, 1979). The distribution of wetlands and deepwater habitats in reaches an altitude of 1,556 feet above sea level and is very steep. the U.S. Virgin Islands is shown in figure 2; only wetlands are dis- St. John, about 19 square miles in area, reaches an altitude of 1,297 cussed herein. feet above sea level and is also steep. St. Croix, about 84 square miles Wetlands can be vegetated or novegetated and are classified in area, reaches an altitude of 1, 165 feet above sea level and is less on the basis of their hydrology, vegetation, and substrate. In this rugged - more than 50 percent of the landscape has a slope of less summary, wetlands are classified according to the system proposed than 10 percent. No lacustrine habitats (large freshwater bodies) occur in the islands. Because nearly all streams are ephemeral, riv- erine wetlands are limited to channels of intermittent streams. @6 Palustrine wetlands consist of a few small marshes. Constructed catchment basins fill with water during the wet season and may be vegetated by cattails or other wetland plants, depending on the time of year, age of the impoundment, and degree of maintenance. There are three small, natural freshwater marshes on St. Croix. One is a small emergent area at the interior edge of the Sugar Bay wetland complex. The second is a 7-acre, seasonally flooded marsh about I mile north of Frederiksted. The third is a small area owned and managed by the University of the Virgin Islands northeast of Krause Lagoon. Most wetlands of the U.S. Virgin Islands are located along the coasts and are classified as estuarine or marine wetlands. The larg- A est of the wetlands are on St. Croix, where the terrain is less steep and the drainage basins are larger than on St. Thomas or St. John. Estuarine intertidal vegetated wetlands in the U.S. Virgin Is- Figure 1. Salt Pond near SaItpond Bay in Virgin Islands lands are dominated by red, white, and black mangroves. Button- National Park on St. John, U.S. Virgin Islands. (Photograph wood also is common, particularly in hypersaline (salinity greater by D. Briane Adams, U.S. Geological Survey.) than seawater) environments. Mangroves grow in shallow lagoons, 370 National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: STATE SUMMARIES A St Thomas StJohn -11 1 J_1, -T'""k Bonne-' Bay Resolution Gut harlotte -Vir 'is -Am -, Guin 18'21 Gut, Nat Park t Cruz @a @J b@, Turpe ne 41@ Salt Pond %,.@B nner 13@ 64' 57' B y Saltpond Lagoon Bay 64" 42' WETLANDS AND DEEPWATER HABITATS Distribution of wetlands and deepwater habitats- -1plo This map shows the approximate distribution of large wetl:nds in the State. Because of limitations of scale and ource material, some wetlands are not shown 0 Predominantly wetland El Predominantly deepwater habitat St Croix Soft River Buy Su @r Southgate Pondff@ w tianst rea 64'35' Po d rouse Frederiksted Lagoon - Ij K:) ,7 0 2 4 MILES 64* 50' Sandy Point Nationa 0 2 4 KILOMETERS Wildlife Refuge B Gulf and land 65' moisture A TLANTIC OCF-AN St Thomas Culebra Puerto L lz@@ Rico StJohn 18, Vieques Thom s CARIBBE,4,VS&q St Croix St StJohn C=:_ Trade wind moisture St Croix Figure 2. Distribution of wetlands and deepwater habitats in the U.S. Virgin Islands. 6, Principal sources and patterns of delivery of 'Park* Run@ @Be So @._q,ove B. Puerto moisture into the U.S. Virgin Islands. (Sources: A, Digitized from USFWS-NWI, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, National Wetland Inventory, unpub. data, 1994. B, Data from Douglas Clark and Andrea Lage, Wisconsin Geological and Natural History Survey.) National Water Surnmary-Wetland Resources: U.S. VIRGIN ISLANDS 371 such as Mangrove Lagoon on St. Thomas; ring "saltponds," such as pronounced as for larger Caribbean islands with higher moun- as Great Pond on St. Croix; or fringe bays and coves, such as the tain peaks. Clouds form as they pass over St. Thomas and St. Croix, Salt River Bay-Sugar Bay estuary on St. Croix. but most resultant precipitation falls in the Caribbean Sea on the Saltponds are the predominant wetlands in the U.S. Virgin lee side of the islands. Islands. They are tidal flats or basins that are at least partially sepa- The geology and topography of the U.S. Virgin Islands are rated from direct contact to the sea by a beach berm. Saltponds range major factors influencing the hydrology of the islands, which in turn in size from less than I acre to more than 125 acres. An example of controls the presence or absence of wetlands. The U.S. Virgin Is- this wetland type is Salt Pond near SaItpond Bay in Virgin Islands lands are composed of volcanic rock that was uplifted by tectonic National Park on St. John (fig. 1). Saltwater inputs to the ponds activity. The islands have steep slopes and irregular coastlines. Both result from tidal or storm-surge overwash of the berm, seepage of St. Thomas and St. John have steep slopes throughout, but on St. seawater through the berm, or from subterranean connections to the Croix the mountains in the northwest give way to rolling hills that sea. Ponds that have sporadic input of seawater go through an an- broaden to an expanse of relatively low flatland along the southern nual cycle of filling with freshwater runoff and rainfall during the two-thirds of the island. rainy season and drawing down or drying during the remainder of Ground water in the U.S. Virgin Islands is scarce. The most the year. Consequently, saltponds are subject to extreme salinity extensive ground-water source on the islands is the fractured vol- variations during the annual cycle. canic rocks of which the islands are generally composed (G6mez- Coral reefs ring many of the U.S. Virgin Islands. Though most G6mez and others, 1985). Embayment aquifers occur near guts of the reefs and seagrass beds are submersed, at least some are ex- (stream drainages) along the coasts of the islands. These aquifers posed at low tide and thus are classified as wetlands. The most ex- are composed principally of weathered rocks overlain by shallow tensive of the reefs surround St. Croix. The reef in Trunk Bay in alluvium. They are recharged by seepage from the surrounding vol- Virgin Islands National Park on St. John is the site of an underwa- canic rocks and by direct infiltration from ephemeral runoff and ter trail and has corals typical of those in the Caribbean area. precipitation. Discharge from these aquifers to the oceans is a source of freshwater for estuarine wetlands, such as mangrove wetlands, HYDROLOGIC SETTING in the coastal embayments. On St. Croix, an aquifer composed of limestone interbedded with sand and gravel and covered by allu- Wetlands form where the local hydrology makes possible a vium exists throughout most of the lowlands. This aquifer dis- dependable water supply at or near the land surface. In the U.S. charges small amounts of ground water to coastal wetlands. Virgin Islands, the type of wetland that exists at a particular loca- On an annual basis, surface runoff, which is a major factor in tion is deteriiiined by the local hydrologic setting. The components the formation of strearnside and coastal wetlands, is low. There are of that setting include the duration of inundation or saturation, the no perennial streams, and most natural surface-water drainages are salinity of the water, and the nature of the substrate, which in turn dry for long periods of time and flow only during periods of intense are the result of climate, geology, and topography. rainfall. Because of the impermeable underlying volcanic rocks, The climate of the U.S. Virgin Islands is classified as subtropical floodwaters accumulate and recede rapidly, generally in less than (Ewell and Whitmore, 1973). Winters are mild and dry, whereas sum- I day. During a year of average precipitation, annual runoff ranges mers are warm and humid. In the winter, precipitation generally comes from about 2 to 8 percent of the rainfall (Santiago-Rivera and Col6n- from frontal systems from the northwest and is greatest during Febru- Dieppa, 1986), which is about 0.5 to 2 inches, depending on con- ary and March, when the regional climate is influenced by a subtropi- ditions in a particular basin. Runoff is controlled by topography, cal high pressure area. During summer, the regional climate is no longer soil moisture, local evaporation rates, and vegetation cover. On St. influenced by high atmospheric pressure, and there is a steady west- Croix, runoff is stored in ponds for agricultural uses. Commonly, erly flow of moist air from the Atlantic Ocean (die trade winds) that is total runoff from individual storms exceeds 10 percent of the rain- the primary source of summer and fall precipitation (fig. 2B). fall and can be as high as 30 percent when rainfall is intense and Average annual precipitation ranges from about 30 inches in soil moisture demands are low. As these floodwaters reach the the lowlands of St. Croix to about 55 inches in the mountain peaks coastal areas, they overflow saltponds and provide freshwater in- of St. John. Precipitation increases with altitude because moist air flow to embayments that support mangrove stands and coral reefs in the weather systems is forced up the slopes into the cooler air at (fig. 3). the higher altitudes, causing the moisture to condense and fall as A few streams are intermittent; that is, they flow year-round rain. However, because of the small size of the islands and brief in some reaches. For Turpentine Run on St. Thomas, base flow is time for passage of these systems over them, these effects are not predominantly from sewage effluent, and about one-half to three- PALUSTRINE WETLAND ESTUARINE WETLAND Mangrove swarnp MARINE WETLAND Off Seagrasses overweah Coral reef Vol-ni-ock AtIluvium Infiltration Figure 3. Generalized hydrologic setting of wetlands in the U.S. Virgin Islands. (Source: Wettand types from Lugo and Brown, 1988.) 372 . National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: STATE SUMMARIES fourths of total flow is from storm runoff (Santiago-Rivera and mas and St. John (J.H. Farrelly, U.S. Virgin Islands Department of Col6n-Dieppa, 1986). Turpentine Run discharges to Mangrove La- Planning and Natural Resources, written commun., 1992). The goon (fig. 4A) on the southeastern side of the island. On St. Tho- most extensive wetland alteration took place in St. Croix at Krause mas, the only other intermittent stream is Bonne Resolution Gut. Lagoon, the largest of the U.S. Virgin Island wetlands. By the late Guinea Gut on St. John, which has base flow from spring discharge, 1970's, Krause Lagoon was virtually eliminated by dredging and and Jolley Hill Gut on St. Croix, once reported to be perennial, axe filling for construction of port facilities for a major oil refinery, an the only intermittent streams on those islands. aluminum plant, and a container manufacturer. An important large wetland complex, Mangrove Lagoon- Benner Bay (fig. 4A) on St. TRENDS Thomas, has been similarly affected. Mangrove Lagoon is one of the U.S. Virgin Islands' largest wetland complexes, consisting of Wetlands in the U.S. Virgin Islands occupy less than 3 percent saltponds, a barrier reef, and fringe mangroves. Loss of mangroves of the land area. On the basis of mapping by the Fws National Wet- and associated submersed seagrasses and corals has resulted from lands Inventory, there are 960 acres of wetlands on St. Croix, 320 construction of marinas, recreation facilities, a wastewater treat- acres of wetlands on St. Thomas, and 425 acres of wetlands on St. ment facility, and encroachment by a major landfill. Most of the John. adverse impacts, except for dredging, are the result of alterations The wetlands of the U.S. Virgin Islands have been adversely that have disrupted the normal patterns of runoff to the bay. affected by both natural forces and human activities. Hurricane Wetlands of the U.S. Virgin Islands remain susceptible to de- Hugo, which passed directly over St. Croix in September 1989, was velopment. Their location along the shoreline make them particu- the last major storm to significantly alter the wetlands of the islands. larly attractive as sites for tourist facilities and water-dependent Hurricane winds defoliated mangroves to such an extent that many developments. It is relatively easy to construct marinas from died. In addition, many black and white mangroves were uprooted saltponds, as was done in Southgate Pond on the north shore of St. (Knowles and Amrani, 199 1). Although recovery might be slow, the Croix and saltponds on St. Thomas (fig. 4B). The demand for such wetland vegetation probably will become reestablished if it is not facilities is great; mote than 4,000 vessels are registered in the U.S. disturbed. Virgin Islands (J.H. Farrelly, U.S. Virgin Islands Department of Human-caused wetland alterations have been severe and will Planning and Natural Resources, written commun., 1992). likely be long lasting. Wetlands in the islands remained virtually Wetlands also are susceptible to degradation by sedimenta- untouched until the 1960's. During the economic growth period of tion and septic tank leachate from upland areas. The extent to which the 1960's and 1970's, numerous wetlands were altered on St. Tho- this type of impact is occurring is unknown. "14- 44117 A B r C D Figure 4. Selected U.S. Virgin Islands wetlands. A, Mangrove Lagoon -Benner Bay on St. Thomas. 0, Saltpond on St. Thomas. C, Trunk Bay on St. John. D, Salt River Bay on St. Croix. (Photographs by D. Briane Adams.) National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: U.S. VIRGIN ISLANDS 373 CONSERVATION wetlands for agricultural use. The law allows exemptions from pen- allies in some cases, especially if the farmer agrees to restore the Many government agencies and private organizations partici- altered wetland or other wetlands that have been converted to agri- pate in wetland conservation in the U.S. Virgin Islands. The most cultural use. The Wetlands Reserve Program of the 1990 Food, active agencies and organizations and some of their activities are Agriculture, Conservation, and Trade Act authorized the Federal listed in table 1. Government to purchase conservation easements from landowners who agree to protect or restore wetlands. The Consolidated Farm Table 1. Selected wetland-related activities of government Service Agency (formerly the Agricultural Stabilization and Con- agencies and private organizations in the U.S. Virgin Islands, 1993 servation Service) administers the Swampbuster provisions and [Source: Classification of activities is generalized from information provided Wetlands Reserve Program. The Natural Resources Conservation by agencies and organizations. 9, agency or organization participates in Service (formerly the Soil Conservation Service) determines com- wetland-related activity; agency or organization does not participate in pliance with Swampbuster provisions and assists farmers in the iden- wetland-related activity. MAN, management; REG, regulation; R&C, res- tificationof wetlands and in the development of wetland protection, toration and creation; LAN, land acquisition; R&D, research and data col- restoration, or creation plans. lection; D&I, delineation and inventory] . The 1986 Emergency Wetlands Resources Act and the 1972 Coastal Zone Management Act and amendments encourage wetland Agency or organization 9@ 4- protection through funding incentives. The Emergency Wetlands FEDERAL Resources Act requires States to address wetland protection in their Department of Agriculture Statewide Comprehensive Outdoor Recreation Plans to quality for Consolidated Farm Service Agency ........................... ... ... ... ... ... Federal funding for State recreational land; the National Park Ser- Forest Service .................................................................e0* 0 0 vice (NPS) provides guidance in developing the wetland component Natural Resources Conservation Service ................ ... 0 0 0 of their plans. Coastal States that adopt coastal-zone management Department of Commerce programs and plans approved by the National Oceanic and Atmo- National Oceanic and Atmospheric spheric Administration are eligible for Federal funding and techni- Administration .................................................................00 0 cal assistance through the Coastal Zone Management Act. Department of Defense Army Corps of Engineers ..............................................e00 0 0 0 Large tracts of land, many containing wetlands, are managed Department of the Interior by the FwS and the NPS. The largest area managed by the FWS is the Fish and Wildlife Service ..............................................00 0 0 0 326-acre Sandy Point National Wildlife Refuge in southwestern St. Geological Survey .......................................................... ... ... ... ...* Croix. The NPS manages most of the Island of St. John, along with National Biological Service ......................................... ... ... ... ...0 extensive offshore areas, such as the under-water trail at Trunk Bay National Park Service ...................................................00 0 o 0 Environmental Protection Agency .................................. ...0 in Virgin Islands National Park (fig. 4C). The NPs has received au- TERRITORY OF TH E U.S. VI RG IN ISLAN DS thorization to acquire lands around Salt River Bay on St. Croix (fig. Department of Planning and Natural Resources 4D). Not only is the area one of the U.S. Virgin Islands'most im- Department of Planning and Coastal Zone portant wetland complexes, but it is also a valuable historical re- Management Program ..................................................o00 0 0 source believed to be the landing site of Christopher Columbus on Division of Fish and Wildlife .........................................o 0 0 PRIVATE his second voyage to the Americas in 1493. Island Resources Foundation .......................................... ... ... ... ... Territorial wetland activities. -ne Department of Planning and Natural Resources is the principal agency requiring permit ap- Federal wetland activities. -Development within ornear wet- plication for construction activities in the coastal zone, where wet- lands is regulated by several Federal statutory prohibitions and in- lands usually form. This responsibility was granted to the Depart- centives that are intended to slow wetland losses. Some of the more ment by the Coastal Zone Management Act passed in 1978. In ad- important of these are contained in the 1899 Rivers and Harbors dition to evaluating permit requests, the Department comments on Act; the 1972 Clean Water Act and amendments; the 1985 Food Federal permit applications to ensure consistency with the Coastal Security Act; the 1990 Food, Agriculture, Conservation, and Trade Zone Management Plan. When wetland losses are unavoidable, the Act; the 1986 Emergency Wetlands Resources Act; and the 1972 Department requires mitigation actions to ameliorate anticipated Coastal Zone Management Act. In the following description of losses. The Department also monitors wetlands to ensure that wetland-related Federal legislation, regulations that apply to States unpermitted activities are not taking place and that authorized ac- also apply to the U.S. Virgin Islands. tivities are in full compliance with pen-nit requirements. The Terri- Section 10 of the Rivers and Harbors Act gives the U.S. Army torial Legislature adopted the Indigenous and Endangered Species Corps of Engineers (Corps) authority to regulate certain activities Act of 1990, in which section 104(e) establishes a policy of "no net in navigable waters. Regulated activities include diking deepening, loss of wetlands" to the maximum extent possible. filling, excavating, and placing of structures. The related section 404 Private wetland activities. - The Island Resources Foundation of the Clean Water Act is the most often-used Federal legislation is headquartered on St. nomas. The Foundation is an important protecting wetlands. Under section 404 provisions, the Corps issues advocate for conservation of island wetlands and other natural re- permits regulating the discharge of dredged or fill material into sources unique to islands of the Caribbean and elsewhere. Through wetlands. Permits are subject to review and possible veto by the U.S. lobbying, organization of citizen networks, and development of Environmental Protection Agency, and the Fws has review and ad- educational materials and research, the Foundation promotes sound visory roles. Section 401 of the Clean Water Act grants to States management of the area's natural resources. and eligible Indian Tribes the authority to approve, apply conditions to, or deny section 404 permit applications based on a proposed References Cited activity's probable effects on the water quality of a wetland. Cowardin, L.M., Carter, Virginia, Golet, F.C., and LaRoe, E.T., 1979, Clas- Most farming, ranching, and silviculture activities are not sub- sification of wetlands and deepwater habitats of the United States: U.S. ject to section 404 regulation, but the "Swampbuster" provision of Fish and Wildlife Service Report FWS/OBS-79/31, 131 p. the 1985 Food Security Act and amendments in the 1990 Food, Ewell, J.J., and Whitmore, J.L., 1973, The ecological life zones of Puerto Agriculture, Conservation, and Trade Act discourage (through fi- Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands: U.S. Forest Service Research Paper nancial disincentives) the draining, filling, or other alteration of ITF - 18, 72 p. 374 National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: STATE SUMMARIES G6mez-G6mez, Fernando, Guifiones-Mdrquez, Ferdinand, and Zack, A.L., Santiago-Rivera, Luis, and Col6n-Dieppa, Eloy, 1986, U.S. Virgin Islands 1985, U.S. Virgin Islands ground-water resources, in U.S. Geologi- surface-water resources, in U.S. Geological Survey, National water cal Survey, National water summary 1984- Hydrologic events, se- summary 1985 -Hydrologic events and sw-face-water resources: U.S. lected water-quality trends, and ground-water resources: U.S. Geo- Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper 2300, p. 447-452. logical Survey Water-Supply Paper 2275, p. 409 -414. Knowles,W.C., andAmrani, Cheri, 1991,Wildlife use of the Virgin Islands' wetlands: St. Thomas, U.S. Virgin Islands, Department of Planning FOR ADDITIONAL INFORMATION: District Chief, U.S. Geological and Natural Resources, Division of Fish and Wildlife, 220 p. Survey, P.O. Box 364424, San Juan, PR 00936; Regional Wetland Coordi- Lopez, J.M., Stoner, A.W., Garcia, J.R., and Garcfa-Mufifz, Ivan, 1988, nator, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, i 875 Century Building, Suite 200, Marine food webs associated with Caribbean island mangrove wet- Atlanta, GA 30345 lands: Acta Cientifica, v. 2, no. 2 -3, p. 94-123. Lugo, A.E., and Brown, Sandra, 1988, The wetlands of the Caribbean is- lands: Acta Cientifica, v. 2, no. 2 - 3, p. 48 - 6 1. Prepared by Philibosian, Richard, and Yntema, J.A., 1977, Annotated checklist of the D. Briane Adams, U.S. Geological Survey, and John M. Hefner, birds, mammals, reptiles, and amphibians of the Virgin Islands and U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Puerto Rico: St. Croix, U.S. Virgin Islands, Information Services, 48 p. U.S. Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper 2425 National Water Summary-Wetland Resources 375 Utah Wetland Resources Wtlands cover only a small part of Utah but provide critical ers, 1979). The distribution of wetlands and deepwater habitats in aquatic habitat in an and environment (fig. 1) as well as economic Utah is shown in figure 2A; only wetlands are discussed herein. and other benefits. Utah's wetlands provide habitat for fish, fur- Wetlands can be vegetated or nonvegetated and are classified bearing wildlife, resident waterfowl, shorebirds, songbirds, and on the basis of their hydrology, vegetation, and substrate. In this nearly 500 species of wetland plants (Reed, 1986). Wetlands also summary, wetlands are classified according to the system proposed provide stopover and breeding habitat for migratory waterfowl, in- by Cowardin and others (1979), which is used by the U.S. Fish and cluding an estimated I million ducks and 65,000 swans and geese Wildlife Service (Fws) to map and inventory the Nation's wetlands. that pass through the State during fall migration (Redelfs, 1980). At the most general level of the classification system, wetlands are Recreational activities associated with wetlands, such as hunting, grouped into five ecological systems: Palustrine, Lacustrine, Riv- bird watching, canoeing, fishing, and camping, provide consider- erine, Estuarine, and Marine. The Palustrine System includes only able revenue to the State. Duck and goose hunting on wetlands ad- wetlands, whereas the other systems comprise wetlands and jacent to Great Salt Lake alone resulted in an estimated expendi- deepwater habitats. Wetlands of the systems that occur in Utah are ture of $6.4 million dollars by hunters in 1974 (Rawley, 1974). described below. About 30 percent of the ducks migrating along the Pacific Fly- way stop at marshes around Great Salt Lake (Rawley, 1980), and System Wetland description 74 percent of the waterfowl harvested in the State comes from this area (Rawley, 1974). Because of the importance of Great Salt Lake Palustrine .................. Wetlands in which vegetation is predominantly and its associated wetlands to migratory birds, in 1991 the lake was trees (forested wetlands); shrubs (scrub-shrub wetlands); persistent or nonpersistent emergent, designated a Hemispheric Reserve in the Western Hemisphere erect, rooted, herbaceous plants (persistent- and Shorebird Reserve Network. At least 33 species of shorebirds use nonpersistent-emergent wetlands); or sub- Great Salt Lake and its wetlands at some point in their life cycle; mersed and (or) floating plants (aquatic beds). typically, 500,000 Wilson's phalaropes (about 80 percent of the Also, intermittently to permanently flooded open-water bodies of less than 20 acres in which world's population) visit the lake in the summer. From 2 to 5 mil- water is less than 6.6 feet deep. lion shorebirds use the lake annually (Utah Division of Wildlife Lacustrine.. ....... Wetlands within an intermittently to permanently Resources, 1992). flooded lake or reservoir. Vegetation, when pres- Wetlands aid in flood control by slowing water velocity and ent, is predominantly nonpersistent emergent providing ponding areas, which in some places can function as re- plants (non persistent-e merge nt wetlands), or bliarge basins for ground water. Wetland vegetation along streams submersed and (or) floating plants (aquatic and rivers stabilizes banks and reduces erosion. Wetlands improve beds), or both. water quality by settling particulates, producing oxygen, recycling Riverine ..................... Wetlands within a channel. Vegetation, when pres- nutrients, and degrading many harmful compounds found in water. ent, is same as in the Lacustrine System. Mountain wetlands can reduce the concentration of trace metals in Several studies of wetlands in Utah have determined wetland mine drainage (Owen and others, 1992), lessening the impact on acreages and types throughout the State. An inventory done by the receiving streams. Because wetlands commonly are associated with FWS in the 1950's (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 195 5) identified rich soils and dependable water sources, Utah's wetlands also are 1,200,000 acres of wetlands in Utah. Sixty-eight percent were salt important grazing areas for cattle and sheep. flats (nonvegetated lacustrine and palustrine wetlands). In 1974, only 558,000 acres of wetlands were identified by Utah's Division TYPES AND DISTRIBUTION of Wildlife Resources (Jensen, 1974). Wetlands were classified as first-, second-, and third-magnitude marshes, depending on their Wetlands are lands transitional between terrestrial and deep- ability to support waterfowl. Because of the criteria for classifica- water habitats where the water table usually is at or near the land tion, many mountain wetlands and areas defined as "incidental surface or the land is covered by shallow water (Cowardin and oth- waterfowl habitat," such as Sevier Lake, were not included in the total wetland acreage of the State. More recent National Wetlands Inventory data (Bob Freeman and Clark Johnson, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, written commun., 1993) indicate that there are 5 10,000 acres of emergent marshes and nonvegetated mud flats and salt flats along the eastern shore of Great Salt Lake, within an area that covers less than 2 percent of the State. (The inventory has not been completed for the rest of the State.) Wetland losses, naturally changing boundaries, different classification systems, changing ideas about functions and values of wetlands, and different study objectives are all partly responsible for the discrepancies in total acreage. Wetlands in Utah include the shallows of small lakes, reservoirs, ponds, and streams (emergent and aquatic-bed weilands); riparian wetlands (forested, scrub-shrub, and emergent wetlands); marshes Figure 1. Pelicans at Bear River Migratory Bird Refuge, and wet meadows (emergent wetlands); nonvegetated mudflats and northeast shore of Great Salt Lake. (Photograph courtesy salt flats; and playas (unconsolidated-shore wetlands). In the moun- of U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service.) tains of Utah, wetlands occur as open bodies of water or near them, 376 National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: STATE SUMMARIES near springs, and where snowmelt collects. The largest and most Middle Rocky Mountains. -Sorne of the highest mountain notable wetlands in the State, however, occur in western Utah adja- peaks in the Uinta Mountains and the Wasatch Range reach alti- cent to Great Salt Lake, where much of the mountain runoff even- tudes of 10,000 to 13,000 feet and receive more than 60 inches of tually discharges. Wetlands in western Utah also occur as playas, precipitation per year (Cruff, 1986), mostly as snow. The large ac- near springs in tectonically active areas, and near freshwater bod- cumulation of snow in the mountains ultimately provides much of ies. In eastern Utah, wetlands are sparse but are present in the flood the water to wetlands throughout Utah. Mountain wetlands occur plains of some streams and rivers. as small lakes (such as cirque and moraine lakes), reservoirs, ponds (such as beaver ponds), and streams; as marshes along flood plains; HYDROLOGIC SETTING and as wet meadows below snow fields and dams, near springs, and along flood plains (fig. 3A). Some wetlands receive moisture only Wetlands form under conditions of continuous water supply during periods of runoff, whereas others are recharged continuously at or near the land surface. The location and persistence of the wa- by shallow ground water or by water impounded in lakes, rivers, ter supply depends on physiographic features that control runoff and and streams. impoundment of water, climatic conditions such as precipitation and One of the few wetland studies conducted in Utah's mountains evaporation, and hydrologic factors such as location of the water identified 200 acres of wetlands in Albion Basin (Jensen, 1993). table and discharge areas. Conditions in Utah differ greatly from Most of the wetlands are classified as scrub-shrub where willows one part of the State to another, but three principal physiographic predominate, but persistent-emergent and forested wetlands are also provinces (fig. 2B) define areas with similarities. The Middle Rocky common where veratrum, sedges, and bluebells occur and where Mountains contain the Uinta Mountains and the Wasatch Range. The spruce and fir grow. These wetlands provide habitat for a diversity Basin and Range Province is characterized by a series of alternat- of wildlife including moose, beaver, and abundant nongame birds. ing north-south-trending ranges and valleys. The Colorado Plateaus Studies in a small part of the wetlands showed that, during runoff, consist of plateaus and mesas interspersed with deep canyons. 83 to 85 percent of the suspended solids and two trace metals were 114- A 7" 42@ Beff R' Mill 8T Middle Rocky Mountains yl Basin derliPW and Salt Rf"r lbi Range Lake f Dawn Um h R- Won ra Loh a Ou y NVVR, @ph Spri@ N@y all@ whh@ Colorado J, Plateaus 10 \_-1 PHYSIOGRAPHIC DIVISIONS .0 We WETLANDS AND DEEPWATER HABITATS 38' Distribution of wetlands and cleepwater habitats- 04 This map shows the approximate distribution of large wetlands in the State. Because of limitations of scale and source material, some wetlands are not shown Predominantly wetland Predominantly deepwater habitat lak. Area typified by a high density of small wetlands 0 25 50 MILES i I I I 0 25 50 KILOMETERS Figure 2. Wetland distribution in Utah and physiography of the State. A, Distribution of wetlands and cleepwater habitats. B, Physio- graphy. (Sources: A, TE. Dahl, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, unpub. data, 1991. B, Physiographic divisions from Fenneman, 1946; landforms data from EROS Data Center.) National Water Surnmary-Wetland Resources: UTAH 377 retained by the wetlands (Jensen, 1993), reducing the potential for downstream contamination. Much of the runoff in the Uinta Mountains and Wasatch Range A. Middle Rocky Mountains leaves the Middle Rocky Mountains as surface water in streams and Snow rivers or as seepage into the ground that recharges basin aquifers. Snow Much of the runoff from the Middle Rocky Mountains eventually reaches Great Salt Lake in the Basin and Range Province by way of the Bear, Weber, and Jordan Rivers or as ground-water discharge along the eastern shore of the lake. Snow Cirque fa. Basin andRange Province. -Great Salt Lake is located at the fleld base of the Wasatch Range and is a remnant of an ancient and much larger lake. It receives 66 percent of its annual water supply from surface runoff, 31 percent from direct precipitation, and 3 percent Glad diot from ground-water inflow (Arnow and Stephens, 1990). Great Salt Lake is a terminal lake; that is, it has no outlets. It is the fourth largest Moraine lake lake of this type in the world (Arnow and Stephens, 1990). Because *"MAN the lake is located in a discharge area (fig. 3B), where movement VlOnAW of confined ground water is upward (Clark and others, 1990), down- Sprov ward seepage of lake water is limited. Water remains in the lake until it evaporates or is used by plants. Wetlands adjacent to Great Salt Lake are abundant and include marshes, mud flats, and salt flats. of Marshes occur where freshwater enters the lake along the eastern ro4nd.water flow shore, including areas near springs and the mouths of rivers. Com- mon vegetation includes cattails and bulrush. Mud and salt flats occur along flood plains, generally between upland or marshes and the lake itself. Mud and salt flats usually are barren, although emer- gent vegetation and plants adapted to alkali conditions, such as salt B. Basin and Range grass, grow nearby. no. Above-average precipitation during the early 1980's resulted in flooding of rivers statewide, and Great Salt Lake reached its high- est level on record. Transgression of the shorelines, inundation of areas that were normally dry, and the development of new wetlands served as a reminder of the functions of flood plains, which were slowly being developed. Sevier Lake, which covers 850 square miles Spring near Delta, is a typical playa that flooded during the 1980's. It reached a depth of 13 feet (Wilberg, 1991). Great Salt EMERGENT "Playa" is a geologic term for very flat, and usually barren, Lake W DS areas of closed and drainage basins that occasionally flood (Neal, 441,,@. Flood-plain 1975). Playas form in areas where evaporation exceeds precipita- mud flats Spring tion, which is true of most of Utah. In western Utah, annual evapo- Bulrush ration rates are as high as 65 inches per year (Farnsworth and oth- ers, 1982), and annual precipitation is as low as 5 inches (Cruff, 1986). Playa lakes like Great Salt Lake commonly are flooded by desert thunderstorms, receiving direct precipitation and runoff in washes and ephemeral stream channels from the ranges of western Utah. Playas in valleys where ground water is at or near land surface, such as the Great Salt Lake Desert, can become flooded by a rising water table during periods of minimal evaporation and can remain C. Colorado Plateaus wet throughout the year. Evaporites accumulate as a result of dis- solution of lakebed material during flooding that is followed by continued evaporation and by capillary rise of saline ground water. A layer of white salt crystals commonly develops at the surface over O*OW mud and other evaporites (Snyder, 1975). Although the playa is X usually devoid of vegetation, salt grass is common near the edges, 4, and Nuttall alkali-grass, sea blight, and pickleweed also can be found @,,U.oAk-t (Vice and Messmer, 1993). Playas in valleys where ground water N, Z never reaches the surface, such as Wah Wah Valley, become flooded Direction of -water flow M only after rains. The ponded water dissipates more rapidly because mjlluvsum of downward seepage. The playa surface is dry and hard most of the time and consists of fine sand, silt, and clay; evaporites are ab- sent (Snyder, 1975). Any vegetation near a dry playa is adapted to long periods of extreme dryness. Great Salt Lake and playas provide critical habitat for resident Figure 3. Generalized hydrologic setting of wetlands in Utah. A, wildlife and migrating waterfowl in an and environment, but Middle Rocky Mountains. 8, Basin and Range Province. C, Colo- ground-water discharge from springs and freshwater bodies also rado Plateaus. 378 National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: STATE SUMMARIES maintain wetlands in the Basin and Range Province. Fish Springs Table 1. Selected wetland-related activities of government National Wildlife Refuge, in Utah's western desert, is an example agencies and private organizations in Utah, 1993 of a spring-fed wetland. Discharge from 10 springs maintains 12,000 [Source: Classification of activities is generalized from information provided acres of ponds and marsh habitat. Marshes and mud flats also oc- by agencies and organizations. o, agency or organization participates in cur in western Utah along flood plains of streams and rivers, and wetland-related activity; agency or organization does not participate in wetland-related activity. MAN, management; REG, regulation; R&C, res- adjacent to freshwater lakes and reservoirs. Utah Lake covers more toration and creation; LAN, land acquisition; R&D, research and data col- surface area than any other natural freshwater body in Utah and wet- lection; D&I, delineation and inventory] lands dot its shores. Colorado Plateaus. -The Colorado Plateaus, south of the Middle Rocky Mountains and east of the Basin and Range Prov- Agency or organization \Y ince, receive about 10 to 20 inches of precipitation per year. Three FEDERAL major rivers, the Colorado, Green, and San Juan, flow through the Department of Agriculture Colorado Plateaus and gouge deep canyons that do not provide con- Consolidated Farm Service Agency ........................... ... ditions for development of large wetlands. Some emergent wetlands Forest Service .................................................................* occur on river and tributary flood plains where the canyons widen Natural Resources Conservation Service ................ ... Department of Defense and the terrain becomes less steep (fig. 3C). These wetlands pro- Army Corps of Engineers ..............................................0 vide oases for migrating and resident waterfowl and backwater habi- Department of the Interior tat for fish. Common vegetation in these areas includes boxelder and Bureau of Land Management ......................................* cottonwood trees, willows and tamarisk (an introduced species), Bureau of Reclamation ................................................. 0 0 0 0 cattails, bulrush, and a variety of grasses. Fish and Wildlife Service .............................................. 0 0 * 0 Ouray National Wildlife Refuge, near Vernal, is an example of Geological Survey .......................................................... ... ... ... ...* National Biological Service ......................................... ... ... ... ... 0 an emergent wetland on the flood plain of the Green River. The National Park Service ...................................................0... ... ... ... ... Green River provides the principal source of water, which reaches Environmental Protection Agency .................................. ... the wetlands by flooding and managed pumping. Since its develop- STATE ment, supplemental water from Pelican Lake and seeps in uplands Depa rtment of Ag riculture to the north has been required to help support the 2,100 acres of Environmental Quality Section .................................... ... ... Department of Environmental Quality wetland habitat. Division of Water Quality .............................................. ... Department of Natural Resources Division of Oil, Gas, and Mining .................................. ... ... TRENDS Division of Parks and Recreation ...............................a 0 On the basis of unpublished U.S. Department of Agriculture Division of State Lands and Forestry ......................... ...e ... ... ... ... Division of Water Resources ....................................... ... ... ... ... records, Dahl (1990) estimated that 244,000 acres of Utah's wet- Division of Water Rights ................................................ ... lands had been lost from the 1780's to the 1980's, apparently from Division of Wildlife Resources .....................................0 agricultural drainage alone. Large-scale water-development projects D epa rtment of Tra nsportation .........................................0 also have resulted in losses of wetland habitat. According to records University of Utah filed with the Utah Division of Water Rights, at least 1,600 dams Department of Botany ................................................... ... ... ... ... Red Butte Garden and Arboretum ..............................9 have been constructed in Utah since the mid-1800's. Ofthese dams, Utah State University 445 impound 20 acre-feet of water or more (Joe Borgione, Utah Department of Fisheries and Wildlife ........................* Division of Water Rights, oral commun., 1993). Impounded water SOME COUNTY AND LOCAL GOVERNMENTS .............e provides some wetland habitat but might not compensate for wet- PRIVATE ORGANIZATIONS lands lost to dam construction, rising waters in reservoirs, or re- National Audubon Society ............................................... ... ... ceding rivers. Because ofdam construction, less than 10 percent of Brigham Young University Department of Botany ................................................... the original riparian area (uplands and wetlands associated with Ducks Unlimited .................................................................. unimpounded water bodies) along the Colorado River still exists The Nature Conservancy .................................................. (Redelfs, 1980). The FWs has estimated that 50 to 60 percent of ri- Southern Utah Wilderness Alliance .............................. . ... ... parian wetlands in Utah have been lost (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Ser- Utah Riparian and Management Coalition ................... ... ... ... ... vice, 1990). Expansion of agricultural areas, encroachment of resi- Utah Wetlands Foundation ............................................... ... ... dential developments, industrial growth, mining, ski-area develop- ment, and grazing also have resulted in wetland losses. of the Clean Water Act is the most often-used Federal legislation protecting wetlands. Under section 404 provisions, the Corps issues CONSERVATION permits regulating the discharge of dredged or fill material into wetlands. Permits are subject to review and possible veto by the U.S. Many government agencies and private organizations partici- Enviromriental Protection Agency (EPA), and the Fws has review and pate in wetland conservation in Utah. The most active agencies and advisory roles. Section 401 of the Clean Water Act grants to States organizations and some of their activities are listed in table 1. and eligible Indian Tribes the authority to approve, apply conditions Federal wetland activities. -Development activities in Utah to, or deny section 404 permit applications on the basis of a pro- wetlands are regulated by several Federal statutory prohibitions and posed activity's probable effects on the water quality of a wetland. incentives that are intended to slow wetland losses. Some of the more Most farming, ranching, and silviculture activities are not sub- important of these are contained in the 1899 Rivers and Harbors ject to section 404 regulation. However, the "Swampbuster" provi- Act; the 1972 Clean Water Act and amendments; the 1985 Food sion of the 1985 Food Security Act and amendments in the 1990 Security Act; the 1990 Food, Agriculture, Conservation, and Trade Food, Agriculture, Conservation, and Trade Act discourage (through Act; and the 1986 Emergency Wetlands Resources Act. financial disincentives) the draining, filling, or other alteration of Section 10 of the Rivers and Harbors Act gives the U.S. Army wetlands for agricultural use. The law allows exemptions from pen- Corps of Engineers (Corps) authority to regulate certain activities alties in some cases, especially if the farmer agrees to restore the in navigable waters. Regulated activities include diking, deepening, altered wetland or other wetlands that have been converted to agri- filling, excavating, and placing of structures. The related section 404 cultural use. The Wetlands Reserve Program of the 1990 Food, National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: UTAH 379 Agriculture, Conservation, and Trade Act authorizes the Federal Green, Utah Division of Parks and Recreation, written commun., Government to purchase conservation easements from landowners 1993). In compliance with the requirements of the Emergency who agree to protect or restore wetlands. The Consolidated Farm Wetlands Resources Act, Utah's 1992 Statewide Comprehensive Service Agency (formerly the Agricultural Stabilization and Con- Outdoor Recreation Plan (unpublished draft) identifies priority servation Service) administers the Swampbuster provisions and Wet- wetlands. The Division of Parks and Recreation also provides pro- lands Reserve Program. The Natural Resources Conservation Ser- tection for wetlands by regulating development along the Jordan and vice (formerly the Soil Conservation Service) (NRCS) determines Provo River corridors under the Utah River Enhancement Act. Other compliance with Swampbuster provisions and assists farmers in the divisions of the Utah Department of Natural Resources participate identification of wetlands and in the development of wetland pro- in wetland-related activities: the Division of State Lands regulates tection, restoration, or creation plans. wetlands through land-use permits; the Division of Oil, Gas, and The 1986 Emergency Wetlands Resources Act encourages Mining restores degraded habitat under the Abandoned Mine Rec- wetland protection through funding incentives. The act requires lamation Program; the Division of Water Resources addresses the States to address wetland protection in their Statewide Comprehen- State's future water needs and potential effects of proposed projects sive Outdoor Recreation Plans to qualify for Federal funding for on water resources; and the Division of Water Rights issues some State recreational land; the National Park Service (NPS) provides section 404 permits under the guidance of the Corps. guidance to States in developing the wettand component of their The Utah Department of Environmental Quality, Division of plans. Water Quality, is responsible for Clean Water Act section 401 certi- Federal land-management agencies provide for the protection fication, which helps ensure that water quality will not be adversely and management of natural resources on land they administer, which affected by activities specified in a section 404 permit. The Divi- includes wetlands. Most of the wetlands are not formally managed sion of Water Quality and the Environmental Quality Section of the and are associated with riparian areas. Riparian acreages determined Department of Agriculture evaluate riparian areas and potential by agencies likely often include both uplands and wetlands. The nonpoint sources of pollution and develop plans for priority water- Bureau of Land Management (BLM) manages 22,142,000 acres of sheds that include alternatives for water-quality improvement. The land in Utah. An estimated 216,000 acres of this total are classified Utah Department of Transportation mitigates wetland loss when it as riparian-wetland areas (Bureau of Land Management, 1991). cannot be avoided during construction of new highways or improve- Pariette Wetlands near Vernal is the largest wetland (3,000 acres) ment of existing highways. managed by the BLM. County and local wetland activities. - Several county and lo- The U.S. Forest Service manages 8,099,000 acres of land in cal agencies participate in the management of water resources. The six National Forests in Utah (Bruce Strom, U.S. Forest Service, oral EPA provides support and funding for Weiland Advance Identifica- commun., 1993). An estimated 250,000 acres of this total are ri- tion Studies, which are usually collaborative efforts by local coop- parian areas (Roland Leidy, Livia Crowley, Gil Garcia, Dennis Kelly, erating agencies. The data collected during these studies facilitate and Rick Patton, U.S. Forest Service, oral commun., 1993). The the section 404 permitting process. An Advance Identification of Ashley National Forest accounts for about 148,000 acres of the total, wetlands along the Jordan River was conducted by the Salt Lake of which an estimated 70,000 acres have been identified as wet City-County Health Department. Advance Identification Studies of meadows (Roland Leidy, U.S. Forest Service, oral commun., 1993). wetlands also have been conducted in Albion and Snyderville Ba- The NPS manages 2,096,000 acres of land in Utah (Marty Ott, Na- sins. tional Park Service, oral commun., 1993). Currently (1993), no Private wetland activities. -The National Audubon Society estimates exist of wetland or riparian acres on land administered promotes public awareness and educational programs concerning by the Nps. wetlands and provides physical assistance in wetland restoration and Other Federal agencies also manage Utah wetlands. The FWS creation projects. Ducks Unlimited is dedicated to funding wetland manages three refuges. Bear River Migratory Bird Refuge is the acquisition. Seven wetland projects in Utah, funded cooperatively largest federally managed refuge in the State and the largest man- by Ducks Unlimited, have involved land acquisition and improved aged wetland near Great Salt Lake. It includes 63,000 acres of wet- water-resource utilization. The Nature Conservancy seeks to pro- lands, but expansion plans will increase that to 93,500 acres. The tect plants and animals from extinction through acquisition of areas Bureau of Reclamation mitigates sites affected by dam and reser- for critical habitat. They currently manage two notable wetlands in voir construction and is creating new wetlands downstream from Utah: the Matheson Wetlands Preserve near Moab and the Layton Jordanelle Reservoir along the Provo River. The Utah office of the Marsh near Ogden. Twenty-six private hunt clubs manage 46,000 NRCS prepares resource-management plans, which often address acres of wetlands and uplands surrounding Great Salt Lake (Jensen, management of wetlands for landowners engaging in agricultural 1974). Other private organizations involved in wetland activities activities. include the Utah Wetlands Foundation, the Southern Utah Wilder- State wetland activities.-The Utah Department of Natural ness Alliance, the Summit County Land Trust, and the Utah Ripar- Resources, Division of Wildlife Resources, in cooperation with other ian Management Coalition. State agencies, is developing a State wetland policy and plan under the EPA's Weiland Protection Program. The plan will serve as a man- References Cited agement guide for all State-owned lands and will provide for con- sistency in actions taken'on Utah's wetlands. The Division also is Arnow, Ted, and Stephens, Doyle, 1990, Hydrologic characteAstics of the conducting an inventory to identify, classify, and develop a base map Great Salt Lake, Utah- 1847-1986: U.S. Geological Survey Water- of Utah wetlands. The Division administers 20 designated Water- Supply Paper 2332, 32 p. fowl Management Areas (87,000 acres) throughout Utah that include Bureau of Land Management, 1991, Riparian-wetlands initiative for the 64,000 acres of wetlands. The Division also participates in many 1990's: Bureau of Land Management Report BLM/WO/GI-91/ 001+4340, 50 p. cooperative efforts with private organizations to acquire wetland Clark, David W., Appel, Cynthia L., Lambert, Patrick M., Puryear, Robert areas by using funds from the sale of State waterfowl stamps and L., 1990, GroLmd-water resources and simulated effects of withdraw- from Ducks Unlimited marsh funds. als in the east shore area of Great Salt Lake, Utah: Utah Department The Utah Department of Natural Resources, Division of Parks of Natural Resources Technical Publication 93, 150 p., 1 pl. and Recreation, manages 46 parks that total more than 95,000 acres. This acreage includes an estimated 5,800 acres of wetlands (Terry 380 National Water Surnmary-Wetland Resources: STATE SUMMARIES Cowardin, L.M, Carter, Virginia, Golet, F.C., and LaRoe, E.T., 1979, Clas- Reed, P.B., Jr., 1986, Wetland plant list-Utah: U.S. Fish and Wildlife Ser- sification ofwetlands and deepwater habitats ofthe United States: U.S. vice WELUT-86/Wl 2.44, 26 unnumbered pages. Fish and Wildlife Service Report FWS/OBS -79/31, 131 p. Snyder, C.T., 1975, A hydrologic classification of valleys, the Great Basin, Cruff, R.W., 1986, Utah surface-water resources, in U.S. Geological Sur- Western United States, in Neal, J.T., ed., Benchmark Papers in Geol- vey, National water summary 1985 -Hydrologic events and surface- ogy/20, Playas and dried lakes, occurrence and development: water resources: U.S. Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper 2300, Stroudsburg, Pa., Dowden, Hutchinson, and Ross, Inc., p. 113-119. p. 453-460. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 1955, Wetlands inventory -Utah: Albuquer- Dahl, T.E., 1990, Wetlands-Losses in the United States, 1780's to 1980's: que, N. Mex., U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 15 p., 7 pls. Washington, D.C., U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Report to Congress, -1990, Regional wetlands concept plan -Emergency wetlands re- 13 p. sources act: Lakewood, Colo., U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 90 p., Farnsworth, R.K., Thompson, E.S., and Peck, E.L., 1982, Evaporation at- 4 apps. las for the contiguous 48 United States: National Oceanic and Atmos- Utah Division ofWildlife Resources, 1992, Wilson's phalarope: Utah Divi- pheric Administration Technical Report NWS 33, 27 p. sion of Wildlife Resources Wildlife Notebook Series No. 6, 4 p. Fenneman, N.M., 1946, Physical divisions of the United States: Washing- Vice, Daniel, and Messmer, Terry, 1993, Wetlands ofUtah-A citizen's guide ton, D.C., U.S. Geological Survey special map, scale 1:7,000,000. to the enjoyment and conservation of Utah's wetlands: Logan, Utah Jensen, F.C., 1974, Evaluation of existing wetland habitat in Utah: Utah State State University, 20 p. Division ofWildlife Resources Publication 74-17, 219 p. Wilberg, D.E., 199 1, Hydrologic reconnaissance of the Sevier Lake area, Jensen, S.F., 1993, Ecological characterization and functional evaluation of west-central Utah: Utah Department of Natural Resources Technical subalpine and lower montane wetlands in the Albion Basin region of Publication 96, 51 p. Utah: Salt Lake City, Salt Lake County Commission Staff Office, 45 p., 4 apps- Neal, J.T., 1975, Introduction, in Neal, J.T., ed., Benchmark papers in ge- FOR ADDITIONAL INFORMATION: District Chief, U.S. Geological ology/20-Playas and dried lakes, occurrence and development: Survey, Administration Building Room 1016, 1745 West 1700 South, Salt Stroudsburg, Pa., Dowden, Hutchinson, and Ross, Inc., p. 1-5. Lake City, UT 84104; Regional Wetland Coordinator, U.S. Fish and Wild- Owen, D.E., Otton, J.K., Hills, F.A., and Schumann, R.R., 1992, Uranium life Service, Fish and Wildlife Enhancement, P.O. Box 25486, Denver Fed- and other elements in Colorado Rocky Mountain wetlands -A recon- eral Center, Denver, CO 80225 naissance study: U.S. Geological Survey Bulletin 1992, 33 p. Rawley, E.V., 1974, The Great Salt Lake biotic system: Utah Division of Wildlife Resources Publication 74-13, 431 p. Prepared by -1980, Wildlife of the Great Salt Lake, in Gwynn, JW., ed., Great Doyle W. Stephens and Linda J. Gerner, Salt Lake-A scientific, historical and economic overview: Utah Geo- U.S. Geological Survey logical and Mineral Survey Bulletin 116, p. 287-304. Redelfs, A.E., 1980, Wetlands values and losses in the United States: Stillwater, Oklahoma State University, M.S. thesis, 144 p. U.S. Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper 2425 National Water Summary-Wetland Resources 381 Vermont Wetland Resources Recent estimates of the area covered by wetlands in Vermont range The Fws National Wetlands Inventory estimated that Vermont from 4 to 6 percent of the State's total area. Many of the State's contains approximately 243,000 acres of wetlands, including wetlands are small; about 80 percent are less than 10 acres (Par- 218,600 acres of palustrine wetland, 800 acres of lacustrine wet- sons, 1988a). The largest wetlands are in the broad valleys of north- land (exclusive of Lake Champlain), and less than 200 acres of riv- eastern Vermont and in the flood plains and deltas of rivers that erine wetland, as well as 23,400 acres of lacustrine wetlands in Lake discharge into Lake Champlain (fig. 1). Champlain (Tiner, 1987). The 243,000-acre total represents about Despite their small collective area, wetlands are an integral part 4 percent of the State's area. The Wetlands Office in the Water Qual- of Vermont's natural resources. They provide essential habitat for ity Division of the Vermont Agency of Natural Resources' Depart- certain types of wildlife and vegetation, including rare and endan- ment of Environmental Conservation, considers the State's actual gered species. Wetlands provide timber and opportunities for wetland acreage to be as much as 50 percent higher (George hunting and fishing; education and research; and bird, wildlife, and Springston, Vermont Agency of Natural Resources, written com- plant observation that all boost the tourist industry and economy, mun., 1993). Beneficial wetland functions include flood control, bank- and shore- The distribution of wetlands in Vermont is influenced by physi- line-erosion control, sediment retention, water filtration, and nu- ography (fig. 2B). About one-half of the State's wetlands are in the trient uptake. In recognition of the importance of wetlands, many Lake Champlain Valley (Tiner, 1987), either in river flood plains government and private organizations have worked to preserve and low-lying areas in valleys, or in deltas, bayheads, and other areas wetlands and educate the public about wetland values. For example, of shallow water in Lake Champlain. Wetlands are sparse in the wetlands in the delta of the Missisquoi River contain one of the mountains and southern parts of the New England Upland, where largest great blue heron colonies in the Northeastern United States they have formed primarily in river valleys. Several large wetlands (Warmer, 1979) and are protected as part of the Nfissisquoi National are present in the Otter Creek Valley between the Taconic and Green Wildlife Refuge. Mountains. About one-third of the State's wetlands are in northeast- em Vermont (Tiner, 1987), where they have formed in broad val- TYPES AND DISTRIBUTION leys over thick glacial deposits, such as in Victory Basin along the Moose River. Except in the headwaters and a few areas where dams Wetlands are lands transitional between terrestrial and deep- have created backwater conditions along tributaries, wetlands are water habitats where the water table usually is at or near the land sparse in the lowlands of the Connecticut River Valley. surface or the land is covered by shallow water (Cowardin and Palustrine forested wetlands constitute about 55 percent of others, 1979). The distribution of wetlands and deepwater habitats Vermont's wetlands (Tiner, 1987). Forested wetlands that have min- in Vermont is shown in figure 2A; only wetlands are discussed eral soils rich in organic material are commonly refer-red to as herein. swamps, whereas wetlands that have organic soils over mineral soils Wetlands can be vegetated or nonvegetated and are classified are called peatlands. Forested wetlands in southern Vermont and on the basis of their hydrology, vegetation, and substrate. In this in the Connecticut River and Lake Champlain Valleys contain hard- summary, wetlands are classified according to the system proposed wood communities similar to those in southern New England wet- by Cowardin and others (1979), which is used by the U.S. Fish and lands. For example, silver maple and swamp white oak predomi- Wildlife Service (Fws) to map and inventory the Nation's wetlands. nate in swamps along Lake Champlain, silver maple and black ash At the most general level of the classification system, wetlands are grouped into five ecological systems: Palustrine, Lacustrine, Riv- erine, Estuarine, and Marine. The Palustrine System includes only wetlands, whereas the other systems comprise wetlands and deepwater habitats. Wetlands of the systems that occur in Vermont are described below. System Wetland description Palustrine .................. Wetlands in which vegetation is predominantly trees (forested wetlands); shrubs (scrub-shrub wetlands); persistent or nonpersistent emergent, erect, rooted, herbaceous plants (persistent- and non persistent-emergent wetlands); or sub- mersed and (or) floating plants (aquatic beds). Also, intermittently to permanently flooded open-water bodies of less than 20 acres in which water is less than 6.6 feet deep. Lacustrine ................. Wetlands within an intermittently to permanently flooded lake or reservoir. Vegetation, when pres- ent, is predominantly nonpersistent emergent plants (nonpersistent-emergent wetlands), or submersed and (or) floating plants (aquatic Figure 1. Fall foliage in a cattail marsh along East Creek, south- beds), or both. west of Middleburg. About two-thirds of the wetland has been Riverine ..................... Wetlands within a channel. Vegetation, when pres- protected by the Vermont chapter of The Nature Conservancy. ent, is same as in the Lacustrine System. (Photograph courtesy ofjohn Roe, The Nature Conservancy.) 382 National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: STATE SUMMARIES are common in flood plains of major rivers, and red maple-black scrub-shrub wetlands) are acidic, nutrient-poor peatlands that have ash swamps typically are present in poorly drained basins and along a low species diversity; whereas fens (palustrine forested, scrub- small streams (Thompson, 1989). Some red maple swamps, such shrub, and persistent-emergent wetlands) are less acidic and have as Cornwall Swamp near Middlebury, were northern white cedar higher nutrient levels and plant-species diversity. The herbaceous- swamps before they were logged. The distribution of northern white plant community in bogs is generally dominated by sphagnurn moss, cedar in Vermont corresponds well to the distribution of calcare- whereas in fens it typically is dominated by sedges and mosses. ous soils (Meeks, 1986), which exist where the underlying bedrock Palustrine scrub-shrub wetlands constitute about 29 percent is limestone, marble, or other rock that contains calcium carbon- of Vermont's wetlands (Tiner, 1987). Scrub-shrub vegetation grows ate. A few wetlands in extreme southwestern Vermont and in the in most wetlands, generally either as a transitional community be- Lake Champlain Valley contain black gum, a species at the north- tween emergent wetlands and forested wetlands or upland, or be- em extent of its range. Forested wetlands in northeastern Vermont tween open water and forested wetlands or upland. Broad-leaved and at higher altitudes elsewhere in the State are similar to those in deciduous shrubs such as willow and alder typically predominate Canadian wetlands. For example, swamps containing red spruce, in shrub swamps (Thompson, 1989); stunted black spruce and larch balsam fir, and larch are most common in poorly drained basins and and broad-leaved evergreen shrubs such as leatherleaf and labra- along streams, whereas black spruce, larch, and northern white dor tea are characteristic of scrub-shrub communities in bogs; and cedar predominate in evergreen forested peatlands (Thompson, broad-leaved evergreen shrubs, broad-leaved deciduous shrubs, and 1989). northern white cedar commonly grow in fens. Peatlands are present throughout Vermont but are less com- Palustrine emergent wetlands, cornmonly referred to as marsh- mon in the southeastern part of the State. The terms "bog" and "fen" es, constitute about 11 percent of Vermont's wetlands (Tiner, 1987). have been used to differentiate peatlands in some classification Most of the State's largest marshes are in the Lake Champlain Val- systems (Damman and French, 1987). Bogs (palustrine forested and ley in deltas and flood plains of rivers that flow into the lake. For L.k@ 73. Af-p remagog, 7 A 45- 0 it, FDA a F ftor s C*hemster Bo Mt M ,@4/ BU 109t N L. Platfe R 14 *k PHYSIOGRAPHIC DIVISIONS A. Hudson Valley B. Lake Champlain Valley C. Taconic Mountains 44' D. Green Mountains E. New England Upland P F. White Mountains op E.t C=reek B nd C 4 Mniain z Fdtat WETLANDS AND DEEPWATER HABITATS J Distribution of wetlands and deopwater habitats- This map shows the approximate distribution of large wetlands in the State. Because of limitations of scale and source material, some wetlands are not shown Predominantly wetland J, Predominantly deepwater habitat 43. GLACIAL LAKES 0 10 20 30 MILES Maximum extent of glacial lakes 0 10 20 30 KILOMETERS Figure 2. Wetland distribution and physical features that determine wetland distribution in Vermont. A, Distribution of wetlands and deepwater habitats. B, Physiography. C, Maximum extent of glacial lakes. (Sources: A, TE Dahl, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, unpub. data, 1991. B, Physiographic divisions modified from Fennernan, 1946; landforms from EROS Data Center. C, Modified from Meeks, 1986; and Doll, 1970.) National Water Surnmary-Wetland Resources: VERMONT 383 example, extensive marshes have formed near the mouths of the length of the growing season decrease, and the average annual pre- Missisquoi, Lamoille, and Winooski Rivers and also along several cipitation and runoff increase (Meeks, 1986; Hammond and Cot- smaller rivers and creeks such as the La Platte and Poultney Rivers, ton, 1986). The structure of plant communities in Vermont's wet- and Otter, Little Otter, and East Creeks. A large marsh is in a simi- lands is influenced by these climatic differences. lar setting at the mouth of the Barton River where it discharges into The distribution of wetlands in Vermont is partly determined Lake Memphremagog. Several marshes line creeks and fringe by physiography, glacial history, and characteristics of the under- bayheads in the islands and peninsulas of northern Lake Champlain, lying bedrock. Areas of steep topography do not retain water long Elsewhere in Vermont, marshes are generally small and are associ- enough for wetlands to form. However, given favorable hydrologic ated with lacustrine and riverine wetlands. Marsh vegetation is conditions, wetlands form on drainage divides and near mountain largely determined by the wetland's hydrologic setting or soil type. tops. For example, a small alpine bog lies near the summit of Mount Cattails and bulrushes are characteristic of semipermanently or Mansfield, the highest mountain in the State. Most of Vermont's permanently flooded marshes; grasses predominate in, areas that wetlands, however, are in lowlands, valleys, and depressions that have permanently saturated mineral soils, such as swales; and sedges have more favorable hydrologic conditions for wetlands. are typical of permanently saturated or seasonally flooded peatlands Many of the low-lying areas of Vermont are covered by strati- or areas that have muck soils (Thompson, 1989). fied sand, gravel, clay, and silt deposited by glacial meltwater and Lacustrine wetlands in Vermont include about 600 acres of by modem streams in the time since glaciation. Stratified deposits open water, 200 acres of aquatic-bed wetlands, less than 50 acres in the lowlands of the Lake Champlain Valley include marine clay of emergent wetlands, and 23,400 acres of unclassified near-shore deposited during glaciation when the land was depressed by the wetlands in Lake Champlain (Tiner, 1987). Riverine emergent wet- weight of glacial ice, allowing an arm of the Atlantic Ocean to oc- lands cover about 174 acres. Many of the shores and bottoms of cupy the valley (Meeks, 1986). Most mountains and uplands in shallow lakes and rivers are unconsolidated gravel, sand, or rock. Vermont are composed of bedrock mantled by glacial till, an un- Although largely unvegetated, these habitats are classified as wet- stratified mixture of clay, silt, sand, gravel, and boulders. Both till lands. Most ofVermont's lakes and rivers have areas of shallow water and fine-grained sediments can restrict drainage and retain surface or slow reaches where aquatic-bed and nonpersistent-emergent water. Thus, wetlands occur over till in northeastern Vermont and vegetation is established. These wetlands and associated riparian at higher altitudes elsewhere, over fine-grained glacial-lake and wetlands are very important to the biological productivity of lakes marine deposits in the lowlands of the Lake Champlain Valley, over and rivers. fine-grained glacial-lake deposits in the lowlands around Lake As a result of recent increases in beaver populations, many Memphremagog, and over fine-grained glacial-lake deposits in parts riverine and riparian wetlands in smaller streams and rivers have of the Missisquoi, Lamoille, Winooski, and Connecticut River Val- been flooded behind beaver dams. Over time, this flooding promotes leys (fig. 2C ). A lack of clay exposures accounts in part for the scar- a cyclical change from shrub swamps to small ponds and marshes city of wetlands in parts of the Connecticut River Valley (Fred to wet meadows and then back to shrub swamps (George Springston, Larson, Norwich University, oral commun., 1993). In parts of north- Vermont Wetlands Office, written commun., 1993). This flooding eastern Vermont, thick sand and till deposits (moraines) contain can be detrimental to existing wetlands but also can create wetlands many poorly drained depressions favorable for wetlands. In a few that have high value to some wildlife, such as waterfowl. areas, depressions called kettle holes formed when ice blocks buried by glacial outwash melted. These kettles either filled with water or HYDROLOGIC SETTING passed through several successional stages of infilling to become kettle bogs. Molly Bog, near Morrisville, likely developed in this Wetlands are hydrologic features that occur wherever climate manner (Johnson, 1985). Most Vermont bogs are in small depres- and physiography favor the retention of water (Winter, 1992). Wet- sions, although some are in basins that also include open water, such lands are found along rivers and lakes where flooding is likely to as around the margins of small ponds or in lake-level basins cut off occur, in isolated depressions where surface water collects, and on from the influence of lake water. The absence of extensive peatlands slopes and surface drainageways where ground water discharges to in northern Vermont is due to the mountainous terrain and the lim- the land surface in spring or seepage areas (Federal Interagency ited extent of glacial outwash and glacially derived surface features Committee for Wetland Delineation, 1989). Soil saturation favors in Vermont (Johnson, 1985). the growth of wetland plants and the development of hydric soils. Differences in the interactions of hydrology and vegetation in Water either can be present on the surface of wetlands or it can keep different wetland types can be illustrated by peatlands and lakeside underlying soils saturated near the surface with no surface water wetlands. In peadands, vegetation patterns are determined largely present (Tiner, 1991). by water chemistry and movement (Damman and French, 1987). For The timing and duration of the presence of water affects water instance, bogs receive little input from runoff or ground water and chemistry, soil development, and plant communities in wetlands. rely on precipitation (including fog) and wind-blown dust as sources Although degree of wetness is important in the determination of for water, nutrients, and minerals. Vegetation in bogs commonly wetland type, many ecological functions of wetlands also depend grows in a concentric pattern because of the scarcity of nutrients upon wetland size, position of the wetland in a drainage network, and minerals in the center of the bog and the increased availability and sources of water (Brinson, 1993). Differences in climate, physi- of nutrients and minerals along bog margins. In contrast, fens rely ography, and geology influence the hydrology and water quality of principally on ground-water discharge and runoff for inputs of water, wetlands. The complex interactions of these factors with biology, minerals, and nutrients. Flooding is the major hydrologic influence in combination with site history, determine the type of wetland that in lakeside wetlands. The water level in Lake Champlain is unregu- develops in any particular setting. lated and fluctuates by an average of 6 feet annually, but the range Although Vermont is the driest of the New England States, can be as much as 9 feet (Downer, 197 1; Meeks, 1986). In response adequate moisture exists to support the development and mainte- to these fluctuations, vegetation communities in lakeside wetlands nance of wetlands. Many climatic and hydrologic variables in Ver- grow in zones; wetlands nearest lake level have more flood-toler- mont are influenced by altitude and miffor the State's topography ant species. Furthermore, changes in lake level change the sediment when mapped. For instance, from the lowlands of the Lake and nutrient dynamics in lakeside wetlands. High water levels in Champlain and Connecticut River Valleys to higher altitudes of the spring can dilute nutrient and sediment concentrations (Clausen and Taconic and Green Mountains, the average summer temperature and Johnson, 1990). For example, wetlands at the mouth of the Lamoille 384 National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: STATE SUMMARIES River and in nearby Colchester Bog receive floodwaters from Lake Table 1. Selected wetland-related activities of government Champlain. However, Lamoille River wetlands support a large va- agencies and private organizations in Vermont, 1993 riety of vegetation largely owing to nutrient inputs from the river, [Source: Classification of activities is generalized from information provided whereas Colchester.Bog, which receives no river input, remains by agencies and organizations. *, agency or organization participates in nutrient poor and has low plant-species diversity. Wetland-related activity; ..., agency or organization does not participate in wetland-related activity. MAN, management; REG, regulation; R&C, res- toration and creation; LAN, land acquisition; R&D, research and data col- TREND IS lection; D&I, delineation and inventory] Flood-plain forests and wetlands once were extensive in Ver- mont. In the 1800's and early 1900's, timber harvesting and clear- Agency or organization 0" ing and draining of wetlands for crops and grazing resulted in the FEDERAL degradation or loss of many wetlands (Bulmer, 1988), particularly Department of Agriculture in the Connecticut RiverValley. As much as 35 percent of Vermont's Consolidated Farm Service Agency ........................... ... wetland resources have been lost since settlement by Europeans; Forest Service .................................................................0 much of the loss has been emergent and scrub-shrub wetlands (Par- Natural Resources Conservation Service ................ ...* a o 9 Department of Commerce sons, 1988a). Although Federal and State regulations focus on ruinli- National Oceanic and Atmospheric mizing wetland losses, many wetlands remain threatened. Before Administration ................................................................. ...0 the adoption of the Vermont Wetland Rules in 1990, annual wet- Department of Defense land losses were estimated to be 200 acres (Parsons, 1988a). Present Army Corps of Engineers ..............................................**00 0 losses are as much as 30 to 40 acres per year (George Springston, Military reservations .....................................................0... ... ... ... ... Vermont Wetlands Office, written commun., 1993). These losses Department of the Interior Fish and Wildlife Service ..............................................o00 o 0 commonly are in areas where pressure from population growth has Geological Survey .......................................................... ... .-00 resulted in development in and adjacent to wetlands, such as in the National Biological Service ......................................... ... ... ... ...0 Lake Champlain Valley and in other seasonal residential and recre- National Park Service ...................................................00 0 ation areas (Parsons, 1988a). Other factors that can destroy wetlands Environmental Protection Agency .................................. ... 0 0 or affect wetland functions include road building, reservoir construc- STATE Agency of Natural Resources tion, agricultural activities, peat harvesting, timber harvesting, hy- Department of Environmental Conservation ............* 0 0 dropower releases, inadequate bridge and culvert sizing, navigation, Department of Fish and Wildlife .................................*oo * o and air or water pollution. The cumulative effect of loss or alter- Department of Forests, Parks, and Recreation * o ation of wetlands in Vermont is yet to be determined but is likely to Vermont Geological Survey .......................................... ... 0 0 be an important issue in the future. Vermont Housing and Conservation Board .................. ... ... ... State universities ............................................................... COUNTY AND LOCAL CONSERVATION District environmental commissions .............................. ... ... ... ... ... Soil and water conservation districts ........................... ... ...0 Many government agencies and private organizations partici- Some county, town, and city governments ..................00 0 0 pate in wetland conservation in Vermont. The most active agencies Winooski Valley Park District ..........................................*00 PRIVATE ORGANIZATIONS and organizations and some of their activities are listed in table 1. Ducks Unlimited .................................................................. ... ... ...0 Federal wetland activities. -Development activities in Ver- Private colleges and universities ................................... mont wetlands are regulated by several Federal statutory prohibi- The Nature Conservancy .................................................. tions and incentives that are intended to slow wetland losses, Some Vermont Land Trust ....................................I....................... of the more important of these are contained in the 1899 Rivers and Harbors Act; the 1972 Clean Water Act and amendments; the 1985 Food Security Act; the 1990 Food, Agriculture, Conservation, and Agriculture, Conservation, and Trade Act authorizes the Federal Trade Act; and the 1986 Emergency Wetlands Resources Act. Government to purchase conservation easements from landowners Section 10 of the Rivers and Harbors Act gives the U.S. Army who agree to protect or restore wetlands. The Consolidated Farm Corps of Engineers (Corps) authority to regulate certain activities Service Agency (formerly the Agricultural Stabilization and Con- in navigable waters. Regulated activities include diking, deepening, servation Service) administers the Swampbuster provisions and Wet- filling, excavating, and placing of structures. The related section 404 lands Reserve Program. The Natural Resources Conservation of the Clean Water Act is the most often-used Federal legislation Service (formerly the Soil Conservation Service) determines com- protecting wetlands. Under section 404 provisions, the Corps issues pliance with Swampbuster provisions and assists farmers in the iden- permits regulating the discharge of dredged or fill material into tification of wetlands and in the development of wetland protection, wetlands. Permits are subject to review and possible veto by the U.S. restoration, or creation plans. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), and the Fws has review and The 1986 Emergency Wetlands Resources Act encourages advisory roles. Section 401 of the Clean Water Act grants to States wetland protection through funding incentives. The act requires and eligible Indian Tribes the authority to approve, apply conditions States to address wetland protection in their Statewide Comprehen- to, or deny section 404 permit applications on the basis of a pro- sive Outdoor Recreation Plans to qualify for Federal funding for posed activity's probable effects on the water quality of a wetland. State recreational land; the National Park Service (NIPS) provides Most farming, ranching, and silviculture activities are not sub- guidance to States in developing the wetland component of their ject to section 404 regulation. However, the "Swampbuster" provi- plans. sion of the 1985 Food Security Act and amendments in the 1990 Federal agencies manage many wetlands in Vermont. The Fws Food, Agriculture, Conservation, and Trade Act discourage (through manages wetlands in waterfowl protection areas, National Fish financial disincentives) the draining, filling, or other alteration of Hatcheries, and National Wildlife Refuges. For example, the FWs is wetlands for agricultural use. The law allows exemptions from pen- responsible for about 5,800 acres of wetlands in the Missisquoi alties in some cases, especially if the fanner agrees to restore the National Wildlife Refuge. Also, the FWs administers wetland-acqui- altered wetland or other wetlands that have been converted to agri- sition programs such as the Partners for Wildlife Program, which cultural use. The Wetlands Reserve Program of the 1990 Food, helps restore wetlands on private lands, and the North American National Water Surnmary-Wetland Resources: VERMONT 385 Waterfowl Management Plan, a cooperative program that provides wedand conservation programs that will analyze the strengths and funding for purchasing wetlands and contiguous uplands. In addi- weaknesses of wedand conservation at the Federal, State, munici- tion, the Fws has funded research on peatland ecology (Damman pal, and private levels and recommend and rank actions to improve and French, 1987). The Nps has designated 11 sites in Vermont as wetland conservation in Vermont (George Springston, Vermont National Natural Landmarks, 5 of which contain significant wet- Wetlands Office, written commun., 1993). lands. Some of these are protected voluntarily by individual land- Several other State agencies own wetlands or have jurisdiction owners. The U.S. Forest Service manages about 3,750 acres of in wetland protection. The Vermont Department of Fish and Wild- wetlands in the Green Mountain National Forest. The Corps owns life comments on projects that arise during Act 250 permit process and manages several impoundments that have an undetermined and review (Parsons, 1988a). The Department has compiled a list amount of wedand acreage (Parsons, 1988a). The EPA has funded of wetland-acquisition priorities (Parsons, 1988b) and has purchased several wetland studies in Vermont, including the study of wetlands wetlands and surrounding uplands for waterfowl habitat through of outstanding ecological significance in Chittenden County (which administration of a duck-stamp program and through implementa- contains Burlington, Vermont's largest city) and Grand Isle County tion of the Matching Aid to Restore States' Habitat program in co- (Vermont Department of Fish and Wildlife, 1992), the study of operation with the Vermont chapter of Ducks Unlimited. The De- A threats to wetlands in the Lake Champlain region (Borre, 1989), and partment protects over 9,000 acres of wetlands within its waterfowl the study of calcareous fens. The EPA has provided partial funding and wildlife management areas. The Vermont Department of For- to the Lake Champlain Basin Program, which has included wedand- ests, Parks, and Recreation has established and enforces acceptable acquisition study (Jon Binhammer, The Nature Conservancy, writ- timber-management practices near surface waters and wetlands. The ten commun., 1993). Vermont Nongame and Natural Heritage Program has inventoried State wetland activities. -Vermont protects wed ands primar- natural wetland communifies and rare and endangered species of ily through the Vermont Wedand Rules and Act 250 (Vermont's Land wetlands and their habitats. This program also helps administer the Use and Development Law) permit process and review. The Vermont Fragile Areas Registry and, along with the Department of Forests, Wetland Rules are administered by the Wetlands Office of the Ver- Parks, and Recreation, administers State Natural Areas. There are mont Agency of Natural Resources'Department of Environmental more than 30 designated Natural Areas in Vermont, comprising Conservation. The Vermont Wedand Rules establish three classes more than 14,000 acres, some of which include wetlands. Designa- of wetlands (Vermont Department of Environmental Conservation, tion as a Fragile Area does not provide direct protection but encour- 1990a). Class One wetlands are those determined to provide an ages landowners to conserve sensitive areas. The Department of exceptional and irreplaceable contribution to Vermont's natural heri- Forests, Parks, and Recreation also is responsible for producing the tage in addition to providing other functions and have the highest wetlands component of the Vermont Statewide Comprehensive level of protection. Class Two wetlands provide valuable ecologic, Outdoor Recreation Plan (Parsons, 1988a), which is the primary hydrologic, water-quality, cultural, or economic functions. Class TWO document guiding wedand acquisition with some Federal funding. wetlands include most wetlands shown on the National Wetland The Vermont Housing and Conservation Board administers the Inventory maps for Vermont and wedand areas contiguous to those Housing and Conservation Trust Fund. Approximately $ 10 million wetlands but do not include seven categories of riverine and lacus- is appropriated annually to this fund by the State legislature. Part trine open-water, beach, or bar wetlands. Class One and TWo wet- of these funds is granted to State agencies and nonprofit organiza- lands are protected by 100-foot and 50-foot buffer zones, respec- tions for the purchase of easements and fee title acquisition of con- tively, unless otherwise ruled by the Water Resources Board. Under servation lands, including wetlands, and of farm and forest lands, certain guidelines, activities such as logging and agriculture are which sometimes include wetlands. For instance, the Vermont of- allowed in Class One and TWo wetlands. Class Three wetlands are fice of The Nature Conservancy has received grants to acquire those wetlands not designated as Class One or Two wetlands but wetland and upland buffers along East Creek, a tributary to Lake which may still be protected under other Federal, State, or local Champlain (fig. 1). regulations (Vermont Department of Environmental Conservation, County and local wetland activities. -More than 20 towns in 1990). the State have adopted zoning bylaws to provide additional protec- Act 250 requires a permit for every major land development tion to wetlands (George Springston, Vermont Wetlands Office, and subdivision in Vermont. Administrative support for Act 250 is written commun., 1993). Several intermunicipal districts in Vermont provided by nine District Environmental Commissions and an En- protect wetland areas. For example, the Winooski Valley Park Dis- vironmental Board. Each Act 250 penrnit must comply withVermont trict, a consortium of several towns in Chittendon County near Wetland Rules, and all permit applications are reviewed by the Wet- Burlington, owns and manages several hundred acres of wetlands lands Office (Vermont Department of Environmental Conservation, along the lower Winooski River (Parsons, 1988a). Vermont statutes 1990b). Some Class Three wetlands not protected under Vermont authorize municipalities to acquire conservation easements as a Wetland Rules may be protected under several criteria of Act 250. land-protection tool, but few wetlands have been protected this way. The Department of Environmental Conservation administers Private wetland activities. -Private organizations provide sections 305(b) and 401 of the Federal Clean Water Act. Section complementary functions that cannot readily be accomplished in 305(b) requires States to submit biennial water-quality-assessment governmental agencies. Private organizations, such as The Nature reports to Congress and the EPA, a part of which specifically ad- Conservancy, can provide rapid action in the purchase of property. dresses water quality in wetlands. Section 401 requires State water- The Nature Conservancy manages nine sites in Vermont that include quality certification before a section 404 permit may be issued. A significant wetlands and has assisted in the protection or purchase number of other programs, acts, and laws protect Vermont's wet- and transfer of nine additional sites. In 1993, The Nature Conser- lands. For example, a lake- and pond-management law protects vancy received a $600,000 grant from the Fws North American wetlands below the average water level of lakes and ponds. A stream- Wetlands Conservation Council for easements and fee title acqui- alteration law protects wetlands within and along streambanks. Act sition of approximately 1,500 acres of Lake Champlain wetlands. 200, Vermont's growth bill, encourages local, regional, and State The Vermont chapter of Ducks Unlimited has worked in coopera- agency planning and has established broad goals for quality of wet- tion with the Department of Fish and Wildlife to purchase about 430 lands and other resources. Through a grant from the EPA, the De- acres of waterfowl habitat, much of which is wetland. The Vermont partment of Environmental Conservation is undertaking the Ver- Land Trust is a private organization that negotiates conservation mont Wetlands Conservation Strategy, a comprehensive review of easements with landowners to protect productive agricultural and 386 National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: STATE SUMMARIES forest lands. The Trust's holdings include several properties that have Meeks, H.A., 1986, Vermont's land and resources: Shelburne, Vt., The New wetlands. Other organizations involved in wetland protection include England Press, 332 p. the National Audubon Society, the New England Wildflower Soci- Parsons, Jeffrey, 1988a, Wetlands component, 1988 Vermont recreation plan: ety, the Izaak Walton League, the Sierra Club, the Appalachian Waterbury, Vermont Department of Forests, Parks, and Recreation, Mountain Club, and others. Individuals, timber companies, towns, Recreation Division, 43 p. -1 988b, A characterization of Vermont's more important wetlands: and other private landowners own most ofVermont's wetlands, and Waterbury, Vermont Department of Forests, Parks, and Recreation, many actively pursue wetland conservation. 23 p. Thompson, Liz, 1989, Natural communities of Vermont: Waterbury, Ver- References Cited mont Department of Fish and Wildlife, Nongame and Heritage Pro- gram, 12 p. Borre, M.A., 1989, Threats to wetlands in the Lake Champlain region of Tiner, R.W., 1987, Preliminary National Wetlands Inventory report on Vermont -Boundary determination for the EPA!s proposed advance Vermont's wetland acreage: Newton Comer, Mass., U.S. Fish and identification: New Haven, Conn., Yale University, School of Forestry Wildlife Service, 5 p. and Environmental Studies, 51 p. -1991, Maine wetlands and their boundaries-A guide for code en- Brinson, M.M., 1993, Changes in the functioning of wetlands along envi- forcement officers: Augusta, Maine Department of Economic and ronmental gradients: Wetlands, v. 13, no. 2, p. 65 - 74. Community Development, Office of Comprehensive Planning, 72 p. Bulmer, S.K., 1988, 1988 Vermont recreation plan: Waterbury, Vt., Agency Vermont Department of Environmental Conservation, 1990a, Wetland fact of Natural Resources, Department of Forests, Parks, and Recreation, sheet number 4, wetland rules summary: Waterbury, Vermont Depart- 128 p. ment of Environmental Conservation, Water Quality Division, Wet- Clausen, J.C., and Johnson, G.D., 1990, Lake level influences on sediment lands Office, 2 p. and nutrient retention in a lakeside wetland: Journal of Environmen- _1990b, Weiland fact sheet number 1, Act 250 review guidelines: tal Quality, v. 19, no. 1, p. 83 - 88. Waterbury, Vermont Department of Environmental Conservation, Cowardin, L.M., Carter, Virginia, Golet, FC., and LaRoe, E.T., 1979, Clas- Water Quality Division, Wetlands Office, 2 p. sification ofwetlands and deepwater habitats of the United States: U.S. Vermont Department of Fish and Wildlife, 1992, Wetlands of outstanding Fish and Wildlife Service Report FWSIOBS -79/31, 131 p. ecological significance in Chittenden County, Vermont: Waterbury, Damman, A.W.H., and French, T.W., 1987, The ecology of peat bogs of the Vermont Department ofFish and Wildlife, Nongame and Natural Heri- glaciated northeastern United States -A community profile: U.S. Fish tage Program, 122 p. and Wildlife Service Biological Report 85(7.16), 114 p. Warmer, R., 1979, Wetlands in Vermont, their identification and protection: Doll, C.G., comp., 1970, Surficial geologic map of Vermont: Waterbury, Montpelier, Vermont Natural Resources Council, 71 p. Vermont Geological Survey Division, scale 1:250,000. Winter, T.C., 1992, A physiographic and climatic framework for hydrologic Downer, R.N., 1971, Extreme mean daily annual water levels of Lake studies of wetlands, in Robarts, R.D., and Bothwell, M.L., eds., Champlain: University of Vermont, Vermont Water Resources Re- Aquatic ecosystems in semi-arid regions - Implications for resource search Report 3, 18 p. management, 1992: National Hydrologic Research Institute Sympo- Federal Interagency Committee for Wetland Delineation, 1989, Federal sium Series 7, Environment Canada, Saskatoon, p. 127-148. manual for identifying and delineating jurisdictional wetlands: Wash- ington, D.C., U.S. Anny Corps of Engineers, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, and U.S. Depart- ment ofAgriculture Soil Conservation Service Cooperative Technical FOR ADDITIONAL INFORMATION: District Chief, U.S. Geological Publication, 76 p. Survey, 525 Clinton Street, Bow, NH 03304; Regional Weiland Coordina- Fenneman, N.M., 1946, Physical divisions of the United States: Washing- tor, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 300 Westgate Center Drive, Hadley, MA ton D.C., U.S. Geological Survey special map, scale 1:7,000,000. 01035 Hammond, R.E., and Cotton, J.E., 1996, Vermont surface-water resources, in U.S. Geological Survey, National water summary 1985-Hydro- Prepared by logic events and surface-water resources: U.S. Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper 2300, p. 461-466. David S. Armstrong, Johnson, C.W., 1985, Bogs of the northeast: Hanover, N.H., The Univer- U.S. Geological Survey sity Press of New England, 269 p. National Water Summary-Wetland Resources 3117 V 0 0 0 irginia Wetland Resources WtIands cover about 4 percent of Virginia (Dahl, 1990). These ers, 1979). The distribution of wetlands and deepwater habitats in wetlands support rich biotic communities in freshwater, saltwater, Virginia is shown in figure 2A; only wetlands are discussed herein. and brackish-water settings across the State. Well-known Virginia Wetlands can be vegetated or nonvegetated and are classified wetlands include the extensive estuarine marshes behind the coastal on the basis of their hydrology, vegetation, and substrate. In this barrier islands and the forested wetlands along tidal rivers and in summary, wetlands are classified according to the system proposed the Great Dismal Swamp (fig. 1). by Cowardin and others (1979), which is used by the U.S. Fish and Wetlands have many chemical, physical, and biological func- Wildlife Service (Fws) to map and inventory the Nation's wetlands. tions. They benefit entire ecosystems, including resident human At the most general level of the classification system, wetlands are populations (Hershner, 1992). Wetlands trap waterborne sediments grouped into five ecological systems: Palustrine, Lacustrine, Riv- and retain nutrients and toxic chemicals by filtering them out of erine, Estuarine, and Marine. The Palustrine System includes only inflowing water and storing or transforming them. Wetlands also wetlands, whereas the other systems comprise wetlands and can recharge ground-water supplies or serve as points of ground- deepwater habitats. Wetlands of the systems that occur in Virginia water discharge to the surface. Coastal-zone and flood-plain wet- are described below. lands mitigate the effects of flooding caused by tides and runoff by reducing flow velocity, storing water temporarily, and releasing it System Wetland description gradually. Vegetation in riparian wetlands maintains stream chan- nels by stabilizing the banks, and vegetated tidal wetlands act as Palustrine .................. Nonticlal and tidal-freshwater wetlands in which buffers against storm tides and waves, thus impeding erosion. One vegetation is predominantly trees (forested wet- lands); shrubs (scrub-shrub wetlands); persistent of the most important functions of wetlands is to provide habitat or noripersistent emergent, erect, rooted herba- for waterfowl, terrestrial and aquatic animals, and a wide variety of ceous plants (persistent- and nonpersistent- plant life. Wetlands in Virginia provide food, shelter, and resting emergent wetlands); or submersed and (or) places for migratory birds, as well as breeding areas and nurseries floating plants (aquatic beds). Also, intermit- for many animals, including those of particular economic interest tently to permanently flooded open-water bod- ies of less than 20 acres in which water is less in Virginia such as blue crabs, muskrat, fish, ducks, and geese. Many than 6.6 feet deep. rare and endangered plant species are adapted to hydrologic condi- Lacustrine ................. Nonticlal and tidal-freshwater wetlands within an tions present only in wetlands. intermittently to permanently flooded lake or Virginia's wetlands have considerable esthetic, historic, archeo- reservoir larger than 20 acres and (or) deeper logical, recreational, and economic value (Hershner, 1992). Humans than 6.6 feet. Vegetation, when present, is pre- have inhabited the coastal wetlands of Virginia for thousands of dominantly nonpersistent emergent plants (non- persistent-emergent wetiands), or submersed years, and unique cultures have developed there. Wetlands provide and (or) floating plants (aquatic beds), or both. outdoor educational and recreational opportunities such as Riverine ..................... Nontidal and tidal-freshwater wetlands within a birdwatching, hiking, and canoeing. They also support the hunting, channel. Vegetation, when present, is same as fur trapping, commercial and sport fishing, lumbering, and tourist in the Lacustrine System. industries, which benefit the economy of the State. Estuarine ................... Tidal wetlands in low-wave-energy environments where the salinity of the water is greater than 0.5 part per thousand (ppt) and is variable owing to TYPES AND DISTRIBUTION evaporation and the mixing of seawater and Wetlands are lands transitional between terrestrial and deep- freshwater. Marine ....................... Tidal wetlands that are exposed to waves and cur- water habitats where the water table usually is at or near the land rents of the open ocean and to water having a surface or the land is covered by shallow water (Cowardin and oth- salinity greater than 30 ppt. Palustrine wetlands comprise about 72 percent of the wetland area of Virginia (Tiner and Finn, 1986). Estuarine wetlands com- prise about 23 percent of the State's wetlands. Lacustrine wetlands in freshwater ponds comprise most of the remaining 5 percent. Only a few hundred acres of marine and riverine wetlands exist in Vir- ginia. Palustrine forested wetlands (swamps) are the most abundant type of wetland in Virginia, accounting for about 60 percent of the total wetland area in the State. Estuarine emergent wetlands (tidal marshes) are the second-most abundant type of wetland, compris- ing about 8 percent of the wetlands in the State (Tiner and Finn, 1986). Virginia has many different types of wetlands. Salt marshes include the extensive estuarine wetlands along the Chesapeake Bay that are characterized by vegetation tolerant of brackish to salty water. Other tidal marshes include estuarine wetlands located along Figure 1. Wetlands in the Great Dismal Swamp, a freshwater parts of tidal rivers. Interdunal swales are topographic palustrine forested wetland. (Photograph by Virginia depressions among sand dunes on the Atlantic coast that contain Carter U.S. Geological Survey.) palustrine emergent or scrub-shrub wetlands. Virginia's Atlantic 388 National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: STATE SUMMARIES white cedar swamps, red spruce swamps, and cypress-tupelo supplies adequate moisture for wetland formation and maintenance swamps and its nontidal flood-plain forests are palustrine forested and ranges statewide from 36 to 52 inches per year (Prugh and Scott, wetlands that have seasonally occurring standing water and flood- 1986). Precipitation does not have a strong seasonal pattern during tolerant trees. Pocosins are palustrine scrub-shrub wetlands that are the year, but 80 to 85 percent of evaporation from open bodies of slightly elevated above the surrounding landscape and have flat to- water occurs from April to October. That period coincides with the pography and poor natural drainage. Virginia's bogs, fens, and wet higher transpiration rates of the growing season. meadows are palustrine emergent wetlands that are often underlain Annual and seasonal fluctuations in local precipitation and by organic soils. The presence and composition of plant communi- evapotranspiration rates combine with local differences in geology, ties in the wetlands of Virginia are determined by factors such as topography, and soil characteristics to create short- or long-term the extent and duration of flooding, climate, type of soil, and ground- changes in the interactions of ground water and surface water in and surface-water chemistry. wetlands. These changes can result in alternating flooded and dry About 72 percent of the wetland area in Virginia, including all conditions, especially in small wetlands (Winter, 1992; Phillips and the estuarine wetlands and most of the large nontidal wetlands, is Shedlock, 1993). Additionally, larger wetlands (tidal and nontidal) in the Coastal Plain (fig. 2A and 2B) (Tiner and Finn, 1986). Ex- can interact with regional ground-water flow systems. In tidal wet- tensive estuarine wetlands have developed in low-lying areas along lands, a major source of water is tidal inundation. Overland runoff the shores of the Chesapeake Bay and its tributaries and behind the and ground-water discharge can be important secondary sources. barrier beaches of the Atlantic coast. Palustrine wetlands are dis- The major sources of water in nontidal wetlands are precipitation tributed throughout the State and are located primarily in bottom and ground-water discharge. lands and in flood plains along stream channels, especially in head- Virginia includes five physiographic provinces: the Coastal water areas. About 22 percent of the wetlands in Virginia are in the Plain, Piedmont, Blue Ridge, Valley and Ridge, and Appalachian Piedmont, and most of the remaining wetland area is in the Appa- Plateaus (fig. 2B). Each province is characterized by geologic fea- lachian Plateaus (Tiner and Finn, 1986; Harlow and LeCain, 1991). tures, landforms, and soils that directly affect the hydrology of wetlands. HYDROLOGIC SETTING Coastal Plain. -The Coastal Plain is relatively flat, rising from below sea level to about 50 feet above sea level on the Delmarva Virginia's wetlands (fig. 3A-3C) are formed and maintained Peninsula east of the Chesapeake Bay and to about 200 feet above by water supplied by precipitation, overland runoff from precipita- sea level on the upper Coastal Plain west of the Chesapeake Bay. tion, local and regional ground-water flow, and tides. Precipitation This province is underlain by an extensive and locally complex B PHYSIOGRAPHIC DIVISIONS Appalachian Plateaus Piedmont Province 7, Blue Ridge Province A WETLANDS AND DEEPWATER HABITATS Distribution of wetlands and deepwater habitats- 0 25 50 MILES This map shows the approximate distribution of large a wetlands in the State. Because of limitations of scale 0 25 50 KILOMETERS and source material, some wetlands are not shown Predominantly wetland Spring Predominantly deepwater habitat War @1.dw t/; + - ATLANTIC '* n ic d % Roan Ly Ib ng Island Say -P OCEAN 37. I fen a 83 81. 79- 77' Great Dismal Swamp Figure 2. Wetland distribution in Virginia and physiography of the State. A, Distribution of wetlands and deepwater habitats. B, Physi- ography. (Sources: A, TE. Dahl, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, unpub. data, 199 1. B, Physiographic divisions from Fenneman, 1946; landforms data from EROS Data Center.) National Water Surnmary-Wetland Resources: VIRGINIA 389 A. Coastal Plain-Eastern Shore EXPLANATION WEST PALUSTRINE WETLANDS, EAST Direction of ground-water r-1 n flow PALUSTR)NE WETLANDS r____I RIVERINE WETLANDS r___1 Average water table RIVERINE WETLAND E E Scrub-shrub vegetation ESTUARINE WETLAND ESTUARINE WMAND Forest vegetation Barrier Wand Emergent vegetation Fresh- ,,!ater Farmed crops Surficiial Submersed aquatic sand aquifer vegetation Solution holes In Confin Organic deposits d aqu ---------------------- --- sand aqu Regolith limestone Note: Vertical scale greatly A Coastal Plain-West of the Chesapeake Bay exaggerated WEST EAST PALUSTRINE WETLANDS r___I r-----l I RIVERINE WETLAND PALUSTRINE WETLANDS r_1 M ------- RIVERINEWETLAND ESTUARINE WETLAND Surficial sand aquifer C. Region West of the Coastal Plain PALUSTRINE WETLANDS PALUSTRINE WETLANDS PALUSTRINE WETLAND WEST EAST PALUSTRINE WETLANDS RrVERINEWETLAND c @J RIVERINE WETLAND PALUSTRINE WETLANDS E r-i r-1 n n PALUSTRINE WETLANDS r____1 r------- I m n RIVERINE WETLAND Fractu, /7- a Crystalline rmk Sandsone (Sal Figure 3. Generalized geohydrology of wetlands in Virginia. A, Coastal Plain-Eastern Shore. B, Coastal Plain-west of the Chesapeake Bay. C, Region west of the Coastal Plain. (Sources: A, Based on information in Harsh and Laczniak, 1986; Richardson, 1992; and Mj Focazio, written commun., 1993. B, Based on information in Back, 1966; Harsh and Laczniak, 1986; and Winter 1992. C, Based on information in Heath, 1984.) 390 National Water Surnmary-Wetland Resources: STATE SUMMARIES surficial aquifer composed primarily of unconsolidated sediments. ground water available to wetlands is held in the regolith (Powell Below the surficial aquifer are several confined aquifers and con- and Abe, 1985; Wright, 1990; Harlow and LeCain, 1991). Topo- fining layers. graphically high areas (ridges) function as aquifer recharge areas Coastal Plain wetlands are maintained by precipitation, over- (Harlow and LeCain, 199 1). Water infiltrates the surface, seeps into land runoff, flooding from streams, and ground-water discharge. the regolith, and flows downward and laterally through fractures and Wetlands in the Coastal Plain generally intersect the water table of solution cavities in the shallow bedrock. If the vertical hydraulic the surficial aquifer. Recharge of the surficial aquifer in the Coastal conductivity of the bedrock is negligible, water is discharged wher- Plain is mainly by infiltration of precipitation in interstream areas ever the water table intersects the land surface, forming springs or (Heath, 1984). Discharge occurs by evapotranspiration and by seep- seeps on hill slopes and fens in closed topographic depressions. If age to wetlands, streams, estuaries, wells, ditches, and the ocean. the conductivity is appreciable, ground water follows a stairstep path Many Coastal Plain wetlands are in local and regional ground- through the regolith, fractures, bedding planes, and coal seams, water discharge areas of coastal and riparian zones. Low-lying areas eventually discharging to streams. With increasing depth, ground of the Coastal Plain contain extensive wetlands in the form of water flows primarily in a lateral direction. Deep, regional ground- seagrass beds, salt and brackish marshes, and tidal freshwater water flow is not a significant source of moisture for wetlands in marshes and swamps. These wetlands have complex hydrology; this region. strearnflow, local and regional ground-water flow, and tidal flow all Wetlands west of the Coastal Plain are commonly found along are components. Nontidal wetlands of the Coastal Plain are main- riparian valleys and other low areas of the ground surface, which tained by local and regional ground-water flow systems and storm- typically overlie fracture zones in the bedrock. Water is more likely related flooding. The area of forested wetlands in flood plains of- to discharge into these depressions than into other areas because ten is reduced by artificial draining and conversion of the land for fracture zones are major pathways of ground-water movement agricultural and urban uses. (Heath, 1994). The Coastal Plain can be divided into two subregions of dif- Types of wetland west of the Coastal Plain include flood-plain fering geohydrology: the Eastern Shore, on the Delmarva Peninsula marshes and swamps, seeps, fens, and excavated farm ponds. No- (fig. 3A) and the area of the Coastal Plain west of the Chesapeake table wetlands in this region include the Slate River and Willis River Bay (fig. 3B). On the Eastern Shore, the surficial sand aquifer over- wetlands in the Piedmont; Big Spring Bog, Piney Creek Bog, Big lies eastward-dipping confined aquifers and confining layers. The Meadows and South River Wet Meadow in the Blue Ridge; and center of the Delmarva Peninsula is poorly drained and has small Barns Chapel Fen, Falling Spring Creek, and the Clinch River flood- depressional palustrine wetlands (Delmarva bays) and narrow bands plain wetlands in the Valley and Ridge (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Ser- of palustrine wetlands along ditches and streams. Extensive brack- vice, 1990; T.J. Rawinski, Virginia Department of Conservation and ish and saline estuarine wetlands are located along the eastern shore Recreation, written commun., 1993). of the peninsula behind a barrier-island complex and on the west- ern shore of the peninsula. TRENDS West of the Chesapeake Bay, several major aquifers crop out and dip to the east under the bay and the Delmarva Peninsula. In In the 1780's, wetlands covered about 1,849,000 acres (more this region, large freshwater swamps dominated by cypress, red than 7 percent) of Virginia (Dahl, 1990). By the mid-1980's, about maple, black gum, and tupelo gum trees are located along the many 1,075,000 wetland acres remained in Virginia- a loss of about 42 tidal rivers (Virginia Sea Grant College Program, 1989). Nurner- percent in 200 years (Dahl, 1990). Inventories published in 1989 ous nontidal freshwater forested wetlands also are in the region, by the Virginia Institute of Marine Science and the Fws estimated especially along the boundary between the sediments of the Coastal that there were approximately 215,000 acres of vegetated tidal wet- Plain and the higher altitude crystalline rocks of the Piedmont. lands and 673,192 acres of vegetated nontidal wetlands remaining ne Coastal Plain ofVirginia has many notable wetlands. They in Virginia (Virginia Department of Conservation and Recreation, include the extensive tidal freshwater marshes and swamps along 1989). the Chickahominy River, the salt marshes behind the coastal bar- Agriculture, industrial and urban development, and recreation rier islands that protect Hog Island Bay, and the forested wetlands have led to the draining, dredging and ditching, filling, diking, and along the Mattaponi, Parminkey, James, and York Rivers, as well as damming of wetlands in Virginia. These practices -combined with those in the Great Dismal Swamp. This swamp (fig. 1) is the largest human activities that affect water quality and natural phenomena nontidal freshwater wetland in the State. that result in erosion, saltwater inundation, and botanical succes- West of the Coastal Plain. -West of the Coastal Plain, there sion -have contributed to the widespread wetland loss and degra- is considerably more topographic relief. The gently rolling hills of dation and some wetland generation. The estimated annual loss of the Piedmont are generally less than 800 feet above sea level. The all wetland types between 1955 and 1977 was about 3,000 acres mountains of the Blue Ridge rise to more than 1,600 feet. Altitudes (Tiner, 1987), amounting to a total wetland loss of about 6 percent in the Valley and Ridge range from about 400 feet in the valleys to during that period. Eighty percent of estimated losses of freshwa- about 1,500 feet on the ridges. The valleys and mountains of the ter vegetated wetlands (mostly palustrine forested systems) occur-red Appalachian Plateaus range from 1,500 to more than 3,000 feet in the Coastal Plain. above sea level. The aquifers west of the Coastal Plain generally are Major causes of nontidal wetland loss have been direct con- unconfined; in highly fractured, saturated crystalline or sedimen- version to agriculture (about 45 percent), channelization and ditch- tary bedrock; and overlain by regolith of irregular thickness (Meng ing (about 27 percent), and lake and pond creation (about 25 per- and others, 1985). Regolith, which forms the land surface nearly cent) (Tiner, 1987). Between 1955 and 1977, pond construction and everywhere, is a layer of unconsolidated, mostly fine-grained ma- beaver impoundment resulted in an estimated 170-percent (35,000 terial composed of fragmented, weathered bedrock and alluvium acres) increase in freshwater pond acreage across the State, mostly overlying unweathered bedrock. in upland areas. Major causes of tidal wetland loss have been ur- Wetlands west of the Coastal Plain are generally small and banization (about 43 percent), inundation by submersion, dredging, localized (fig. 3C). Their location and size are controlled mainly or impoundment (about 36 percent), agricultural conversion (about by topography, precipitation, and ground-water availability. Much 5 percent), and pond creation (about 5 percent). of the precipitation in this province is transported to surface depres- Small areas of wetland have been created in recent times, es- sions and streams by overland runoff (Heath, 1984). Much of the pecially by flooding during road, lake, and pond construction and, National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: VIRGINIA 391 most recently, by the establishment of compensatory wetland-miti- Table 1. Selected wetland-related activities of government gation sites. New wetlands also have formed on sediments depos- agencies and private organizations in Virginia, 1993 ited by storms and dredging activities in coastal areas. [Source: Classification of activities is generalized from information provided Management policies and rationales generally reflect the lat- by agencies and organizations. a, agency or organization participates in est technical understanding within the field but not necessarily the wetland-related activity; agency or organization does not participate in wetland-related activity, MAN, management; REG, regulation; R&C, res- latest scientific understanding. For example, up to the early years toration and creation; LAN, land acquisition; R&D, research and data col- of the 20th century, wetlands were considered to be habitat for nox- lection; D&I, delineation and inventory] ious pests and management policies focused on eliminating the undesirable habitat value or the wetland itself. In the last 25 years, numerous other wetland functions of significant potential value to Agency or organization 01 41 natural and human systems have been identified (Hershner, 1992), FEDERAL and regulations have been changed to reflect this understanding. Department of Agriculture Implementation of the 1972 Virginia Wetlands Act and the 1972 Consolidated Farm Service Agency ........................... ... ... ... ... Federal Clean Water Act markedly reduced the rate of human-in- Natural Resources Conservation Service ................ ... duced tidal wetland loss. Between 1972, when the Wetlands Act was Department of Commerce National Oceanic and Atmospheric enacted, and 1977, the annual rate of tidal wetland loss decreased Administration ................................................................. from between 400 and 600 acres to 20 acres or less (Dawes, 1978). Department of Defense Still, however important wetlands may be environmentally, they Army Corps of Engineers .............................................. ... present a volatile issue because of development pressure (Virginia Department of the Interior Sea Grant College Program, 1989), and the demand for space for Fish and Wildlife Service .............................................. Geological Survey ........... .................. ........................... ... ... ... ...0 an expanding human population has resulted in increasing conver- National Biological Service ......................................... ... ... ... ... 0 sion of wetlands into developed landscapes (Hershner, 1992). National Park Service ...................................................9 9 * e e Environmental Protection Agency .................................. ... STATE CONSERVATION College of William and Mary Virginia Institute of Marine Science ................ ... ... ... ... Many government agencies and private organizations partici- Department of Conservation and Recreation pate in wetland conservation in Virginia. The most active agencies Division of Natural Heritage .........................................0 and organizations and some of their activities are listed in table 1. Division of State Parks ..................................................0 Federal wetland activities. -Development activities in Vir- Department of Environmental Quality ...........................* ginia wetlands are regulated by several Federal statutory prohibi- Department of Game and Inland Fisheries .......... Department of Transportation .. ....................................... tions and incentives that are intended to slow wetland losses. Some Virginia Joint Venture Board ............................................ ... ... of the more important of these are contained in the 1899 Rivers and Virginia Marine Resources Commission ....................... Harbors Act; the 1972 Clean Water Act and amendments; the 1985 Virginia Outdoors Foundation .......................................... Food Security Act; the 1990 Food, Agriculture, Conservation, and Virginia Polytechnic Institute and Trade Act; the 1986 Emergency Wetlands Resources Act; and the State University ................................................. ................ ... ... ... ... 1972 Coastal Zone Management Act. SOME COUNTY AND LOCAL GOVERNMENTS .............e PRIVATE ORGANIZATIONS Section 10 ofthe Rivers and Harbors Act gives the U.S. Army Chesapeake Bay Foundation ...........................................0 Corps of Engineers (Corps) authority to regulate certain activities Ducks Unlimited ..................................................................0 in navigable waters. Regulated activities include diking, deepening, Friends of the Rivers of Virginia ...................................... ... ... ... ... filling, excavating, and placing of structures. The related section 404 The Lower James River Association .............................* of the Clean Water Act is the most often-used Federal legislation The Nature Conservancy ..................................................0 protecting wetlands. Under section 404 provisions, the Corps issues permits regulating the discharge of dredged or fill material into identification of wetlands and in the development of wetland pro- wetlands. Permits are subject to review and possible veto by the U.S. tection, restoration, or creation plans. Environmental Protection Agency, and the Fws has review and ad- The 1986 Emergency Wetlands Resources Act and the 1972 visory roles. Section 401 of the Clean Water Act grants to States Coastal Zone Management Act and amendments encourage wetland and eligible Indian Tribes the authority to approve, apply conditions protection through funding incentives. The Emergency Wetlands to, or deny section 404 permit applications on the basis of a pro- Resources Act requires States to address wetland protection in their posed activity's probable effects on the water quality of a wetland. Statewide Comprehensive Outdoor Recreation Plans to qualify for Most farming, ranching, and silviculture activities are not sub- Federal funding for State recreational land; the National Park Ser- ject to section 404 regulation. However, the "Swampbuster" provi- vice provides guidance to States in developing the wetland compo- sion of the 1985 Food Security Act and amendments in the 1990 nent oftheirplans. Coastal and Great Lakes States that adoptcoastal- Food, Agriculture, Conservation, and Trade Act discourage (through zone management programs and plans approved by the National financial disincentives) the draining, filling, or other alteration of Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration are eligible for Federal wetlands for agricultural use. The law allows exemptions from pen- funding and technical assistance through the Coastal Zone Manage- alties in some cases, especially if the farmer agrees to restore the ment Act. altered wetland or other wetlands that have been converted to agri- State wetland activities. -Activities in both tidal and nontidal cultural use. The Wetlands Reserve Program of the 1990 Food, wetlands in the State of Virginia are regulated through the Depart- Agriculture, Conservation, and Trade Act authorizes the Federal ment of Environmental Quality's Water Division by means of the Government to purchase conservation easements from landowners Virginia Water Protection Permit. This permit is issued to ensure who agree to protect or restore wetlands. The Consolidated Farm compliance with the State Water Control Law and serves as the Service Agency (formerly the Agricultural Stabilization and Con- certification of Virginia's compliance with section 401 of the Fed- servation Service) administers the Swampbuster provisions and Wet- eral Clean Water Act. To obtain this permit and other permits show- lands Reserve Program. The Natural Resources Conservation Ser- ing compliance with the Virginia Wetlands Act and section 404 of vice (NRCS) (formerly the Soil Conservation Service) determines the Federal Clean Water Act, a Joint Permit Application is submit- compliance with Swampbuster provisions and assists farmers in the red to the Virginia Marine Resources Commission. 392 National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: STATE SUMMARIES The Virginia Marine Resources Commission has ultimate Fenneman, N.M., 1946, Physical divisions of the United States: Washing- regulatory authority for the coastal resources included in the State ton, D.C., U.S. Geological Survey special map, scale 1:7,000,000. Wetlands Act, the Federal Chesapeake Bay Preservation Act, and Harlow, G.E., Jr., and LeCain, G.D., 1991, Hydraulic characteristics of, and the State Coastal Primary Sand Dune Protection Act (Bradshaw, ground-water flow in, coal-bearing rocks of southwestern Virginia: 1991). Local governments have the option of adopting prescribed U.S. Geological Survey Open-File Report 91-250, 48 p. zoning ordinances and forming citizen wetlands boards to regulate Harsh, LE, and Laczniak, R.J., 1986, Conceptualization and analysis of the ground-water system in the Coastal Plain aquifers of Virginia: U.S. their own tidal wetlands. The Commission retains an oversight and Geological Survey Professional Paper 1404-E, 107 p. appellate role in those localities, and the Virginia Institute of Ma- Heath, R.C., 1994, Ground-water regions of the United States: U.S. Geo- rine Science has an advisory role in the permitting process. Virginia logical Survey Water-Supply Paper 2242, 78 p. has no laws that apply specifically to nontidal wetlands. However, Hershner, Carl, 1992, Ecological functions and values of nontidal wetlands, the Water Control Board (now called the Department of Environ- in Perspectives on Chesapeake Bay, 1992-Advances in Estuarine mental Quality, Water Division) adopted a wetlands policy in 1974 Sciences: Chesapeake Research Consortium Publication 143, p. I- (revised in 1982) that covers both nontidal and tidal wetlands. In 16. addition, the Scenic Rivers Act of 1970 prevents certain activities Meng, A.A., Harsh, J.F, and Kull, T.K., 1985, Virginia ground-water re- sources, in U.S. Geological Survey, National water summary 1984- in designated riparian areas that include wetlands, and the Endan- Hydrologic events and selected water-quality trends and ground-wa- gered Species Act of 1972 provides habitat preservation and ter resources: U.S. Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper 2275, protection in wetlands and elsewhere. The Chesapeake Bay Preser- p. 427-432. vation Act, which is implemented by local governments, calls for Phillips, P.J., and Shedlock, R.J., 1993, Hydrology and chemistry of ground- establishment of protective buffers around tidal and nontidal wet- water and seasonal ponds in the Atlantic Coastal Plain in Delaware, lands adjacent to surface waters or tidal wetlands in Virginia's USA: Journal of Hydrology, v. 141, p. 157-178. coastal plain. Powell, J.D., and Abe, J.M., 1985, Availability and quality of ground water In 1990, the Division of Soil and Water Conservation of the in the Piedmont Province of Virginia: U.S. Geological Survey Water- Virginia Department of Conservation and Recreation began to Resources Investigations Report 85-4235, 33 p. Prugh, B.J., and Scott, W.B., 1986, Virginia surface-water resources, in U.S. gather and update all existing data on the wetlands of Virginia with Geological Survey, National water summary 1985 -Hydrologic events the goal of creating a single, comprehensive data base (Virginia and surface-water resources: U.S. Geological Survey Water-Supply Department of Conservation and Recreation, 1990). This project Paper 2300, p. 467-472. has been designed to conform with the standards of the Fws Na- Richardson, D.L., 1992, Hydrogeology and analysis of the ground-water- tional Wetland Inventory project. National Wetland Inventory data flow system of the Eastern Shore, Virginia: U.S. Geological Survey for about three-fourths of the State have been digitized. Informa- Open-File Report 91-490, 117 p. tion for the eastern part of the State is older and less detailed than Tiner, R.W., 1987, Mid-Atlantic wetlands-A disappearing natural trea- the western part, and about one-fourth of the eastern inland part of sure: Newton Comer, Mass., U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service and U.S. the State is currently (1993) being reinventoried and digitized. Environmental Protection Agency cooperative publication, 28 p. Tiner, R.W., and Finn, J.T., 1986, Status and recent trends of wetlands in Another comprehensive project to map wetland locations was con- five mid-Atlantic states -Delaware, Maryland, Pennsylvania, Vir- ducted by the NRCS, which inventoried wetlands down to less than ginia, and West Virginia: Newton Comer, Mass., U.S. Fish and Wild- one-fourth of an acre at different scales. This information has not life Service, National Wetlands Inventory project technical report, 40 p. been standardized or published collectively but is available through U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 1990, Regional wetlands concept plan, county NRcs offices. emergency wetlands resources act, Northeast Region: Newton Comer, Private wetland organization activities. -Private organiza- Mass., U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, app. A. tions with interests in wetlands in Virginia are active in policy plan- Virginia Department of Conservation and Recreation, 1999, The 1989 Vir- ning, the development of regulations, advocacy, land acquisition and ginia outdoors plan: Richmond, Virginia Department of Conservation management, environmental education, and research. A few of the and Recreation, 289 p. -1990, The Virginia nontidal wetlands inventory: Richmond, Virginia many such organizations in the State are The Nature Conservancy, Department of Conservation and Recreation, 19 p., 3 app. the Chesapeake Bay foundation, the Friends of the Rivers of Vir- Virginia Sea Grant College Program, 1989, Marine resource bulletin: Vir- ginia, The Lower James River Foundation, and Ducks Unlimited. ginia Graduate Marine Science Consortium, v. 21, no. 1, 21 p. The State and The Nature Conservancy jointly administer the Vir- Winter, T.C., 1992, A physiographic and climatic framework for hydrologic ginia Natural Heritage Program, which identifies natural areas, in- studies of wetlands, in Robarts, R.D., and Bothwell, M.L., eds., Pro- cluding wetlands, for conservation planning. ceedings of the Symposium on Aquatic Ecosystems in Senii-Arid Regions, 1990 -Implications for resource management: Saskatoon, Saskatchewan, Environment Canada, The National Hydrology Re- References Cited search Institute Symposium Series no. 7, p. 127-147. Back, William, 1966, Hydrochemical facies and ground-water flow patterns Wright, W.G., 1990, Ground-water hydrology and quality in the Valley and in northern part of Atlantic Coastal Plain- Hydrology of aquifer Sys- Ridge and Blue Ridge physiographic provinces of Clarke County, tems: U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 498 - A, 42 p. Virginia: U.S. Geological Survey Water-Resources Investigations Bradshaw, J.G., 1991, Coastal resources and the pen-nit process -Defini- Report 90-4134, 61 p. tions and jurisdictions: Virginia Institute of Marine Science Techni- cal Report no. 91-2, 7 p. s- FOR ADDITIONAL INFORMATION: District Chief, U.S. Geological Cowardin, L.M., Carter, Virginia, Golet, F.C., and LaRoe, E.T., 1979, Cla Survey, 3600 West Broad Street, Room 606, Richmond, VA 23230; Regional sification of wetlands and deepwater habitats of the United States: U.S. Wetland Coordinator, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 300 Westgate Center Fish and Wildlife Service Report FWS/OBS -79/31, 131 p. Drive, Hadley, MA 01035 Dahl, T.E., 1990, Wetlands-Losses in the United States, 1780's to 1980's: Washington, D.C., U.S. Fish andWildlife Service Report to Congress, 13 p. Prepared by Dawes, G.M., 1978, implementation of the Virginia Wetland Act of 1972, Martha A. Hayes, in Proceedings of the 1978 National Wetland Protection Symposium: U.S. Geological Survey Gloucester Point, Virginia Institute of Marine Science, p. 53-56. U.S. Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper 2425 National Water Summary-Wetland Resources 393 Washington Wetland Resources Wshington's wetlands are remarkably diverse, each having a bird watching, nature appreciation, camping, boating, fishing, and unique combination of ecological characteristics such as altitude, hunting. seasonality, chemistry, and species composition. Although wetlands cover only about 2 percent of the State, they are a valuable and TYPES AND DISTRIBUTION important resource. Wetlands perform many important hydrologic functions, such Wetlands are lands transitional between ten-estrial and deep- as maintaining streamflows, slowing and storing floodwaters, sta- water habitats where the water table usually is at or near the land bilizing streambanks, and reducing the erosion of shorelines. Al- surface or the land is covered by shallow water (Cowardin and oth- though usually thought of as areas of ground-water discharge, some ers, 1979). The distribution of wetlands and deepwater habitats in wetlands serve as areas of ground-water recharge (Washington State Washington is shown in figure 2A; only wetlands are discussed Department of Ecology, 1992a). Wetlands also improve water quality herein. by filtering out sediments, excessive nutrients, and toxic chemicals. Wetlands can be vegetated or nonvegetated and are classified By serving these and other functions, wetlands can sometimes re- on the basis of their hydrology, vegetation, and substrate. In this duce or eliminate the need for the costly engineering and construc- summary, wetlands are classified according to the system proposed tion of control, treatment, arid retention facilities (Puget Sound Water by Cowardin and others (1979), which is used by the U.S. Fish and Quality Authority, 1990). Wildlife Service (Fws) to map and inventory the Nation's wetlands. For a vast and diverse array of wildlife, including invertebrates, At the most general level of the classification system, wetlands are fish, amphibians, reptiles, birds, and mammals, wetlands are essen- grouped into five ecological systems: Palustrine, Lacustrine, Riv- tial habitats for feeding, nesting, cover, or breeding. More than 315 erine, Estuarine, and Marine. The Palustrine System includes only species of wildlife use the State's wetlands as primary feeding or wetlands, whereas the other systems comprise wetlands and breeding habitat. Wetlands are vital nursery and feeding areas for deepwater habitats. Wetlands of the systems that occur in Washing- anadromous fish such as salmon and steelhead trout (Washington ton are described below. State Department of Wildlife, undated). Wetlands are critical habi- tats for at least one-third of the State's threatened or endangered System Wetland description species of wildlife (Puget Sound Water Quality Authority, 1990). Wetlands furnish many opportunities for education and scien- Palustrine .................. Nontidal and tidal-freshwater wetlands in which tific research. The numbers and diversity of plants and animals found vegetation is predominantly trees (forested wet- lands); shrubs (scrub-shrub wetlands); persistent in wetlands make these habitats excellent locations for teaching and or nonpersistent emergent, erect, rooted herba- research in biology, botany, ornithology, environmental science, and ceous plants (persistent- and nonpersistent- ecology. emergent wetlands); or submersed and (or) Washington's wetlands provide many quality-of-life benefits. floating plants (aquatic beds). Also, intermit- As scenic areas, wetlands present a visually pleasing contrast to tently to permanently flooded open-water bod- ies of less than 20 acres in which water is less upland areas, open water, and forests (fig. 1). In addition, the State's than 6.6 feet deep. wetlands support a wide range of recreational activities, including Lacustrine ................. Nontidal and tidal-freshwater wetlands within an intermittently to permanently flooded lake or reservoir larger than 20 acres and (or) deeper than 6.6 feet. Vegetation, when present, is pre- dominantly nonpersistent emergent plants (non- persistent-emergent wetlands), or submersed and (or) floating plants (aquatic beds), or both. Riverine ..................... Nontidaf and tidal-freshwater wetlands within a channel. Vegetation, when present, is same as in the Lacustrine System. Estuarine ................... Tidal wetlands in low-wave-energy environments where the salinity of the water is greaterthan 0.5 part per thousand (ppt) and is variable owing to evaporation and the mixing of seawater and freshwater. Marine ....................... Tidal wetlands that are exposed to waves and cur- rents of the open ocean and to water having a salinity greater than 30 ppt. According to a 1988 FWS inventory, wetlands cover about 939,000 acres in Washington (D.D. Peters, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, unpub. data, 1990). That inventory, part of the Fws National Wetlands Inventory, used color-infrared aerial photographs taken from 1980 to 1984 combined with field inventories of selected wet- lands. Owing to the limitations of this process, a small percentage of wetlands might not have been included in the acreages. Figure 1. Weiland in the Nisqually National Wildlife Refuge, Palustrine wetlands cover about 709,000 acres, about 75 per- Washington. Mount Rainier is in the distance. (Photograph by cent of the total wetland acreage in Washington (D.D. Peters, U.S. James Lyles, U.S. Geological Survey.) Fish and Wildlife Service, unpub. data, 1990). These wetlands ex- 394 National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: STATE SUMMARIES ist throughout the State in coastal sand dunes; in lowlands adjacent Riverine wetlands cover about 700 acres in Washington (D.D. to estuaries, rivers, and lakes; in the backwaters of reservoirs and Peters, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, unpub. data, 1990) and con- irrigation wasteways; adjacent to springs or seeps; and in isolated sist of the areas of river channels that are occasionally to perma- depressions. Extensive tracts of palustrine wetlands cover the sand nently flooded. These areas can be nonvegetated or vegetated by spits of Grays Harbor and Willapa Bay and the banks of the Colum- submersed and nonpersistent emergent aquatic plants. Areas of the bia, Chehalis, Yakima, and Pend Oreille Rivers (Canning and river channel that typically are exposed commonly are referred to Stevens, 1989; Washington State Department of Ecology, 1992b). as river bars, gravel bars, or unconsolidated shorelines. They com- Palustrine forested wetlands commonly are referred to as monly become vegetated by pioneering terrestrial species such as swamps or coastal swamps. Their predominant vegetation includes dandelion and fireweed during periods of low flow. Plant species red alder, thin-leafed alder, black cottonwood, western red cedar, commonly found in the flooded areas of the channel include true Sitka spruce, and hemlock. Palustrine scrub-shrub wetlands com- watercress, yelloweress, yellow water lily, arrowhead, water plan- monly are referred to as swamps or bogs. Their predominant veg- tain, and smartweed (Canning and Stevens, 1989). etation includes willows, red Osier dogwood, Douglas spiraea, Estuarine wetlands cover about 202,000 acres, about 22 per- snowberry, hawthorn, wild rose, and gooseberry. Palustrine emer- cent of the total wetland acreage in Washington (D.D. Peters, U.S. gent wetlands are also known as freshwater marshes, wet meadows, Fish and Wildlife Service, unpub. data, 1990). These wetlands are fens, bogs, prairies, potholes, vernal pools, and playas. Predomi- present on the deltas and in the lower reaches of most of the rivers nant emergent vegetation includes cattail, bulrush, and reed canary in western Washington (the part of the State west of the crest of the grass. Predominant aquatic-bed vegetation includes duckweed, Cascade Range (fig. ZBJ). Broad expanses of estuarine wetlands water lilies, and water buttercup (Canning and Stevens, 1989). exist around Grays Harbor and Willapa Bay on the coast, at the Lacustrine wetland acreage in Washington is not addressed in mouth of the Columbia River, and around Skagit and Padilla Bays this summary because the acreage has not yet been separated from on Puget Sound (Canning and Stevens, 1999; Washington State the acreage for lacustrine deepwater habitat (D.D. Peters, U.S, Fish Department of Ecology, 1992b). and Wildlife Service, unpub. data, 1990). Lacustrine emergent Predominant forest and scrub-shrub vegetation bordering es- wetlands and aquatic beds exist in the shallows of lakes throughout tuaries includes western crabapple, Hooker's willow, Sitka willow, Washington. Predominant emergent vegetation includes duckweed, red Osier dogwood, Pacific ninebark, red alder, western red cedar, water lilies, water buttercup, arrowhead, water plantain, smartweed, and Sitka spruce. Predominant herbaceous emergent vegetation yellow water lily, common mare's tail, and pondweed. Predominant includes pickleweed, salt grass, seaside arrowgrass, Jaumea, salt- lacustrine aquatic-bed vegetation is the same as noted for palustrine marsh sandspurry, Olney's Three Square, Lyngby's sedge, redtop, aquatic beds (Canning and Stevens, 1989). hardstem bulrush, and cattail. Estuarine aquatic beds are vegetated A San 0 V Joao C. hhvid@ d, F-. -'s Sow s oly Harbor J will.p. Bay akima 124- 46- lis- 120* WETLANDS AND DEEPWATER HABITATS 122- Distribution of wetlands and deepwater habitats- This map shows the approximate distribution of large wetlands in the State. Because of limitations of scale 0 25 50 MILES I _J and source material, some wetlands are not shown 0 25 50 KILOMETERS go Predominantly wetland F-1 Predominantly deepwater habitat Figure 2. Wetland distribution in Washington and physical and climatological factors that control wetland dis- tribution in the State. A, Distribution of wetlands and deepwater habitats. (Sources: A, TE. Dahl, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, unpub. data, 199 1.) National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: WASHINGTON 395 rocky, sandy, or muddy substrates adjacent to tidal zones. Predomi- Although many wetlands in western Washington are associated nant aquatic-bed vegetation includes eelgrass, kelp, and green algae. with ponds, lakes, estuaries, or rivers, many more are isolated from Estuarine unconsolidated shores consist of gravel, sand, or mud bodies of surface water and owe their existence to saturated soil exposed by tides and commonly are known as tideflats or tidal flats. conditions caused by precipitation or ground-water seepage (Can- Large tidal fluctuations discourage most plant communities from ning and Stevens, 1989; Washington State Department of Ecology, colonizing these sites. However, extensive mats of green and blue- 1992b,c). Wetlands that are isolated from bodies of surface water green algae can develop during the summer months (Canning and typically occupy depressions in the land surface that are of glacial Stevens, 1989). origin. In the lowlands of western Washington, these depressions Marine wetlands cover about 27,000 acres, about 3 percent of generally are elongated troughs cut by continental glaciers, circu- the total wetland acreage in Washington (D.D. Peters, U.S. Fish and lar kettles left by the melting of blocks of glacial ice embedded in Wildlife Service, unpub. data, 1990) and consist of beaches and glacial deposits, or simply shallow depressions on an irregular sur- rocky shores. The high-energy tidal environment of these wetlands face of glacial deposits. In the Olympic Mountains and the Cascade keeps them unvegetated except for algae. Marine wetlands exist Range, the depressions generally have been cut into bedrock by local along the Pacific coast and the Strait of Juan de Fuca, on some off- alpine glaciers (Dion, 1978). shore rocky islands, and in the San Juan Islands (Canning and Eastern Washington (the part of the State east of the crest of Stevens, 1989). the Cascade Range) has characteristics of both continental and marine climates with hot, dry summers and cold, wet winters HYDROLOGIC SETTING (Phillips, 1960). Precipitation ranges from less than 10 inches per year to about 40 inches per year (fig. 2C). Evaporation ranges from Western Washington has a predominantly marine climate with about 25 inches per year to more than 45 inches per year (fig. 2D) cool, dry summers and mild, wet winters (Phillips, 1960). Precipi- and generally exceeds annual precipitation. tation ranges from less than 20 inches per year to about 200 inches As in western Washington, most wetlands on the eastern slope per year (fig. 2C). Evaporation ranges from about 20 inches per of the Cascade Range and in Northeastern Washington (fig. 2B) are year to about 25 inches per year (fig. 2D) and generally is less than associated either with bodies of surface water or with depressions annual precipitation. in the land surface that are of glacial origin (Dion, 1978; Washing- ton State Department of Ecology, 1992b). Most wetlands in the Crest of Cascade Range Columbia Basin (fig. 2B) were created by human activities, such as large hydroelectric and irrigation projects, and typically owe their existence to shallow water tables caused by the importation and use T 1711, 1 , , 1@ 1-71-1 B T, 17 1 ero Washington, of surface water for irrigation (Washington State Department of Ecology, 1992b). Almost 85 percent of the wetlands in the area are in isolated depressions in the land surface that were created by cata- hic floods resulting from the collapse of glacial ice dams and strop the ensuing rapid emptying of large glacial lakes in what is now Montana (Weis and Newman, 1989; Dion, 1978; Washington State colu mbla in Department of Ecolo y, 1992b). Many of the other wetlands in the Loy@4@ds of, 9 Western Columbia River Basin are associated with reservoirs and irrigation Washington 'L wasteways (Canning and Stevens, 1989; Washington State Depart- Blue Qun ns ment of Ecolo y, 1992b). 9 TRENDS ECOREGIONS Estimates of presettlement wetland acreage in Washington range from 1.17 to 1.53 million acres, depending on the historical C D 0 40 lq 10 20 20 20 11 100 D 2 J 45 PRECIPITATION EVAPORATION -80- Line of equal annual precipitation- -30- Line of equal annual evaporation- Interval, in inches, is variable Interval, in inches, is variable Figure 2. Continued. Wetland distribution in Washington and physical and climatological factors that control wetland distribution in the State. 8, Generalized physiographic areas. C, Precipitation. D, Free-water-surface evaporation. (Sources: B, C, and D, Landforms data from EROS Data Center. 6, Generalized physiographic areas modified from Dion, 1978. C, Williams, 1986. D, Farnsworth and others, 1982.) 396 National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: STATE SUMMARIES information and research assumptions used (Canning and Stevens, Table 1. Selected wetland-related activities of government 1989; Dahl, 1990; Washington State Department of Ecology, agencies and private organizations in Washington, 1993 1992b). Based on a 1988 estimate by the FwS, about 20 to 39 per- [Source: Classification of activities is generalized from information provided cent of Washington's wetlands, have been lost during the past two by agencies and organizations. e, agency or organization participates in centuries. Other estimates place the total loss as great as 50 per- wetland-related activity; agency or organization does not participate in wetland-related activity. MAN, management; REG, regulation; R&C, res- cent, and some urbanized areas of the Puget Sound area have expe- toration and creation; LAN, land acquisition; R&D, research and data col- rienced losses of from 70 to 100 percent. Estimates of continuing lection; D&I, delineation and inventory] wetland loss range from 700 to 2,000 acres per year. In addition, most of the State's remaining wetlands have been significantly de- graded (Washington State Department of Ecology, 1992b,d). Agency or organization 40' R* 3;@ The principal historical causes of wetland loss and degrada- FEDERAL tion are the expansion of agriculture and the siting of ports and in- Department of Agriculture dustrial facilities. The major causes of continuing loss and degra- Consolidated Farm Service Agency ........................... ... dation of wetlands are urban expansion, forestry and agricultural Forest Service ................................................................. practices, and the invasion of exotic plants and animals (Cannin Natural Resources Conservation Service ................ ... 9 Department of Commerce and Stevens, 1989; Washington State Department of Ecology, National Oceanic and 1992b,d). Atmospheric Administration ........................................* Department of Defense Army Corps of Engineers ..............................................* CONSERVATION Military reservations .....................................................0... ... ... ... ... Many government agencies and private organizations partici- Department of the Interior Bureau of Land Management ......................................0 pate in wetland conservation in Washington. The most active agen- Bureau of Reclamation ................................................. ... ... cies and organizations and some of their activities are listed in table Fish and Wildlife Service ..............................................0 1 . Geological Survey .......................................................... ... .. . ... ... 0 Federal wetland activities. - Development activities in Wash- National Biological Service ......................................... ... ... ... ... . ington wetlands are regulated by several Federal statutory prohibi- National Park Service ...................................................a e e 0 Environmental Protection Agency .................................. ...0 tions and incentives that are intended to slow wetland losses. Some STATE of the more important of these are contained in the 1899 Rivers and Department of Agriculture ............................................... ...0 Harbors Act; the 1972 Clean Water Act and amendments; the 198 5 Department of Community Development ......................0 0 Food Security Act; the 1990 Food, Agriculture, Conservation, and Department of Ecology .....................................................00 Trade Act; the 1986 Emergency Wetlands Resources Act; and the Department of Fisheries ...................................................00 Department of Health ........................................................0* 1972 Coastal Zone Management Act. Department of Natural Resources .................................* . Section 10 of the Rivers and Harbors Act gives the U.S. Army Department of Parks and Recreation ............................* 0 Corps of Engineers (Corps) authority to regulate certain activities Department of Transportation .........................................0 in navigable waters. Regulated activities include diking, deepening, Department of Wildlife ......................................................0 filling, excavating, and placing of structures. The related section 404 REGIONAL Puget Sound Water Quality Authority ............................ ... ... of the Clean Water Act is the most often-used Federal legislation COUNTY AND LOCAL protecting wetlands. Under section 404 provisions, the Corps issues All counties and local governments .............................. ... permits regulating the discharge of dredged or fill material into Some counties and local governments .........................o wetlands. Permits are subject to review and possible veto by the U.S. PRIVATE Environmental Protection Agency, and the Fws has review and ad- Local chapters of the National Audubon Society ................................................................0 visory roles. Section 401 of the Clean Water Act grants to States Ducks Unlimited .................................................................. and eligible Indian Tribes the authority to approve, apply conditions Friends at the Earth ............................................................ ... ... ... ... to, or deny section 404 permit applications on the basis of a pro- The Nature Conservancy ..................................................0 0 0 posed activity's probable effects on the water quality of a wetland. Trust for Public Lands ........................................................ ... ... ...0 Most farming, ranching, and silviculture activities are not sub- Urban Wildlife Coalition .................................................... ... ...0- ject to section 404 regulation. However, the "Swampbuster" provi- Washington Environmental Council .................. ............ ... ... ... ... sion of the 1985 Food Security Act and amendments in the 1990 Food, Agriculture, Conservation, and Trade Act discourage (through financial disincentives) the draining, filling, or other alteration of Coastal Zone Management Act and amendments encourage wetland wetlands for agricultural use. The law allows exemptions from pen- protection through funding incentives. The Emergency Wetlands alties in some cases, especially if the farmer agrees to restore the Resources Act requires States to address wetland protection in their altered wetland or other wetlands that have been converted to agri- Statewide Comprehensive Outdoor Recreation Plans to qualify for cultural use. The Wetlands Reserve Program of the 1990 Food, Federal funding for State recreational land; the National Park Ser- Agriculture, Conservation, and Trade Act authorizes the Federal vice provides guidance to States in developing the wetland compo- Government to purchase conservation easements from landowners nent oftheir plans. Coastal and Great Lakes States that adopt coastal- who agree to protect or restore wetlands. The Consolidated Farm zone management programs and plans approved by the National Service Agency (formerly the Agricultural Stabilization and Con- Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration are eligible for Federal servation Service) administers the Swampbuster provisions and Wet- funding and technical assistance through the Coastal Zone Manage- lands Reserve Program. The Natural Resources Conservation mentAct. Service (formerly the Soil Conservation Service) determines com- Federal agencies own about 1.3 million acres of land in Wash- pliance with Swampbuster provisions and assists farmers in the iden- ington, 30 percent of the total land area of the State. However, there tification of wetlands and in the development of wetland protection, is no reliable estimate of the total acreage of wetlands owned by the restoration, or creation plans. Federal Government. The major causes of this situation are budget The 1986 Emergency Wetlands Resources Act and the 1972 constraints; differences in the missions, goals, and needs of the National Water Surnmary-Wetland Resources: WASHINGTON 397 various agencies; and variations in the use and definitions of wet- References Cited lands. Canning, D.J., and Stevens, Michelle, 1989, Wetlands of Washington -A State wetland activities. -Wetland protection and management resource characterization: Olympia, Washington State Department of activities in Washington are almost as diverse as the State's wetlands. Ecology, 45 p. Ile State uses the Fws classification system (Cowardin and others, Cowardin, L.M., Carter, Virginia, Golet, F.C., and LaRoe, E.T., 1979, Clas- 1979) for inventory purposes but uses the Federal Clean Water Act sification of wetlands and deepwater habitats of the United States: U.S. definition of wetlands as vegetated sites for regulatory purposes. Fish and Wildlife Report FWS/OB S -79/31, 131 p. Nonvegetated wetlands are regulated as marine waters, lakes, or Dahl, T.E., 1990, Wetlands -Losses in the United States, 1780's to 1980's: other special aquatic sites (Canning and Stevens, 1989; Perry Lund, Washington D.C., U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 13 p. Washington State Department of Ecology, written commun., 1993). Dion, N.P., 1978, Primer on lakes in Washington: Washington State Depart- The Washington State Department of Ecology is the lead agenc ment of Ecology Water-Supply Bulletin 49, 55 p. y Farnsworth, RX, Thompson, E,S., and Peck, E.L., 1982, Evaporation at- for wetland activities in the State and has established a Wetlands las for the contiguous 48 United States: NationaJ Oceanic and Atmo- Section to provide technical assistance and guidance to other Fed- spheric Administration Technical Report NWS 33, 26 p. eral and State agencies and to local governments. In addition, all Granger, Teri, 1989, A guide to conducting wetlands inventories: Washing- State agencies are required to exercise their authority to the maxi- ton State Department of Ecology Publication 89-60, 59 p. mum extent in order to achieve the goal of "no overall net loss of Phillips, E.L., 1960, Climate ofWashington: U.S. Department of Commerce, wetlands" in the State. The primary State regulations affecting Climatography ofthe United States no. 60-45,26 p. [Reprint 1972.1 wetlands include the Shoreline Management Act of 197 1, the Hy- Puget Sound Water Quality Authority, 1990, 1991 Puget Sound Water Quality draulic Procedures Act of 1949, the State Environmental Policy Act Management Plan: Olympia, Puget Sound Water Quality Authority, of 1983, the Growth Management Act of 199 1, and the Floodplain 344 p. Management Program. However, none of these regulations has the Seattle Audubon Society, 1993, WETNET citizen's directory - A guide to Washington organizations concerned with wetlands protection: Se- protection of the wetlands as its main purpose (Washington State attle, Wash., Seattle Audubon Society, 59 p. Department of Ecology, 1988, 1990, 1991, 1992b, 1993). Washington State Department of Ecology, 1988, Wetland regulations guide- Regional wetland activities. -The Puget Sound Water Qual- book: Washington State Department of Ecology publication 98-5, ity Authority is charged with the development of a comprehensive 46 p. plan for the protection of water quality in the Puget Sound Basin. -1990, Focus -Wetlands law: Olympia, Washington State Depart- The wetlands-protection element of the plan is designed to ensure ment of Ecology, 2 p. that the most valuable wetlands in the basin are preserved in perpe- -1991, Focus -Ecology's wetlands section: Washington State Depart- tuity and that degradation of other valuable wetlands is minimized ment of Ecology publication F-S-91-107, 2p. (Puget Sound Water Quality Authority, 1990; Washington State De- _1992a, Washington's wetlands: Washington State Department of Ecology publication 92-105, 12 p. partment of Ecology, 1988, 1992b,c). _1992b, 1992 Statewide water quality assessment, 305(b) report: County and local wetland activities. -The State's Growth Washington State Department of Ecology publication 92- 04, 245 p. Management Act requires counties and local governments to pro- _1992c, Focus-Puget Sound wetland preservation: Washington tect wetlands within each government's jurisdiction. The most com- State Department of Ecology publication F-S -92-112, 2 p. mon means of protecting wetlands is through Shoreline Master Pro- _1992d, Focus-Wetlands in Washington State: Washington State grams developed under the State's Shoreline Management Act and Department of Ecology publication F-S -92-108, 2 p. the State Environmental Policy Act. Under these programs, policies -1993, Focus -Wetlands technical assistance to local government: Olympia, Washington State Department of Ecology, 2 p. and regulations limit certain disruptive activities such as dredging Washington State Department ofWildlife, undated, Washington wetlands- and filling. Other local ordinances may establish sensitivity areas, Time is running out: Olympia, Washington State Department ofWild- regulate clearing and grading practices, or require special analysis life, I I p. and review for projects affecting wetlands covered by the master Weis, P.L., and Newman, W.L., 1989, The Channeled Scablands of eastern program. In many cases, these programs and ordinances are more Washington-The geologic story of the Spokane flood (2d ed.): restrictive than, and include wetlands not covered by, Federal or State Cheney, Eastern Washington University Press, 24 p. regulations. However, the degree to which programs and ordinances Williams, J.R., 1986, Washington surface-water resources, in U.S. Geologi- have been adopted and enforced varies greatly across the State cal Survey, National water summary 1985- Hydrologic events and (Washington State Department of Ecology, 1988; Granger, 1989). surface-water resources: U.S. Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper Private wetland activities. -More than 400 private organiza- 2300, p. 473-478. tions are active in the preservation and protection of wetlands in Washington (Seattle Audubon Society, 1993). These organizations FOR ADDITIONAL INFORMATION: District Chief, U.S. Geological keep the public informed on wetland issues, organize citizen net- Survey, 1201 Pacific Avenue, Suite 600, Tacoma, WA 98402; Regional Wet- works, and lobby for wetland-protection measures. Local chapters land Coordinator, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 911 NE. 1 lth Avenue, of the Audubon Society, The Nature Conservancy, and the Trust for Portland, OR 97232 Public Lands have purchased wetlands and associated buffer areas in the State for preservation. Prepared by R.C. Lane and William A. Taylor, U.S. Geological Survey 398 National Water Surnmary-Wetland Resources: STATE SUMMARIES I I 1@1 U.S. Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper 2425 1@ National Water Summary-Wetland Resources 399 West Virginia Wetland Resources WtIands constitute less than I percent of West Virginia's sur- grouped into five ecological systems: Palustrine, Lacustrine, Riv- face area but contribute significantly to the State's economic devel- erine, Estuarine, and Marine. The Palustrine System includes only opment and ecological diversity (Tiner, 1987). Most of the State's wetlands, whereas the other systems comprise wetlands and wetlands are in highlands that extend along a north-south axis near deepwater habitats. Wetlands of the systems that occur in West Vir- the eastern State boundary and in the lower elevations of the ginia are described below. Potomac River drainage basin to the east and the Ohio River drain- age basin to the west. The plants and animals of upland West Vir- System Wetland description ginia bogs and marshes include species that are distinctly northern in range and distribution (Fortney, 1977). Some of these species may Palustrine .................. Wetlands in which vegetation is predominantly be ice age relicts that migrated southward during the last glacial trees (forested wetlands); shrubs (scrub-shrub period and became established in the cool, moist environment of wetlands); persistent or nonpersistent emergent, erect, rooted, herbaceous plants (persistent- and the central Appalachian Mountains when the glaciers retreated. nonpersistent-emergent wetlands); or sub- Wetlands that contain this unusually diverse assemblage of plants mersed and (or) floating plants (aquatic beds). and wildlife draw large numbers of tourists to the State and provide Also, intermittently to permanently flooded open-water bodies of less than 20 acres in which educational and recreational opportunities. water is less than 6@6 feet deep. The State's two largest wetlands and other wetlands associated Lacustrine ................. Wetlands within an intermittently to permanently with river main stems provide habitat for waterfowl and other game flooded lake or reservoir. Vegetation, when pres- and nongarne animals and support many rare and endangered plant ent, is predominantly nonpersistent emergent species. Natural and constructed wetlands in West Virginia have plants (nonpersistent-emergent wetlands), or been used to mitigate the effects of road construction, to increase submersed and (or) floating plants (aquatic habitat of nongame animals, and to treat both active- and abandoned- beds), or both. mine drainage and municipal wastewater. Riverine ..................... Wetlands within a channel. Vegetation, when pres- ent, is same as in the Lacustrine System. TYPES AND DISTRIBUTION WestVirginia's wetlands were inventoried by theWestVirginia Wetlands are lands transitional between terrestrial and deep- Division of Natural Resources (formerly the West Virginia Depart- water habitats where the water table usually is at or near the land ment of Natural Resources) as part of a State survey initiated in 1975 and more recently by Fws as part of the National Wetlands Inven- surface or the land is covered by shallow water (Cowardin and oth- tory. The Division surveyed all wetlands larger than 5 acres and listed ers, 1979). The distribution of wetlands and deepwater habitats in them by class, location, size, source, and vulnerability to destruc- West Virginia is shown in figure 2A; only wetlands are discussed tion. A total of 22,490 stream miles and 45,542 acres of wetlands herein. were identified from ground and map searches. Palustrine and lacus- Wetlands can be vegetated or nonvegetated and are classified trine wetlands constituted 0.3 percent of the State's total land and on the basis of their hydrology, vegetation, and substrate. In this water surface area (West Virginia Department of Natural Resources, summary, wetlands are classified according to the system proposed 1988). by Cowardin and others (1979), which is used by the U.S. Fish and The Fws National Wetlands Inventory identified West Virginia Wildlife Service (Fws) to map and inventory the Nation's wetlands. wetlands on high-resolution aerial photographs and listed location, At the most general level of the classification system, wetlands are type, and distribution of all wetlands 1 acre or larger. The results of F_ the inventory indicated that West Virginia has about 102,000 acres of wetlands, including 42,000 acres of forested wetlands, 24,000 acres of scrub-shrub wetlands, 20,000 acres of emergent wetlands, and 16,000 acres of ponds (Tiner, 1987). The difference in acreage ,,no, reported by the two surveys reflects the large number of wetlands in the State that are smaller than 5 acres and the inventory techniques used. The Canaan Valley and Meadow River wetland complexes con- tain about 14 percent of the State's wetlands. The Canaan Valley wetland complex includes palustrine forested, scrub-shrub, and emergent wetlands and, with an area of 6,740 acres, is the largest wetland complex in the central Appalachian Mountains. The Meadow River wetland complex is the second-largest wetland com- plex in the State and, in terms of acreage, contains about one-fourth of the State's swamps (forested and scrub-shrub wetlands) and one- third of the State's wet meadows (emergent wetlands). Figure 1. Canaan Valley, West Virginia. The valley's extensive Other wetlands, commonly located along streams and rivers, upland bogs and marshes were designated a National Natural are mostly of small to moderate size and are distributed widely Landmark by the Secretary of the Interior in 1974. (Photograph by across the State (West Virginia Department of Natural Resources, Stephen J. Shaluta, Jr, West Virginia Department of Commerce, 1988). Forested wetlands are the most common type, with inter- Labor and Environmental Resources, Division of Tourism and spersed scrub-shrub, emergent, and open-water wetlands (ponds). Parks.) West Virginia also has many small wetlands located on islands 400 National Water Surnmary-Wetland Resources: STATE SUMMARIES and flood plains and along embayments adjacent to large rivers. contains a small section of the Blue Ridge Province. The region is Embayments are backwater zones that form at the mouths of tribu- drained by Potomac River tributaries to the north and by Kanawha taries where main-stem navigation dams raise upstream pool lev- River tributaries to the south, The Appalachian Plateaus physi- els.'Ibe Fws is inventorying the flora and fauna of Ohio River island ographic province of southern and western West Virginia contains wetlands and 79 West Virginia embayments between Ohio River the Allegheny Mountain and Kanawha Sections. miles 47.5 and 312. Embayments and wetlands on islands are im- Most of the State's wetlands are located in the Allegheny Moun- portant stopover areas for migrating waterfowl, nurseries for river- tain Section and along the Eastern Divide. The Eastern Divide is ine fish, and habitat for beaver, bald eagles, herons, sandpipers, and located along the boundary between the Appalachian Plateaus and ospreys (Patti Morrison, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, oral the Valley and Ridge Province and separates the Ohio River drain- commun., 1993). Ely (1993) surveyed the vascular plants in eight age basin to the west from the Potomac River drainage basin to the Ohio River embayments and identified 259 species in 169 genera east. The highest point on the Eastern Divide has an altitude of4,860 and 76 families. Thirteen plant species are on the State Endangered feet. Predominantly westerly winds carry gulf, subtropical Atlan- Species list. tic, and land-recycled moisture across the State. Air masses rise and cool in the higher altitudes of the Eastern Divide, releasing mois- HYDROLOGIC SETTING ture on the western slope. After crossing the Eastern Divide, the air masses sink and warm and release little moisture, creating a "rain The distribution of wetlands in West Virginia is determined by shadow" to the east. Consequently, annual precipitation increases the interaction of climatic and orographic factors, local topography, eastward from about 40 inches along the State's western boundary and geologic setting. The State is in three physiographic provinces- to about 60 inches in the higher altitudes of the Eastern Divide and the Appalachian Plateaus, Valley and Ridge, and Blue Ridge (fig. then decreases to about 36 inches in the eastern panhandle. The 2B). Eastern West Virginia is in the Valley and Ridge Province and abundance of precipitation along the western slopes of the Eastern Divide supplies moisture needed to support wetlands and is the most important determinant of wetland formation and maintenance in West Virginia. Where ample water is available, wetland formation depends primarily on local topography and geologic setting. Diehl and Behling (1982) examined 49 wetlands in the Appalachian Plateaus and identified geologic settings that affect wetland formation and maintenance. Stream valleys with low gradients (less than 5 feet per 40@ 8. oto crafloville SMM M @n r Harpers Ferry Nall Historical Park Ierr urg r e'land igAu og Aliens *is She-d-h Lk@ U-i- Ri,,, 821 0 A 7 ally enic kea t ask as i ing Run Bog George Washington NF orbo RU -Manange n or arteston err a 25 50 MILES _J 3V 0 25 50 KILOMETERS Allegheny Mountain N_ 2, a@sdo tlarld complex Section go N tj Iff meada Five? a "gernant Area Kanawha B Section Blue Appalachian Ridge Plateaus WETLANDS AND DEEPWATER HABITATS Distribution of wetlands and deepwater habitats- This map shows the approximate distribution of large wetlands in the State. Because of limitations of scale and source material, some wetlands are not shown a Predominantly wetland PHYSIOGRAPHIC DIVISIONS El Predominantly deepwater habitat Figure 2. Wetland distribution in West Virginia and physiography of the State. A, Distribution of wetlands and deepwater habitats. 8, Physiography. (Sources: A, TE. Dahl, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, unpub. data, 1991. B, Physiographic divisions from Fenneman, 1946; landforms data from EROS Data Center.) National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: WEST VIRGINIA 401 mile) and poorly drained alluvial plains were found to be condu- shallow bodies of water by photosynthesis. Marl wetlands in the cive to wetland formation. Wetlands develop on the alluvial plain, Shenandoah and Potomac River valleys of eastern West Virginia have but because the stream channel typically has cut into the alluvial near-neutral pH (6.8 -7.2), widely fluctuating amounts of surface material, the water table can be several feet beneath the alluvial water, and a 16- to 28-inch-thick bottom layer of organic material plain; the wetlands are thus highly dependent on seasonal flood- underlain by about 10 feet of marl (Bartgis and Lang, 1984). West ing. In mountain valleys, where streams have steeper gradients and Virginia marl wetlands contain unique assemblages of calciphilic rapid rates of flow, wetlands form near the slopes and receive abun- plants (plants adapted to alkaline conditions). Bartgis and Lang dant ground-water discharge (Winter, 1992). (1984) inventoried the flora of 10 marl wetlands in eastern West Most wetlands in the Allegheny Mountain Section are upstream Virginia and recorded 12 vascular-plant species that are restricted from where layers of erosion-resistant sedimentary rock intersect to eastern West Virginia marl wetlands and 15 vascular-plant spe- streambeds at an acute angle (Diehl and Behling, 1982). Erosion cies that are found in only a few sites other than marl wetlands. Five of less resistant rock layers upstream and downstream from the point marl wetlands in eastern West Virginia, including Lake Louise and of intersection causes a widening of the stream channel upstream Altona Marsh, have been designated as National Natural Landmarks and an increase in stream gradient downstream. Ponding and set- and are listed on the National Registry of Natural Landmarks (Na- tling-out of fine sediments in the upstream area reduce permeabil- tional Park Service, 1992). ity and favor formation of wetlands. Cranesville Swamp on the West In West Virginia, sphagnum-dominated peatlands occur mainly Virginia-Maryland border is an example of a wetland formed in this in the mountainous, higher altitudes of the Eastern Divide. Few type of geologic setting. peatlands occur south of West Virginia (Wieder, 1985). Southern Anticlines are formed when stratified rock is folded downward peatlands, such as those in West Virginia, have higher annual net in opposite directions from a crest. Erosion of the crest produces a primary production (Wieder and Lang, 1983) and higher annual valley (a "breached" anticline) surrounded by mountains and ex- organic-matter decomposition (Lang and McDonald, 1982) than ited by a water gap at the downstream end. Canaan Valley (fig. 3) is those to the north. In West Virginia, peatlands range in size from an example of a breached anticline in which weathering of the val- widely distributed bogs of less than I acre to large areas ofthe State's ley floor is proceeding at a faster rate than that of the downstream largest wetland, the Canaan Valley wetland complex. Several water gap (Diehl and Behling, 1982). Ponding of water over poorly peatlands in the Monongahela National Forest- notably Cranberry drained erosional sediments has produced conditions favorable to Glades, Blister Run Swamp, Big Run Bog, and Fisher Spring Run wetland formation. Bog -contain unique plant associations such as cranberry glades Highlands consisting of flat, or nearly flat, rock layers that have interspaced with bog forests and shrub thickets, high-altitude bal- been dissected by streams occur throughout the Allegheny Moun- sam fir swamps, and sphagnum-red spruce bogs (National Park tain Section. These settings are conducive to wetland formation Service, 1992). because water ponds on the flat topography. An example of a wet- The sphagnum-dominated peatlands of the Canaan Valley land in this type of geologic setting is Big Run Bog, near Canaan wetland complex occupy the largest intermontane valley east of the Valley in north-central West 'Virginia. Mississippi River. The valley floor is about 14 miles long and 5 miles Embayments have formed in the mouths of many small tribu- wide. With an average altitude of 3,200 feet, it is the highest valley taries of the Ohio and Kanawha Rivers because of higher pool lev- of its size east of the Rocky Mountains. The valley is Ranked by els upstream from main-stem navigation dams. These embayments Canaan and Cabin Mountains and is drained by the Blackwater support wetland communities that did not exist along the rivers River, a tributary of the Cheat River, through a narrow water gap at before construction of the dams. Although embayment-wetland the northwest end (fig. 2A). Once densely forested, the area was communities have not been studied in detail, plant-species diver- logged and burned in the late 1800's and early 1900's. The valley sity in some is high Koryak, 1978; Ely, 1993). now supports extensive wetlands resulting from abundant precipi- West Virginia wetlands of special interest include marl wet- tation (53 inches per year) and a blanket of poorly drained soils lands in the eastern panhandle and sphagnum-dominated peatlands derived from the erosion of underlying limestone. Water enters the situated along the Eastern Divide. Marl is a calcium carbonate pre- wet] and by discharge from the surrounding mountain slopes and by cipitate combined with lesser amounts of clay and organic mate- ground-water flow (fig. 3). Springs emanate from the contacts of rial. The precipitate forms when carbon dioxide is removed from alternating layers of shale and sandstone. The wetland complex in- CANAAN MOUNTAIN CABIN MOUNTAIN EXPLANATION PALUSTRINE WETLANDS PALUSTRINE WETLANDS Direction of ground-water flow PALUSTRINE WETLANDS PALUSTRINE WETLANDS Average water table A_ Scrub-shrub vegetation RIVERINEWETLAND RIVERINE WETLANDS Forest vegetation to M/1 Emergent vegetation Moss-lichen vegetation Submersed aquatic vegetation Alluvium and peat 0 NA Beaver dam 'Pep Shale :Zj@ Figure 3. Geohydrologic setting of the Canaan Valley wetland complex in north-central West Virginia. 402 National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: STATE SUMMARIES cludes wet meadows dominated by sedges and grasses, dense thick- has purchased 8 Ohio River islands that contain important wetlands, ets of alder and spiraea (scrub-shrub wetlands), and extensive peat is acquiring 38 additional islands, and is inventorying the flora and bogs (moss-lichen wetlands) consisting of sphagnum and haircap fauna of several islands and embayments. These wetlands would mosses, sedges, and heaths. Beavers have constructed darns on the become part of the proposed Ohio River Islands National Wildlife Blackwater River and many of its tributaries, flooding stream mar- Refuge (Patti Morrison, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, oral gins and forming ponds and marshes. commun., 1993). TRENDS CONSERVATION Of the wetlands present in West Virginia in the 1780's, about Many government agencies and private organizations partici- three-fourths remain today (Dahl, 1990). Most of the loss was caused pate in wetland conservation in West Virginia. The most active agen- by agricultural drainage of wetlands in flood plains of the Ohio, cies and organizations and some of their activities are listed in table Kanawha, and Monongahela Rivers (West Virginia Department of I . Natural Resources, 1988). Agricultural drainage, channelization, Federal wetland activities.-Development activities in West pond construction, urbanization, and reservoir construction are the Virginia wetlands are regulated by several Federal statutory prohi- primary causes of wetland loss in West Virginia (Tiner, 1987). From bitions and incentives that are intended to slow wetland losses. Some 1957 to 1980, West Virginia gained 10,900 acres of forested and of the more important of these are contained in the 1899 Rivers and scrub-shrub wetlands and lost 5,800 acres of emergent wetlands Harbors Act; the 1972 Clean Water Act and amendments; the 1985 (West Virginia Department of Natural Resources, 1988). Much of Food Security Act; the 1990 Food, Agriculture, Conservation, and the increase in wetland acreage was caused either by beaver activ- Trade Act; and the 1986 Emergency Wetlands Resources Act. ity, which through flooding converted uplands into forested and Section 10 of the Rivers and Harbors Act gives the U.S. Army scrub-shrub wetlands, or by plant succession. Corps of Engineers (Corps) authority to regulate certain activities Residential, commercial, industrial, and highway-development in navigable waters. Regulated activities include diking, deepening, projects could threaten West Virginia wetlands (West Virginia De- filling, excavating, and placing of structures. The related section 404 partment of Natural Resources, 1988). These developments often of the Clean Water Act is the most often-used Federal legislation are associated with inundation, filling, or drainage of large and small protecting wetlands. Under section 404 provisions, the Corps issues wetland areas. In 1990 the Canaan Valley Task Force, composed of permits regulating the discharge of dredged or fill material into Federal, State, and local government agencies, business concerns, wetlands. Permits are subject to review and possible veto by the U.S. and environmental groups, was organized to define and implement Environmental Protection Agency, and the Fws has review and ad- strategies to protect the unique natural resources of Canaan Valley visory roles. Section 401 of the Clean Water Act grants to States while considering local community needs. Current activities of the and eligible Indian Tribes the authority to approve, apply conditions task force include surveying and modeling water quality in the val- to, or deny section 404 permit applications on the basis of a pro- ley and producing materials designed to inform the public of the posed activity's probable effects on the water quality of a wetland. ecological and economic significance of the area (Canaan Valley Most fanning, ranching, and silviculture activities are not sub- Task Force, 1992). ject to section 404 regulation. However, the "Swampbuster" provi- A section of Interstate Highway 64 has been constructed through the Meadow River wetland complex. The West Virginia De- Table 1. Selected wetland-related activities of government partment of Highways is mitigating the impact of construction by agencies and private organizations in West Virginia, 1993 purchasing or developing additional wetlands. Because future ur- [Source: Classification of activities is generalized from information provided banization associated with the highway might further threaten this by agencies and organizations. o, agency or organization participates in wetland, the Division of Natural Resources has made long-term ac- wetland-related activity; ..., agency or organization does not participate in quisition of Meadow River wetlands the State's foremost acquisi- wetland-related activity. MAN, management; REG, regulation; R&C, restora- tion priority. A large section of this wetland that has been purchased tion and creation; LAN, land acquisition; R&D, research and data collection; comprises the Meadow River Wildlife Management Area (West D&I, delineation and inventory] Virginia Department of Natural Resources, 1988). The West Virginia Department of Transportation, Division of Highways, and the U.S. Department of Transportation commis- Agency or organization 140 13@' 01 4Z;111 sioned a study of wetlands createdby orcontiguous with 511 miles FEDERAL of limited-access highways. The area contained 96 wetlands, 60 of Department of Agriculture which were produced by highway construction. The Division miti- Consolidated Farm Service Agency ........................... ... Forest Service .................................................................0_... ... ... .. gates wetland losses resulting from road construction by acquiring N atural Resources Conservation Service ................ ...9 additional wetlands or enhancing existing wetlands with sandbags, Department of Defense dikes, and drainage structures (Ben Hark, WestVirginia Department Army Corps of Engineers .............................................. ...0 of Transportation, Division of Highways, oral commun., 1993). The Department of the Interior Division is mitigating losses of wetlands from construction of lim- Fish and Wildlife Service .............................................. Geological Survey .......................................................... ... ... ... ...0 ited-access highways and Federal facilities. The losses include about National Biological Service ......................................... ... ... ... ...0 48 acres of wetlands in the Meadow River Wildlife Management National Park Service ...................................................0 0 0 Area that have been disturbed by construction of secondary high- Environmental Protection Agency .................................. ... ways and about 10 acres of wetlands affected by construction of a STATE Federal facility near Clarksburg. Effects of these activities on wet- Department of Labor, Commerce, and Environment Division of Natural Resources ..................................... lands have been mitigated by purchase and enhancement of exist- Division of Environmental Protection ........................ ... 0 0 0 ing wetlands and by wetland construction (Ben Hark, West Virginia Department of Transportation Department of Transportation, Division of Highways, oral commun., Division of Highways ..................................................... 1993). PRIVATE ORGANIZATIONS Federal and State agencies and private organizations are work- Ducks Unlimited .................................................................. ... ... ing to preserve a diverse group of West Virginia wetlands. The Fws The Nature Conservancy .................................................. National Water Surnmary-Wetland Resources: WEST VIRGINIA 403 sion of the 1985 Food Security Act and amendments in the 1990 and which normally support a prevalence of vegetation typically Food, Agriculture, Conservation, and Trade Act discourages found where wet soil conditions prevail" (West Virginia Code, (through financial disincentives) the draining, filling, or other al- Chapter 20, Section 5A-2: Definitions). West Virginia does not have teration of wetlands for agricultural use. The law allows exemp- specific legislation protecting wetlands, but statutes under Chapter tions from penalties in some cases, especially if the farmer agrees 20 of the West Virginia Code allow State involvement in section 404 to restore the altered wetland or other wetlands that have been con- permitting through section 401 of the Clean Water Act (West Vir- verted to agricultural use. The Wetlands Reserve Program of the ginia Department of Natural Resources, 1989). Presently, the State 1990 Food, Agriculture, Conservation, and Trade Act authorizes does not approve of all section 404 nationwide exemptions and re- the Federal Government to purchase conservation easements from quires application for section 401 certification to fill any wetland, landowners who agree to protect or restore wetlands. The Con- regardless of size or location. Applications for section 401 certifi- solidated Farm Service Agency (formerly the Agricultural Stabi- cation are evaluated by the Division of Natural Resources and Di- lization and Conservation Service) administers the Swampbuster vision of Environmental Protection of the State Department of La- provisions and Wetlands Reserve Program. The Natural Resources bor, Commerce, and Environment. Applications are made directly Conservation Service (fortnerly the Soil Conservation Service) de- to the Division of Environmental Protection, which has signatory termines compliance with Swampbuster provisions and assists authority for section 401 certification. However, through memoranda farmers in the identification of wetlands and in the development of understanding, the Division of Environmental Protection certi- of wetland protection, restoration, or creation plans. fies wetland filling associated with coal mining, and the Division The 1986 Emergency Wetlands Resources Act encourages of Natural Resources certifies wetland filling for projects other than wetland protection through funding incentives. The act requires mining. States to address wetland protection in their Statewide Compre- Private wetland activities. -Through the Matching Aid to hensive Outdoor Recreation Plans to qualify for Federal funding Restore State Habitat (MARSH) program, Ducks Unlimited has pro- for State recreational land; the National Park Service (NPS) pro- vided funding for the purchase and restoration of West Virginia wet- vides guidance to States in developing the wetland component of lands. Thirteen Ohio River islands that were purchased by Ducks their plans. Unlimited and deeded to the Fws contain wetlands. These wetlands In addition to the regulatory responsibilities described above, will be managed by the Fws as part of the proposed Ohio River Is- Federal agencies are involved in other conservation activities. The lands National Wildlife Refuge (Jerry Thomas, Ducks Unlimited, Fws surveys wetlands in and around the Ohio River, assists the oral commun., 1993). Ducks Unlimited also matches funds that the Division of Natural Resources in the evaluation of applications Division ofNatural Resources obtains from the sale ofDuck Stamps. for Clean WaterAct Section 401 (water-quality) certification, and These funds are used to restore wetland habitat. In West Virginia, cooperates with other agencies in the mitigation of wetland losses. The Nature Conservancy has established the preservation of plant Through the Partners for Wildlife program, the Fws is cooperat- and animal diversity in eastern West Virginia marl wetlands as its ing with landowners to restore wetlands on privately owned land. first priority. The Nature Conservancy has secured a conservation The program provides total funding for wetland restoration. To be easement that is used to protect and manage large areas of Altona eligible for the program, landowners must agree to maintain re- Marsh and Cranesville Swamp, an important peatland in the north- stored wetlands in their natural state for 10 years. The Fws is us- central part of the State. These easements restrict development in ing this program to restore wetlands in the Potomac and Ohio River the area and guarantee public access for educational and scientific drainages. In the Potomac River drainage, a 25- to 50-foot buffer purposes. strip of riparian (streamside) wetlands is being developed. These protected wetlands will prevent damage from grazing cattle and References Cited allow riparian vegetation to develop along streambanks (John Schmidt, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, written commun., 1993). Bartgis, R.L., and Lang, G.E., 1984, Marl wetlands in eastern West Vir- The U.S. Forest Service (Fs) manages wetlands in the Monon- ginia-Distribution, rare plant species, and recent history: Castanea, gahela and George Washington National Forests. The Fs regulates v. 49, p. 17-25. access to important wetlands. These include four wetlands that Canaan Valley Task Force, 1992, Canaan Valley-A national treasure: are registered as National Natural Landmarks (Cranberry Glades, Elkins, W. Va., Canaan Valley Task Force, 10 p. Cowardin, L.M., Carter, Virginia, Golet, F.C., and LaRoe, E.T., 1979, Clas- Blister Run Swamp, Big Run Bog, and Fisher Spring Run Bog) sification ofwetlands and deepwater habitats ofthe United States: U.S. and small bogs in the Monongahela National Forest, particularly Fish and Wildlife Service, Report FWS/OBS-79/31, 131 p. in the Dolly Sods Scenic and Otter Creek Wilderness Areas. The Dahl, T.E., 1990, Wetlands-Losses in the United States, 1780's to 1980's: Fs restricts activities that might directly affect or indirectly alter Washington, D.C., U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Report to Congress, the water table near those wetlands. In addition, before any sale 13 p. of timber resources in national forests, the FS requires an inven- Diehl, J.W., and Behling, R.E., 1982, Geologic factors affecting formation tory of all affected wetlands. and presence of wetlands in the north central section of the Appala- The Abandoned Mine Lands Section of the Office of Surface chian Plateaus Province of West Virginia, in McDonald, B.R., ed., Mining (osm) has oversight over wetlands that have developed as Proceedings of the Symposium on Wetlands of the Unglaciated Ap- palachian Region, May 26-28, 1982: Morgantown, West Virginia a result of surface mining. Wetlands that have developed in and University, p. 3-9. adjacent to mining impoundments commonly are liabilities to Ely, J.S., 1993,The vegetation of selected embayments along the upper to landowners, who might seek to drain and fill the wetland. The osm mid-upper Ohio River floodplain: Huntington, W. Va., Marshall Uni- enforces Clean Water Act Section 404 regulations, which require versity, M.S. thesis, 86 p. that new wetlands be constructed to mitigate wetland loss. Fenneman, N.M., 1946, Physical divisions of the United States: Washing- The NPs manages wetlands in Harpers Ferry National His- ton, D,C., U.S. Geological Survey special map, scale 1:7,000,000. torical Park and the New River Gorge National River. The Nps has Fortney, R.H., 1975, The vegetation of Canaan Valley, West Virginia-A recently completed an inventory of wetlands along the New River taxonomic and ecological study: Morgantown, West Virginia Univer- Gorge National River. sity, Ph.D. dissertation, 210 p. - 1977, A bit of Canada gone astray: Wonderful West Virginia, v. 4 1, State wetland activities. -West Virginia State water-quality no. 5, p. 24-3 1. standards define wetlands as "***such areas as swamps, marshes, bogs, and other land subject to frequent saturation or inundation, 404 National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: STATE SUMMARIES Koryak, Michael, 1978, Emergent and aquatic plants in the upper Ohio River Wieder, R.K., and Lang, G.E., 1983, Net primary production of the domi- and major tributaries, West Virginia and Pennsylvania: Castanea, v. nant bryophytes in a sphagnum-dominated wetland in West Virginia: 43,no.4,p.228-237. The Bryologist, v. 86, no. 3, p. 280-286. Lang, G.E., and McDonald, B.R., 1982, Loss of mass and elemental changes Winter, T.C., 1992, A physiographic and climatic framework for hydrologic in decomposing sedge and alder leaves, in McDonald, B.R., ed., Pro- studies of wetlands, in Robarts, R.D., and Bothwell, M.L., eds., ceedings of the Symposium on Wetlands of the Unglaciated Appala- Aquatic ecosystems in semi-arid regions-Implications for resource chian Region, May 26-28, 1982: Morgantown, West Virginia Univer- management: Saskatoon, Saskatchewan, Environment Canada, The sity, p. 31-41. National Hydrology Research Institute Symposium Series 7, p. 127- National Park Service, 1992, National registry of natural landmarks: Wash- 149. ington, D.C., National Park Service, Wildlife and Vegetation Division, 35 p. Tiner, R.W., Jr., 1987, Mid-Atlantic wetlands-A disappearing natural trea- FOR ADDITIONAL INFORMATION: District Chief, U.S. Geological sure: Newton Corner, Mass., U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service and U.S. Survey, I I Dunbar Street, Charleston, WV 25301; Regional Wetland Coor- Environmental Protection Agency cooperative publication, 28 p. dinator, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 300 Westgate Center Drive, Hadley, West Virginia Department of Natural Resources, 1988, West Virginia wet- MA 01035 lands conservation plan: Charleston, West Virginia Department of Natural Resources, Wildlife Resources Division, 22 p. -1989, West Virginia water quality status assessment 1987-1989: Prepared by West Virginia Department of Natural Resources, Wildlife Resources Michael Little and Marcus C. Waldron, Division, 131 p. U.S. Geological Survey Wieder, RX, 1985, Peat and water chemistry at Big Run Bog, a peatland in the Appalachian mountains ofWest Virginia, USA: Biogeochemis- try, v. 1, p. 277-302. U.S. Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper 2425 National Water Summary-Wetiand Resources 405 Western'Pacific Islands Wetland Resources le western Pacific Ocean contains thousands of small volcanic The Fws has mapped wetlands on Guam, Rota, Tinian, Aguijan, islands and coral atolls, many of which are now or were formerly and Saipan in the Mariana Islands (fig. 2). With the exception of under thejurisdiction of the United States. Herein, those islands are Guam, estimates of total wetland areas are not available for these called the Western Pacific Islands. Wetlands are of great economic islands. importance on many of these islands because of the wetland culti- Wetlands on Guam were inventoried by the Guam Department vation of taro, a staple food crop. Wetlands also provide important of Parks and Recreation (1988). Using the Fws wetland maps, the wildlife habitat on the larger islands (fig. 1) (U.S. Army Corps of Department of Parks and Recreation estimated a total of about Engineers, 1981; Guam Department of Parks and Recreation, 1988). 14,000 acres of wetland. Most of this total, about 9,000 acres, con- Despite the economic importance of wetlands in the western Pa- sists of marine coral reefs. Palustrine wetlands cover about 3,500 cific region, not much information is available concerning wetland acres, equivalent to less than 3 percent of the land area of Guam. resources on most of the islands. This summary, therefore, is re- Most of the palustrine wetlands are forested with mangroves. stricted to several major islands for which some published informa- tion is available. TYPES AND DISTRIBUTION Wetlands are lands transitional between terrestrial and deep- water habitats where the water table usually is at or near the land surface or the land is covered by shallow water (Cowardin and oth- ers, 1979). The distribution of wetlands and deepwater habitats in the Western Pacific Islands is shown in figure 2A; only wetlands are discussed herein. Wetlands can be vegetated or nonvegetated and are classified on the basis of their hydrology, vegetation, and substrate. In this summary, wetlands are classified according to the system proposed by Cowardin and others (1979), which is used by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (Fws) to map and inventory wetlands. At the most Figure 1. Lake Susupe, a lacustrine wetland on Saipan general level of the classification system, wetlands are grouped into in the Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands. five ecological systems: Palustrine, Lacustrine, Riverine, Estuarine, (Photograph by S.K. Izuka, U.S. Geological Survey.) and Marine. The Palustrine System includes only wetlands, whereas the other systems comprise wetlands and deepwater habitats. Wet- lands of the systems that occur in the Western Pacific Islands are Wetlands mapped by the Fws on Saipan are primarily marine described below. and palustrine wetlands. Marine wetlands include coral reefs along System Wetland description most of the shoreline and in the lagoons on the west side of the is- land. Palustrine wetlands are located mostly near the western shore Palustrine .................. Nontidal and tidal-freshwater wetlands in which at altitudes below 30 feet. The largest freshwater wetland is the Lake vegetation is predominantly trees (forested wet- Susupe wetland near Chalan Kanoa in the southwestern part of the lands); shrubs (scrub-shrub wetlands); persistent or nonpersistent emergent, erect, rooted herba- island (fig. 2); this wetland includes lacustrine, palustrine emergent, ceous plants (persistent- and nonpersistent- and palustrine scrub-shrub wetlands. Small estuarine, lacustrine, emergent wetlands); or submersed and (or) and riverine wetlands have been mapped along the western and floating plants (aquatic beds). Also, intermit- eastern shores of the island. A few small and isolated riverine and tently to permanently flooded open-water bod- ies of less than 20 acres in which water is less palustrine wetlands have been mapped in the mountainous interior. than 6.6 feet deep. Wetlands on Tinian are marine and palustrine. The marine Lacustrine ................. Nontidal and tidal-freshwater wetlands within an wetlands are predominantly coral reefs and rocky shores around intermittently to permanently flooded lake or much of the coast. The palustrine wetlands are mostly emergent and reservoir larger than 20 acres and (or) deeper are concentrated in two closed depressions that resulted from the than 6.6 feet. Vegetation, when present, is pre- collapse of limestone solution cavities. These wetlands are known dominantly nonpersistent emergent plants (non- persistent-emergent wetlands), or submersed as the Magpo and Lake Hagoi wetlands. Tinian has no streams and, and (or) floating plants (aquatic beds), or both. therefore, no riverine or estuarine wetlands. Several small marine Fliverine ..................... Nontidal and tidal-freshwater wetlands within a and palustrine wetlands also have been mapped on the nearby small channel. Vegetation, when present, is same as island of Aguijan. in the Lacustrine System. Numerous marine, palustrine, and riverine wetlands were Estuarine ................... Tidal wetlands in low-wave-energy environments mapped on Rota. The marine wetlands include reefs and rocky where the salinity of the water is greater than 0.5 shores. Reefs surround almost the entire island. Palustrine wetlands part per thousand (ppt) and is variable owi ng to are mainly emergent and are concentrated in the southwestern end evaporation and the mixing of seawater and freshwater. of the island, where collapse of limestone solution cavities has cre- Marine ....................... Tdal wetlands that are exposed to waves and cur- ated several closed depressions on the plateau known as the Sabana. rents of the open ocean and to water having a Riverine wetlands are confined to the few steep streams that flow salinity greater than 30 ppt. over volcanic terrain in the south of the island. 406 National Water Summary-Wetiand Resources: STATE SUMMARIES American Samoa Mariana Islands W 14- 16, S-,4 Tutuila Faimuliai zMarsh Saipan 170150" W Aunu'u, Island 14.20's 0 6 MILES 0 5 KILOMETERS Lake Susupe 16' 10'N Chelan Kanoa Guam 144'45'E Lake Hagoi Wetlan Guam 15' DO'N AganaSwam,'@ ..no 13' 30' N agpo Worland Apra Agana Tinian Harbor 1441 501 E Aguijan Feno a I C-D rooir 144' 35' E 144115'E 13' 20' N 14@ Rota 0 5 MILES 0 5 MILES 1 4'40'E 0 5 KILOMETERS 0 5 KILOMETERS 140'E 180* 140OW 0 1,000 2,000 Miles Japan i I 0 1,000 2,000 Kilometers Commonwealth Hawaiian 20*N - oftheNorth,m Republic of the 4 Islands M. We Islands Marsh I Islands Mariana Islands 1114@14c,"V yap I V: Republic Pe a r 8 Oc d States of ipronesia I' 0. of Palau I I Kosrae NIC, jf@c Chuck Pohnpei Ila, Pqan u'a Figure2. Locations of selected wetlands in the American Islands Western Pacific Islands. (Source: U.S. Fish and 20*S - tralis Samoa Wildlife Service National Wetlands Inventory maps.) Tq@,ufla eSaipan 5w w 1+ 4 Aus National Water Surnmary-Wetland Resources: WESTERN PACIFIC ISLANDS 407 Wetlands in American Samoa (fig. 2) were inventoried for the Lake Susupe on Saipan (figs. I and 2) is a lacustrine wetland, American Samoa Department of Parks and Recreation by Ridings about 3 feet above sea level, surrounded by palustrine emergent and (1987) on the basis of surveys by the Fws. Total wetland area was forested wetlands. The lake is shallow, and the lake bottom is mostly estimated to be 240 acres, which is less than 1 percent of the land below sea level. Except during major storms, surface water does not area of American Samoa. Wetlands were classed as coastal marshes flow into the lake from the surrounding uplands or into the sea from or as mangrove forests. American Samoa's coastal marshes, as de- the lake. Apparently, the lake surface is continuous with the water scribed by Ridings (1987), are palustrine (freshwater) emergent table. The lake gains water from rainfall and runoff and loses water wetlands. The total area of coastal marshes was estimated to be 89 owing to ground-water recharge and evaporation (U.S. Army Corps acres. Mangrove forests are estuarine forested and scrub-shrub of Engineers, 1981). wetlands and comprise a total of 131 acres. The Magpo wetland on Tinian (fig. 2) is a major source ofwater A second inventory of wetlands in American Samoa, based on for that island. The land surface and water table of this wetland are field surveys and aerial-photograph interpretation, gave an estimate at or near sea level. The wetland was considered to be a ground- of 463 acres of wetlands in 1991 on Tutuila and Aunu'u Island water recharge zone for the principal aquifer in a recent proposal (fig. 2) (BioSystemsAnalysis, Inc., 1991). Weiland areas were listed for a watershed protection plan by the Coastal Resource Manage- for 10 wetlands on Tutuila and 4 wetlands on Aunu'u Island. ment Office of the Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands The difference between the estimates of Ridings (1987) and (J.P. Villagomez, Coastal Resource Management Office, written BioSystems Analysis, Inc. (1991) may be due to differences in commun., 1992). methodology and classification. Marine wetlands and wetlands on Samoan Islands. -Coastal marshes in American Samoa oc- the Manu'a Islands were not included in either survey. cur inland from beach berms and lack surface-water connections to the sea. Marsh sediments generally are poorly permeable, and HYDROLOGIC SETTING marsh water levels are only slightly affected by tides (Ridings, 1987). The soil of these marshes is almost always saturated (Ridings, The Western Pacific Islands have a tropical climate that is af- 1987). Mangrove forests in American Samoa grow mainly at the fected by prevailing northeasterly trade winds north of the equator mouths of streams (Ridings, 1987). and southeasterly trade winds south of the equator. The islands have Caroline Islands. -Templin and others (1949) described a distinct dry and wet (monsoon) seasons. On the islands discussed large freshwater swamp (palustrine forested wetland) on the island in this report, rainfO ranges from 80 to 250 inches annually, de- ofAnguar in the Republic of Palau (fig. 2). The water table was re- pending on location, and annual runoff ranges from 26 to 200 inches ported to be within a few inches of the land surface most of the time (Aldridge, 1986). and 2 to 4 feet below the surface during the driest periods. During Bedrock of the Western Pacific Islands consists mainly of lime- some severe storms, the swamp was inundated by. seawater. The stone and two types of volcanic rocks (Detay and others, 1989). The swamp was noted to be favorable for cultivation of taro. Wetland Mariana Islands have cores of low-permeability, andesitic volcanic taro cultivation in Palau (Belau) was described by Gressitt (1952). rocks covered in most places by high-permeability limestone Artificial wetlands used for cultivation of taro and other crops (Valenciano, 1985). Atolls in the Caroline and Marshall Islands in the Caroline Islands were described by Niering (1956). These (fig. 2) at formed of coral sand and limestone (Anthony and others, wetlands consist of pits dug below the water table and partially filled 1989; Detay and others, 1989). The islands ofAmerican Samoa are with decayed vegetation. The size of these pits ranged from a few predominantly steep, volcanic edifices formed of low- to high-per- square feet to 11 acres. The number of artificial wetlands created meability basaltic lava flows rimmed with narrow coastal benches for taro cultivation in the Caroline Islands was reported to be in- formed of wave-deposited sediments (Bentley, 1975). creasing because of increases in population (Niering, 1956). Most of the wetlands in the Western Pacific Islands are ma- Marshall Islands. -Wetlands in the Marshall Islands were rine, estuarine, or palustrine wetlands in coastal areas. Both the land described by Hatheway (1953). These included mangrove swamps surface and the water table in these areas are near sea level owing and freshwater swamps. Mangrove swamps (estuarine forested to the proximity of the ocean and discharge of ground water from wetlands) occurred in areas of saline or brackish water where ocean fresh to brackish basal ground-water lenses (Valenciano, 1985). The waves had created closed depressions owing to successive deposi- balance between rainfall and evaporation, generally steep slopes, tion of dunes or boulder ridges. Freshwater swamps (palustrine and the high permeability of limestone and basaltic bedrock does forested and scrub-shrub wetlands) and marshes (emergent wet- not favor the retention of water near the land surface in upland areas lands) include pits dug for taro cultivation as well as naturally formed except where collapse of limestone eaves has created closed depres- peat bogs that contain organic soils. sions or where less-permeable volcanic rocks crop out. Wetlands on atolls in the Marshall Islands were briefly de- Mariana Islands. -The largest coastal wetlands, such as scribed by Fosberg (1953). Most of these wetlands were artificial Agana Swamp on Guam and Lake Susupe on Saipan (fig. 2), prob- marshes consisting of pits dug below the water table, partially filled ably originated as marine embayments or lagoons (Ayers and with decayed vegetation, and planted in taro. Natural marshes and Clayshulte, 1983). These wetlands were isolated from the ocean a peat bog also were noted. Fosberg (1953) distinguished these two when sea level declined and were subsequently filled with carbon- wetland types on the basis of substrate; marshes have a muck bot- ate and organic sediments. Tidal effects on water levels in these tom and bogs consist of fibrous peat. Both of these wetland types coastal wetlands apparently are small (U.S. Army Corps of Engi- are palustrine emergent wetlands. neers, 198 1; Ayers and Clayshulte, 1983). The hydrogeology ofAgana Swamp on Guam was investigated TRENDS by Ayers and Clayshulte (1983). They inferred that the water level in the swamp was maintained largely by rainfall and surface-water Very little information concerning trends in wetland conditions runoff. They also found that the swamp was hydraulically connected is available for the Western Pacific Islands. Information available to the basal freshwater lens that forms the primary ground-water from published sources is mostly qualitative but does provide some source for the island, and they hypothesized that the swamp furic- indications of wetland changes in historic times. tioned as a ground-water recharge zone during wet periods and a A large part of Agana Swamp on Guam was filled to provide discharge zone during dry periods. room for expansion of the town of Agana (Ayers and Clayshulte, 408 National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: STATE SUMMARIES 1983). The swamp was also affected by dredging in 1933 - 34, when Table 1. Selected wetland-related activities of government agen- a channel was cut through the swamp. Dredging resulted in consid- cies and private organizations in the Western Pacific islands, 1993 erable drying of the swamp surface, decreased ground-water levels [Source: Classification of activities is generalized from information provided near the swamp, and increased flow in the Agana River, which flows by agencies and organizations. e, agency or organization participates in through the swamp (Ayers and Clayshulte, 1983). wetland-related activity; agency or organization does not participate in wetland-related activity. MAN, management; REG, regulation; R&C, res- Lake Susupe on Saipan also was subject to filling and drain- toration and creation; LAN, land acquisition; R&D, research and data col- ing during the Japanese occupation (1914-44) (U.S. Army Corps lection; D&I, delineation and inventory] of Engineers, 198 1). Much of the wetland was used for cultivation of sugarcane during this period. The lake and surrounding wetlands were considered for use as a flood-control basin in 1981 and are Agency or organization presently (1993) being evaluated as a source of municipal water FEDERAL supply. Department of Agriculture Wetland losses in American Samoa were assessed by Ridings Consolidated Farm Service Agency ........................... ...e ... ... ... ... (1987). Only one-third to one-half of the total area of coastal marsh Natural Resources Conservation Service ................ ...* was reported to be in its natural condition. Faimulivai Marsh on Department of Commerce National Oceanic and Atmospheric Aunu'u Island was considered the only coastal marsh not disturbed Administration ..................................................................0 by taro cultivation or other agricultural uses. However, Ridings Department of Defense (1987) considered further disturbance of coastal marshes for agri- All military reservations ................................................0 . ... ... cultural purposes unlikely as a result of demographic and economic Army Corps of Engineers ..............................................0 shifts (Ridings, 1987). About one-third of the original area of man- Navy (Guam) ....................................................................0 Department of the Interior grove forest was reported lost due to firewood cutting, land clearing, Fish and Wildlife Service ..............................................e and filling for home sites and government land (Ridings, 1987). Geological Survey .......................................................... ... ... Contamination of streams flowing into wetland areas was also con- Environmental Protection Agency .................................. ...0 sidered a threat to mangrove forests. Continued decrease in man- TERRITORIAL AND COMMONWEALTH grove forests was predicted. American Samoa Trends in wetlands between 1961 and 1991 on Tutuila and Department of Marine and Wildlife Resources ....... ... * Department of Parks and Recreation ........................ ...a Aunu'u Island in American Samoa were recently evaluated by Department of Public Works ........................................ ... ... BioSystems Analysis, Inc. (1991). Their report indicated a net loss Economic Development Planning Office ................... ...* of 137 acres. On the basis of their estimates from aerial photogra- Environmental Protection Agency .............................. ...0... ... ... ... phy, this loss represents a 28-percent reduction in area (BioSystems Village leaders and councils ........................................_0 Analysis, Inc., 1991). Zoning Board ................................................................... ... .. . ... ... Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands Coastal Resource Management Office ..................... ...0 ... ... ... ... CONSERVATION Commonwealth Utilities Commission ........................ ...v Department of Commerce and Labor ......................... ...* ... ... ... ... Wetland management in the western Pacific is complex because Department of Health .................................................... ...0 many islands of the former U.S. Trust Territory of the Pacific are Department of Natural Resources ............................. ...0 Historical Preservation Commission .......................... ...0 ... ... ... ... now governed by independent national governments. The Federated Public Works Department ............................................ ...0 States of Micronesia and the Republic of the Marshall Islands (fig. 2) Guam are now independent nations governing most of the Caroline and Bureau of Planning ........................................................ ...e Marshall Islands. Guam and American Samoa are U.S. territories, Department of Agriculture ..........................................._a and the Northern Mariana Islands are a U.S. commonwealth. The Environmental Protection Agency .............................. ... . ... Territorial Land Use Commission ................................. ...w... ... ... ... Republic of Palau (Belau) remains at present (1993) a U.S. trust PRIVATE ORGANIZATIONS territory. Only islands under the jurisdiction of the United States The Nature Conservancy ................... .... ..... .................... ...0 are discussed below. Many government agencies and private organizations partici- pate in wetland conservation in the Western Pacific Islands. The most active agencies and organizations and some of their activities Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), and the Fws has review and are listed in table 1. advisory roles. Section 401 of the Clean Water Act grants to States, Federal wetland activities, -Development activities in wet- eligible Indian Tribes, U.S. Trust Territories, Commonwealths, and lands of the Western Pacific Islands that are under the jurisdiction other U.S. territories the authority to approve, apply conditions to, of the United States are regulated by several Federal statutory pro- or deny section 404 permit applications on the basis of a proposed hibitions and incentives that are intended to slow wetland losses. activity's probable effects on the water quality of a wetland. Some of the more important of these are contained in the 1899 Most farming, ranching, and silviculture activities are not sub- Rivers and Harbors Act; the 1972 Clean Water Act and amendments; ject to section 404 regulation. However, the "Swampbuster" provi- the 1985 Food Security Act; the 1990 Food, Agriculture, Conser- sion of the 1985 Food Security Act and amendments in the 1990 vation, and Trade Act; the 1986 Emergency Wetlands Resources Act; Food, Agriculture, Conservation, and Trade Act discourage (through and the 1972 Coastal Zone Management Act. financial disincentives) the draining, filling, or other alteration of Section 10 of the Rivers and Harbors Act gives the U.S. Army wetlands for agricultural use. The law allows exemptions from pen- Corps of Engineers (Corps) authority to regulate certain activities alties in some cases, especially if the farmer agrees to restore the in navigable waters. Regulated activities include diking, deepening, altered wetland or other wetlands that have been converted to agri- filling, excavating, and placing of structures. The related section 404 cultural use. The Wetlands Reserve Program of the 1990 Food, of the Clean Water Act is the most often-used Federal legislation Agriculture, Conservation, and Trade Act authorizes the Federal protecting wetlands. Under section 404 provisions, the Corps issues Government to purchase conservation easements from landowners pemiits regulating the discharge of dredged or fill material into who agree to protect or restore wetlands. The Consolidated Farm wetlands. Permits are subject to review and possible veto by the U.S. Service Agency (fornerly the Agricultural Stabilization and Conser- National Water Summary-Wetiand Resources: WESTERN PACIFIC ISLANDS 409 vation Service) administers the Swampbuster provisions and In American Samoa, wetlands are protected by the land-use Wetlands Reserve Program. The Natural Resources Conservation permit system administered by the Economic Development Planning Service (formerly the Soil Conservation Service) determines com- Office, which is developing a wetland-management plan under the pliance with Swampbuster provisions and assists farmers in the iden- authority of the Coastal Zone ManagementAct (BioSystems Analy- tification ofwetlands and in the development ofwetland protection, sis, Inc., 199 1). As part of this plan, wetlands were mapped for all restoration, or creation plans. islands in American Samoa (Sheila Wiegman, American Samoa The 1986 Emergency Wetlands Resources Act and the 1972 Environmental Protection Agency, written commun., 1993). The Coastal Zone Management Act and amendments encourage wetland American Samoa Environmental Protection Agency acts in an ad- protection through funding incentives. The Emergency Wetlands visory role in the Economic Development Planning Office permit- Resources Act requires States and U.S. territories to address wet- ting process and also provides section 401 water-quality certifica- land protection in their Statewide Comprehensive Outdoor Recre- tion for Corps permits. The American Samoa Environmental Pro- ation Plans to qualify for Federal funding for recreational land; the tection Agency also develops water-quality standards and issues National Park Service provides guidance in developing the wetland permits for activities affecting wetland water quality. The Depart- component of their plans. Coastal States and U.S. territories that ment of Marine and Wildlife Resources also acts in an advisory role adopt coastal-zone management programs and plans approved by for Economic Development Planning Office permits affecting wet- the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration are eligible lands and conducts habitat improvement and wetland-research for Federal funding and technical assistance through the Coastal projects. The Department of Parks and Recreation has jurisdiction Zone Management Act. over all areas between mean high tide and a depth of 60 feet and The Fws is planning a National Wildlife Refuge on Guam. This enforces rules protecting these areas. The Department of Public refuge will include wetlands as well as terrestrial habitats. There are Works reviews permit applications for dredging, filling, and exca- no existing National Wildlife Refuges under United States jurisdic- vation. The Zoning Board defines zones, which may include wet- tion in the western Pacific. lands, where some land-use activities are prohibited. Local leaders The U.S. Navy manages wetlands on Guam in the vicinity of and village councils also have authority to enforce regulations per- Apra Harbor. The Navy is planning a wetlands-enhancement project taining to public health and natural resources. in cooperation with Fws (Stephanie Aschmann, U.S. Navy, written The Republic of Palau has at present (1993) no wetland-pro- commun., 1992). tection program. The Palau Environmental Quality Protection Board The U.S. Geological Survey collects hydrologic data in wet- is cooperating with the EPA in an effort to initiate a wetlands pro- lands in the Mariana Islands. A bathymetric survey of Fena Valley gram. Reservoir on Guam was completed in 1990 (Nakama, 1992). Water- Private organizations. -The Nature Conservancy has a quality samples were collected in Lake Susupe on Saipan in 1990. project in the Republic of Palau to protect freshwater marshes for Monitoring wells are being drilled in the Magpo wetland on Tinian. crocodile habitat. The Nature Conservancy is also working with Territorial and Commonwealth activities. -Guam has at local governments on Pohnpei and Kosrae in the Federated States present (1993) no laws specifically protecting wetlands, but Execu- of Micronesia to protect wetlands, tive Order 90-13 in June 1990 established the Guam Environmen- tal Protection Agency as the lead agency for wetland protection in References Cited Guam. The Guam Environmental Protection Agency is responsible for the inventory and classification of wetlands and development of Aldridge, B.N., 1986, Surface-water resources of the Trust Territory of the rules and regulations for wedand uses. The Agency provides water- Pacific Islands, Saipan, Guam, and American Samoa, in U.S. Geologi- quality certification for permits issued by the Corps. The Agency cal Survey, National water summary 1985 -Hydrologic events and also has established water-quality standards specific to wetlands and surface-water resources: U.S. Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper instituted a wetlands education program. Fish and Wildlife Service 2300, p. 441-446. wetland maps are used to identify wetland areas, but Guam Envi- Anthony, S.S., Peterson, F.L., Mackenzie, FT., and Hamlin, S.N., 1989, Geohydrology of the Laura fresh-water lens, Majuro Atoll-A roninental Protection Agency staff revise wetland delineations for hydrogeochemical approach: Geological Society ofAmerica Bulletin, specific development sites. Development projects on Guam require v. 101, no. 8, p. 1,066-1,075. permits from the Territorial Land Use Commission in addition to Ayers, J.F., and Clayshulte, R.N., 1983, Hydrogeologic investigation of federally required permits. The comniission may require mitigation Agana Swamp, Northern Guam: University of Guam, Water and En- of wetland losses. The Guam Environmental Protection Agency, the ergy Research Institute of the western Pacific, Technical Report 40, Bureau of Planning, and the Department of Agriculture, Division 25 p. ofAquatic Resources and Wildlife, act as advocates before the coni- Bentley, C.B., 1975, Ground-water resources of American Samoa with mission for wetland concerns. emphasis onTafuna-Leone Plain, Tutuila Island: U.S. Geological Sur- Wetland regulation in the Commonwealth of the Northern vey Water-Resources Investigations Report 29-75,32 p. BioSystems Analysis, Inc., 1991, A comprehensive wetlands management Mariana Islands (fig. 2) is coordinated by the Coastal Resource plan for the islands of Tutuila and Aunu'u, American Sarnoa(prelimi- Management Office under the authority of the Federal Coastal Zone nary draft): [available from BioSystems Analysis, Inc., 3152 Paradise Management Act. The Office issues consolidated permits for wet- Drive, Tiburon, CA 94920]. land developments and may require mitigation. The Office consists Cowardin, L.M., Carter, Virginia, Golet, F.C., and LaRoe, E.T., 1979, Clas- of the directors of the Division of Environmental Quality, the De- sification ofwetlands and deepwater habitats ofthe United States: U.S. partment of Natural Resources, the Commonwealth Utility Corpo- Fish and Wildlife Service Report FWS/OBS -79/31, 131 p. ration, the Historical Preservation Commission, the Public Works Detay, M., Alessandrello, E., Come, R, and Groom, 1., 1989, Groundwater Department, and the Department of Commerce and Labor. The contarridnation and pollution in Micronesia: Journal of Hydrology, v. Office has produced its own wetland maps. The Department of 112, p. 149-170. Fosberg, F.R., 1953, Vegetation of central Pacific atolls, a brief summary: Environmental Quality is responsible for section 401 water-quality Washington, D.C., National Academy of Sciences, Pacific Science certification of projects under the Clean Water Act and monitors Board, Atoll Research Bulletin 23, 26 p. streams and coastal waters weekly. The Department of Health, under Gressitt, J.L., 1952, Description of Kayangel Atoll, Palau Islands: Washing- which the Department of Environmental Quality operates, has es- ton, D.C., NationalAcademy ofSciences, Pacific Science Board, Atoll tablished local water-quality standards. Research Bulletin 14, 5 p. 410 National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: STATE SUMMARIES Guam Department of Parks and Recreation, 1988, Guam wetlands priority Saipan, Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands: U.S. Army plan-1988 addendum to 1986 Guam Comprehensive Outdoor Rec- Engineer District, Honolulu, Hawaii [variously paged]. reation Plan: Agana, Guam Department of Parks and Recreation, 24 p. Valenciano, Santos, 1985, Ground-water resources of the Trust Territory of Hadieway, W.H., 1953, The land vegetation of Arno Atoll, Marshall Islands: the Pacific Islands, Saipan, Guam, and American Samoa, in U.S. Washington, D.C., National Academy of Sciences, Pacific Science Geological Survey, National water summary 1994-Hydrologic Board, Atoll Research Bulletin 16, 68 p. events, selected water-quality trends, and ground-water resources: U.S. Nakama, L.Y., 1992, Storage capacity of Fena Valley Reservoir, Guam, Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper 2275, p. 403 -408. Mariana Islands, 1990: U.S. Geological Survey Water-Resources In- vestigations Report 92 -4114, 17 p. Niering, W.A.,' 1956, Bioecology of Kapingamarangi Atoll, Caroline Is- FOR ADDITIONAL INFORMATION: District Chief, U.S. Geological lands -Terrestrial aspects: Washington, D.C., National Academy of Survey, 677 Ala Moana Boulevard, Suite 415, Honolulu, HI 96813; Regional Sciences, Pacific Science Board, Atoll Research Bulletin 49, 32 p. Wetland Coordinator, U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 911 NE. I I th Avenue, Ridings, P.J., 1987, American Samoa Territorial comprehensive outdoor Portland, OR 97232 recreation plan 1987-1992 -Addendurn -Wetlands priority plan: Pago Pago, American Samoa Department of Parks and Recreation, 11 P. Prepared by Templin, E.H,, Vessel, AJ., and McCracken, R.J., 1949, Land classification B.R. Hill, of Anguar, Palau Islands: U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Office of U.S. Geological Survey the Engineer, Far East Command, 16 p. U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, 1981, Final detailed project report and environmental statement, Susupe - Chalan Kanoa flood control study, U.S. Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper 2425 National Water Summary-Wetland Resources 411 Wisconsin Wetland Resources Wtlands cover more than 5 million acres ofWisconsin. Although Wetlands can be vegetated or nonvegetated and are classified once regarded as wastelands, wetlands are now recognized as eco- on the basis of their hydrology, vegetation, and substrate. In this logically and economically valuable ecosystems. The preservation summary, wetlands are classified according to the system proposed of wetlands is important for the continued survival of much of by Cowardin and others (1979), which is used by the U.S. Fish and Wisconsin's plant and wildlife resources. Many fish and wildlife Wildlife Service (Fws) to map and inventory the Nation's wetlands. species, including endangered and threatened species, depend on At the most general level of the classification system, wetlands are wetlands for survival at one time or another during their life cycles. grouped into five ecological systems: Palustrine, Lacustrine, Riv- Animals that depend on wetlands include muskrats, ducks, water erine, Estuarine, and Marine. The Palustrine System includes only snakes, and leopard frogs. Ducks, geese, and other migratory birds wetlands, whereas the other systems comprise wetlands and depend on wetlands for resting and feeding during migration. Fish, deepwater habitats. Wetlands of the systems that occur in Wiscon- including northern pike, walleye, and muskellunge, use wetlands for sin are described below. spawning and feeding. Wetlands (such as that shown in figure 1) help maintain water System Wetland description quality by acting as filters that trap suspended sediments and or- ganic and inorganic contaminants suspended or dissolved in the Palustrine .................. Wetlands in which vegetation is predominantly waters that reach them. These trapped pollutants are stored in the trees (forested wetlands); shrubs (scrub-shrub wetland soils and plants. Wetlands help to regulate strearnflow by wetlands); persistent or nonpersistent emer- gent, erect, rooted, herbaceous plants (persis- temporarily storing floodwater and then slowly releasing it to the tent- and non persistent-emergent wetlands); or stream or river, reducing the magnitude of flooding downstream. submersed and (or) floating plants (aquatic Flood peaks in watersheds (drainage basins) containing a large area beds). Also, intermittently to permanently of wetlands can be as much as 80 percent lower than in watersheds flooded open-water bodies of less than 20 acres that have few or no wetlands (Novitzki, 1982). Wetlands also pro- in which water is less than 6.6 feet deep. tect the shorelines and banks of lakes and rivers from erosion by Lacustrine ................. Wetlands within an intermittently to permanently flooded lake or reservoir. Vegetation, when pres- absorbing wave energy, decreasing water velocity, and increasing ent, is predominantly nonpersistent emergent soil stability. plants (nonpersistent-emergent wetlands), or Wetlands are productive ecosystems, yielding a large amount submersed and (or) floating plants (aquatic of plant material for wildlife and human consumption. Products that beds), or both. are harvested from wetlands include cranberries, wild rice, and Riverine ..................... Wetlands within a channel. Vegetation, when pres- sphagnurn moss. Wisconsin's tourist industry benefits from the rec- ent, is same as in the Lacustrine System. reational opportunities that wetlands provide, including hunting, About 15 percent (5,300,000 acres) of Wisconsin's land sur- fishing, boating, hiking, camping, and bird watching. Many wetland face is covered by wetlands (fig. 2A) (Wisconsin Department of areas throughout the State also provide educational opportunities Natural Resources, 1992a). The Wisconsin Department of Natural for schools and the general public. Resources completed an inventory of Wisconsin's wetland locations, sizes, and types in 1984. The information from the inventory is TYPES AND DISTRIBUTION being used by the Fws as part of its National Wetlands Inventory Wetlands are lands transitional between terrestrial and dee project. Currently, this information is available only in map form, P_ and the statewide total acreages for specific wetland types have not water habitats where the water table usually is at or near the land yet been computed. surface or the land is covered by shallow water (Cowardin and oth- The classification system used by the Department of Natural ers, 1979). The distribution of wetlands and deepwater habitats in Resources to map Wisconsin wetlands recognizes seven major Wisconsin is shown in figure 2.4; only wetlands are discussed herein. classes of wetlands: aquatic bed, moss (moss-lichen wetland), wet meadow (emergent wetland), scrub-shrub, forested, flats/unveg- etated wet soils (unconsolidated-shore wetland), and open water (Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources, 1992b). Common types of wetlands in Wisconsin include swamps, marshes, and peat- lands. Swamps and marshes are most common in southern Wiscon- sin, and peatlands are most common in northern Wisconsin (Yanggen and others, 1976). Swamps are palustrine forested wet- lands. Marshes are palustrine emergent wetlands dominated by grass, rush, and sedge species. Peatlands, including bogs and fens, are wetlands that accumulate organic material owing to limited in- flow and outflow. Peatlands can be forested, scrub-shrub, or emer- gent wetlands. Scrub-shrub wetlands (wetlands dominated by woody vegetation less than 20 feet tall) are common in Wisconsin and include both deciduous and evergreen vegetation. Many Wis consin wetlands are riparian (streamside) wetlands adjacent to riv- Figure 1. Constructed wetland near Tomah in southwest- ers or streams that periodically flood. ern Wisconsin. (Photograph by Randall J. Hunt, U.S. Geo- Wetland distribution in Wisconsin is related to the extent of logical Survey) the most recent glaciation. The southwestern part of the State (fig. 412 National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: STATE SUMMARIES 2B) was not affected by the latest glaciation, and wetlands are un- can be divided into four hydrologic classes: surface-water depres- common there except in stream valleys filled with glacial drift sion, surface-water slope, ground-water depression, and ground- (Novitzki, 1982). The rest of the State contains glacial deposits and water slope (Novitzki, 1982). numerous wetlands. Surface-water-depression wetlands form where overland flow and precipitation collect in a depression. Water leaves this type of HYDROLOGIC SETTING wetland by infiltrating through the substrate, evaporating, or being transpired by plants. The water level in surface-water-depression Hydrology is the single most important determinant for estab- wetlands can fluctuate greatly, depending on surface-water flow. lishing and maintaining wetlands (Mitsch and Gosselink, 1986). Wetland formation is determined by the balance among the inflows and outflows of water, surface contours of the land, soil type, geol- ogy, and ground-water conditions. Topographic depressions caused B by glacial and erosional processes, areas underlain by impermeable substrates that prevent infiltration of water into the ground, and areas Superior where the water table is near the land surface provide ideal condi- uptend tions for wetland formation. Wisconsin's wetlands generally are in depressions, poorly Province drained areas, and, rarely, on slopes. All receive surface water, but a large proportion also receive ground water. Wisconsin's wetlands 91. 92- Apostle Island National Lasshore Control Lowland Province A PHYSIOGRAPHIC Eastern Wisconsin Lake V., DIVISIONS Driftless Section Section 90* Til 46 Plains 01. %: 880 %WNW qwp M-i- RI- F - - - - - - 87- Green Bay NWR %a. of Grove] Island NWR 45- 41 CA to ov 6.o Ft a tam --- 44- Upper Mississippi os" Ri 'NWR' River National 4Q Wildlife and .1 9 Fish Refuge 4 4 . WETLANDS AND DEEPWATER HABITATS lot" N Distiribution of vretlands and deepwater habitats- This map shows the approximate di tribution of large wetlands in the State. Because of limitations of scale and source w ;,me material, some wetlands are not shown 43' Predominantly wetland L@ 7 0 25 50 MILES Predominantly deepwater habits %/, i I I F-1 t 0 25 50 KILOMETERS 0 Ice Age National Scientific Reserve Figure 2. Wetland distribution in Wisconsin and physical features that control wetland distribution in the State. A, Distribution of wetlands and deepwater habitats. B, Physiography. (Sources: A, TE. Dahl, U.S. Fish and W;Idl;fe Service, unpub. data, 199 1. B, Physiographic divisions from Fenneman, 1946; landforms data from EROS Data Center.) National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: WISCONSIN 413 Water levels rise during periods of high strearnflow and fall during Wetlands are most numerous in areas that were covered by low strearnflow. The bottom of the wetland is above the local water glaciers during the most recent glacial period (fig. 2C). Glacial table most of the time (Novitzki, 1982). Surface-water depressions erosion and deposition commonly create surface depressions and typically support ponds, marshes, swamps, and wet meadows (emer- deposits of impermeable tills (sediments of glacial origin) that are gent wetlands). ideal for wetland development (Bushnell, 1989). The unglaciated Surface-water-slope wetlands form on or near the margins of part of southwestem Wisconsin contains rugged terrain that is con- lakes and streams. Included in this type of wetland are the shallow ducive to overland runoff, leaving little water for wetland develop- part of a lake or river and the bank to the point that is subject to ment. Wetlands in the unglaciated areas are most commonly in flooding. This type of wetland is generally above the local water riparian areas where glacial sediments have been deposited. Ripar- table, and floodwaters from the lake or river drain quickly. These ian wetlands develop either as lateral erosion widens a river valley wetlands are fed by precipitation, overland flow, and flooding from or as deposition fills and flattens a valley. In riparian wetlands, a lakes and rivers (Novitzki, 1982). Surface-water- slope wetlands depositional substrate of silt, mud, and clay combines with the shal- typically support shrub swamps (scrub-shrub wetland) and shallow low water table near a river to create ideal conditions for the forma- marshes. tion of small lakes and swamps (Bushnell, 1989). Ground-water-depression wetlands are located where a depres- Wisconsin has about 43,000 miles of streams and about 15,000 sion is below the water table. Water enters the wetland as precipita- lakes. Statewide, the annual average precipitation is 31 inches and tion, overland flow, and ground-water discharge. There generally is annual evapotranspiration is 20 inches (Krohelski and others, 1990), a lack of surface drainage away from this type of wetland. Although so there is a moisture surplus on an annual basis. Many of Wis- ground-water flow can be a small part of the total inflow, it can be consin's wetlands are supported by precipitation, either directly by an important water source during drought (Novitzki, 1982). Ground- surface-water runoff or indirectly by ground-water flow (Novitzki, water-depression wetlands typically support forested and shrub 1979). A wetland's water supply is determined by the balance be- bogs, fens, and marshes. tween precipitation and evapotranspiration. In northern Wisconsin, Ground-water-slope wetlands form at ground-water-discharge precipitation exceeds evaporation, whereas in the southern and sites, such as springs and seeps, typically on hillsides or at the bot- western parts of the State, precipitation and evaporation are about tom of hills where the water table intersects the land surface. These equal (Novitzki, 1982). Therefore, more water is available for wet- wetlands receive continuous ground-water inflow, but drainage away land formation in northern Wisconsin than in the southern and from the site reduces the ponding of water. The drainage commonly western parts of the State. is the headwater of a small stream (Novitzki, 1982). Ground-water- Annual and seasonal variations in precipitation can affect the slope wetlands typically support marshes, swamps, and wet mead- amount of water available for wetlands. In years when snowmelt ows. produces surface runoff and rain is frequent during the summer, surface-water wetlands have large quantities of wa- ter available. If the snowmelt recharges the ground- water system, ground-water wetlands have large amounts of water available to them. In general, water levels are highest in the spring and early summer C when snowmelt has collected; levels then decline throughout the rest of the summer when evapotran- spiration is at its highest. Ground-water wetlands are more stable than surface-water wetlands during drought because ground-water flow replaces some of the water lost to evapotranspiration (Novitzki, 1982). These natural fluctuations in precipitation quantity cause wetland vegetation to change in re sponse to changes in moisture availability. Natural climatic changes are cyclical, whereas manmade changes, such as draining, cause a more permanent change in hydrology and vegetative types (Novitzki, 1979). In most of the State, except the southwestern part, basement rocks are covered by unconsolidated glacial deposits, in which formed the kettles and potholes that contain many of the lakes and wetlands in the State. The Wisconsin Driftless Section in the southwestern part of the State is a region over which the most recent continental ice sheets did not pass. This region differs from the surrounding areas in topography and soil (Atwood, 1940). The topogra- DISTRIBUTION OF GLACIAL AQUIFER AND WET SOILS phy is rugged, and few wetlands exist. Wisconsin is in the Central Lowland and Su- Glacial aquifer MR Wet soil perior Upland physiographic provinces (fig. 2B). The major surface-water drainage basins in the Central Lowland province are the Trempealeau- Figure 2. Continued. Wetland distribution in Wisconsin and physical features that Black, Central Wisconsin, Lower Wisconsin, Fox- control wetland distribution in the State. C, Distribution of glacial aquifers and wet Wolf, Rock-Fox, and Pecatonica-Sugar River Ba- soi Is. (Sources: C, Wet soils map from Frazier and Kiefer, 1974; limit of glacial sins, and the Lake Michigan Basin. The Wisconsin aquifer from Devaul, 1975.) River, the largest in the State, drains the central part 414 National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: STATE SUMMARIES of the State from its headwaters at the Michigan border to its Army Corps of Engineers (Corps) section 404 permits. A review of confluence with the Mississippi River. The Rock-Fox River Basin permit decisions from 1982 to August 1990 indicated that permit- drains the southern part of the State and contains a large number ted wetland losses were about 11,800 acres statewide. Annual losses of wetlands, including the 30,000-acre Horicon Marsh, which is during 1989-90 increased by 220 percent over annual wetland located in the headwaters of the Rock River. The marsh is on a major losses during the period 1982-89. That figure understates actual flyway and provides habitat for large numbers of migrating geese losses because it does not include activities preauthorized by gen- and ducks. Flooding is reduced along the Rock River because of eral or nationwide permits or activities not regulated by section 404 runoff detention by the large number of wetlands in the basin (Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources, 1992a). (Gebert, 1986). The Upper Mississippi River Basin drains west- The Partners for Wildlife Program administered by the Fws is central Wisconsin and includes numerous wetlands associated with working to reverse these losses by restoring wetlands on private the headwaters of the Trempealeau and Black Rivers. The area lands and providing technical assistance to Federal and State agen- drained by tributaries to Lake Michigan contains wetlands that are cies and private landowners. As part of the program, 1,071 wetland the headwaters for the streams that flow into the lake (Gebert, 1986). restorations totaling 3,580 acres took place in Wisconsin in 1992 The major surface-water drainage basins in the Superior Up- (Moriarty, 1992). land province are the St. Croix, Chippewa, Upper Wisconsin, and Menominee- Oconto-Peshtigo River Basins, and the Western Lake CONSERVATION Superior Basin. The St. Croix River drains northwestern Wisconsin. This area has numerous wetlands, many of which are cranberry Many government agencies and private organizations partici- bogs. The Chippewa River Basin in north-central Wisconsin con- pate in wetland conservation in Wisconsin. The most active agen- tains wetlands around the headwaters of most streams. The Upper cies and organizations and some of their activities are listed in Wisconsin River Basin has one of the largest concentrations of lakes table 1. in the world (Gebert, 1986). The Western Lake Superior Basin con- Federal wetland activities. -Development activities in Wis- tains many small streams, many inland lakes, and the Lake Super- consin wetlands are regulated by several Federal statutory prohibi- ior shore, all of which support wetlands. tions and incentives that are intended to slow wetland losses. Some Wisconsin has coastal wetlands along the Lake Michigan and of the more important of these are contained in the 1899 Rivers and Lake Superior shorelines. Most of the coastal wetlands are just land- Harbors Act; the 1972 Clean Water Act and amendments; the 1985 ward of the shoreline in shallow depressions called lagoons or flood Food Security Act; the 1990 Food, Agriculture, Conservation, and ponds. Barriers created by multiple cycles of deposition and ero- sion reduce wave energy and allow sediments to accumulate and vegetation to become rooted. The upland boundaries of these wet- Table 1. Selected wetland-related activities of government lands are formed by glacial features (Geis, 1985). Water-level fluc- agencies and private organizations in Wisconsin, 1993 tuations in coastal wetlands increase the area and diversity of shore- [Source: Classification of activities is generalized from information provided line vegetation. Periods of high water prevent woody plants from by agencies and organizations. e, agency or organization participates in establishing and also prevent aggressive plants, such as cattails, from wetland-related activity; ..., agency or organization does not participate in overtaking a site. When the high water drains away, emergent plants wetland-related activity. MAN, management; REG, regulation; R&C, res- toration and creation; LAN, land acquisition; R&D, research and data col- regenerate from buried seeds, creating a wetland high in vegetative lection; D&I, delineation and inventory] diversity (Keddy and Reznicek, 1985). TRENDS Agency or organization 0 011 lz@"Y FEDERAL Dahl (1990) estimated that from the 1780's to the 1980's, wet- Department of Agriculture land acreage in Wisconsin decreased from 9.8 million acres to 5.3 Consolidated Farm Service Agency ........................... ... ... ... ... ... million acres -a 46-percent loss of the State's original wetlands. Forest Service ................................................................. 0 Wetlands were converted to upland or to other types of wetlands Natural Resources Conservation Service ................ * primarily for agricultural, residential, commercial, and industrial Rural Economic and Community Development Department of Commerce development. Agricultural development in wetlands was the major National Oceanic and Atmospheric cause of wetland losses. Agricultural uses of Wisconsin wetlands Administration ................................................................. ... include cranberry cultivation, sphagnum moss harvesting, and feed- Department of Defense crop production. Cranberry cultivation and sphagnurn moss harvest- Army Corps of Engineers .............................................. 0 0 0 0 ing severely alter wetlands but do not drain them. Feed-crop pro- Department of the Interior duction necessitates wedand drainage. Fish and Wildlife Service .............................................. 0 Geological Survey .......................................................... ... ... ... Urban development also destroyed or altered many wetlands National Biological Service ......................................... ... ... ... ... in Wisconsin. Many cities were established in and around wetlands National Park Service ................................................... 0 ... ... ... ... because of a reliance on water for transportation. Milwaukee was Environmental Protection Agency .................................. ... built over what was a large, marshy river delta. Riverbanks were STATE established and the wetland was filled as the city grew (Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources Bureau of Water Regulation and Zoning ................... 9 Department of Natural Resources, undated). Department of Transportation ......................................... 0 Two studies of wetland losses were conducted by the Depart- Regional planning commissions ..................................... ... ment of Natural Resources. One study tracked wetland losses in State universities ............................................................... seven counties in the southeastern part of the State from 1970 to SOME COUNTY AND LOCAL GOVERNMENTS ............. 1985 (Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources, 1992a). The PRIVATE ORGANIZATIONS Audubon Society ................................................................ ... ... area is highly developed, so study results cannot be extrapolated to Ducks Unlimited .................................................................. ... ... the entire State. Losses were 154 acres per year during 1970-75 Pheasants Forever ............................................................. ... ... 320 acres per year during 1975 - 80, and 328 acres per year durin@ The Nature Conservancy .................................................. 0 1980- 85. The Department of Natural Resources also conducted a Wisconsin Waterfowl Association ............................... . ... ... study of wetland losses associated with projects that received U.S. Wisconsin Wildlife Federation ........................................ ... ... . ... ... ... National Water Surnmary-Wetland Resources: WISCONSIN 415 Trade Act; the 1986 Emergency Wetlands Resources Act; and the Government has acquired by loan default. Wetlands on these lands 1972 Coastal Zone Management Act. are delineated, and the land is sold with wetland easements on it. Section 10 of the Rivers and Harbors Act gives the Corps au- These wetland easements are then managed by the Fws. The EPA is thority to regulate certain activities in navigable waters. Regulated involved in wetlands planning projects including the Green Bay activities include diking, deepening, filling, excavating, and plac- Special Wetlands Inventory Study and Advanced Identification ing of structures. The related section 404 of the Clean Water Act is wetland projects in southeast Wisconsin. the most often-used Federal legislation protecting wedands. Under State wetland activities. -Wisconsin has about 400,000 acres section 404 provisions, the Corps issues permits regulating the dis- of wetlands in county forests and 300,000 acres of wetlands in State charge of dredged or fill material into wetlands. Permits are subject forests, parks, wildlife areas, and natural areas. The Department of to review and possible veto by the U.S. Environmental Protection Natural Resources is the principal State agency responsible for Agency (EPA), and the Fws has review and advisory roles. Section wetland management and regulation. Applications for section 404 401 of the Clean Water Act grants to States and eligible Indian Tribes permits are reviewed by the Department. Permit applications ap- the authority to approve, apply conditions to, or deny section 404 proved by the Department are then reviewed by the Corps. Approval permit applications on the basis of a proposed activity's probable of both the Department and the Corps is required for a section 404 effects on the water quality of a wetland. application to be approved. In August 199 1, Wisconsin became the Most farming, ranching, and silviculture activities are not sub- first State to adopt water-quality standards for wetlands. Wisconsin's ject to section 404 regulation. However, the "Swampbuster" provi- wetland water-quality standards allow the State to control wetland sion of the 1985 Food Security Act and amendments in the 1990 development under section 401 of the Clean Water Act. The Depart- Food, Agriculture, Conservation, and Trade Act discourage (through ment of Natural Resources maintains an antidegradation policy to financial disincentives) the draining, filling, or other alteration of ensure that no adverse effects will occur from human activities. wetlands for agricultural use. The law allows exemptions from peri- Projects must be water dependent and have no practicable alterna- allies in some cases, especially if the farmer agrees to restore the tives. The project must also have no significant adverse effect on altered wetland or other wetlands that have been converted to agri- wetland function, values, or water quality or have other enviromnen- cultural use. The Wetlands Reserve Program of the 1990 Food, Ag- tal consequences (Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources, riculture, Conservation, and Trade Act authorizes the Federal Gov- 1992a). ernment to purchase conservation easements from landowners who The Department of Natural Resources, in cooperation with the agree to protect or restore wetlands. The Consolidated Farm Ser- Fws, has restored 1,252 acres of historic wetlands on Conservation vice Agency (formerly the Agricultural Stabilization and Conserva- Reserve Program lands. The Department also is working in coop- tion Service) administers the Swampbuster provisions and Wetlands eration with the Fws, the EPA, and NOAA on an Advanced Identifica- Reserve Program. The Natural Resources Conservation Service tion Project in the Green Bay area. (NRCS) (formerly the Soil Conservation Service) determines com- The Wisconsin Department of Transportation follows a policy pliance with Swampbuster provisions and assists farmers in the iden- of avoiding wetlands in its construction projects. When a wetland tification of wetlands and in the development of wetland protection, is disturbed, the Department mitigates the impacts of the road con- restoration, or creation plans. struction by enhancing and creating additional wetlands. The 1986 Emergency Wetlands Resources Act and the 1972 County and local activities. -Local governments are required Coastal Zone Management Act and amendments encourage wetland to protect wetlands that are within 1,000 feet of navigable lakes and protection through funding incentives. The Emergency Wetlands 300 feet of navigable streams. Wetland protection is achieved Resources Act requires States to addrqs wetland protection in their through shoreland-wetland zoning ordinances overseen by the De- Statewide Comprehensive Outdoor Recreation Plans to qualify for partment of Natural Resources. All counties currently have shore- Federal funding for State recreational land; the National Park Ser- land ordinances to protect their wetlands. Adoption of shoreland- vice (NPs) provides guidance to States in developing the wetlarld wetland ordinances is taking place in cities and villages. component of their plans. Coastal and Great Lakes States that adopt Private wetland activities. -Private organizations in Wiscon- coastal-zone management programs and plans approved by the sin participate in wedand activities that include policy planning, land National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) are eli- acquisition and management, restoration and creation, research, and gible for Federal funding and technical assistance through the public education. Some of the organizations active in Wisconsin are Coastal Zone Management Act. The Nature Conservancy (land acquisition and management), the Federal agencies are responsible for the management of wet- Sierra Club, Wisconsin Wetland Association, and Wisconsin Envi- lands on public lands under their jurisdiction. There are approxi- ronmental Decade (policy planning and education). Organizations mately 300,000 acres of wetlands in federally managed forests and including Ducks Unlimited, the Audubon Society, Pheasants For- wildlife refuges in Wisconsin. The FwS manages seven sites in Wis- ever, Wisconsin Waterfowl Association, and the Wisconsin Wild- consin: the Trempealeau, Necedah, Upper Mississippi, Horicon, Fox life Federation, in cooperation with the Fws, the NRCS, and the River, Green Bay, and Gravel Island National Wildlife Refuges. The Department of Natural Resources, are involved in projects that cre- Fws also has two wetland-management districts that cover about ate, restore, and enhance wetlands. 11,000 acres. The U.S. Forest Service manages more than I mil- lion acres of land in the Chequarnegon National Forest and almost References Cited 1 million acres of land in the Nicolet National Forest. Both National Forests contain numerous wetlands. The NPs has jurisdiction over Atwood, W.W., 1940, The physiographic provinces of North America: Bos- wetlands in the Apostle Island National Lakeshore, St. Croix Na- ton, Ginn and Company, 536 p. tional Scenic Riverway, and Ice Age National Scientific Reserve' Bushnell, Kent, 1989, Geology of Pennsylvania Wetlands, in Majumdar, which is administered by the Department of Natural Resources S.K., and others, eds., Wetlands ecology and conservation - Empha- sis in Pennsylvania: Easton, The Pennsylvania Academy of Science, Apostle Island National Lakeshore is made up of 21 islands and 12 p. 39-46. miles of shoreline that support many coastal wetlands. The St. Croix Cowardin, L.M., Carter, Virginia, Golet, F.C., and LaRoe, E.T., 1979, Clas- National Scenic Riverway flows through undeveloped parts of north- sification of wetlands and deepwater habitats of the United States: U.S. western Wisconsin. The Ice Age National Scientific Reserve is made Fish and Wildlife Service Report FWS/OBS - 79/31, 131 p. up of nine units spread across the State. The Rural Economic and Community Development service manages farms that the Federal 416 National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: STATE SUMMARIES Dahl,T.E., 1990, Wetlands -Losses in the United States, 1780'sto 1980's: Novitzki, R.P., 1979, An Introduction to Wisconsin wetlands -Plants, hy- Washington, D.C., U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Report to Congress, drology and soils: Wisconsin Geological and Natural History Survey 13 p. Educational Information Series 22, 19 p. Devaul, RX, 1975, Probable yields of wells in the sand-and-gravel aqui- -1982, Hydrology ofWisconsin wetlands: Wisconsin Geological and fer, Wisconsin: Madison, Wisconsin Geological and Natural History Natural History Survey Information Circular 40, 22 p. Survey map. Wisconsin Department ofNatural Resources, 1992a, Wisconsin water qual- Fenneman, N.M., 1946, Physical divisions of the United States: Washing- ity assessment report to Congress 1992: Madison, Wisconsin Depart- ton, D.C., U.S. Geological Survey special map, scale 1:7,000,000. ment of Natural Resources, 220 p. Frazier, B.E., and Kiefer, R.W., 1974, Generalized land cover interpreted _1992b, Wisconsin Wetland Inventory Classification Guide: Madi- from ERTS - I satellite imagery: Madison, University of Wisconsin, son, Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources Publication W2- Institute for Environmental Studies, LRAP Map No. 7. W2023, 3 p. Gebert, W.A., 1986 Wisconsin surface-water resources, in U.S. Geological -undated, Wisconsin wetlands priority plan-An addendum to Survey, National water summary 1985 -Hydrologic events and sur- Wisconsin's 1986-91 statewide comprehensive outdoor recreation face-water resources: U.S. Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper plan: Madison, Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources, 22 p. 2300, p. 485 - 492. Yanggen, D.A., Johnson, C.D., Lee, G.B., Massie, L.R., Mulcahy, L.F., Ruff, Geis, JW., 1985, Environmental influences on the distribution and com- R.L., and Schoenemann, J.A., 1976, Wisconsin wetlands: University position of wetlands in the Great Lakes Basin, in Prince, H.H., and of Wisconsin, Extension Publication G2818, 28 p. D'Itri, F.M., eds., Coastal wetlands: Chelsea, Mich., Lewis Publish- ers, Inc., p. 15-27. Keddy, P.A., and Reznicek, A.A., 1985, Vegetation dynamics, buried seeds, FOR ADDITIONAL INFORMATION: District Chief, U.S. Geological and water level fluctuations on the shorelines of the Great Lakes, in Survey, 6417 Normandy Lane, Madison, WI 53719; Regional Wetland Prince, H.H., and D'Itri, F.M., eds., Coastal wetlands: Chelsea, Mich., Coordinator, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, BHW Building, 1 Federal Lewis Publishers, Inc., p. 33-51. Drive, Fort Snelling, MN 55111 Krohelski, J.T., Ellefson, BR., and Rury, K.S., 1990, Wisconsin water sup- ply and use, in U.S. Geological Survey, National water summary 1987 -Water supply and use: U.S. Geological Survey Water-Supply Prepared by Paper 2350, p. 531-538. Annette C. Heist and Andrew G. Reif, Mitsch, W.J., and Gosselink, J.G., 1986, Wetlands: New York, Van Nostrand U.S. Geological Survey Reinhold Company, 539 p. Moriarty, M.E., 1992, Partners for Wildlife Program -Region 3 final re- port, fiscal year 1992: Washington D.C., U.S. Fish and Wildlife Ser- vice, 11 p. U.S. Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper 2425 National Water Summary-Wetland Resources 417 0 oming Wetland Resources Wetlands cover approximately 1.25 million acres ofWyoming ac- ers, 1979). The distribution of wetlands and deepwater habitats in cording to estimates made in the 1980's (Dahl, 1990; University of Wyoming is shown in figure 2A; only wetlands are discussed herein. Wyoming, 1990). Although wetlands comprise only about 2 percent Wetlands can be vegetated or notivegetated and are classified of the State's area (Dahl, 1990), their ecologic and economic value on the basis of their hydrology, vegetation, and substrate. In this is greater than their surface area might indicate. Wetlands are the summary, wetlands are classified according to the system proposed most diverse ecosystems in Wyoming's semiarid environment. About by Cowardin and others (1979), which is used by the U.S. Fish and 90 percent of the State's wildlife use wetlands daily (University of Wildlife Service (Fws) to map and inventory the Nation's wetlands. Wyoming, 1990). Wyoming wetlands support large numbers of At the most general level of the classification system, wetlands are breeding birds and many species of spring and fall migrants (fig. grouped into five ecological systems: Palustrine, Lacustrine, Riv- 1). Some waterfowl species, such as Canada geese, mallards, red- erine, Estuarine, and Marine. The Palustrine System includes only heads, and the interior populations of trumpeter swans, use open wetlands, whereas the other systems comprise wetlands and water in the wetlands during the winter. Wetlands are the focus of deepwater habitats. Wetlands of the systems that occur in Wyoming varied recreational and tourist activities such as hunting, fishing, are described below. bird watching, camping, and hiking. Water and forage for Wyoming's livestock are provided by wetland areas. System Wetland description Wetlands function as water reservoirs, linking surface and ground water, and as modulators of water quality (Odum, 1979). Palustrine. ................ . Wetlands in which vegetation is predominantly Their hydrologic functions include flood attenuation, water-qual- trees (forested wetlands); shrubs (scrub-shrub ity improvement, water storage, and aquifer recharge and discharge. wetlands); persistent or nonpersistent emergent, erect, rooted, herbaceous plants (persistent- and In the spring, wetlands usually receive flood waters, thereby attenu- nonpersistent-emergent wetlands); or sub- ating flood peaks and reducing erosion. Wetlands can modulate mersed and (or) floating plants (aquatic beds). water quality (Odum, 1979); water is stored in the wetlands, sedi- Also, intermittently to permanently flooded open-water bodies of less than 20 acres in which ment settles out, and nutrients and heavy metals can be removed water is less than 6.6 feet deep. through biological and chemical processes. Depending on hydro- Lacustrine ................. Wetlands within an intermittently to permanently logic conditions, aquifers may be recharged from wetland areas. flooded lake or reservoir. Vegetation, when pres- Some wetlands slowly release water, augmenting strearnflow and ent, is predominantly nonpersistent emergent extending the period of flow later into the summer and fall. plants (nonpersistent-emergent wetlands), or submersed and (or) floating plants (aquatic beds), or both. Riverine ..................... Wetlands within a channel. Vegetation, when pres- ent, is same as in the Lacustrine System. There is no recent estimate for Wyoming of statewide wetland acreage in each of the three ecological systems; however, the Fws National Wetlands Inventory Program currently (1993) is mapping the State at a 1:24,000 scale. As of April 1993, only Yellowstone National Park (about 4 percent of the State) remained unmapped. Inventories of wetlands and permanent water areas significant to waterfowl were conducted in the 1950's by the Fws (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 1955a,b). Those studies found 26 percent of Wyoming's wetlands to be palustrine, 35 percent mixed palustrine and lacustrine, 9 percent lacustrine, and 30 percent riverine. The inventories did not include many shallow plains basins and high mountain wetlands (C.R. Elliott, written commun., 1993); thus, it is not known if the percentages approximate the overall distribu- tion ofWyoming's wetlands. RjMM0X@,_ Wetlands are distributed throughout Wyoming (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 1955a,b). Palustrine wetlands occur through- Figure 1. American avocet at the Laramie out Wyoming and include emergent wetlands such as seasonally Plain Lakes wetland complex. (Photograph flooded basins or flats, fresh marshes, fresh meadows, saline by LuRae Parker Wyoming Game and Fish marshes, and playas; forested wetlands such as swamps; scrub-shrub Department.) wetlands such as shrub swamps and bogs; unconsolidated shore wetlands such as saline flats; and unconsolidated bottom wetlands such as small stock ponds. Freshwater wetlands are more concen- trated in the mountainous areas, whereas the saline wetlands and TYPES AND DISTRIBUTION stock ponds occur in greater density in the basins and plains (fig. 2A). Lacustrine wetlands discussed herein are limited to the shal- Wetlands are lands transitional between terrestrial and deep- lows of reservoirs and naturally occurring lakes. Riverine wetlands water habitats where the water table usually is at or near the land associated with high-gradient streams are concentrated in the moun- WY surface or the land is covered by shallow water (Cowardin and oth- tainous areas, whereas wetlands associated with low-gradient 418 National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: STATE SUMMARIES streams and intermittent streams are more prevalent in basins and any, studies that examine the influence of those factors on the dis- plains. tribution of wetlands in Wyoming. However, published reports in- Wetlands also are distributed throughout the State in areas not dicate that combinations of those factors create conditions that sup- delineated in figure 2A. On a map of the scale of figure 2A, many of port wetlands in Wyoming in four settings: mountain ranges, river the smaller wetlands do not appear because of their size. However, drainages, closed basins, and areas of human activity. these small wetlands are ecologically significant because they some- Wetlands exist in all the major mountain ranges in Wyoming. times are the only source of water and specialized habitat in a large The Wyoming Basin separates the Middle Rocky Mountains from area. Ratti and Kadlec (1992) noted that wetlands, as all resources, the Southern Rocky Mountains, which reach into southeastern gain value from scarcity. The presence of wetlands allows much Wyoming, and the Great Plains extend to the east (fig. 2C). The broader use of the upland areas in and or semiarid climates. Ratti mountain ranges force air masses to rise to higher altitudes, where and Kadlec (1992) stated that wetlands in and and semiarid areas cooling causes increased precipitation (fig. 2D). The average an- are used far more extensively than wetlands in humid regions, where nual precipitation ranges from more than 60 inches in mountain- wetlands are more abundant. An example of the distribution of these ous areas to less than 6 inches in the Wyoming Basin (Martner, small wetlands is shown in figure 2B, an area near Ocean Lake. 1986). High precipitation and runoff in the mountains, coupled with low evaporation, create a net moisture surplus that allows wetlands HYDROLOGIC SETTING to form. Ground-water storage at higher altitude, due to such factors as frequent storms, bedrock depressions, and shallow soils, keeps Wetlands form where there is a water supply at or near the land the water table close to land surface and enhances the development surface. The location and persistence of the supply is a function of of the mountain wetlands (Skinner, 1986). interdependent climatic, physiographic, and hydrologic factors in- Sernipermanently and permanently flooded palustrine and riv- cluding precipitation and runoff patterns, evaporation potential, erine wetlands are associated with river drainages throughout Wyo- topography, and ground-water discharge. There have been few, if ming. Many of these wetlands exist because water storage in moun- A 110. 108- 106* 104' rid 7 44- r Q 1. Nor 42- r 'Chain LJA I WE sp gs ile d COMP yean 0 25 50 MILES WETLANDS AND DEEPWATER HABITATS i I I I J Distribution of wetlands and cleepwater habitats- 0 25 50 KILOMETERS This map shows the approximate distribution of large wetlands in the State. Because of limitations of scale and source material, some wetlands are not shown 0 Predominantly wetland 71 Predominantly deepwater habitat EM Area typified by a high density of small wetlands Figure 2. Wetland distribution in Wyoming and physical and climatic factors that influence wetland distrib- ution in the State. A, Distribution of wetlands and cleepwater habitats. (Sources: A, TE Dahl, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, unpub. data, 1991.) National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: WYOMING 419 tainous areas, reservoirs, or aquifers extends the season of flow on local factors such as the hydrology and soils. Examples of sa- beyond the spring snowmelt period. In mountainous areas, water is line playa wetlands can be found in the Chain Lakes of the Wyo- stored in snowpack, lakes, bogs, riparian areas, and aquifers and ming Basin. The Chain Lakes contain saline, shallow, palustrine then is gradually released from spring through fall. Runoff is higher emergent wetlands; palustrine and lacustrine unconsolidated shore in the mountains than in the basin and plains areas (fig. 2E). Sev- wetlands; and seasonally flooded depressions. These wetlands lie eral large reservoirs on the North Platte River, the Wind -Bighorn within a salt-desert shrub- and sagebrush-covered basin that is one River system, and the Green River control streamflow by storing of the driest areas in Wyoming. Owing to the high evapotranspira- spring runoff and, later in the year, releasing the water to down- tion potential, the area has a net average annual water deficit of from stream users. The extended strearnflow provides water to the asso- 10 to 17 inches per year. The Chain Lakes wetlands are maintained ciated wetlands over a longer period of time, but it limits overbank by ground-water discharge where the land surface intersects with flooding, thus reducing spring flood moisture to riparian wetlands. the water table, but their water level changes in response to precipi- Ground-water discharge supplies much of the base flow to rivers tation and runoff (Charles Reed, Bureau of Land Management, oral and wetlands on the plains of Wyoming. This base flow comes ei- commun., 1993). One attribute of such wetlands is their attenua- ther from water stored in alluvial aquifers or discharged from deeper, tion of the variability in the hydrologic cycle. In the and and semi- bedrock aquifers. These different types of water storage provide the and West, variability rather than stability may actually be the norm moisture necessary for the existence of wetlands along Wyoming's in the hydrologic cycle (Ratti and Kadlec, 1992). The cycle of wet major drainages. and dry years causes constant fluctuations of water levels in lakes Playa wetlands exist in closed basins of various sizes through- and streams. Playas that are dry in drought years take on special out Wyoming. These wetlands may be saline or fresh, depending importance in wet years because many other wetlands are deeply 104'40' 104'39' B 134 N I Northern Rocky Mountains C X Ditch o MtAS r.,,aky Mountains Great Plains 43'12' WVorning Basin 40 Southern Rocky Mountains 0 0.5 1.0 MILES WETILAND SYSTEMS PHYSIOGRAPHIC DIVISIONS I I . Palustrine 0 0.5 1.0 KILOMETERS Lacustrine Riverine E 20 or 20 10 30 f2 70 0.6 7 Q@l to 2 PRECIPITATION RUNOFF -20- Line of equal annual precipitation- -10- Line of equal annual runoff- Interval, in inches, is variable Interval, in inches, is variable Figure2. Continued Wetland distribution in Wyoming and physical and climatic factors that influence wetland distribution in the State. 8, Detail of wetlands west of Ocean Lake in the Wind River Basin. CPhysiography. D, Average annual precipitation. EAverageannual runoff. (Sources: 6, Modified from U.S. Fish and VVildlife Service, 1987. C, Phy@iographic divisions from Fenneman, 1946; Jandforms data from EROS Data Center D and E, Schuetz and others, 1986. 420 National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: STATE SUMMARIES flooded and their submersed vegetation is less available and pro- effects of human activities and natural wetlands associated with a ductive. Ecologically, the fluctuation of water levels has interactive stream is the Bear River wetland, the most productive and diverse effects with the vegetation's germination, establishment, and com- bird habitat in Wyoming. The area contains 23,000 acres of con- petition, adding to the diversity or productivity of these sites (Ratti tinuous wetlands; 97 percent are palustrine and 3 percent are river- and Kadlec, 1992). Osterkamp and Wood (1987) found that water ine (D.C. Lockman and Leonard Serdiuk, Wyoming Game and Fish fluctuation also may aid in the development and enlargement of these Department, written commun., 1984). These wetlands were en- playas through carbonate-rock dissolution, piping, and weathering. hanced by agricultural diversion of water during the spring high The Laramie Plain Lakes wetland complex (fig. 3) consists of flows into the low-gradient flood-plain areas adjacent to the Bear 5,500 acres of riverine, palustrine, and lacustrine wetlands associ- River. The original purpose of the diversions was to flush salts and ated with the Laramie River and small, closed basins (University increase hay-meadow production. The complex hydrology of the ofWyoming, 1990). Many of the closed basins containing playa lakes Bear River system resulted in lengthening the wetland production in this complex are the result of blowouts (Kolm, 1982) caused by period from the original spring runoff period of late May to mid- high winds funneled across the more than 7,000-foot-high plain June to an extended period of late April to early July (D.C. Lockman between mountain ranges. Some lakes are fresh and others are sa- and Leonard Serdiuk, written commun., 1984). The low gradient line. In addition to being significant habitat for many bird species of the Bear River and the existence of old oxbows allowed a mosaic (fig. 1), this complex of wetlands provides habitat for the Wyoming of marshes, other wet areas, and dry nesting areas to develop. toad, an endangered species (fig. 3). When the glaciers retreated Wetlands have developed in stock ponds and in pits and depres- about 17,000 years ago, a population of Wyoming toad was stranded sions resulting from mining. Stock ponds generally receive only in the basin, where it adapted to a grassier, less forested environ- surface-water runoff and are concentrated in and and semiarid ment (Johnson, 1985). basins. The wetlands associated with mining are scattered through- Some small wetlands result from human activities. Irrigation out the State and generally are the result of intersecting the water of farm lands, mining, and stock ponds associated with ranching table during the excavation of the pit, although the wetlands can also have changed or created wetlands. An example of the interactive 110, 106* . ... . ... . .. 44' N WYC MING 42- Laram a C eyenne ... . .... . .. __so, A LO A Figure 3. Laramie Plain Lakes wetland complex and the resident endangered Wyoming toad. A, Laramie Plain Lakes wetland complex. 8, Wyoming toad. (Sources: A, Compiled by CA. Eshelman, U.S. Geological Survey. B, Photograph by LuRae Parker, Wyoming Game and Fish Department.) National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: WYOMING 421 receive surface-water runoff. Wetlands created during reclamation Table 1. Selected wetland-related activities of government of bentonite-mine pits in northeastern Wyoming were designed to agencies and private organizations in Wyoming, 1993 reduce water turbidity from colloids by settlement of sediment and [Source: Classification of activities is generalized from information provided establishment of vegetation (P.R. Ogle, Mariah Associates, oral by agencies and organizations. 9, agency or organization participate$ in commun., 1993). Some studies have compared strip-mine and stock- wetiand-related activity; agency or organization does not participate in wetland-related activity. MAN, management; REG, regulation; R&C, res- pond wetlands. Olson (1979) found that the concentration of chemi- toration and creation; LAN, land acquisition; R&D, research and data col- cal constituents in the water was inversely related to water levels lection; D&I, delineation and inventory] and that strip-mine ponds had different chemical concentrations than stock ponds. Wangsness (1977) discovered that dissolved-oxygen concentrations were smaller, major-ion concentrations were larger, Agency or organization @01 40$ biological communities were less diverse, and chemical fluctuations FEDERAL were more pronounced in strip-mine ponds than in natural ponds Department of Agriculture in northwestern Wyoming near Sheridan. Consolidated Farm Service Agency ........................... ... ... ... ... ... Forest Service .................................................................0e00 Natural Resources Conservation Service ................ ... TRENDS Department of Commerce National Oceanic and Trends in the acreage and types of wetlands in Wyoming are Atmospheric Administration ........................................ ... ... ... the subject of controversy. Dahl (1990) estimated that between the Department of Defense 1780's and 1980's Wyoming lost 38 percent (by area) of its wetlands. Army Corps of Engineers ..............................................0 Skinner (1986), in an examination of historic journals of Lewis and Military reservations .....................................................0... ... ... ... ... Clark, Captain John C. Fremont, and Osborne Russell, cites obser- Department of the Interior Bureau of Land Management ......................................0 vations of changing hydrologic and riparian conditions over the Bureau of Reclamation ................................................. ... ... 1804-1986 period that indicate a change in the type of wetlands Fish and Wildlife Service ..............................................ae o * o along some major streams but do not necessarily support reports Geological Survey .......................................................... ... ... ... ...0 of large losses in wetland acreage. National Biological Service ......................................... ... ... ... ...0 Palustrine wetlands, particularly those created and maintained National Park Service ...................................................00 0 0 Environmental Protection Agency .................................. ... by seasonal flooding, have decreased in area, owing to agricultural NORTHERN ARAPAHO AND EASTERN and urban activities, although the loss has not been quantified (U.S. SHOSHONE TRIBES ........................................................... Fish and Wildlife Service, 1990). Knight (1991) reported that, in STATE the Bighom River flood plain between 1938 and 1986, woodlands Department of Agriculture ............................................... ... ... decreased, shrublands increased, the area of meadow and marshes Department of Commerce fluctuated before 1961 but stabilized since that time, and salt ce- Economic and Community Development ................... Department of Environmental Quality dar increased. Knight (1991) suggests that some of these changes Abandoned Mine Land Division .................................. might have been related to the construction of dams on the Bighorn Industrial Siting ............................................................... ...* River. Land Quality Division ..................................................... ...0 Approximately 230,000 acres of deepwater reservoir habitat Solid and Hazardous Waste ......................................... ...0 have been created in Wyoming. The operation of reservoirs for ir- Water Quality Division ................................................... ...0 Department of Transportation .........................................9 rigation and power production can cause downstream water-level Game and Fish Department ..............................................0 fluctuations that are unfavorable to the regeneration of riparian and Geological Survey .............................................................. ... ... ... ... other wetland vegetation (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 1990). Oil and Gas Commission ................................................... ...0 Conversely, flood-irrigation systems have created wetlands as a State Engineer's Office ...................................................... ...0 result of canal and dam seepage. Urban development, especially in State Land and Farm Loan Board ...................................9 . ... ... ... University of Wyoming ......................................................0 the Jackson area, has resulted in both direct wetland loss and de- Water Development Commission ....................................0 cline in wetland quality (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 1990). COUNTY AND LOCAL .........................................................0 Shallow pond acreage, primarily stock ponds, has increased sub- PRIVATE ORGANIZATIONS stantially in Wyoming. Ducks Unlimited .................................... .............................a Powder River Resource Council ..................................... ... ... ... The National Audubon Society .......................................0 CONSERVATION The Nature Conservancy ..................................................0 Pheasants Forever .............................................................0 Many government agencies and private organizations partici- Trout Unlimited ....................................................................0 pate in wetland conservation in Wyoming. The most active agen- Wyoming Association of Conservation Districts 9 cies and organizations and some of their activities are listed in table Wyoming Riparian Association ....................................... ... ... ... ...0 Wyoming Stockgrowers Association ............................ ... ... ... ... 0 1. Federal wetland activities. -Development activities inWyo- Wyoming Wildlife Federation .......................................... ... ... ming wetlands are regulated by several Federal statutory prohibi- tions and incentives that are intended to slow wetland losses. Some permits regulating the discharge of dredged or fill material into of the more important of these are contained in the 1899 Rivers and wetlands. Permits are subject to review and possible veto by the U.S. Harbors Act; the 1972 Clean Water Act and amendments; the 1985 Environmental Protection Agency, and the Fws has review and ad- Food Security Act; the 1990 Food, Agriculture, Conservation, and visory roles. Section 401 of the Clean Water Act grants to States Trade Act; and the 1986 Emergency Wetlands Resources Act. and eligible Indian Tribes the authority to approve, apply conditions Section 10 of the Rivers and Harbors Act gives the U.S. Army to, or deny section 404 permit applications on the basis of a pro- Corps of Engineers (Corps) authority to regulate certain activities posed activity's probable effects on the water quality of a wetland. in navigable waters. Regulated activities include diking, deepening, Most farming, ranching, and silviculture activities are not sub- filling, excavating, and placing of structures. The related section 404 ject to section 404 regulation. However, the "Swampbuster" provi- of the Clean Water Act is the most often-used Federal legislation sion of the 1985 Food Security Act and amendments in the 1990 protecting wetlands. Under section 404 provisions, the Corps issues Food, Agriculture, Conservation, and Trade Act discourage-(through 422 National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: STATE SUMMARIES financial disincentives) the draining, filling, or other alteration of Knight, Dennis, 199 1, Riparian vegetation dynamics, in Proceedings of the wetlands for agricultural use. The law allows exemptions from pen- Riparian Workshop, August 20-22, 1991: Laramie, University of alties in some cases, especially if the farmer agrees to restore the Wyoming, p. 24-32. altered wetland or other wetlands that have been converted to agri- Kolm, K.E., 1982, Predicting the surface wind characteristics of southern cultural use. The Wetlands Reserve Program of the 1990 Food, Wyoming from remote sensing and eolian geornorpbology, in Marrs, R.W., and Kolm, K.E., eds., Interpretation of windflow characteris- Agriculture, Conservation, and Trade Act authorizes the Federal tics from eolian landforms: Geological Society of America Special Government to purchase conservation easements from landowners Paper 192, p. 25-53. who agree to protect or restore wetlands. The Consolidated Farm Mariner, B.E., 1986, Wyoming climate atlas: Lincoln, University of Ne- Service Agency (formerly the Agricultural Stabilization and Con- braska Press, 432 p. servation Service) administers the Swampbuster provisions andWet- Odum, E.P., 1979, The value of wetlands-A hierarchical approach, in lands Reserve Program. The Natural Resources Conservation Greeson, RE., and others, eds., Wetland functions and values -The Service (formerly the Soil Conservation Service) determines com- state of our understanding -Proceedings of the National Symposium pliance with Swampbuster provisions and assists farmers in the iden- on Wetlands, November 1978, Minneapolis, Minn.: American Water tification of wetlands and in the development of wetland protection, Resources Association, p. 16- 25. Olson, R.A., 1979, Ecology of wetland vegetation on selected strip mine restoration, or creation plans. ponds and stockdams in the northern Great Plains: Fargo, North Da- The 1986 Emergency Wetlands Resources Act encourages wet- kota State University, Ph.D. thesis, 476 p. land protection through funding incentives. The act requires States Osterkamp, W.R., and Wood, W.W., 1987, Playa-lake basins on the south- to address wetland protection in their Statewide Comprehensive em High Plains of Texas and New Mexico-Part 1, Hydrologic, geo- Outdoor Recreation Plans to qualify for Federal funding for State morphic, and geologic evidence for their development: Geological recreational land; the National Park Service provides guidance to Society ofAmerica Bulletin, v. 99, p. 215 -223. States in developing the wetland component of their plans. Ratti, J.T., and Kadlec, J.A., 1992, Concept plan for the preservation of State wetland activities. -The Wyoming Wetlands Act is the wetland habitat of the intermountain West, North American waterfowl basis for wetland program development by the State. The act desig- management plan: U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Region 1, Portland, Oreg., 146 p. nates the Wyoming Department of Environmental Quality's Water Schuetz, JR., Trefren, D.A., and Lowham, H.W., 1986, Wyoming surface- Quality Division as the lead agency for developing guidance for the water resources, in U.S. Geological Survey, National water summary evaluation of wetland ecological functions and values and for es- 1985 -Hydrologic events and surface-water resources: U.S. Geologi- tablishment ofa statewide wetland-mitigation bank. Section 35- 11 - cal Survey Water-Supply Paper 2300, p. 493 -498. 309(d) of Wyoming Statutes and the Legislative Policy and Intent Skinner, Q.D., 1986, Riparian zones then and now, in Proceedings of the of the Wyoming Wetlands Act differentiates between naturally oc- Wyoming Water 1986 and Strearnside Zone Conference, Casper, April curring wetlands and wetlands resulting from human activities. As 28-30, 1986: Casper, Wyoming Water Research Center and Univer- part of the Wyoming Wetlands Act, the State is considering the use sity of Wyoming Agricultural Extension Service, p. 8 - 22. of a wetland bank for tracking and mitigation of welland disturbance U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 1955a, Wetlands inventory of Wyoming: Billings, Mont., U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 33 p. and for creation management. Use of water, an essential pan of any _1955b, Permanent water inventory -Wyoming: Billings, Mont., wetland, also is regulated by State laws, seven interstate compacts, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 9 p. and various U.S. Supreme Court decrees (Wolfe, 1986). 1987, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service National Wetlands Inventory County and local wetland activities. -Wetland activities at map-Pavillion, Wyo., quadrangle: St. Petersburg, Fla., U.S. Fish and county and local government levels differ throughout the State. Wildlife Service, scale 1:24,000. Wetland considerations commonly are addressed as part of the -1990, Regional wetlands concept plan-Emergency Wetlands Re- county zoning or land-use plans in Wyoming's 23 counties. Con- sources Act: Lakewood, Colo., U,S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Moun- servation Districts often are active in implementing wetland projects. tain-Prairie Region, 90 p. Private wetland activities. -Ducks Unlimited and The Nature University ofWyoming, 1990, Wyoming State comprehensive outdoor rec- reation plan: Cheyenne, Wyo., Department of Commerce, 274 p. Conservancy are active in the acquisition and management of wet- Wangsness, D.J., 1977, Physical, chemical, and biological relations of four land areas. Other organizations participating in wetland-protection ponds in the Hidden Water Creek strip-mine area, Powder River Ba- activities in Wyoming include Trout Unlimited, the National sin, Wyoming: U.S. Geological Survey Water-Resources Investigations Audubon Society, the Powder River Resource Council, the Wyoming Report 77-72, 48 p. Wildlife Federation, the Wyoming Stockgrowers Association, the Wolfe, L.J., 1986, Federal/State water laws, in Proceedings of the Wyoming Wyoming Riparian Association, and the Sierra Club. Water 1986 and Strearnside Zone Conference, Casper, April 28-30, 1986: Casper, Wyoming Water Research Center and University of References Cited Wyoming Agricultural Extension Service, p. 24-32. Cowardin, L.M., Carter, Virginia, Golet, F.C., and LaRoe, E.T., 1979, Clas- FOR ADDITIONAL INFORMATION: District Chief, U.S. Geological sification ofwetlands and deepwater habitats oftheUnited States: U.S. Survey, 2617 East Lincolnway, Suite B, Cheyenne, WY 82001; Regional Fish and Wildlife Service Report FWS/OBS -79/31, 131 p. Weiland Coordinator, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Fish and Wildljfe Dahl, T.E., 1990, Wetlands -Losses in the United States, 1780's to 1980's: Enhancement, RO. Box 25486, Denver Federal Center, Denver, CO 80225 Washington, D.C., U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Report to Congress, 13 p. Fermeman, N.M., 1946, Physical divisions of the United States: Washing- Prepared by ton, D.C., U.S. Geological Survey special map, scale 1:7,000,000. Kathy Muller Ogle, Johnson, Kevin, 1985, More time for the Wyoming toad: Wyoming Wild- U.S. Geological Survey life, v. IL, no. 5, p. 28-33. Conversion TaHe and Glossary V Sunset on the San Joaquin Delta near Stockton, California. (Photograph by Steve Van Denburgh, U.S. Geological Survey.) 424 National Water Surnmary-Wetland Resources: EQUIVALENTS/CONVERSION FACTORS Conversion Factors The following list provides the necessary factors for converting U.S. Customary (inch-pound) units used in this National Water Summary to International System (metric) and other commonly used U.S. Cus- tomary units. Units, which are written in abbreviated form below, are spelled out in parentheses the first time that they appear. Most of the quantities listed are rounded to five significant figures. However, quan- fities shown in italics are exact equivalents-no rounding was necessary. To convert the unit in the left- hand column to that in the right, multiply by the number in the right-hand column, except for temperature. For temperature, use the equation provided. The data in this list were adapted largely from information found in the following publications: Chisholm, L.J., 1967, Units of weight and measure-International (Metric) and U.S. Customary: U.S. National Bureau of Standards Miscellaneous Publication 286, 251 p. U.S. Geological Survey, 1919, Hydraulic conversion tables and convenient equivalents (2d ed.): U.S. Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper 425-C, p. C71-C94. U.S. CUSTOMARY U.S. CUSTOMARY (INCH-POUND) OR (INCH-POUND) INTERNATIONAL SYSTEM (METRIC) LENGTH I in (inch) 25.4 mm (millimeters) 1 ft (foot) 0.3048 m (meter) 1 mi (mile) 5,280. ft 1,609.344 m 1.609344 km (kilometers) AREA 1 ft2 (sq u are foot) 0.09290304 m2 (square meter) I acre 43,560. ft2 (square feet) 0.0015625 Mi2 (square mile) 0.40469 ha (hectare) 4,046.9 m2 1 Mi2 640. acres 259.00 ha 2.5900 km 2 (square kilometers) VOLUME OR CAPACITY (liquid measure) 1 gal (gallon, U.S.) 231. in 3(cubic inches) 0.13368 ft3 (cubic foot) 3.7854 L (liter) 0.0037854 m3 (cubic meter) I Mgal (million gallons) 3.0689 acre-ft (acre-feet) 1 ft3 1,728. in 3 7.4805 gal 28.317 L 0.028317 m 3 1 acre-ft* 43,560. ft3 0.32585 Mgal 1,233.5 m3 SPEED 1 mi/hr (mile per hour) 1.4667 ft/s (feet per second) 0.44704 m/s (meter per second) VOLUME PER UNIT OF TIME 1 ft3/S (cubic foot per second) 448.83 gal/min 0.64632 Mgal/d 1.9835 acre-ft/d (acre-feet per day) 28.317 L/s (liters per second) TEMPERATURE [OF (degrees, Fahrenheit) to IC (degrees, Celsius)] (OF - 32) x 5/9 = OC Volume of water 1 foot deep covering an area of 1 acre. U.S. Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper 2425 National Water Surnmary-Wetland Resources: SUPPLEMENTAL INFORMATION 425 Glossary Absorption-the process by which substances in gas- slowed or turned back by an obstruction such as eous, liquid, or solid form are assimilated or taken a bridge or dam, an opposing current, or the move- up by other substances. ment of the tide. Acid-pH of water less than 5.5; pH modifier used Bacteria-single-celled microscopic organisms. in the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service wetland clas- Bank storage-the change in the amount of water sification system. stored in an aquifer resulting from a change in Acidic-has a pH of less than 7. stage of an adjacent surface-water body. Acidic deposition-the transfer of acidic or acidify- Barrier bar-an elongate offshore ridge submerged ing substances from the atmosphere to the surface at least at high tide, built up by the action of waves of the Earth or to objects on its surface. Transfer or currents. can be either by wet-deposition processes (rain, Barrier beach-a narrow, elongate sandy ridge ris- snow, dew, fog, frost, hail) or by dry deposition ing slightly above the high-tide level and extend- (gases, aerosols, or fine to coarse particles). ing generally parallel with the mainland shore, but Acre-foot (acre-ft)-the volume of water needed to separated from it by a lagoon. cover an acre of land to a depth of one foot; Base flow-the sustained low flow of a stream, usu- equivalent to 43,560 cubic feet or 325,851 gal- ally ground-water inflow to the stream channel. lons. Basic-the opposite of acidic; has a pH of greater Adsorption-the adherence of gas molecules, ions, than 7. or molecules in solution to the surface of solids. Bed material-sediment composing the streambed. Aerate-to supply air to water, soil, or other media. Bedrock-a general term used for solid rock that un- Aerobic-pertaining to or caused by the presence of derlies soils or other unconsolidated material. oxygen. Benthic organism-a form of aquatic life that lives Algal bloom-the rapid proliferation of passively on the bottom or near the bottom of streams, lakes, floating, simple plant life, such as blue-green al- or oceans. gae, in and on a body of water. Bind-to exert a strong chemical attraction. Alkaline-has a pH greater than 7; pH modifier in the Biochernical-oxygen demand (BOD)-the amount of U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service wetland classifi- oxygen, in milligrams per liter, that is removed cation system; in common usage, a pH of water from aquatic environments by the life processes greater than 7.4. of micro-organisms. Alluvium- general term for sediments of gravel, Biochemical process-a process characterized by, sand, silt, clay, or other particulate rock material produced by, or involving chemical reactions in deposited by flowing water, usually in the beds of living organisms. rivers and streams, on a flood plain, on a delta, or Biomass-the amount of living matter, in the form at the base of a mountain. of organisms, present in a particular habitat, usu- Alpine snow glade-a marshy clearing between ally expressed as weight-per-unit area. slopes above the timberline in mountains. Biota-all living organisms of an area. Anadromous fish-migratory species that are born Blowout-a small saucer or trough-shaped hollow or in freshwater, live mostly in estuaries and ocean depression formed by wind erosion on a pre- water, and return to freshwater to spawn. existing dune or other sand deposit. Anaerobic- pertaining to or caused by the absence Bog-a nutrient-poor, acidic wetlarid dominated by of oxygen. a waterlogged spongy mat of sphagurn moss that Anthropogenic-having to do with or caused by hu- ultimately forms a thick layer of acidic peat; gen- mans. erally has no inflow or outflow; fed primarily by Anticline-a fold in the Earth's crust, convex upward, rain water. whose core contains stratigraphically older rocks. Bolson-an extensive, flat, saucer-shaped, alluvium- Aquatic-living or growing in or on water. floored basin or depression, almost or completely Aquaculture-the science of farming organisms that surrounded by mountains and from which drain- live in water, such as fish, shellfish, and algae. age has no surface outlet; a term used in the desert Aquifer- a geologic formation, group of formations, regions of the Southwestern United States. or part of a formation that contains sufficient satu- Boreal-a climatic zone having a definite winter with rated permeable material to yield significant quan- snow and a short summer that is generally hot, and tities of water to springs and wells. which is characterized by a large annual range of Arroyo-a small, deep, flat-floored channel or gully temperature. of an ephemeral or intermittent stream, usually Bosque-a dense growth of trees and underbrush. with nearly vertical banks cut into unconsolidated Bottom land-See flood plain. material-term commonly used in the and and Bottom-land fore st-low -lying forested wetland semiarid regions of the Southwestern United found along streams and rivers, usually on allu- States. vial flood plains. Atmospheric pressure-the pressure exerted by the Brackish water-water with a salinity intermediate atmosphere on any surface beneath or within it; between seawater and freshwater (containing from equal to 14.7 pounds per square inch at sea level. 1,000 to 10,000 milligrams per liter of dissolved Backwater-a body of water in which the flow is solids). 426 National Water Surnmary-Wetland Resources: GLOSSARY Braided river-a river that divides into or follows an Degraded-condition of the quality of water that has interlacing or tangled network of several small been made unfit for some specified purpose. branching and reuniting shallow channels. Delta-the low, nearly flat tract of land at or near the Brine-water that contains more than 35,000 milli- mouth of a river, resulting from the accumulation grams per liter of dissolved solids. of sediment supplied by the river in such quanti- Calcareous-formed of calcium carbonate or mag- ties that it is not removed by tides, waves, or cur- nesium carbonate by biological deposition or in- rents. Commonly a triangular or fan-shaped plain. organic precipitation in sufficient quantities to ef- Direct runoff-the runoff entering stream channels fervesce when treated with cold hydrochloric acid. promptly after rainfall or snowmelt. Caldera-a large, more or less circular, basin-shaped Discharge-the volume of fluid passing a point per volcanic depression whose diameter is many times unit of time, commonly expressed in cubic feet per greater than the volcanic vent. second, million gallons per day, gallons per Channel scour-erosion by flowing water and sedi- minute, or seconds per minute per day. ment on a stream channel; results in removal of Discharge area (ground water)-area where subsur- mud, silt, and sand on the outside curve of a stream face water is discharged to the land surface, to bend and the bed material of a stream channel. surface water, or to the atmosphere. Channelization-the straightening and deepening of Dissolved oxygen-oxygen dissolved in water; one a stream channel to permit the water to move faster of the most important indicators of the condition or to drain a wet area for farming. of a water body. Dissolved oxygen is necessary Cienaga-a marshy area where the ground is wet due for the life of fish and most other aquatic organ- to the presence of seepage or springs. isms. Circurnneutral-pH of water between 5.5 and 7.4; pH Dissolved solids-miinerals and organic matter dis- modifier used in the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Ser- solved in water. vice wetland classification system. Dolomite-a sedimentary rock consisting chiefly of Cirque-a deep, steep-walled half-bowllike recess or magnesium carbonate. hollow situated high on the side of a mountain and Dominant plant-the plant species controlling the commonly at the head of a glacial valley and pro- environment. duced by the erosive activity of mountain glaciers. Drainage basin-the land area drained by a river or Concentration- the ratio of the quantity of any sub- stream. stance present in a sample of a given volume or a Drought-a prolonged period of less-than-normal given weight compared to the volume or weight precipitation such that the lack of water causes a of the sample. serious hydrologic imbalance. Confining layer-a body of impermeable or distinctly Ecosystem-a community of organisms considered less pen-neable material stratigraphically adjacent together with the nonliving factors of its environ- to one or more aquifers that restricts the movement ment. of water into and out of the aquifers. Emergent plants-erect, rooted, herbaceous plants Conglomerate-a coarse-grained sedimentary rock that may be temporarily to permanently flooded composed of fragments larger than 2 millimeters at the base but do not tolerate prolonged inunda- in diameter. tion of the entire plant. Contact recreation-recreational activities where Endangered species-a. species that is in imminent there is prolonged or intimate contact with water danger of becoming extinct. and in which there is a likelihood of ingesting Environment-the sum of all conditions and influ- water. ences affecting the life of organisms. Contributing area-the area in a drainage basin that Ephemeral stream-a stream or part of a stream that contributes water to strearnflow or recharge to an flows only in direct response to precipitation; it aquifer. receives little or no water from springs, melting Coral reef-a ridge of limestone, composed chiefly snow, or other sources; its channel is at all times of coral, coral sands, and solid limestone result- above the water table. ing from organic secretion of calcium carbonate; Erosion-the process whereby materials of the occur along continents and islands where the tem- Earth's crust are loosened, dissolved, or worn perature is generally above 18* C. away and simultaneously moved from one place Core sample-a. sample of rock, soil, or other ma- to another. terial obtained by driving a hollow tube into the Estuarine wetlands-tidal wetlands in low-wave-en- undisturbed medium and withdrawing it with its ergy environments where the salinity of the water contained sample. is greater than 0.5 part per thousand and is vari- Cypress dome-small, isolated, circular, depression- able owing to evaporation and the mixing of sea- al, forested wetlands, in which cypress predomi- water and freshwater; tidal wetlands of coastal riv- nates, that have convex silhouettes when viewed ers and embayments, salty tidal marshes, man- from a distance. grove swamps, and tidal flats. Deciduous shedding foliage at the end of the grow- Estuary-area where the current of a stream meets ing season. the ocean and where tidal effects are evident; an Deepwater habitat-permanently flooded lands lying arm of the ocean at the lower end of a river. below the deepwater boundary of wetlands. Eutrophication-the process by which water be- National Water Surnmary-Wetland Resources: SUPPLEMENTAL INFORMATION 427 comes enriched with plant nutrients, most com- Ground water-in the broadest sense, all subsurface monly phosphorus and nitrogen. water; more commonly that part of the subsurface Evaporation-the process by which water is changed water in the saturated zone. to gas or vapor; occurs directly from water sur- Ground-water flow system-the underground path- faces and from the soil. way by which ground water moves from areas of Evaporites- a class of sedimentary rocks composed recharge to areas of discharge. primarily of minerals precipitated from a saline Growing season-the frost-free period of the year. solution as a result of extensive or total evapora- Habitat-the par t of the physical environment in tion of water. which a plant or animal lives. Evapotranspiration-a term that includes water dis- Hardpan-a relatively hard, impervious, and usually charged to the atmosphere as a result of evapora- clayey layer of soil lying at or just below land tion from the soil and surface-water bodies and by surface-produced as a result of cementation by plant transpiration. precipitation of insoluble minerals. Exotic species-plants or animals not native to the Herbaceous-with characteristics of an herb; a plant area. with no persistent woody stem above ground. Fall line-imaginary line marking the boundary be- Herbicide-a type of pesticide designed to kill plants. tween the ancient, resistant crystalline rocks ofthe Hydraulic head-the height of the free surface of a Piedmont province of the Appalachian Mountains, body of water above a given point beneath the and the younger, softer sediments of the Atlantic surface. Coastal Plain province in the Eastern United Hydraulic gradient-the change of hydraulic head per States. Along rivers, this line commonly is re- unit of distance in a given direction. flected by waterfalls. Hydric soil-soil that is wet long enough to periodi- Fallow-cropland, tilled or untilled, allowed to lie cally produce anaerobic conditions, thereby influ- idle during the whole or greater part of the grow- encing the growth of plants. ing season. Hydrologic cycle-the circulation of water from the Fen-peat-accumulating wetland that generally re- sea, through the atmosphere, to the land, and ceives water from surface runoff and (or) seepage thence back to the sea by overland and subterra- from mineral soils in addition to direct precipita- nean routes. tion; generally alkaline; or slightly acid. Hydrology-the science that deals with water as it Filtrate-hquid that has been passed through a filter. occurs in the atmosphere, on the surface of the Flood-any relatively high strearnflow that overflows ground, and underground. the natural or artificial banks of a stream. Hydrophyte-any plant growing in water or on a sub - Flood attenuation-a weakening or reduction in the strate that is at least periodically deficient in oxy- force or intensity of a flood. gen as a result of excessive water content. Flood plain-a strip of relatively flat land bordering Hydrostatic pressure-the pressure exerted by the a stream channel that is overflowed at times of water at any given point in a body of water at rest. high water. Hydrologic regime-the characteristic behavior and Fluvial-pertaining to a river or stream. total quantity of water involved in a drainage ba- Flyway-a specific air route taken by birds during sin. migration. Igneous rocks-rocks that have solidified from mol- Freshwater-water with less than 1,000 milligrams ten or partly molten material. per liter of dissolved solids. Immobilize-to hold by a strong chemical attraction. Friable-descriptive of a rock or mineral that Impaired-condition of the quality of water that has crumbles naturally or is easily broken, pulverized, been adversely affected for a specific use by con- or reduced to powder. tamination or pollution. Geornorphic-pertaining to the form of the Earth or Indurated-cemented, hardened, or a rocklike con- of its surface features. dition. Geomorphology-the science that treats the general Infiltration-the downward movement of water from configuration of the Earth's surface; the descrip- the atmosphere into soil or porous rock. tion of landforms. Inorganic-containing no carbon; matter other than Glacial-of or relating to the presence and activities plant or animal. of ice or glaciers. Inorganic soil-soil with less than 20 percent organic Glacial drift-a general term for rock material trans - matter in the upper 16 inches. ported by glaciers or icebergs and deposited di- Integrated drainage-drainage developed during rectly on land or in the sea. maturity in an and region, characterized by coa- Glacial lake-a lake that derives its water, or much lescence ofdrainage basins as a result ofheadward of its water, from the melting of glacial ice; also erosion in the lower basins or spilling over from a lake that occupies a basin produced by glacial the upper basins. erosion. Interface-in hydrology, the contact zone between Glacial outwash-stratified detritus (chiefly sand and two fluids of different chemical or physical gravel) "washed out" from a glacier by meltwa- makeup. ter streams and deposited in front of or beyond the Intermittent stream-a stream that flows only when end moraine or the margin of an active glacier. it receives water from rainfall runoff or springs, 428 National Water Surnmary-Wetland Resources: GLOSSARY or from some surface source such as melting a specified time period, such as tons per year. snow. Loess-a widespread, homogeneous, commonly Intermontane-situated between or surrounded by nonstratified, porous, friable, slightly coherent, mountains, mountain ranges, or mountainous re- fine-grained blanket deposit of wind-blown and gions. wind-deposited silt and fine sand. Internal drainage-surface drainage whereby the Main stem-the principal trunk of a river or a stream. water does not reach the ocean, such as drainage Marine wetland-wetlands that are exposed to waves toward the lowermost or central part of an inte- and currents of the open ocean and to water hav- rior basin. ing a salinity greater than 30 parts per thousand; Inte.rtidal-alteTnately flooded and exposed by tides. present along the coastlines of the open ocean. lon-a positively or negatively charged atom or group Marsh-a water-saturated, poorly drained area, inter- of atoms. mittently or permanently water covered, having Irrigation-controlled application of water to arable aquatic and grasslike vegetation. land to supply requirements of crops not satisfied Maturity-a stage in the evolutionary erosion of land by rainfall. areas where the flat uplands have been widely Karst-a type of topography that results from disso- dissected by deep river valleys. lution and collapse of carbonate rocks such as Maturity (stream)-the stage in the development of limestone, dolomite, and gypsum, and that is char- a stream at which it has reached its maximum acterized by closed depressions or sinkholes, efficiency, when velocity is just sufficient to carry caves, and underground drainage. the sediment delivered to it by tributaries; char- Kettle-a steep-sided hole or depression, commonly acterized by a broad, open, flat-floored valley without surface drainage, formed by the melting having a moderate gradient and gentle slope. of a large detached block of stagnant ice that had Mean low tide-the average altitude of all low tides been buried in the glacial drift. recorded at a given place over a 19-year period. Kettle lake-a body of water occupying a kettle, as Mean high tide-the average altitude of all high tides in a pitted outwash plain or in a kettle moraine. recorded at a given place over a 19-year period. Lacustrine-pertaining to, produced by, or formed in Mesophyte-any plant growing where moisture and a lake. aeration conditions lie between the extremes of Lacustrine wetlands-wetlands within a take or res- 11 wet" and "dry." ervoir greater than 20 acres or within a lake or Metamorphic rocks-rocks derived from preexisting reservoir less than 20 acres if the water is greater rocks by mineralogical, chemical, or structural than 2 meters deep in the deepest part of the ba- changes (essentially in a solid state) in response sin; ocean-derived salinity is less than 0.5 part per to marked changes in temperature, pressure, thousand. shearing stress, and chemical environment at Lagoon-a shallow stretch of seawater (or lakewater) depth in the Earth's crust. near or communicating with the sea (or lake) and Mineral soil-soil composed predominantly of min- partly or completely separated from it by a low, eral rather than organic materials; less than 20 narrow, elongate strip of land. percent organic material. Latent heat-the amount of heat given up or absorbed Mitigation-actions taken to avoid, reduce, or com- when a substance changes from one state to an- pensate for the effects of human-induced environ- other, such as from a liquid to a solid. mental damage. Lateral moraine-a low ridgelike moraine carried on, Montane-of, pertaining to, or inhabiting cool upland or deposited near, the side margin of a mountain slopes below the timber line; characterized by the glacier. dominance of evergreen trees. Leachate-a liquid that has percolated through soil Moraine-a mound, ridge, or other distinct accumu- containing soluble substances and that contains lation of unsorted, unstratified glacial drift, pre- certain amounts of these substances in solution. dominantly till, deposited chiefly by direct action Life zone-major area of plant atid animal life; re- of glacier ice. gion characterized by particular plants and ani- Muck-dark, finely divided, well- decomposed, or- mals and distinguished by temperature differ- ganic matter forming a surface deposit in some ences. poorly drained areas. Limestone-a sedimentary rock consisting chiefly of Muskeg-large expanses of peatlands or bogs that calcium carbonate, primarily in the form of the occur in subarctic zones. mineral calcite. National Geodetic Vertical Datum of 1929-geodetic Limnetic-the deepwater zone (greater than 2 meters datum derived from a general adjustment of first- deep); a subsystem of the Lacustrine System of order level nets of the United States and Canad a- the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service wetland clas- formerly called "Sea Level Datum of 1929." sification system. Natural levee-a long, broad, low ridge built by a Littoral-the shallow-water zone (less than 2 meters stream on its flood plain along one or both banks deep); a subsystem of the Lacustrine System of of its channel in time of flood. the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service wetland clas- Navigable water-in the context of the Clean Water sification system. Act, all surface water. Load-material that is moved or carried by streams, Noncontact water recreation-recreational activities, reported as weight of material transported during such as fishing or boating, that do not include di- National Water Summary-Wetiand Resources: SUPPLEMENTAL INFORMATION 429 rect contact with the water. forms differ significantly from those of adjacent Nonpersistent emergent plants-emergent plants regions. whose leaves and stems break down at the end of Physiography-a description of the surface features the growing season from decay or by the physi- of the Earth, with an emphasis on the mode or cal forces of waves and ice; at certain seasons, origin. there are no visible traces of the plants above the Pioneer plant-herbaceous annual and perennial surface of the water. seedling plants that colonize bare areas as a first Nonpoint source-a source (of any water-carried stage in secondary succession. material) from a broad area, rather than from dis- Piping-erosion by percolating water in a layer of crete points. subsoil, resulting in caving and in the formation Nuisance species-undesirable plants and animals, of narrow conduits, tunnels, or "pipes" through commonly exotic species. which soluble or granular soil material is re- Nutrient-any inorganic or organic compound moved. needed to sustain plant life. Placer-a surficial mineral deposit formed by me- Organic-containing carbon, but possibly also con- chanical concentration of mineral particles from taining hydrogen, oxygen, chlorine, nitrogen, and weathered debris. other elements. Playa-a dry, flat area at the lowest part of an Organic soil-soil that contains more than 20 percent undrained desert basin in which water accumu- organic matter in the upper 16 inches. lates and is quickly evaporated; underlain by Orographic-pertaining to mountains, in regard to stratified clay, silt, or sand and commonly by their location and distribution; said of the precipi- soluble salts; term used in Southwestern United tation caused by the lifting of moisture-laden air States. over mountains. Playa lake-a shallow, temporary lake in an and or Overland flow-the flow of rainwater or snowmelt semiarid region, covering or occupying a playa in over the land surface toward stream channels. the wet season but drying up in summer; tempo- Oxbow-a bow-shaped lake formed in an abandoned rary lake that upon evaporation leaves or forms a meander of a river. playa. Palustrine wetlands-freshwater wetlands including Pocosin-a local term along the Atlantic coastal open water bodies of less than 20 acres in which plain, from Virginia south, for a shrub -scrub wet- water is less than 2 meters deep; includes marshes, land located on a relatively flat terrain, often be- wet meadows, fens, playas, potholes, pocosins, tween streams. bogs, swamps, and shallow ponds; most wetlands Point source-originating at any discrete source. are in the Palustrine system. Population-a collection of individuals of one spe- Pathogen-any living organism that causes disease. cies or mixed species making up the residents of Peat-a highly organic soil, composed of partially a prescribed area. decomposed vegetable matter. Porosity-the ratio of the volume of voids in a rock Perched ground water-unconfined ground water or soil to the total volume. separated from an underlying main body of Potential evapotranspiration-the amount of mois- ground water by an unsaturated zone. ture which, if available, would be removed from Percolation-die movement, under hydrostatic pres- a given land area by evapotranspiration, expressed sure, of water through interstices of a rock or soil in units of water depth. (except the movement through large openings Prairie pothole-a shallow depression, generally such as caves). containing wetlands, occurring in an outwash Periphyton-micro-organisms that coat rocks, plants, plain, a recessional moraine, or a till plain; usu- and other surfaces on lake bottoms. ally the result of melted blocks of covered glacial Perennial stream-a stream that normally has water ice; occur most commonly in the North-Central in its channel at all times. United States and in States west of the Great Lakes Permafrost-any frozen soil, subsoil, surficial de- from Wisconsin to eastern Montana. posit, or bedrock in arctic or subarctic regions Precipitation-any or all forms of water particles that where below-freezing temperatures have existed fall from the atmosphere, such as rain, snow, hail, continuously from two to tens of thousands of and sleet. The act or process of producing a solid years. phase within a liquid medium. Permeability-the capacity of a rock for transmitting Pristine-the earliest condition of the quality of a a fluid; a measure of the relative ease with which water body; unaffected by human activities. a porous medium can transmit a liquid. Rain shadow-a dry region on the lee side of a topo- Pesticide-any substance used to kill plant or animal graphic obstacle, usually a mountain range, where pests; major categories of pesticides include her- rainfall is noticeably less than on the windward bicides and insecticides. side. pH-a measure of the acidity (less than 7) or alka- Reach-a continuous part of a stream between two linity (greater than 7) of a solution; a pH of 7 is specified points. considered neutral. Reaeration-the replenishment of oxygen in water Photosynthesis-the synthesis of compounds with from which oxygen has been removed. the aid of light. Recessional moraine-an end moraine built during Physiographic province-a region in which the land- a temporary but significant pause in the final re- 430 National Water Summary-Wetland Resources: GLOSSARY treat of a glacier. composed of abundant fragments of sand that are Recharge (ground water)-the process involved in the more or less firmly united by a cementing mate- absorption and addition of water to the zone of rial' saturation; also, the amount of water added. Saturated zone-generally the zone within sediment Recharge area (ground water)-an area in which and rock formations where all voids are filled with water infiltrates the ground and reaches the zone water under pressure greater than atmospheric. of saturation. Savanna-a plain characterized by coarse grasses and Recurrence interval-the average interval of time scattered tree growth. within which the magnitude of a given event, such Scrub-shrub wetland-wetlands dominated by as a storm or flood, will be equaled or exceeded woody vegetation less than 6 meters tall, once. Sea level-the long-term average position of the sea Regolith-the layer or mantle of fragmented and un- surface; in this volume, it refers to the National consolidated rock material, residual or trans- Geodetic Vertical Datum of 1929. ported, that nearly everywhere forms the surface Secondary succession-an association of plants that of the land and overlies or covers the bedrock. develops after the destruction of A or part of the Regulation (of a stream)-artificial manipulation of original plant community. the flow of a stream. Sediment-particles derived from rocks or biologi- Return flow-that part of irrigation water that is not cal materials that have been transported by, sus- consumed by evapotranspiration and that returns pended in, or deposited by air, water, or ice or that to its source or another body of water. are accumulated by other natural agents, such as Riparian-pertaining to or situated on the bank of a chemical precipitation from solution or secretion natural body of flowing water. by organisms. Riverine wetlands-wetlands within river and stream Sedimentary rocks-rocks resulting from the consoli- channels; ocean-derived salinity is less than 0.5 dation of loose sediment that has accumulated in part per thousand. layers. Runoff-that part of precipitation or snowmelt that Sedimentation-the act or process of forniing or ac- appears in streams or surface-water bodies. cumulating sediment in layers; the process of Salina-an area where deposits of crystalline salt are deposition of sediment. formed, such as a salt flat; a body of saline water, Seep-a small area where water percolates slowly to such as a saline playa or salt marsh. the land surface. Saline water-water that is considered generally un- Seiche-a sudden oscillation of the water in a mod- suitable for human consumption or for irrigation erate-size body of water, caused by wind. because of its high content of dissolved solids; Shale-a fine-grained sedimentary rock formed by generally expressed as milligrams per liter (mg/L) the consolidation of clay, silt, or mud. of dissolved solids; seawater is generally consid- Shallows-a term applied to a shallow place or area ered to contain more than 35,000 mg/L of dis- in a body of water; a shoal. solved solids. A general salinity scale is- Shoal-a relatively shallow place in a stream, lake, Dissolved solids, or sea. Description in milligrams per liter Shrubland-land covered predominantly with shrubs. Slightly ................................... 1,000-3,000 Siltation-the deposition or accumulation of silt ( or small-grained material) in a body of water. Moderately ........................... 3,000-10,000 Siltstone-an indurated silt having the texture and Very .................................... 10,000-35,000 composition of shale but lacking its fine lamina- Brine ............................. More than 35,000 tion. Silviculture-the cultivation of forest trees. In the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service wetland clas- Sinkhole-a depression in an area underlain by lime- sification system, a general term for waters con- stone. Its drainage is subterranean. taining various dissolved salts; applied specifi- Slough-a small marshy tract lying in a swale or cally to inland waters where the ratio of salts of- other local shallow undrained depression; a slug- ten vary; the term haline is applied to coastal wa- gish creek or channel in a wetland. ters where the salts are roughly in the same pro- Soil horizon-a layer of soil that is distinguishable portion as found in sea water. from adjacent layers by characteristic physical and Salinity-the concentration of dissolved salts in a chemical properties. body of water; commonly expressed as parts per Soil moisture-water occurring in the pore spaces be- thousand. tween the soil particles in the unsaturated zone Salt flat-the level, salt-encrusted bottom of a dried from which water is discharged by the transpira- up lake or pond. tion of plants or by evaporation from the soil. Salt meadow-a meadow subject to overflow by salt Spit-a small point or low tongue or narrow embank- water. ment of land having one end attached to the main- Saltwater-water with a high concentration of salt; land and the other terminating in open water. sometimes used synonymously with seawater or Specific conductance-a measure of the ability of a saline water. substance to conduct an electrical current. Sandstone-a medium-grained sedimentary rock Spoil-overburden or other waste material removed National Water Surnmary-Wetland Resources: SUPPLEMENTAL INFORMATION 431 in mining, quarrying, dredging, or excavating. sand, gravel, and boulders. Spring-area where there is a concentrated discharge Tinaja-a pocket of water developed below a water- of ground water that flows at the ground surface. fall; a term used in the Southwestern United Stage-height of the water surface above an estab- States; used loosely to mean a temporary pool. lished datum plane, such as in a river above a pre- Topography-the general configuration of a land sur- determined point that may (or may not) be near face or any part of the Earth's surface, including the channel floor. its relief and the position of its natural and man- Storm surge-an abnormal and sudden rise of the sea made features. along a shore as a result of the winds of a storm. Trace element-a chemical element that occurs in Streamflow-the discharge of water in a natural minute quantities in a substance. channel. Trade winds-a system of easterly winds that domi- Submersed plant-a plant which lies entirely beneath nate most of the tropics. A major component of the water surface, except for flowering parts in the general circulation of the atmosphere. some species. Transpiration-the process by which water passes Subsidence-the gradual downward settling or sink- through living organisms, primarily plants, into ing of the Earth's surface with little or no hori- the atmosphere. zontal motion. Tandra-a vast, nearly level, treeless plain of the Substrate-the surface beneath a wetland in which arctic and subarctic regions. It usually has a organisms grow or to which organisms are at- marshy surface which supports mosses, lichens, tached. and low shrubs, underlain by mucky soils and Subtidal-continuously submerged; an area affected permafrost. by ocean tides. Turbidity-the state, condition, or quality of opaque- Surface runoff-runoff which travels over the land ness or reduced clarity of a fluid due to the pres- surface to the nearest stream channel. ence of suspended matter. Surface water-an open body of water such as a lake, Unconfined aquifer-an aquifer whose upper surface river, or stream. is a water table free to fluctuate under atmospheric Suspended sediment-sediment that is transported in pressure. suspension by a stream. Understory-a foliage layer lying beneath and shaded Swale-a slight depression, sometimes filled with by the main canopy of a forest. water, in the midst of generally level land. Unsaturated zone-a subsurface zone above the wa- Swamp-an area inter mittently or permanently cov- ter table where the pore spaces may contain a ered with water, and having trees and shrubs. combination of air and water. Tarn-a. relatively small and deep, steep-sided lake Upland-a general term for nonwetland; elevated or pool occupying an ice-gouged basin amid gla- land above low areas along streams or between ciated mountains. hills; any elevated region from which rivers gather Tectonic activity-movement of the Earth's crust re- drainage. sulting in the formation of ocean basins, conti- Vascular plant-a plant composed of or provided with nents, plateaus, and mountain ranges. vessels or ducts that convey water or sap. A fern Terrestrial-pertaining to, consisting of, or represent- is an example of this type of plant. ing the Earth. Vernal pool-a small lake or pond that is filled with Terminal moraine-the end moraine extending water for only a short time during the spring. across a glacial plain or valley as an arcuate or Water budget-an accounting of the inflow to, out- crescent ridge that marks the farthest advance or flow from, and storage changes of water in a hy- maximum extent of a glacier. drologic unit. Terrain-physical features of a tract of land. Water column-an imaginary column extending Terrane-area or surface over which a particular rock through a water body from its floor to its surface. type or group of rock types is prevalent. Water gap--a deep, narrow pass in a mountain ridge, Thermokarst-an irregular land surface formed in a through which a stream flows. permafrost region by melting ground ice and a Watershed-same as drainage basin. subsequent settling of the ground. Water table-the top water surface of an unconfined Tidal flat-an extensive, nearly horizontal, tract of aquifer at atmospheric pressure. land that is alternately covered and uncovered by Weathering-process whereby earthy or rocky ma- the tide and consists of unconsolidated sediment. terials are changed in color, texture, composition, Tide-the rhythmic, alternate rise and fall of the sur- or form (with little or no transportation) by expo- face (or water level) of the ocean, and connected sure to atmospheric agents. bodies of water, occurring twice a day over most Wetland function-a process or series of processes of the Earth, resulting from the gravitational at- that take place within a wetland that are benefi- traction of the Moon, and to a lesser degree, the cial to the wetland itself, the surrounding ecosys- Sun. tems, and people. Till-predominantly unsorted and unstratified drift, Willow carr-a pool, or wetland dominated by wil- deposited directly by and underneath a glacier low trees or shrubs. without subsequent reworking by meltwater, and Xerophyte-a plant adapted for growth under dry consisting of a heterogeneous mixture of clay, silt, conditions. U.S. Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper 2425 f7A MEMP"p, M A,* IP ISBN 0-607-85696-3 11 3 a70nl&n7 Q 4C,A 3 6668 14101 3013