Coastal hazards recession, erosion and flooding

[From the U.S. Government Printing Office, www.gpo.gov]

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epartment of
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esources COASTAL ZONE
INFORMATION' CENTER

COASTAL HAZARDS:

RECESSION, EROSION AND FLOODING

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1977

Ohio Coastal Zone Management Program

COASTAL ZONE
INFORMATION CENTER

STATE OF OHIO
DEPARTMENT OF NATURAL RESOURCES
DIVISION OF WATER
COASTAL ZONE MANAGEMENT SECTION

COASTAL HAZARDS: RECESSION, EROSION AND FLOODING

prepared for the
Coastal Zone Management Program
by
Charles H. Carter and Bruce E. McPherson

PrOPOZt1? Of CSC Library
LiEPARTMENT.OF COMMERCE NOAA
COASTAL SERVICES CENTER October 1977
2234 SOUTH HOBSON AVENUE
CHARLESTON , SC 29405-2413

This publication was financed in part by a federal
grant from the Office of Coastal Zone Management,
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration,
under the provision of Section 305 of the Coastal
Zone Management Act of 1972 (P.L. 92-583).

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@15 JAMES A. RHODES, Governor ROBERT W. TEATER, Director WAYNE S. NICHOLS, Chief

CONTENTS

page
SHORELINE RECESSION AND EROSION

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I

Shore Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Lucas County

Setting . . . . . . . . . . ... . . . . . . . . . 3

Shore Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

Shoreline Changes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

Beaches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

Recession Rates 1877-1940 . . . . . . . ... . . . 5

Recession Rates 1940-1973 . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

Recession Rates 1877-1940 to 1940-1973 . . . . . 6

Ottawa County
Setting .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Shore Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Shoreline Changes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

Beaches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

Recession Rates 1877-1939 . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Recession Rates 1939-1973 . . . . . . . . . . .. .. .10

Recession Rates 1877-1939 to 1939-1973 . . . . . 10

Erie and Sandusky Counties
Setting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

Shore Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

iii

Shoreline Changes . . . . ... . . . . . . . . . . 12

Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... . . . 12

Beaches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

Recession Rates 1877-1937 . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

Recession Rates 1937-1973 . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

Recession Rates 1877-1937 to 1937-1973 . . . . . 14

Present and Future Considerations . . . . . . . . 15

Lorain County

Setting . . ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

Shore Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

Shoreline Changes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18

Beaches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

Recession Rates 1876-1937 . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

Recession Rates 1937-1973 . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

Recession Rates 1876-1937 to 1937-1973 . . . . . 19

Cuyahoga County

Setting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21

Shore Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .21

Shoreline Changes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21

Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22

Beaches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22

Recession Rates 1876-1937 . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

Recession Rates 1937-1973 . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

Recession Rates 1876-1937 to 1937-1973 23

Lake County

Setting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

Shore Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
Shoreline Changes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... 27

Recession Rates 1876-1937 . . . . . . . . . . . . 28

Recession Rates 1937-1973 . . . . . . . . . . . . 29

Ashtabula County

Setting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31

Shore Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31

Shoreline Changes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
Structures I. . . . . . . . . . . . . ... . 3 2

Beaches . ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32

Recession Rates 1876-1938 . . . . . . . . . . . . 33

Recession Rates 1938-1973 . . . . . . . . . . . . 33

Recession Rates 1876-1938 to 1938-1973 . . . . . 33

Potential Protection Considerations . . . . . . . . 35

FLOODING

Introduction . . . . ... . . . . . . . . . . . . 37

Geological History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37

Natural Attraction . . . . . . . . . . . ... . . 37

Riverine Flooding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38

Lake Flooding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39

Flood Plain Information . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41

Management Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . 42

SHORELINE RECESSION AND EROSION

Introduction

The shoreline erosion section of this report presents
a summarized county by county description of the Ohio shore
of Lake Erie including information on the rates at which
the shore of Lake Erie is receding. It is based on the data
compiled by the Ohio Department of Natural Resources, Divi-
sion of Geological Survey for detailed shore erosion
investigation reports to be published over the next two
years. Many natural, cultural, and manmade features along
the shore affect the rate of erosion and the natural
littoral deposition process. This information facilitates
decisions and planning related to shore erosion. Such
decisions are necessary because of increased development
along the shore and the greater probability of increased
damage. Erosion not only causes loss of property, but also
results in sedimentation of silt and clay which contributes
to the eutrophication of Lake Erie.

Maps and photographs from three years--1876, 1937, and
1973--were selected for use in calculating the rate at
which erosion has occurred alon- the south shore of Lake Erie.
The 1876 maps are the first detailed maps of the entire
Ohio shore of Lake Erie. The 1937 photographs are one of
the first series of aerial photographs taken of the entire
Ohio shore of Lake Erie, and the 1973 photographs are one
of the latest series.

The recession rate information provided in this report
is described according to various rate classes such as slow,
moderate, rapid, etc. The quantitative equivalents of these
rate classes are as indicated below.

Recession Rate Class Rate (Ft/yr)
Very slow <1
Slow 1-3
Moderate 3-5
Rapid 5-7
Very Rapid 7-9

Shore Processes

Shore erosion, the loss of shoreland, can be related to
many processes, but along the Lake Erie shore, there are two
principal shore erosion processes: wave erosion and mass
wasting. Of the two processes, wave erosion is by far the
more significant. These processes erode the Lake shore at
different rates because of two primary factors: the physical
setting and the weather. Variation in.recession rates among

different reaches along the shore and through time generally
can be related to these two factors..

Surface waves, which are generated by wind blowing across
the lake, are the principal cause of recession along the Lake
Erie shore because waves contain a great deal of energy that
is released when the waves deform and break. Although some of
the energy is returned to the lake through reflection and
other types of wave-related movement, much of the energy is
expended in wave erosion of the nearshore, beach and shoreline,
and shore zones.

The effect of nearshore slope on wave energy can be
looked at in this general way: (1) wave energy is related
directly to wave height; (2) waves deform and break (lose
their height) when the water depth is about one to two times
the wave height; (3) therefore the gentler the nearshore slope,
the farther offshore waves break and the greater the decrease
in wave energy reaching the shoreline. Once the waves reach
the shoreline a wide beach will absorb most of the wave energy,
but along the stretches with narrow beaches a much greater
proportion of the wave energy will reach the shore.

Lastly, because of the nearly continuous removal of
slumped or inplace material, which acts as a resisting moment
at the base of the slope or bluff, the shore bluff or slope
does not at any time reach a long-term equilibrium. Therefore,
recession is continuous.

Mass wasting is basically the downslope movement of
material by gravitational stress. Along the Ohio shore of Lake
Erie the principal mass-wasting processes are block falls,
rotational slumps, debris flows, and piping.

Block falls, which are the relatively free-falling move-
ment of coherent material, are caused by wave erosion
undercutting the base of a bluff. Rotational slumps, which
are a shearing and rotary movement of material along a curved
slip surface, appear to be controlled by laminated clay zones
within or above the till. When a clay zone becomes lubricated,
either from water updip or from surface water percolating down
along joint planes, the zone acts as a slip plane upon which
the shore material slumps. Debris flows, which are the down-
ward movement of a mass of incoherent material, are most
pronounced where there are interbedded sands. Water percolat-
ing down from the overlying sands and/or running along the
sand-clay interface saturates the clay. This increase in
moisture reduces the internal shear resistance of the clay and
this, as well as the weight of the overlying sand, causes the
clay to deform and flow. Piping, which is erosion by percolat-
ing water, is common along sand-clay contacts. Water flowing
through an overlying sand layer is concentrated at the clay
contact; the consequent decrease in the shear strength of the
sand at the contact causes the sand to collapse.

LUCAS COUNTY

Setting

The sparsely to densely built-up Lucas County shore
fronts 23 miles (37 km) of the westernmost portion of Lake
Erie and lies between Michigan to the northwest and Ottawa
County to the east. Shore deposits consisting largely of
glaciolacustrine clay make up the low relief banks of about
5 feet (1.5 m) that border Maumee Bay, whereas sand and
marshes make up the low relief slopes of about 5 feet (1.5 m)
that border Cedar Point to the Lucas-Ottawa County line
(western basin shore). Sand beaches are small or nonexistent
along the Maumee Bay shore, whereas discontinuous beaches
front 44% of the open lake shore. In addition to the beaches,
shore protection structures or manmade fill fronts much of
the Maumee Bay shore and some of the open lake shore, parti-
cularly in front of Reno Beach. Over 244 shore-protection
structures were inventoried in 1973. The nearshore slope is
gentle along the entire county; the average water depth
500 feet (152 m) offshore at a lake-level elevation of 570.0
feet is about 4 feet (1.2 m) in Maumee Bay and about 7 feet
(2.1 m) in the open lake. The nearshore bottom, within
2,000 feet (610 m) of shore, consists of mud and/or glacio-
lacustrine clay along Maumee Bay and sand and/or
glaciolacustrine clay along the western basin shore. The
sand for the most part is no more than 5 feet (1.5 m) thick.

Shore Processes

Storm waves appear to be the principal cause of erosion
along the Lucas County shore. Wave erosion removes in-place
and slumped material near lake level, thus maintaining an
unstable bank or slope. Lake level is a major factor in
this process. The higher the lake, the closer the waves
break to the shore and the.greater the wave energy expended
on the shore deposits, resulting in greater recession rates.

Mass wasting follows wave erosion in the glaciolacustrine
clay deposits along Maumee Bay. Block falls are fairly
common in this cohesive shore deposit; failure of the clay
blocks takes place days, weeks, or even months after wave
erosion.

Inundation (flooding) is a major problem along most of
the Lucas County shore because of low relief and location at
the-western end of the lake. Northeast storms generated by
low pressure systems passing to the south are largely
responsible for the wind setup which can reach several feet
above the lake's still-water level. Northeast storms in
combination with record high lake levels, were responsible
for the damaging floods in late 1972 and in 1973.

Shoreline Changes

The principal change in the Luc as County shore from 1877
to 1973 has been the increase in unevenness of the shore. The
1877 shore, in general, had a fairly even, uniform shape,
whereas the 1973 shore has a much more uneven, nonuniform
shape, particularly in the more intensely developed areas. The
change in shape can be related directly to manmade structures--
these structures are also largely responsible for the changes
in beach size and distribution.

Structures

In 1877 waves impinged upon a largely natural Lucas County
shore. However, since the construction of manmade structures
the effect of the waves has been altered. The structures,
largely by disrupting the longshore drift of sand and/or by
armoring the shore, have caused a decrease in the recession
rates along some stretches and at the same time have caused
an increase in the recession rates along other stretches.

Stickout structures--largely groins and jetties--by
modifying the longshore drift of sand, have had a great
influence on shoreline changes and recession rates along the
western basin shore; however, along the Maumee Bay shore these
structures have had little effect because of the lack of sand.
Entrapment of sand on the updrift side of a structure results
in a wider beach and a gentler nearshore slope; loss of sand to
the adjacent downdrift shore results in a narrower beach and a
steeper nearshore slope. The increase in beach width and
decrease in the nearshore slope on the updrift side reduce the
amount of wave energy impinging upon the shore and cause a
decrease in the recession rate; on the downdrift side the
decrease in beach width and increase in nearshore slope in-
crease the amount of wave energy impinging upon the shore,
causing an increase in the recession rate. Particularly note-
worthy among the stickout structures for their effect on the
shore are the ones at Lakemont Landing and west of Crane Creek
State Park.

Parallel structures--seawalls and breakwaters--have
reduced erosion along the Maumee Bay and western basin shore
by protecting the base of the shore. The most notable examples
of this type of protection are along the stretches fronting
Point Place and Oregon on Maumee Bay and between Wards Canal
and Lakemont Landing along the western basin. Unlike the
stickout structures, the parallel structures, which consist
largely of seawalls, do not appear to have a detrimental effect
on the adjacent shore because these structures do not directly
affect the longshore transport of sand. In general, in the
late period, along stretches where there is a concentration of
structures, the recession rate is slower than that of the early
period, when there were fewer structures.

Beaches

Nearly continuous, but narrow, beaches front the western
basin shore; beaches are essentially nonexistent in Maumee
Bay. In general, the stretches with the largest beaches,
such as the stretch fronting Crane Creek State Park and the
stretch east of Lakemont Landing, have low recession rates.
On the other hand, where there are narrow beaches less than
50 feet wide (15.2 m) in combination with an unprotected
shore or where the beaches were eroded away--as along stretches
to the west (downdrift) of Crane Creek State Park and the
stretch downdrift of Lakemont Landing--the recession rates
are high.

Recession Rates 1877-1940

The modal recess ion rate was between 5-7 ft/yr (1.5-2.1 m)
and the range in recession rates was very slow, less than
1 ft/yr (A m), to'13-15 ft/yr (3.9-4.5 m) along the western
basin shore; the modal recession rate was very rapid,
7-9 ft/yr (2.1-2.7 m), and the range in recession rates was
very slow to 9-11 ft/yr (2.7-3.3 m) along the Maumee Bay
shore. In general, the principal factor contributing to the
high rates along both the western basin shore and the Maumee
Bay shore is the type of shore deposit. The sand making up
the western basin shore has no cohesive resistance to surface
waves, and once the glaciolacustrine clay along the Maumee-
Bay shore becomes weathered it offers only slight resistance
to surface waves. The basic reasons for the lower recession
rate in sand is that the beaches can build back up given an
adequate sand supply and/or a lower lake level; the cohesive
deposits cannot do this.

Recession Rates 1940-1973

The modal recession rate was very slow and the range in
recession rates was very slow to 13-15 ft/yr (3.9-4.5 m) along
the western basin shore; the modal recession rate was slow
and the range in recession rates was very slow to 17-19 ft/yr
(5.1-5.7 m) along the Maumee Bay shore. Overall, the princi-
pal factor contributing to the low recession rates in this
period is the presence of the manmade structures; high
recession rates have taken place along unprotected stretches
fronting the easily eroded sand and glaciolacustrine clay
deposits.

Recession Rates 1877-1940 to 1940-1973

For the Lucas County shore (the reaches between the Ottawa-
Lucas County line to Cedar Point and along Maumee Bay) the
overriding factor contributing to the decrease in the modal
recession rate as well as the overall decrease in the length
of the shore, which underwent recession at the highest reces-
sion rates, is the presence of manmade structures. The
increased number of structures, as well as the greater
length of shore protected by these structures, is responsible
for the decrease in the modal recession rates as well as for
the general decrease in shore length receding at high reces-
sion rates.

OTTAWA COUNTY

Setting

The sparsely to densely built-up Ottawa County shore
fronts about 73 miles (117 km) of shoreline between Lucas
County to the west and Erie and Sandusky Counties to the east
and south. The shore consists largely of low relief, about.
5 foot (1.5 m) slopes made up of sand and marsh between the
Lucas-Ottawa County line to the Port Clinton area; the shore
consists largely of rock which reaches 50 feet (15.2 m) in
height from the Port Clinton area around Catawba Island to
the Marblehead lighthouse (including the Bass Islands); and
the shore consists largely of 5 to 10 foot (1.5-3.0 m) high,
till and glaciolacustrine clay banks south of the lighthouse
and along Sandusky Bay except for Bay Point. Sand beaches
front much of the shore from the Lucas-Ottawa Countv line to
the Port Clinton area; for the remainder of the county
beaches front small coves or are nonexistent except for two
prominent exceptions: the East Harbor State Park area and
Bay Point. In addition to the beaches, shore-protection
structures front much of the county shore, particularly along
the more intensively developed stretches made up of sand,
till, or glaciolacustrine clay. Over 995 shore protection
structures were inventoried in 1973. The nearshore slope is
variable. The average water depth 500 feet (152 m) offshore
at a lake level elevation of 570.0 feet is about 3 feet (.9 m)
between the Lucas-Ottawa County line and the Port Clinton
area; variable, a range of about 2-20 feet (.6-6 m) along
Catawba Island, Marblehead, and the Bass Islands; and about
4 feet (1.2 m) along Sandusky Bay. The nearshore bottom,
within 2,000 feet (610 m) of shore, consists primarily of sand
and glaciolacustrine clay between the Lucas-Ottawa County line
and the Port Clinton area; of sand, mud, and/or rock along
Catawba Island, Marblehead, and the Bass Islands; and of mud
along Sandusky Bay.

Shore Processes

Storm waves appear to be the principal cause of erosion
along the Ottawa County shore. Wave erosion removes in-place
and.slumped material near lake level, thus maintaining an
unstable bank or slope. Lake level is a major factor in this
process. The higher the lake, the closer the waves break to
the shore and the.greater the wave energy expended on the
shore deposits; consequently, the greater the recession rates.

Mass wasting follows wave erosion in the till and
glaciolacustrine deposits along Sandusky Bay as well as in
places north and east of the Port Clinton area. Block falls
are common in these cohesive deposits, with failure taking
place days, weeks, and even months after wave erosion.

Flooding is a major problem along the Ottawa County shore
from the Lucas-Ottawa County line to Port Clinton and along
Sandusky Bay, because of low relief and location at the western
end of the lake. Northeast storms generated by low pressure
systems passing to the south are largely responsible for the
wind setup which can reach several feet above the lake's still-
water level. Northeast storms in combination with record high
lake levels were responsible for the damaging floods in late
1972 and 1973.

Shoreline Changes

The principal change in the Ottawa County shore from 1877 or
1939 to 1973 has been the increase in unevenness of the shore.
The early shore, particularly from the Lucas-Ottawa County line
to Rock Ledge and along Sandusky Bay, was essentially continuous
and had a fairly even, uniform shape, whereas the 1973 shore is
discontinuous in places and has a much more uneven, nonuniform
shape. These changes can be related to manmade structures.
These structures are also largely responsible for the changes
in beach size and distribution.

Structures

In 1877 waves impinged upon a largely natural Ottawa County
shore. However, since the construction of manmade structures
the effect of the waves has been altered. The structures,
largely by disrupting the longshore drift of sand and/or by
armoring the shore, have caused a decrease in the recession
rates along some stretches and at the same time have caused
an increase in the recession reates along other stretches.

Stickout structures--largely groins and jetties--by
modifying the transport of sand, have had a great in fluence
on shoreline changes and recession rates along the western
basin shore. However, along the Sandusky Bay shore, these
structures have had little effect because of the lack of sand.
Entrapment of sand on the updrift side of a structure results
in a wider beach and a gentler nearshore slope; loss of sand
to the adjacent downdrift shore results in a narrower beach
and a steeper nearshore slope. The increase in beach width
and decrease in the nearshore slope on the updrift side
reduce the amount of wave energy impinging upon the shore
and cause a decrease in the recession reate. On the down-
drift side the decrease in beach width and increase in
nearshore slope increase the amount of wave energy inpinging
upon the shore, causing an increase in the recession rate.
These structures have had the greatest effect along the
shore from the Lucas-Ottawa County line to Rock Ledge.
Stickout structures particularly noteworthy for their effect
on the shore are the ones at Turtle Creek (which
interrupts the net west-to-east drift).

Parallel structures--seawalls and breakwaters--have
reduced erosion along several Ottawa County stretches by
protecting the base of the shore. The most notable examples
of this type of protection are along the stretches fronting
Rock Ledge east of Port Clinton and Hickory Grove along
Sandusky Bay. Unlike stickout structures, parallel structures
(which consist largely of seawalls) do not appear to have a
detrimental effect on the adjacent shore because these
structures do not directly affect the longshore transport of
sand. In general, in the late period, along stretches where
there is a concentration of structures, the recession rate
is slower than that of the early period, when there were
fewer structures.

Beaches

Narrow, but nearly continuous beaches lie between the
Lucas-Ottawa County line and Rock Ledge; the widest beaches
front the East Harbor and Bay Point areas. In general, along
the shore fronted by beaches, the stretches with the widest
beaches--such as the ones on the updrift side of the jetties
at Turtle Creek and LaCarpe Creek, as well as East Harbor
and Bay Point--are characterized by low recession rates. On
the other hand, where there are narrow, less than 50 feet
wide,(15 m) beaches in combination with an unprotected shore
or where the beaches were eroded away--as along stretches
downdrift of the jetties at Turtle Creek and LaCarpe Creek
or along the stretch east of Sand Beach--the recession rates
are high.

Recession Rates 1877-1939

The modal recession rate was very slow, less than 1 ft/yr
(.3 m), and the range in recession rates was very slow to
9-11 ft/yr (2.7-3.3 m) along the six reaches for which 1877
maps were prepared--the reaches along the mainland shore from
the Lucas-Ottawa County line to Bay Point. In general, the
principal factor contributing to the low rates.along the sand
shore west of the Rock Ledge-Port Clinton area was an adequate
sand supply; the beaches can build back up given an adequate
sand supply and/or a lower lake level. Along the shore from
Rock Ledge to Bay Point it is the resistance of the rock to
erosion which contributes to low recession rates. The stretches
of shore which receded at the highest rates are made up of
the least resistant deposits (sand, till, or glaciolacustrine
clay).

Recession Rates 1939-1973

The modal recession rate was very slow and the range in
recession rates was very slow to greater than 19 ft/yr (5.7 m).
The highest recession rates are found along the shore made up
of sand, till, or glaciolacustrine clay, whereas the lowest
recession rates are found along the shore composed of rock or
fronted by wide beaches or manmade structures.

Recession Rates 1877-1939 to 1939-1973

For the reaches that can be compared (between the Lucas-
Ottawa County line and Bay Point) the overriding factor
contributing to the higher recession rates (as well as the
overall increase in shore length which underwent recession
at the highest rates) appears to be the high lake periods in
the early 1950's and 1970's in concert with northeast storms.
The much greater wave energy reaching the relatively long
unprotected, easily erodable stretches of shore composed of
sand, till, or glaciolacustrine clay has caused the shore to
recede more rapidly in the 1939-1973 period.

ERIE AND SANDUSKY COUNTIES

Setting

The physiographically diverse shore of Erie and Sandusky
Counties lies along Lake Erie in north-central Ohio. The
mainland shore extends from the Lorain-Erie County line to
the Cedar Point jetty, a distance of about 21 miles (33 km).
It consists (from east to west) of bluffs and slopes of till
with a relief of 20 to 30 feet (6-9 m); bluffs, slopes and
banks of till and glaciolacustrine clay with a relief of 5 to
10 feet (1.5-3 m); and sand dunes with a relief of 10 feet
(3 m) along the Cedar Point spit. Manmade shore-protection
structures, which number more than 172, front these deposits
along the shore. Adjacent to the structures are beaches
which form a discontinuous band all along the shore. The
beaches have an average width of less than 50 feet (15.2 m).
except for the ones updrift (east of) and adjacent to the
sizeable jetties at Huron and Cedar Point. The average water
depth 500 feet (152 m) offshore at a lake level elevation of
570.0 feet is about 5 feet (1.5 m) along the eastern one-third
of the shore and increases to about 7 feet (2.1 m) to the west.
From the Lorain-Erie County line to the Cranberry Creek area
the bottom deposits to at least 2,000 feet (610 m) offshore
consist of sand and/or shale. Farther to the west the sand
at the shoreline grades into silt and finer deposits off-
shore. These noncohesive deposits for the most part cap
till or glaciolacustrine clay, which caps rock.

The south shore of Sandusky Bay, which extends from the
Cedar Point causeway to Raccoon Creek, a distance of 23 miles
(37 km), consists (where not made up of manmade fill) of
banks.of glaciolacustrine clay with a relief of 5 to 10 feet
(1.5-3 m). Manmade shore-protection structures (excluding
the nearly totally protected shore fronting the city of
Sandusky from the causeway to Mills Creek) front the small
communities along the shore. Beaches are narrow to non-
existent. The average water depth 500 feet (152 m) offshore
at a lake level of 570.0 feet is about 3 feet (.9 m). The
bottom, except for a band of glaciolacustrine clay which
borders the shore, is made up of mud; the mud caps glacio-
lacustrine clay.

Kelleys Island, which has a shoreline distance of about
11 miles (18 W, consists of banks of limestone-dolomite and
till which have a relief of from 5 to 20 feet (1.5-6 m). Man-
made shore-protection structures are few in number, as are the
narrow gravel beaches. The average water depth 500 feet
(152 m) offshore at a lake level of 570.0 feet is about 9
feet (2.7 m). The nearshore bottom is made up of rock or
poorly sorted sediment consisting of gravel, sand, silt,,and
clay-size particles.

Shore Processes

Storm waves appear.to be the principal cause of erosion
along the shore of Erie and Sandusky Counties. Wave erosion
removes in-place and slumped material near lake level, thus
maintaining an unstable bluff or slope. Lake level is a major
factor in this process. The higher the lake, the closer the
waves break to the shore and the greater the wave energy ex-
pended on the shore deposits; consequently, the greater the
recession rates.

Mass wasting follows wave erosion. Falls, slumps, and
flows are most common where there are stratigraphic or
structural differences such as bedding planes, zones of lami-
nated clay within the till, or joints. Because of the
largely cohesive nature of the shore deposits, failure of a
bluff, slope, or bank may take place days, weeks, or even
months after wave erosion.

Shoreline Changes

The principal change in the shore of Erie and Sandusky
Counties from 1877 to 1973 has been the increase in the
unevenness of the shore, specifically along the Sandusky Bay
and Lorain-Erie County line to Cedar Point (mainland) reaches.
The shape of the 1877 shore, with the Vermilion, Huron, and
Sandusky areas as exceptions, had a relatively even, uniform
outline, whereas by 1973 the shape of the shore was uneven
and nonuniform. The changes in shape can be related directly
to manmade structures. These structures are also largely
responsible for the changes in beach size and distribution.

Structures

In 1877 waves impinged upon a largely natural Erie and
Sandusky Counties shore. Wave erosion and subsequent mass
wasting of the unprotected shore provided sand and gravel to
form a nearly continuous ribbon of coarse-grained sediment
along the shore in the beach and shoreline and nearshore
zones, especially along the mainland shore. Wave erosion
and mass wasting are continuing today, but, because of the
manmade structures that have been built along the shore, the
effect of the waves has been altered. The structures,
largely by disrupting the longshore drift of sand and/or by
armoring the shore, have caused a decrease in the recession
rates along some stretches and at the same time have caused
an increase in the recession rates along other stretches.

Stickout structures--largely groins and jetties--by
modifying the longshore drift of sand, have had the greatest
influence on shoreline changes and recession rates along the

mainland shore. Entrapment of sand on the updrift side of a
structure results in a wider beach and a gentler nearshore
slope. The increase in beach width and decrease in the near-
shore slope on the updrift side reduce the amount of wave
energy impinging upon the shore and cause a decrease in the
recession rate; on the downdrift side the decrease in beach
width and increase in nearshore slope increase the amount of
wave energy impinging.upon the shore, causing an increase in
the recession rate. These changes are most readily seen
between Vermilion and Huron, where unprotected stretches just
downdrift of the larger stickout structures show moderate
recession rates, and stretches just updrift of the structures
have very slow recession rates.

Parallel structures--seawalls and breakwaters--have re-
duced erosion along the mainland and Sandusky Bay reaches by*
protecting the base of the shore. The most notable examples
of this type of protection are along the Penn Central Railroad
to Raccoon Creek reach, where there are stretches where the
recession rate was as high as 19 to 21 ft/yr (A m) in the
1937 to 1973 period. Unlike the stickout structures, the
parallel structures, which consist largely of seawalls, do
not appear to have a detrimental effect on the adjacent shore
because these structures do not directly affect the longshore
transport of sand. However, because the principal source of
the beach material is the shore, as it is along the mainland--
Lorain-Erie County line to Cedar Point jetty stretch--by
protecting the shore the source of beach sediment is largely
cut off. In general, in the late period, along stretches
where there is a concentration of structures the recession
rate is slower than that of the early period, when there were
fewer structures.

Beaches

In stretches along the mainland shore (Lorain-Erie County
line to Cedar Point) where there were wide, greater than
100 feet (30 m) beaches--for example, the beaches on the up-
drift (east side) of the jetties at Huron River and at Cedar
Point--the recession rate within a given period was very slow.
On the other hand, where there were narrow, less than 50 feet
(15 m) beaches in combination with an unprotected shore--as
along stretches downdrift of stickout structures between
Vermilion and Old Woman Creek--the recession rates were slow
to moderate. The lack or scarcity of beaches along the
Sandusky Bay reaches and the Kelleys Island reach precludes a
discussion of the effect of beaches for these reasons.

Recession Rates 1877-1937

The modal recession rate was between very slow and slow,
less than I to 1-3 ft/yr (.3-.9 m) and the range in recession
rates was very slow to moderate between 3-5 ft/yr (.9-1.5 m)
along the mainland shore, excluding the Sawmill Creek to Cedar
Point jetty reach; the modal recession rate was rapid, between
5-7 ft/yr (1.5-2.1 m) and the range in recession rates was very
slow to 21-23 ft/yr (6.4-7 m) along the Penn Central Railroad
to Raccoon Creek reach; and the modal recession rate was very
slow and the range in recession rates was very slow to moderate
along the Kelleys Island reach. In general, the principal
factors contributing to the relatively low rates along the
mainland shore are the manmade structures and gentle nearshore
slope along the Lorain-Erie County line to Cranberry Creek
reach and the beaches along the Cranberry Creek to Sawmill
Creek reach. The high rates along the Penn Central Railroad
bridge to Raccoon Creek reach as well as the low rates along
the Kelleys Island reach are largely due to the shore deposits--
easily weathered and eroded glaciolacustrine clay for the
Sandusky Bay shore and resistant rock for Kelleys Island.

Recession Rates 1937-1973

The modal recession rate was very slow, less than 1 ft/yr
(A m) and the range in recession rates was very slow to 9-11
ft/yr (2.7-3.3 m) along the mainland shore; the modal recession
rate was very slow and the range in recession rates was very
slow to between moderate, 3-5 ft/yr (.9-1.5 m) and 15-17 ft/yr
(4.5-5:1 m) along the two Sandusky Bay reaches; and the modal
recession rate was very slow and the range in recession rates
very slow to moderate along the Kelleys Island reach. Overall,
the principal factors contributing to low recession rates along
the mainland shore include manmade structures, a gentle near-
shore slope, and beaches. Manmade structures are the principal
factor contributing to low rates along the two Sandusky Bay
reaches, particularly the Cedar Point causeway to Penn Central
Railroad bridge reach; and the rocky shore is the principal
factor contributing to the low rates along the Kelleys Island
reach.

Recession Rates 1877-1937 to 1937-1973

For the four reaches for which there are recession rate
data for the two periods (Lorain-Erie County line to Cranberry
Creek, Cranberry Creek to Sawmill Creek, Penn Central Railroad
bridge to Raccoon Creek, and Kelleys Island) the overriding
factor contributing to the decrease in the modal recession rate
for the mainland and the Sandusky Bay reach and the overall
decrease in the range in recession rates is the presence of
manmade structures. The increased number of structures, as

well as the greater length of shore protected by these struc-
tures are responsible for the decrease in the modal recession
rates as well as the general decrease in the range in
recession rates.

Present and Future Considerations

Corrective measures are being cons idered for a major
problem area, the stretch downdrift of the Huron Harbor jetties.
The Buffalo District office of the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers
has undertaken a study of the Huron Harbor area, at the request
of the Ohio Department of Natural Resources. The Corps is
authorized under section III of Public Law 483, U.S. 90th
Congress, to investigate, study, and construct projects for
the prevention or mitigation of shore damages attributable to
Federal navigation works. The cost of installing, operating,
and maintaining such projects shall be borne entirely by the
United States. No such project shall be constructed without
specific authorization by Congress if the estimated first
costs exceeds $1,000,000 ... (U.S. Dept. of the Army, 1970,
Appendix 1, p. 1-9). It is hoped that within the next few years
a solution can be worked out to reduce the effect of the Huron
River jetty complex on the downdrift shore.

In addition, another section III study has been undertaken
by the Buffalo District office on-a smaller, yet more con-
troversial, structure: the jetty-breakwater complex at
Vermilion.

If one assumes that the shore of Erie and Sandusky
Counties will one day be reasonably well protected from storm
waves, there will then be another problem--that of beach sand.
Because the shore can be shown to account for much of the
sand in the longshore drift system (for example, Carter,
1975, p.2), if the natural supply is not maintained by reces-
sion and the sand in the longshore drift system continues to
be transported along the mainland shore to the west to be
trapped by the jetties at Huron or Cedar Point, then the
beaches will decrease in size, the nearshore slope will in-
crease, and the shore will be subjected to greater wave
energy. Therefore, if by protecting the shore we lose the
source of the sand, but we want beaches and gentle nearshore
slopes for shore protection as well as for recreational
pursuits, we are going to have to either recycle the sand
that we are now trapping, perhaps within cells defined on the
downdrift side by major stickout structures, or nourish our
beaches with sand from an outside source, presumably off-
shore deposits..

LORAIN COUNTY

Setting

The moderately to densely built-up Lorain County shore
fronts 21 miles (33.7 km) of Lake Erie in north-central Ohio
between Erie County to the west and Cuyahoga County to the
east. Twenty to twenty-five foot (6-7.6 m) high bluffs and
slopes make up the shore, with shale exposed in the wave erosion
zone to the west in the Vermilion-on-the-Lake area and to the
east, east of the Sheffield Lake area. Till, capped in places
by glaciolacustrine clay, makes up the shore in the intervening
area. Discontinuous sand beaches, commonly less than 50 feet
(15.2 m) wide, front the shore; there is also a variety of shore-
protection structures, largely groins and seawalls. There are
over 765 structures along the shore; most of these structures
are located along the more easily eroded till bluffs and slopes
of the central portion of the shore.' The most dominant struc-
tures are the jetties and breakwaters which surround Lorain
Harbor. The nearshore slopes are least offshore of the shale.
The water depth 500 feet (152 m) offshore at a lake level
elevation of 570.0 feet is about 5 feet (1.5 m) for the areas
bordering shale and about 10 feet (3 m) for the areas bordering
till. Similarly, for the eastern and western areas bordered
by shale, the bottom to 2,000 feet (610 m) offshore consists
largely of shale; for the central portion of the shore-bordered
by more easily eroded till and glaciolacustrine clay, the
bottom is largely till.

Shore Processes

Storm waves appear to be the principal cause of erosion
along the shore of Lorain County. Wave erosion removes in-
place and slumped material near lake level, thus maintaining
an unstable bluff or slope. Lake level is a major factor in
this process. The higher the lake, the closer the waves break
to the shore and the greater the wave energy expended on the
shore deposits; consequently, the greater the recession rates.

Mass wasting follows wave erosion. Falls, slumps, and
flows are most common where there are stratigraphic or struc-
tural differences such as bedding planes, zones of laminated
clay within the till, or joints. Because of the largely
cohesive nature of the shore deposits, failure of a bluff,
slope or bank may take place days, weeks, or even months after
wave erosion.

Shoreline Changes

The principal change in the Lorain County shore from 1876
to 1973 has been the increase in unevenness of the shore. For

the most part the increase is slight along the irregular shale
shore fronting the western and eastern portions of the shore
and greatest along the intensely developed, more easily eroded
central portion of the shore. The change in shape for the most
part can be related directly to manmade structures. These
structures are also largely responsible for the changes in
beach size and distribution.

Structures

In 1876 waves impinged upon a largely natural Lorain County
shore. Wave erosion and subsequent mass wasting of the unpro-
tected shore, particularly between Vermilion-on-the-Lake and
Avon Lake, provided sand and gravel to form a nearly continuous
ribbon of coarse-grained sediment along the shore in the beach
and shoreline and nearshore zones. Wave erosion and mass
wasting are continuing today, but, because of the manmade
structures that have been built along the shore, the effect of
the waves has been altered. The structures, largely by dis-
rupting the longshore drift of sand and/or by armoring the
shore, have caused a decrease in the recession rates along
some stretches and at the same time have caused an increase in
the recession rates along other stretches.

Stickout structures--largely groins and jetties--by
modifying the longshore drift of sand, have had the greatest
influence on shoreline changes and recession rates. Entrapment
of sand on the updrift side of a structure results in a wider
beach'and a gentler nearshore slope. The increase in beach
width and decrease in the nearshore slope on the updrift side
reduce the amount of wave energy impinging upon the shore and
cause a decrease*in the recession rate. On the downdrift side
the decrease in beach width and increase in nearshore slope
increase the amount of wave energy impinging upon the shore,
causing an increase in the recession rate.

Parallel structures--seawalls and breakwaters--have reduced
erosion by protecting the base of the shore. Unlike the stickout
structures, the parallel structures, which consist largely of
seawalls, do not appear to have a detrimental effect on the
adjacent shore because these structures do not directly affect
the longshore transport of sand. However, because the principal
source of the beach material is the shore, then by protecting
the shore the source of beach sediment is largely cut off.
Lastly, in general, along stretches in the late period where
there is a concentration of structures the recession rate is
slower than that of the early period, when there were fewer
structures.

Beaches

Along the few stretches where there were wide, greater
than 100 feet (30 m) beaches, for example the beach west of
the Lorain Harbor structures, the recession rates are very
slow or slow. On the other hand, where there were narrow, less
than 50 feet (15 m) beaches in combination with a largely
unprotected till shore--as along the stretches on either side
of the Elyria Waterworks--the recession rates are slow or
moderate.

Recession Rates 1876-1937

The modal recession rate was very slow, less than 1 ft/yr
(.3 m) and the range in recession rates was very show to
moderate 3-5 ft/yr (.9-1.5 m) within this period. In general,
the main factors contributing to the low recession rates are
rock along the western and eastern portions of the shore and
the combination of beaches and manmade structures along the
central portion of the shore. For the most part, the stretches
which receded at a moderate rate were located in the Lorain
area and were fronted by narrow beaches or lacked adequate
structural protection.

Recession Rates 1937-1973

The modal recession rate and the range in recession rates
were the same as in the 1876-1937 period, very slow, less than
1 ft/yr (.3 m) and very slow to moderate, 3-5 ft/yr (.9-1.5 m).
The same factors--rock shore, manmade structures, and/or
beaches--contributed to the low recession rates in this period.

Recession Rates 1376-1937 to 1937-1973

Even though the mode and range in recession rates were
the same in both periods there was about a 97 percent reduction
in the length of shore receding at the moderate rate and a 56
percent reduction in the length of shore receding at the slow
rate in the 1937-1073 period. The increased number of struc-
tures as well as the greater length of shore protected by
these structures is probably the reason for the overall de-
crease within the recession rate classes. On the other hand,
the stretches showing an increase in recession rates (very slow
to slow) are for the most part unprotected and downdrift of
stickout structures.

Corrective measures are being undertaken to protect
Lakeview Park from shore erosion. The 2.5 million dollar
project to be financed by the Ohio Department of Natural
Resources, the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, and the City of
Lorain began in 1977. The project will protect the shore as
well as provide a large sand beach.

CUYAHOGA COUNTY

Setting

The densely built-up Cuyahoga County shore lies along
Lake Erie in northeastern Ohio between Lorain County to the
west and Lake County to the east. Fifty to sixty foot high
(15-18 m) bluffs and slopes made up largely of shale charac-
terize the western shore; manmade structures consisting
largely of seawalls and breakwaters characterize the central
portion of the shore--which fronts downtown Cleveland, and
25 foot (7.6 m) bluffs and slopes made up largely of till
characterize the eastern shore. Discontinuous sand beaches,
commonly 50 to 100 feet (15-30 m) wide, front the shore, along
with a 'variety of shore-protection structures. There are many
structures along the shore; most of these structures are
located along the more easily eroded till of the eastern shore.
The most dominant structure is the Cleveland breakwater, which
protects about 5 miles of the Cleveland shore from surface
waves. The nearshore slopes are comparable along the western
and eastern shores. From the western edge of the county to
Edgewater Park the bottom to 2,000 feet (610 m) offshore is
made up of shale or sand; behind the breakwater the bottom is
mud; east of the breakwater to the county line the bottom is
largely sand, with,shale exposed in the Euclid area. For the
most part the sand is thin and rarely has a thickness of more
than a few feet.

Shore Processes

Storm waves appear to be the principal cause of erosion
along the shore of Cuyahoga County. Wave erosion removes
inplace and slumped material near lake level, thus maintaining
an unstable bluff or slope. Lake level is a major factor in
this process. The higher the lake, the closer the waves break
to the shore and the greater the wave energy expended on the
shore deposits; consequently, the greater the recession rates.

Mass wasting follows wave erosion. Falls, slumps, and
flows are most common where there are stratigraphic or struc-
tural differences such as bedding planes, zones of laminated
clay within the till, or joints. Because of the largely
cohesive nature of the shore deposits, failure of a bluff,
slope, or bank may take place days, weeks, or even months after
wave erosion.

Shoreline Changes

The principal change in the Cuyahoga County shore from
1876 to 1973 has been the increase in unevenness of the shore.
For the most part, the increase is slight along the western

and eastern reaches and marked behind the Cleveland breakwater,
where there has been extensive manmade modification (fill).
The change in shape for the most part can be related directly
to manmade structures. These structures are also largely res-
ponsible for the changes in beach size and distribution.

Structures

In 1876, waves impinged upon a largely natural Cuyahoga
County shore. Wave erosion and subsequent mass wasting of the
unprotected shore, particularly east of the Cuyahoga River,
provided sand and gravel to form a nearly continuous ribbon
of coarse-grained sediment along the shore in the beach and
shoreline and nearshore zones. Wave erosion and mass wasting
are continuing today, but, because of the manmade structures
that have been built along the shore, the effect of the waves
has been altered. The structures, largely by disrupting the
longshore drift of sand and/or by armoring t@e shore, have
caused a decrease in the recession rates along some stretches
and at the same time have caused an increase in the recession
rates along other stretches.

Stickout structures--largely groins and jetties--by
modifying the longshore drift of sand, have had the greatest
influence on shoreline changes and recession rates. Entrap-
ment of sand on the updrift side of a structure results in a
wider beach and a gentler nearshore slope. The increase in
beach width and decrease in the nearshore slope on the updrift
side reduce the amount of wave energy impinging upon the shore
and cause a decrease in the recession rate; on the downdrift
side the decrease in beach width and increase in nearshore
slope increase the amount of wave energy impinging upon the
shore, causing an increase in the recession rate.

Parallel structures--seawalls and breakwaters--have re-
duced erosion by protecting the base of the shore. Unlike
the stickout structures, the parallel structures, which con-
sist largely of seawalls, do not appear to have a detrimental
effect on the adjacent shore because these structures do not
directly affect the longshore transport of sand. However,
because the principal source of the-beach material is the
shore, by protecting the shore the source of beach sediment
is largely cut off. In general, in the late period along
stretches where there is a concentration of structures, the
recession rate is slower than that in the early period, when
there were fewer structures.

Beaches

Along the few stretches where there were wide, greater
than 100 feet (30 m) beaches, for example the beach on the

updrift (west side) of the jetty at Euclid Creek--the recession
rate within a given period was very slow. On the other hand,
where there were narrow, less than 50 feet (15 m), beaches in
combination with a largely unprotected shore--as along the
stretch downdrift of the jetty at Euclid Creek--the recession
rate was slow.

Recession Rates 1876-1937

The moda 1 recession rate was very slow, less than I ft/yr
(.3 m) and the range in recession rates was very slow to slow,
1-3 ft/yr (A-A m) within this period. In general, the main
factors contributing to the low recession rates are the rock
shore along western Cuyahoga County and combinations of
beaches, manmade structures, or rock shore along eastern
Cuyahoga County.

Recession Rates 1937-1973

The modal recession rate and the range in recession rates
were the same as in the 1876-1937 period, very slow, less than
1 ft/yr (.3 m), and very slow to slow, 1-3 ft/yr (A-A M).
The same factors7-rock shore, manmade structures, and/or
beaches--contributed to the low recession rates in this period.

Recession Rates 1876-1937 to 1937-1973

Even though the mode and range in recession rates were
the same 'in both periods there was about an 80 percent re-
duction in the@length of shore receding at the slow rate in
the 1937-1973 period. The increased number of structures as
well as the greater length of shore protected by these
structures is probably the reason@for the overall decrease
within the recession rate class of slow. On the other hand,
the stretches showing an increase in recession rates (very
slow to slow) are for the most part unprotected and downdrift
of stickout structures.

LAKECOUNTY

Setting

Lake County, one of eight Ohio counties that border the
southern shore of Lake Erie, lies along the eastern part of
the Ohio shore and is bordered on the lake by Ashtabula County
to the east and Cuyahoga County to the west. The shoreline
length of Lake County is about 30 miles (48 km).

The shore can be divided into two geographic areas, which
are separated by the Grand River. The shore west of the river
is for the most part urban and built up, whereas the shore
east of the river is more sparsely settled and there is some
agricultural and forest land. The more densely populated
centers include Willowick, Eastlake, 'Mentor-on-thelLake,
Mentor Headlands, Fairport Harbor, and Madison-on-the-Lake.

The shore is made up of 30 to 40 foot (9-12 m) high
bluffs and slopes composed of till overlain by glaciolacust-
rine deposits. Lakeward of the shore are narrow sand beaches
(generally several tens of feet wide) and gentle nearshore
slopes [about one degree within 500 feet (152 m) of the shore-
line]. Along this shore erosion is the crucial Drocess.
Erosion of in-place or slumped material by storm--generated
surface waves reduces the resisting moment at the base of the
bluff or slope, leading to and perpetuating shore recession.

The Lake County shore has a flat, glaciated appearance
that is interrupted here and there by small hills or stream
valleys. From the Cuyahoga-Lake County line to Redbird this
appearance changes abruptly at the shoreline, where 30 to 40
foot (9-12 m) bluffs and/or irregular hammocky slopes com-
monly mark the interface between the land and the lake. At
Redbird and east to the Lake-Ashtabula County line and land-
scape is much less precipitous, and banks and gentle slopes
less than 15 feet (5 m) high are common.

Aside from the shore-lake interface, the most noticeable
topographic breaks are the river valleys. Both the Chagrin
and Grand Rivers have cut wide, deep c@annels into the sur-
ficial depostis; the Mentor Harbor-Mentor Marsh depression
is an abandoned Grand River channel. East of Fairport Harbor,
the valley of Chapel Creek in Madison Township is the most
noticeable topographic break.

There are four principal deposits that make up the Lake
County shore: shale (the bedrock), till, glaciolacustrine
clay, the glaciolacustrine sand. These denosits are best
exposed along the lakeshore bluffs, although exposures can
be found in and along the stream channels.

Shale underlies the entire Lake County study area. The
shale contains thin resistant siltstone beds and has a northeast
strike and a gentle southeast dip.

Along the entire county shoreline the bottom surface to
about 2,000 feet (610 m) offshore has a slope of less than one
degree. However, the slope is not cons 'tant; in general the
slope decreases. from the western border to the eastern border
of the county. For example, the mean water depth 2,000 feet
(610 m) from the shoreline west of Grand River was 24 feet (7 m),
with a range of 14.5 to 30 feet (4-9 m), whereas the mean water
depth 2,000 feet (610 m) from the shoreline east of Grand River
was 21 feet (6 m), with a range of 17 to 24 feet (5-7 m).
Within 500 feet (152 m) of the shoreline--in the zone where most
of the wave energy is expended on the bottom--the mean water
depth is less than 13 feet (4 m). At 500 feet (152 m) the
depth of the water decreases from about 13 feet (4 m) along the
westen=st reach to about 9 feet (3 m) along the easternmost
reach. Structures have influenced the slope in places. The
natural slope west of Grand River has been reduced because of
sand accumulation on the windward side of the west Jetty at
Grand River. Just to the east of the Grand River a scarcity
of sand has contributed to a steeper slope.

Sand beaches, which differ greatly in size, form a dis-
continuous ribbon along nearly the entire Lake County shoreline.
The longest continuous stretA of moderate-to-large (greater
than 50 feet (15 m) wide) beaches is from North Perry Park to
the Lake-Ashtabula County line. Other sizeable beaches are
present on the windward (west) side of the jetties at Chagrin
River, Mentor Harbor, and Grand River.

The beaches are composed of medium-to very coarse grained,
subangular to subrounded, well-sorted sand composed largely of
rock fragments and quartz. The beaches from the Cuyahoga-Lake
County line to Grand River have an average thickness of about
5 feet (1.5 m), whereas the beaches east of Grand River to the
Lake-Ashtabula County line have an average thickness of about
3 feet (I m). Most of the beaches west of Grand River lie on
till; the beaches east of Grand River lie on shale.

Manmade structur'es as well as sand beaches are a signi-
ficant part of the Lake County shoreline. Almost without
exception such structures have a direct effect on the physical
proc esses operating along the shoreline. The structures can
be divided into four basic types: breakwaters, jetties, groins,
and seawalls. Included in the 402 structures are 26 break-
waters, 13 jetties, 200 groins, 46 groin fields, and 81
seawalls. The structures range in size from a few feet wide
and several feet long to several feet wide and several hundred
feet long. Groins and seawalls are distributed along the entire
shoreline, whereas breakwaters and jetties are located primarily
at the mouths of rivers and harbors. The number of structures

is directly proportional to land development. The 195
structures located west of Grand River are fairly evenly dis-
tributed along the built-up shoreline. Along the sparselv
populated shore between Grand River and the Redbird area and
the Lake-Ashtabula County line, a much more built-up shoreline
only about half the length of the Grand River to Redbird shore-
line, there are 128 structures.

Shore Processes

Shore erosion can be related to many processes, but along
the Lake County shore, there are two principal shore erosion
processes: wave erosion and mass wasting. Of the two pro-
cesses, wave erosion is by far the more significant. These
processes erode the shore at different rates because of two
primary factors: the physical setting and the weather.
Variation in recession rates among different reaches along
the shore and through time generally can be related to these
two factors. Along the shore of Lake,County the principal mass-
wasting processes are block falls, rotational slumps, debris
flows, and piping.

Block falls are common along the high till bluffs east of
Painesville-on-the-Lake; rotational slumps are common along
most of the Lake County shore, especially between Mentor
Harbor and Camp Roosevelt. Debris flows are common in the
thick clays east of Camp Roosevelt; and piping is common in
the thick sands of Camp Roosevelt.

Shoreline Changes

The best approximation for a natural (pre-structure)
recession rate is the rate during the 1876-1937 period; the
modal recession rate in this period was slow. In the 1937-
1973 period the modal rate was very slow, although there was
a sizeable length (15 percent) of the reach that receded at
a moderate rate. The greater variability in the recession
rates in the 1937-1973 period than in the 1876-1937 period
resulted from the manmade structures. Seawalls and similar
structures help protect the shore immediately landward of
the structures. Groins and similar stickout structures, by
trapping sand on the updrift side, reduce the nearshore slope
and widen the beach to help protect the updrift shore. At
the same time, however, these types of structures deprive the
downdrift shore of sand, increase the nearshore slope, narrow
the beach, and thus contribute to accelerated recession rates
downdrift. This is particulary true along structurally
unprotected areas immediately downdrift of substantial
structures. Further evidence of this influence can be seen
in the more irregular shoreline shape in the 1937-1973 period
especially in areas protected by stickout structures adjacent

to unprotected areas. Overall, the recession rates have
been reduced by these structures from slow to very slow in some
areas and have been increased from slow to moderate in other areas.

Study of maps and aerial photographs of Lake County shows
major shoreline changes between 1976 and 1973. In 1876 the Lake
County shoreline had a fairly even outline and was fronted by a
continuous beach and several manmade structures. In 1973 the
shore had an uneven outline and was fronted by discontinuous
beaches and about 400 manmade structures. These changes in out-
line, beaches, and manmade structures are reflected in recession
rates, determined from a 1:4,800 recession-line map of the
entire county shore. The principal rate of recession decreased
from slow, 1-3 ft/yr (.3-.9 m), in the 1876-1937 period to very
slow, less than 1 ft/yr (.3 m), in the 1937-1973 period.
However, the range of recession rates increased from very slow
to moderate 3-5 ft/yr (.9-1.5 m) to very slow to very rapid
7-9 ft/yr (2.2.7 m).

Manmade structures are the principal cause of these
changes in recession rates. The increased number of struc-
tures has helped protect the shore from wave erosion by
trapping sand (groins) or by directly armoring the shore
(seawalls). On the other hand, the few large jetties and
large groins, by significantly disrupting the longshore drift,
have caused a downdrift increase in nearshore slope and a
decrease in beach width, leading to accelerated wave erosion
of the shore downdrift of these structures.

The longshore drift is primarily from southwest to north-
east. Reversals in longshore drift to take place from time to
time, especially during the northeast storms, but, because of
the shoreline orientation and the greater fetch for onshore
winds from the west, the overall result is a net drift to the
northeast. Evidence for this west-to-east movement is seen
most readily on the windward (west) side of large structures
such as the intake jetties at Chagrin River, the Mentor Harbor
jetties, and the Grand River jetties, where large amounts of
sand have been trapped by the structures.

Because of the somewhat northerly orientation of the
shore from the Cuyahoga-Lake County line to Grand River, the
longshore drift along this part of the shore is probably
more unidirectional than it is from Grand River to the Lake-
Ashtabula County line, where the shore has a more easterly
orientation and is less sheltered from easterly winds.

Recession Rates 1876-1937

The recession,rates were quite consistent in this period.
A slow, 1-3 ft/yr (.13-.9 m), rate was exceeded only in a
650-ft (198 m) stretch that had a moderate (3-5 ft/yr)

recession rate. This stretch receding at a moderate rate was
unprotected by structures in 1937; however, there were stickout
structures on either side of the stretch.

Recession Rates 1937-1973

The recession rates in this period were mainly verv slow,
less than 1 ft/yr (A m) and slow, although two stretches with
a combined length of over one-half mile (over 800 m), receded
at a moderate rate. Both of these stretches were structurally
unprotected and lay adjacent to and east of substantial stick-
out structures.' In general, areas that have a high structure
density have lower recession rates than areas with a low
structure density.

ASHTABULA COUNTY

Setting

The sparsely to moderately bu ilt-up Ashtabula County shore
lies along Lake Erie in northeastern Ohio between Lake County
to the west and Pennsylvania to the east. The shore deposits,
which are composed largely of till, make up the banks, bluffs,
and slopes, which increase in elevation from about 15 feet (5 m)
along the western edge of the county to about 65 feet (20 m)
along the eastern half of the countV. Discontinuous sand
beaches, commonly 50 to 100 feet (15 to 30 m) wide, front the
shore. There are a variety of shore-protection structures
along the shore as well as two major jetty complexes which ex-
tend out into the lake for several hundred feet (a few hundred
meters). The nearshore slope is gentle and fairly constant
along the entire county. The average water depth 500 feet
(152 m) offshore at a lake-level elevation of 570.0 feet is
about 6 feet (2 m). The nearshore bottom within 2,000 feet
(610 m) of shore consists of a narrow (a few to several hundred
feet wide) band of sand adjacent to the shore and shale farther
offshore. The sand for the most part is no more than 3 feet
(1 m) thick.

Shore Processes
Storm waves appear to be the p@incipal cause of erosion
along the shore.of Ashtabula County. Wave erosion removes in-
place and slumped material near lake level, thus maintaining an
unstable bluff or slope. Lake level is a major factor in this
process. The higher the lake, the closer the waves break to
the shore and the greater the wave energy expended on the
shore deposits. Consequently, high lake levels cause greater
recession rates.

Mass wasting follows wave erosion. Falls, slumps, and
flows are most common where there are stratigraphic or struc-
tural differences such as bedding planes, zones of laminated
clay within the till, or joints. Because of the largely
cohesive nature of the shore deposits, failure of a bluff,
slope, or bank may take place days, weeks, or even months after
wave erosion.

Shoreline Changes

The principal change in the Ashtabula County shore from
1876 to 1973 has been the increase in unevenness of the shore.
The 1876 shore, with the exception of the Ashtabula and
Conneaut areas, had a fairly even, uniform shape, whereas the
1973 shore has a much more uneven, nonuniform shape. The
change in shape can be related directly to manmad.e structures.

These structures are also largely responsible for the changes in
beach size and distribution.

Structures

In 1876 waves impinged upon a largely natural Ashtabula
County shore. Wave erosion and subsequent' mass wasting of the
unprotected shore provided sand and gravel to form a nearly con-
tinuous ribbon of coarse-grained sedimenIt along the shore in
the beach, shoreline and nearshore zones. Wave erosion and mass
wasting are continuing today, but, because of the manmade
structures that have been built along the shore, the effect of
the waves has been altered. The structures, largely by disrupt-
ing the longshore drift of sand and/or by armoring the shore,
have caused a decrease in the recession rates along some stretches
and at the same time have caused an increase in the recession
rates along other stretches.

Stickout structures--largely groins,and jetties--bv modify-
ing the longshore drift of sand! have had the greatest influence
on shoreline changes and recession rates. Entrapment of sand on
the updrift side of a structure results in a wider beach and a
gentler nearshore slope. The increase in beach width and de-
crease in the nearshore slope on the updrift side reduce the
amount of wave energy impinging upon the shore and cause a
decrease in the recession rate; on the downdrift side the de-
crease in beach width and increase in nearshore slope increase
the amount of wave energy impinging upon the shore, causing an
increase in the recession rate.

Parallel structures--seawalls and breakwaters--have reduced
erosion bV protecting the base of the shore. Unlike the stick-
out structures, the parallel structures, which consist largely
of seawalls, do not appear to have a detrimental effect on the
adjacent shore because these structures do not directly affect
the longshore transport of sand. However, because the principal
source of the beach material is the shore, by protecting the
shore the source of beach sediment is largely cut off. In
general, in more recent time, along stretches where there is a
concentration of structures, the recession rate is slower than
that in the earlier period, when there are fewer structures.

Beaches

In stretches where there were wide beaches, greater than
100 feet (30 m), for example the beaches on the updrift (west
side) of the jetties at the Ashtabula River and at Conneaut
Creek, the recession rate within a given period'was very slow.
On the other hand, where there were narrow beaches, less than
50 feet (15 m), in combination with an unprotected shore--as
along stretches downdrift of stickout structures between

Geneva-on-the-Lake and Ashtabula--the recession rates were slow
to moderate.

Recession Rates 1876-1938

The modal recession rate was very slow, less than 1 ft/yr
(.3 m), and the range in recession rates was very slow to
moderate, 3-5 ft/yr (.9-1.5 m) within this period. In general,
the main factors contributing to the low recession rates are
the gentle nearshore slopes and the beaches. The gentle near-
shore slopes have helped to protect the shore along the entire
county, as have the beaches except for the reach directly
downdrift of the Ashtabula jetties. This reach, the Ashtabula
River to Whitman Creek reach, is the only one to have moderate
recession rates. The structures, in trapping sand from the
west-to-east longshore drift, have deprived the downdrift reach
of sand, thereby reducing the beach width and contributing to
the relatively high recession rates.

Recession Rates 1938-1973

The modal recession rate was very slow, less than I ft/yr
(.3 m), and the range in recession rates was very slow to rapid,
5-7 ft/yr (1.5-2.1 m) within this period. As in the 1876-1938
period, the main factors contributing to the overall low
recession rates are the gentle nearshore slopes and the beaches.
The stretches receding at moderate and rapid rates are located
downdrift of structures which lie between the Lake-Ashtabula
County line and Red Brook.

Recession Rates 1876-1938 to 1938-1973

The overall, but slight, reduction within the recession
rate classes from the 1876-1938 period to the 1938-1973
period can most likelylbe related to the manmade structures.
The increased number of structures, as well as the greater
length of shore protected by these structures, is probably
the reason for the decrease within the recession rate classes,
whereas the stretches showing an increase in recession rates
are unprotected and for the most part downdrift of stickout
structures.

POTENTIAL PROTECTION CONSIDERATIONS

The recession rates along the entire shore of Lake Erie
vary from one location to another. Areas with shore lengths
up to a few hundred feet, (less than 100 m) can probably be
most easily protected by manmade structures, particularly if
the stretch is between protected areas. The type of protection
naturally will depend on the physical setting. Stretches
with shore lengths up to several hundred feet (greater than
100 m) can be protected by either a nonstructural method such
as increasing the supply of sand along the stretch (beach
nourishment) or a coi6ination nonstructural and structural
method such as increasing the supply of sand as well as build-
ing structures to retain it.

The shore accounts for much of the sand in the longshore
drift system. If the natural supply is not maintained by
recession and the sand in the longshore drift system continues
to be transported along the mainland shore then the beaches
will be sublected to greater wave energy. Therefore, by
protecting the shore we lose the source of the sand, but
because we want beaches and gentle nearshore slopes for shore
protection as well as for recreational pursuits, we are going
to have to either recycle the sand that we are now trapping,
perhaps within cells defined on the downdrift side by major
stickout structures, or nourish our beaches with sand from an
outside source, presumably offshore deposits.

Last but not least, in any consideration of solutions for
shore protection is lake-level regulation. A decrease in the
level of the lake would reduce the amount of wave energy ,
reaching the shore; the greater the decrease in lake level,
the greater the decrease in wave energy reaching the shore.
Perhaps in the distant future, if shoreland becomes expensive
enough and lake sedimentation becomes,a tangible problem, this
solution will become feasible enough to help protect the entire
Lake Erie shore.

FLOODING

Introduction

No geographic area in Ohio is more inherently ripe for con-
flict than where the land and water meet. This is expecially
true in regard to the threat of flooding. The flooding problem
along the Lake Erie shoreline is especially hazardous since
it is plagued by floods resulting from riverine and lake
sources including the critical area where these two forces
collide. The damage suffered in the coastal area in the past
and the continual threat of flooding in the future make this an
issue-of vital concern in Ohio's Coastal Zone Management Program.

Geological History

Four major phases of glaciation have formed the relief and
drainage pattern of,the Great Lakes Basin. The sediments that
overlay the bedrock consist of glacial drift deposited by the
continental ice sheets, streams created by the melting ice,
stratified beds laid down in ancient glacial lakes, and sand
consisting of materials picked up and redeposited by the wind.
These unconsolidated, readily erodible sediments have been
partially reworked by post-glacial streams and deposited as
alluvium in the Great Lakes and their flood plains.

There is also a slow geological tilting of the earth's
surface around Lake 'Erie. The southwest part of the basin is
being lowered at the rate of about'one foot per century. It
is believed that this is a consequence of the "springing back"
of the earth's surface at the northeast end of the basin after
the last glacier retreated.

Natural Attraction

Geographic location is the key in the history of Ohio's
shoreline development. From the first fLir traders and settlers
to the current thousands of businesses and residents in the
coastal area it was the attractiveness of the lake and its
estuaries that has influenced dev6lopment patterns and loca-
tion. The advantage of large quanticies of water for
transportation, power, industry, human consumption,. and
recreation was evident from the ba-ginning.

Although the advantages of such locations for many of these
needs has faded with modern '@-echnology, the desire to locate
along the lake still influences development patterns in the
coastal area. Today, the aesthetic aspect is one of the most
influential attraction factors in lake-shore location.

Unfortunately the lack of understanding or adequate con-
sideration of the natural forces associated with shoreline
locations has created a critical flood hazard for a considerable
portion of the region's coastal develoDment. This lack of con-
sideration must be corrected in future development plans so that
succeeding generations are not plagued by the problem and
financial burden of flood-prone development. The consideration
.of flood-prone areas and the adoption of regulatory controls on
development in these areas is'referred to as flood plain
management. A review of the natural flooding processes will
give us a better appreciation of the need for flood plain
management.

Riverine Flooding

Flooding may occur at any time, but throughout the Lake
Erie region most major floods have occurred during late winter
or early spring. Rainfalls combined with snowmelt on frozen
or nearly saturated ground during these seasons produce Deak
runoff conditions and have created very destructive floo@s.
The problem is often aggravated by ice jams in the bends of
stream channels and at the mouths of the streams emptying into
the lake. The problem is complicated further when the lake is
frozen. Flood waters can not get out into the lake during these
conditions and they are "backed up" in the stream channel in-
creasing flood heights upstream. Severe thunderstorms during
the summer months have also produced destructive floods,
although damage is usually confined to local tributary areas.

Rapid urbanization has contributed another aspect to the
flooding problem. Intensified storm runoff in metropolitan
areas overloads existing drainage systems which have not kept
pace with the rate of growth. This creates higher flood levels
in existing flood-prone areas, sewer backup conditions, and new
flood-prone areas due to the increased flood levels. Many of
these flood problems have been aggravated by the loss of flood
storage and carrying capacity in the flood plains due to con-
tinued development and filling in these areas. This causes
even higher flood levels.

The flood plain of a river or stream is the area of a
river channel and the adjacent land, built up by sediments of
the present stream regime, which is covered with water during
maximum flood stages. Since the maximum flood stage can never
be technically known, common practice is to refer to a flood
plain of a particular frequency of occurrence or magnitude.
For example the 100 year flood plain (the standard for state
and federal government programs) is the area flooded by the
stage associated with a hundred year frequency flood. A hun-
dred year frequency flood is a flood which has a one percent
chance of being exceeded in any year. Although calculation of

possible recurrence is often based upon historical records,
there is no guarantee that a 100 year flood will occur with a
100 year period or that it will not recur several times during
that period.

A riverine flood plain (Figure 1) can be divided into two
zones or areas for regulatory purposes--the floodway and the
flood fringe (also called floodway fringe). The floodway is the
portion consisting of the stream channel and overbank areas
necessary to convey the flood discharge without increasing flood
heights and velocities above adopted levels. The floodway is
usually not limited to the actual stream channel. Rather it is'
the area calculated to be of sufficient width and flood con-
veyance characteristics to pass the flood waters along a reach
of stream without increasing flood heights more than the stated
level (one foot, one-half foot, etc.) or substantially increas-
ing velocities over what they would have been without the
assumed confinement. In this calculation the floodway itself
is assumed to remain in an open condition (or condition at time
of calculation). Floodway areas are subject to frequent, high
velocity flooding, often at considerable depths.

The flood fringe area is the portion of the regulatory
flood plain beyond the limits of the floodway. It is subject
to less frequent, lower velocity flooding and does not play a
major role in passing flood flows; however, it does provide
storage area during the flooding event.

With flood plain regulation, development is tightly con-
trolled in the floodway to preserve flood flow capacities and
protect public safety. In the flood fringe areas most land
uses are permitted, provided they are individually protected to
a level above the regulatory flood. Unless local flood plain
regulation programs are adopted and enforced, flooding problems
will continue to compound an already hazardous condition and
create a financially unacceptable public burden.

Lake Flooding

Flooding along Lake Erie occurs when conditions in or on
the lake cause water levels to rise above normal. The level of
Lake Erie is the result of an integration of the hydraulic
characteristics of the connecting channels of the other Great
Lakes and the St. Lawrence River and the total water supplies
received (Figure 2). The total water supplies are the inflows
from Lake Huron, plus the runoff from the land in the Lake Erie
Basin, plus the preci-'Pitation falling directly on the lake, less
the evaporation from the lake. Figure 3 shows the numbers for
these water supply factors for an average ten-year period which
includes both high and normal supplies.

The level of Lake Erie depends on the balance between the
total water supplies received and its discharge to Lake Ontario.
If supplies received are greater than those discharged the lake
level gradually rises. Conversely, if the discharge is greater
than supplies received the lake level slowly drops. These
hydrologic factors are the dominant cause of the protracted
fluctuations in the levels of Lake Erie.

Precipitation in the form of rain and snow is the-source
of all water supplies to the Great Lakes. The low lake levels
during the mid-1930's and 1960's were the result of abnormally
low precipitation, while the high lake levels of the early
1950's an@ 1970's were caused by excessive precipitation. The
annual precipitation in the Lake Erie Basin has varied from
24.5 to 42.6 inches. The peak runoff usually occurs in
March; however, high runoffs also occur during the fall and
winter as a result of rainfall and snowmelt when land evapora-
tion and transpiration is least and the ground is either
saturated or frozen. Such was the case in 1972 with the high
water levels.

The higher levels in the spring and early summer and
gradual lowering of levels the remainder of the year reflect
the variations of runoff and evaporation in the Lake Erie
Basin. In any given year the variations from winter lows to
summer highs are small, usually averaging about one and one-
half foot.

These natural phenomena are the dominant causes of the
long-term fluctuations of the Great Lakes. The mean monthly
levels for Lake Erie since 1860 are shown in Figure 4. The
magnitude and duration of these fluctuations are irregular
and for this reason high and low water levels do not occur in
any regular cycles.

The most dramatic changes in water levels are the short-
term fluctuations caused by strong winds and by sharp
differentials in barometric pressure. They usually are of
short duration, lasting less than one da 'v, and do not repre-
sent any changes in the volume of water in the lake.

The winds are caused by the passage of weather systems.
The strong winds which cause most of the shoreline damage
occur primarily in the spring and fall. Winds keep the water
surface of the lake in constant motion and influenc-e the
littoral currents which build and destroy the beaches.

During periods of strong winds, deep water waves generated
by the wind can reach a height in excess of 25 feet from trough
to crest. It is the energy released by these waves as they
break on the shore that causes erosio .n. When superimposed on
high water levels, the damage caused by waves is incr eased.
This is illustrated in Figure 5. Strong winds tend to build

up the level at the downwind shore and reduce the water.level
along the upwind shore. Sustained high winds along the
southwesterly axis of Lake Erie have caused differences in the
water levels between Buffalo and Toledo of up to 13 feet.
Movement of weather systems can produce local changes in
atmospheric pressures which in turn cause sudden changes in
water levels.

In summary, the principal cause of long-term water level
fluctuations on Lake Erie is extended periods of excessive or
deficient precipitation. The regular annual fluctuations in
levels are due to seasonal variation in water supplies. The
.short-term fluctuations are the result of wind and meteoro-
logical disturbances. When the high seasonal or annual
variations accompany high long-term fluctuations the effects
are exaggerated and flooding can be quite severe.

Since coastal flood conditions differ from riverine
flooding, the lake flood plain also differs. Lake flood plains
do not have floodway areas since they do not convey flood
discharges. However, most of the inundated area of the lake
flood plains is susceptible to damaging wave,action at the same
time. Therefore, the hazard to development is uniform through-
out the lake flood plain area. For this reason development
should be discouraged in the lake flood plain area unleiss it
can be constructed above the lake flood levels or otherwise
protected to that level. The 100 year flood level is the
recommended standard for regulatory programs in lake flood
plains as well as riverine flood plains.

Flood Plain Information

An effective flood plain regulation program, whether it
includes riverine flood plains, lake flood plains, or both,
requires a firm commitment on the part of local and state
governments to enforce the standards and safeguards necessary
in dealing with the flood hazard. This requires adequate
flood plain data to support the regulations and their imple-
,mentation. Since the beginning of Ohio's CZM program, the
State has given priority to the Lake Erie shoreline area in
its flood plain delineation program. The primary source for
detailed flood plain information is through the National
Flood Insurance Program. The U.S. Army ICorps of Engineers's
efforts in flood plain information have been reoriented to
the completion of flood insurance studies. The flood
insurance studies provide the detailed flood information
necessary for supporting local flood plain regulation
programs. Table 1 provides a current list and status of
flood insurance studies for the coastal counties. Other,
less detailed flood information is also available from
U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, U.S. Geological Survey and
Soil Conservation Service studies.

Management Considerations

The main emphasis of Coastal Zone Management is to promote
the wise use of the coastal resources. The following management
considerations are set forth in accordance with that premise.

1. A local flood plain regulation program should be
adopted and enforced in all coastal communities
(municipalities and unincorporated county areas).
Criteria should be adopted to prohibit structural
development in the floodway portion of the 100 year
frequency flood plains. Construction in flood fringe
and lake flood plains should be allowed only if
protected to levels above the 100 year flood eleva-
tions, either by fill or other standard flood proofing
measures.

2. All coastal communities should participate and
maintain eligibility in the National Flood Insurance
Program. Flood insurance coverage is available to
protect existing buildings against flood and flood-
related damages including flood related erosion damages.

3. New construction in urban and other developing areas
should be designed such that the resultant runoff
from these areas would not appreciably increase
above levels prior to development.

4. Statewide support should be continued for the
International Joint Commission's proposal for
lowering levels of Lake Erie by a diversion channel
in Squaw Island, New York.

5. Deed descriptions for property in flood hazard areas
should include a statement concerning the flood-
prone nature of that respective property.

DATE DUE

GAYLORDINo. 2333 PRINTED IN US A,

W0-"'DNR
Ohio Department of Natural Res
-(Dij
Fountain Square - Columbus, Ohio 43
JAMES A. RHODES, Governor - ROBERT W. T

36668
14.108