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a%- 3 Coastal Zone Information COASTAL ZONE Center INFORMATION CENTER 0' cf 1-1 GB459 4 o38 1974 V.3 .2 J, @ HL1. Tc (Odum B. 1'(c(3P@RMd 19, A. mcm-MEhmn REFERENCE COP COASTAL ZONE INFORMATION CENTEO US edited by H. T. Odurn University of Florida B. J. Copeland North Carolina State University at Raleigh E. A. McMahan University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill published by The Conservation Foundation Washington, D.C. in cooperation with National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration Office of Coastal Environment Vff CM US Department of Commerce KOAA Coastal Services center Library 2234 South Hobson Avenue Charleston, SC 29 405-2413 The Conservation Foundation is a non- profit organization dedicated to encouraging human conduct to sustain and enrich life on earth. Since its founding in 1948, it has attempted to provide intellectual leadership in the cause of wise management of the earth's resources. It is now focusing increasing attention on one of the'critical issues of the day-how to use wisely that most basic resource, the land itself. This publication is available as-a four- volume set from: Publications Department The Conservation Foundation 1717 Massachus etts Avenue, N.W. Washington, D.C. 20036 Price per set: $28*00 (if payment accompanies order) $30.00 (if billing is required) Published: June, 1974 Coastal Ecological Systems of the United the Conservation Foundation agreed to make States w as originally prepared for the Federal this material available to a wider audience by Water Pollution Control Administration as reproducing the amended manuscript in the part of the National Estuarine Pollution Sur- most inexpensive way possible. vey conducted in 1968 and 1969. It was the Those whose personal efforts merit recog- product of a group of scientists led by staff nition are Robert W. Knecht, director, and members of the University of North Carolina's Edward T. LaRoe, coastal ecologist, of the Institute of Marine Sciences. Its four volumes Office of Coastal Environment, who foresaw include a comprehensive survey of scientift the relevance of this work to the practical information through 1969, as well as a new needs of coastal zone management; Eugene T. system for the classification of coastal ecosys- Jensen and A. L. Wastler, of the U.S. Envi- tents. The manuscript was submitted to the ronmental Protection Agency, who arranged U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (which for the original study; and John Clark and absorbed the FWPCA in 1970), but was not Laura O'Sullivan of the Conservation Foun- published. dation, who, respectively, persuaded their or- The Conservation Foundation is now able ganization to publish this massive work and to publish this work because of an assistance attended to the myriad details of bringing it grant (Grant No. 043-158-68) provided by the into print. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Adminis- tration's Office of Coastal Environment, which The Editors: is responsible for implementing the Coastal H. T. Odum, Zone Management Act of 1972. The purpose University of Florida of the grant was to assist the Conservation B. J. Copeland, Foundation in preparing an amended version North Carolina State University of this comprehensive work for NOAA's pro- E. A. McMahan, gram use. Upon completion of that activity, University of North Carolina CONTENTS VOLUME THREE Part V. Chapters on Types of Ecological Systems D. Natural Arctic Ecosystems with Ice Stress D-1. Glacial Fjords, D.C. Burrell and J.B. Matthews ............................................ 1 D-2. Turbid Outwash Fjords, D.C. Burrell and J.B. Matthews ................. *"** .... 11 D-3A. Ice Stressed Coasts, C.P. McRoy and M.B. Allen .......... 17 D-3B. Inshore Arctic Ecosystems with Ice Stress, Richard W. Faas ......................................... 37 D-4. Sea Ice and Under Ice Plankton, J.J. Goering and C.P. McRoy .............................................. 55 E. Emerging New Systems Associated with Man E-1. Estuarine Ecosystems that Receive Sewage Wastes, Charles M. Weiss and Frank G. Wilkes .................... 71 E-2. Seafood Waste Ecosystems, Eric J. Heald and H.T. Odum ............................................... 112 E-3A. Systems with Pesticide; I.E. Gray ....................... 123 E-3B. Pesticides in Estuaries, Don W. Hayne, T.W. Duke, and T.J. Sheets .................................. I ....... 142 E-4. Systems Resulting from Dredging Spoil, B.J. Copeland and Frances Dickens ....................... 151 E-5. Impoundment Systems, B.J. Copeland ...................... 168 E-6. Ecological Systems Receiving Heated Water, Donald B. Horton and David W. Bridges ................... 180 E-7. Pulp Mill Waste System, Frank G. Wilkes and B.J. Copeland ........................................... 215 E-8. Sugarcane Waste Systems, B.J. Copeland and Frank G. Wilkes ......................................... 243 E-9. Ecosys-tems Receiving Phosphate Wastes, J.E. Hobbie ...... 252 E-10. Acid Waters, Staff ...................................... 271 E-11. Oil Shores, Elizabeth A. McMahan ............. .......... 280 E-12. Treated Piling Systems, Eric Lindgren ................... 301 E-13. Salina Systems, Scott W. Nixon .............. ............ 318 E-14. Brine Pollution System, Frank N. Moseley B.J. Copeland ........................................... 342 E-15. Petrochemical Waste Systems, B.J. Copeland and David L. Steed .......................................... 353 E-16. Ecosystems Stressed by Additions of Man-Made Radioactivity, Douglas A. Wolfe ......................... 371 E-17. Multiple Stress Systems, Staff .......................... 399 E-18. Artificial Reefs, Staff .................................. 414 F. Migrating Subsystems, B.J. Copeland, H.T. Odum and Frank N. Moseley ............................................... 422 CONTENTS OF OTHER VOLUMES VOLUME ONE: Part I. A Functional Classification of the Coastal Ecological Systems Part II. Foraminifera in Estuarine Classification Part III. Ecological Systems by State Part IV. General Recommendations Part V. Chapters on Types of Ecological Systems A. Naturally Stressed Systems of Wide Latitudinal Range B. Natural Tropical Ecosystems of High Diversity VOLUME TWO: C. Natural Temperate Ecosystems with Seasonal Programming VOLUME FOUR: Bibliography and Place Index PART V. NATURAL ARCTIC ECOSYSTEMS WITH ICE STRESS Chapter D-1 GLACIAL FIORDS D.C. Burrell and J.B. Matthews Institute of Marine Science University of Alaska College, Alaska 99735 INTRODUCTION A glacial fiord is a narrow, steepsided coastal inlet fed by a glacier at its upper end. Fiords where glaciers terminate an land and send their meltwater into the tide water via a freshwater river system are considered in a following chapter, "Turbid Outwash Fiords". EXAMPLES Examples of glacial fiords are listed in Table 1. See maps in Figures I and 2. All the major indentions of the Southeast Alaska coastline are fiord-type estuaries. The name refers to inlets which owe their distinctive physiography to the action of glacial ice on mountainous doastal regions. Thus, such in- lets are usually narrow and deep and relatively straight. Commonly, fiords contain an entrance sill which constricts the free exchange of waters within the inlet. However, the presence of such a sill is not essential to the des- ignation "fiord" for the purposes of this discussion, although it should be noted that Pritchard (1952) has restricted the definition to those inlets which do contain such a sill. Rosenberg (1966) has classified various inlets and waterways (i.e., es- tuaries) to give five basic patterns of which two concern us here, namely, the lisill-glacier" and the'"glacier" systems. The "sill glacier" type possesses one or more sills and adjoining basins. Both receive their major freshwater runoffs from@acti@ve glacial sources and are otherwise identical. Discussion within this section wiil be limited to those fiords with active glaciers in the intertidal zone. In such cases, most of the glacial melt water (i.e., the major estuarine freshwater,,source) passes directly into the marine environment. The "glacial fiords" thus defined constitute dynamic oceanographic sys- tems inasmuch as all glaciers are constantly in motion. The glacial system of,@:,-, Southeast Alaska is currently in a period of overall retreat, as is well il-. lustrated Sy the recent geography of Glacier Bay National Monument. Individual glaciers with *in the total system, however, may be advancing. The resulting ra- pid (relative to non-glacial'estuarine systems) and irregular changes in the 2 Table 1. Principal physiographic features of representative glaciated fiords in Southeast Alaska. Mean Mean Max Outer Fiord Seaward Length Width Mid- Depth Sill Connection (n.m.)* (n.m.)* Inlet Depth Depth Tarr Inlet Glacier Bay 6o 3-0 220 510 40 Muir Inlet Glacier Bay 19 1.0 215 315 58 Geiki Inlet Glacier Bay 7 1-3 Johns Hopkins Glacier Bay 10 o.8 Inlet Taku Inlet Stephens Passage 72 7*0 295 460 185 Tracy Arm Stephens Passage 23 1.0 270 370 22 Endicott Arm Stephens Passage 24 1.8 260 370 33 nautical miles 3 ALASKA 'A'P kagwo km .--;GL-4qlER =8A TAKU INLET Juneau GULF OF ALASKA 0,1020 40 60 GLACIER BAY AREA miles- SCALE t Fig* I* Glacial fiords in the Glacial Bay area (Hoskin and Burrell, 1968)e W'35' 133*15' 133*5 132*55 ENDICOTT AF@M, SEALA 0 1 2 4 4RM SM0 V'J in VwNe HAFDOR IS I WI)OD @il T SUADUM Is 57-45- 133*45 13Y 35 133-25 133-15' i33*5' Fig* 2. Erdicott Arm, a glacial fiord (Buckley and Loder, 1968). 5 physiographic configuration of individual inlets is an additional factor which relates directly to other determined physical, chemical, and biological parameters. The general physical oceanographic characteristics of the fiords of Brit- ish Columbia have been noted by Pickard and co-workers (e.g., Pickard, 1953, 1956, 1961, and 1963; Pickard and Rodgers, 1958; Tabata and Pickard, 1956). These latter inlets are closely related to those occurring further north in the Southeast Alaska area. However, there are no fiords containing tidal gla- ciers in British Columbia. Pickard (1967) has also presented some summer data on'Alaska fiords, notedly salinity and temperature parameters for Glacier Bay, Muir Inlet, Tracy Arm, and Endicott Arm. Rosenberg and Hall (1968) have pre- sented extensive periodic hydrographic data for all seasons for Taku Inlet, Tracy Arm, Endicott Arm, and the principal inlets within Glacier Bay. All these are fiords with tidal glaciers. The principal features of representa- tive Alaskan glaciated fiords are given in Table 1. Circulation Patterns In the fiord estuaries which contain entrance sills, density distributions are often characterized by approximations to the idealized horizontal layering patterns of Stommel and Farmer (195,2). Unrestricted exchange of Water between a fiord and its seaward connection can be expected to occur to sill depth only. In the general case the salinity of the surface waters increases from the head to the mouth, while the deeper waters remain uniform. Denser water enters the fiords beneath the outward flowing surface water. Mixing of salt between these two waters occurs predominantly upwards with minimal downward mixing of the freshwater. Rosenberg (1966) has noted that such an entrainment of salt water from below may inflate the original volume of outward flowing surface water by an order of magnitude or more. The extent to which the above generalized cir- culation pattern is developed depends upon many factors but principally on sill depth, the seasonal volume distribution of freshwater runoff, and the density distribution of the marine water outside the fiordal basin. The majority of the fiords of Southeast Alaska (and British Columbia) have entrance sill depths which allow continuous contact with the exterior source waters such that a slow circulation prevents the basins from stagnating. Where shallow sills penetrate the low salinity outflowing upper layer, exchange of the deep basin water is inhibited and stagnation is theoreticall y possible. Stagnation as a consequence of restricted circulation would also be expected in areas of limited freshwater inflow. In fact, no fiords studied within the Southeast Alaska system show the formation of such waters to any marked degree, unlike areas In British Columbia where oxygen depletion of stagnant areas has given well developed anoxic basins. The freshwater inflow into the Southeast Alaska fiord system is strongly seasonal with a pronounced primary maximum during the months of May through July. The sources for most of the rivers and streams which yield this peak runoff are the coastal snow fields and glaciers. Figure 3 (after Pickard, 1961) illustrates seasonal trends in land drainage for the essentially equiv- alent British Columbia system. A secondary peak occurs during the period September to December which constitutes the period of maximum precipitation. Stored runoff inlets Direct runoff inlets 2 woo "'Ma 000W MO NTHLY MEAN -ft- 40%W FOR YEAR 0. J F M A M J J A S 0 N D MONTHS Fig- 3. Monthly runoff patterns for British Columbian fjords, typical of stored runoff (glaciers and snowfields) and of direct runoff (precipitation) expressed as a multiple of a monthly mean for the entire year (after Pickard, 1961). 7 During the summer months, solar radiation further increases the stability of the fiordal water structure by differentially warming the surface layers. Such a stable structuring in general persists through the fall months. Thus, Pigs. 4 and 5 from Wallen and Hood (1968) demonstrate salinity and tempera- ture distributions within Endicott Arm during October. This stability, which would give rise to stagnation, does not persist through the winter months; however, Matthews and Rosenberg (1968) have noted that continuous exchange oc- curs between the basin and source water,of Endicott Arm during this season. The mechanics of the winter and spring water mas's formation is not fully un- derstood at present. Mixing processes at the glacier face have not been studied in any detail. However, Hartley and Dunbar (1938), working on non- Alaskan systems, reported extensive upwelling phenomena at this interface. The major energy source within the fiords appears to be the total fresh- water inflow and the effects of tides, with the former predominating. No de- finitive data are available an the effects of winds on the system. The pre- sence of the glacier leads to the formation of cold, heavy air masses which may form down-slope winds over the fiords, frequently of gale-force intensity. Kilday (1966) has reported on the conditions which give rise to such Fbhn winds in Taku Inlet. Such winds are, of course, essentially a winter phen- omenon, at which time the upper reaches of the fiords adjacent to the glaciers are usually covered with sheet ice of varying thickness. During the summer months the glaciers continually calve icebergs into the systems. This ice is subsequently distributed with the surface water layer flow. Little work has been done to date on the effects of the presence and movement of this ice within the fiords but it obviously represents a considerable stress on the local ecosystem. Nutrients The overall nutrient chemical structure of typical fiords has been con- sidered in some detail by Wallen and Hood (1968). Nutrient materials are apparently continuously introduced from the exterior source waters, from di- rect precipitation, and from surface drainage. The nutrient parameters may be considered to be conservative except in those seasons in which biological populations peak. During these months, which often correspond to periods of maximum water column stability as noted above, the characteristic dense phy- toplankton blooms have a pronounced influence upon the chemical dynamics of the surface layers, which varies markedly from fiord to fiord. Figure 6 (from Wallen and Hood, 1968) illustrates isopleths of phosphate at a depth of 5 meters which well illustrate the seasonal variations. Wallen and Hood (p2 Sit.) have also studied in detail the nutrient chemical regime of the surface layers of selected fiords to a depth of 1 meter. This work is par- ticularly concerned with the chemical gradients developed across the fresh- water lens-marine water interface. DEPTH, IMeters 0 cn 0 0 0 0 0 0 0---- 0 0 tv lot- ct rt Ph m CA 0 rt 0 rt > N: GC > 0 r. x rt w F. m lb 0 Ul rt U) > 0 z (n N 0 0 0 0 0 Aj (0 N) ENDICOTT ARM STATIONS 0 5 10 15 20 25 -2.0 30 4.o - 3.0 50- 5.5- 100- 5.5 (n 150- 5.0 5 0...' 4.5 ---4.5- -200- 0- '250 300- 3:50 0 Fig. -Distribution of temperature in Endicott Arm, Southeast Alaska, October.1967, 0.5 C intervals (after Wallen and Hoodi 1968). ENDICOTT. ARM STATIONS 5 10' 15 20 25 0- (0 (.0 N- D- i CV F" 2.0 A- M, .0 ft'O.5 LO A S- N'- 2.0 D - \s. Fig. 6. Seasonal distrib@ution of phosphate.at 5 m depth in Endicott Arm, Soutiieast Alaska; 0.5.mgk/l inteTyals (after Wallen and.Rdod, 1968). Chapter D-2 TURBID OUTWASH FIORDS D.C. Burrell and J.B. Matthews Institute of Marine Science University of Alaska College, Alaska 99735 INTRODUCTION Turbid outwash fiords are fiords that do not have glaciers encroaching on the intertidal area. In contrast to the clear-water environment of the glaciai fiord, large quantities of glacially ground sediment are* transported into the inlets by glacial melt water from the sediment deposits between glacier and fiord. The generalized hydrographic environment of these fiords is otherwise essentially as outlined in Chapter D-1 and is largely dependent on the presence or absence and form of the sills present in each individual estuary. The reason for separate consideration lies in the characteristic and considerably complex geologic regime developed in these estuarine types. The discharge, transportation, and ultimate disposal of these large particu- late sediment loads must presumably represent a great stress on the local ecological environment. However, to date, no definitive studies of the bi- ota devel)ped under such conditions have been attempted. Because of the many factors which must be considered,'it is not yet possible to categorize the turbid outwash fiord types of Southeast Alaska. Each inlet thus,designated must be considered individually. EXAMPLES Taku glacier, near Juneau in Southeast Alaska, is currently advancing at a relatively rapid rate (see Chapter D-1, Figure 1). The glacial front is, in fact, geographically within Taku Inlet. However, the natural development of an extensive terminal moraine has provided the necessary source of glacial sediment for transportation of freshwater runoff into and down the inlet. Kunze et al. (1967) have studied the mineralogy of this particulate material and have @_ound the clay sized material to'be most distinctive. Apparently un- der these erosional conditions in a subarctic environment, degradation of primary minerals is greatly inhibited. Much of the glacial sediment is trans- ported only short distances from the sub-aerial moraine. Jordan (1962) has given some estimation of the high sedimentation rates in waters adjacent to the glacier. Tidal action results in a complex cycle sedimentation sequence whereby mud-flat deposited material is continuously reworked. Cook Inlet, although not part of the Southeast Alaska system, is most worthy of note here because of the diverse oceanographic work recently accom- plished. An extensive river system carries vast quantities of glacial sedi- ment into the upper inlet during the summer months. Love (1955) has esti mated the annual load to be of the order of 13-19 million tons. Most of this material is, of necessity, transported during the summer months only, since 12 the upper inlet is ice covered for at least four months of the year. The absence of any restricting physical barriers and the overall shallowness of the upper inlet ensures that the incoming freshwater and contained sediment load is well mixed vertically with the inlet waters. Such summer hydro- graphic conditions have been described in detail by Rosenberg and Hood (1967). The sediment load adjacent to the outflow of the principal glacial-fed rivers has been found to exceed 1 g/l during July (Rosenberg et al., 1967). The turbidity diminishes in an approximately regular fashion down the well ' mixed upper inlet. The subsequent depositional environment of the middle a 'nd lower reaches is considerably more complex, as noted by Sharma and Burrell (1968) (Fig. 1). Several considerably smaller and less complex examples of the "turbid'@ type of fiord have been studied over several years within Glacier Bay National Monument, north of Juneau in Southeast Alaska (see Chapter D-1, Fig. 1). Queen Inlet is a small (approximately 1 mile x 6 mile) one-glaciet system (Fig. 2). Approximately 1 mile of intertidal mud-flat and terminal moraine separates the fiord-proper from the glacier. The sedimentary regime here has been studied over several years and is one of considerable complexity. Active transportation and deposition occurs, as in other such areas, only during the summer months. Deposition is thus strongly seasonal. Bottom sediment core samples exhibit graded bedding and vertically regular oxidized layers. If, as may be presumed, these latter marker horizons represent annual winter stag- nations then deposition rates at the head of the inlet may exceed 1 meter per year in some areas. Deposition is far from uniform, however. The intertiaal mud-flats are cyclically eroded and redeposited under tidal action and there is evidence for extensive turbidity currents originating on the mud-flat slopes and flowing down the inlet (Hoskin and Burrell, 1968). The glacial melt water flowing into Queen Inlet, carrying sediment in suspension, flows over the in situ marine water to form the characteristic glacial sediment "plume." T-hi-sfrdshwater lens--only a few centimeters in thickness--maintains its identity at low water for over 3 miles down the in- let before mixing with the marin6 waters. Figure 3 (after Burrell, 1967) il- lustrates the systematic variations in sediment load, salinity, and tempera- tureparameters of the surface layers of Queen Inlet. The sediment is pre- sumed to flocculat*,@'on contact with the saline water but the deposition se- quence is far from simple. It is known that the depositing sediments occupy discrete layers within thelwater column, no doubt due to the exceedingly com- plex sub-surface current structure. Also, Burrell and Gatto (unpublished da- ta) have found no distinctive differences in the size distribution of suspended sedimentary material from the surface downward through the vertical water col- UMS. Geochemical studies-of sediments within Muir Inlet, Glacier Bay (Burrell and O'Brienj 1968) have essentially confirmed the mineralogical data presented by Kunze et al. for other fiords in Southeast Alaska as noted above. Re- tardatio@-of"-weathering-processes was further graphically demonstrated by the sharp grain margins as shown in many electron micrographs. The extreme mineral- ogical uniformity of clay sized material down the length of the 20-mile inlet was particularly noteworthy. The particulate sedimentary material was found ISO-od 61.20, 1511 od 61. 0- OW c2. 4- 61,0 d 15(rod '0@ at % UPPER COOK INLET LEGEND. -------- BOTTOM CONTOUR Fig. 1. Deposition of turbid outwash sediments in Cook Inlet, Alaska (Sharma and Burrell, 1968). 59* RA 0 0 Z5 r- 11 050 m 49 48 1( _4% P 4z) -V9.1 tI 1) iul- Wrrj 47 L 137000, 13'6*40 GLACIER BAY -;OV Fig. 2* Glacier Bay, Alaska, showing Queen Inlet, a turbid outwash fiord (Hoskin and 15 -T 0 Sed. locd 0C 9"00 Temp -3-0 8..0--24 .0 0 WR-1. zS 1. 2-0 -16 4-0-- VO -8 1 2 3 4 5 Fig- 3* Surface water parameters for a longitudinal section down Queen \ed Inlet, Glacier Bay, Southeast Alaska; sediment load g/11 temp- eratilre OC; salinity O/oo (After Hood and Burrell, 1967). 16 to equilibrate rapidly with the marine environment with respect to #ie major ions adsorbed on exchange sites. This has been observed for all other fiords similarly studied (e.g., Sharma and Burrell, 1968). The role of trace elements within turbid-@type fiords is, however, considerably more complex.., Iron and manganese introduced via the freshwater iuflow are rapidly red@64' in solution in the marine environment, as would be expected. Manganese appears to be re- mobilized under the existing redox environment of the surface sediments within Muir Inlet and it is of ecological interest to note that manganese was greatly concentrated and by far the most abundant trace metal in a series of intertidal molluscs analyzed by Burrell and Gross (1967) in Taku Inlet. Initial detailed data on the zinc budget of a typical turbid outwash fiord (Ali and Burrell,, unpublished data) have shown that this element is adsorbed on the glacial floor in concentrations up to 20 times that in the coexisting marine environment. 17 Chapter D-3A ICE STRESSED COASTS C. P.. McRoy and M. B. Allen Institute of Marine Science University of Alaska College, Alaska 99735 Ice stressed coasts are an ecosystem type characterized by ice, ice formed by the freezing of the arctic seas. Ice along a shore has profound effects on the fauna and flora of the coast in that it eliminates most organisms from the littoral zones of the sea. On the arctic coast the pressure on sea ice from wind stress and currents is translated to the fast ice on shore and causes scouring. EXAMPLES The ice stressed littoral system reaches a maximum intensity on the northernmost coast of Alaska, from Point Barrow east, where ice is present from September through July and in extreme years may be on and offshore all summer. The effect's of ice on coastal systems diminish with the decreas- ing latitude along,the Chukchi and Bering Sea coasts of Alaska. The southern extent of the ice stressed system varies with the intensity of winter; it can extend as far sou-thas Izembek Lagoon neat the tip of the Alaska Peninsula (550N; Fig. @). In those lower latitudes the ice effects are much less than in the Arctic. Ice cover on the open Bering Sea never extends as far south as the Alaska Peninsula. Although the stress of ice influences long portions of the shoreline of Alaska (approximately 2800 miles), most studies have been limited to the region near the Naval Arctic Research Laboratory at Point Barrow. For other regions only inferences can be made, based on the Point Barrow work. The best known ice stressed coasts are those of the arctic Soviet Union. PHYSICAL SYSTEMS AFFECTING ICE SHORES The ice stressed coast of Alaska, from the tip of the Alaska Peiiinsula to Point Barrow and beyond, is generally flat and low. Exceptions @te the three mountain ranges that intersect the coast: the Kilbuk Mountains,on the north shore of Bristol Bay, the mountains of the Seward Peninsula, And the western extremity of the BrooksRange (Wahrhaftig, 1965). Included in this coast are the several island groups of the Bering Sea shelf: the Pribilof Islands (570N), Nunivak-Island (600N), St. Matthew Island (610N), and a few 172- 16,V 561 148- 140- 13e 124' 116* 60 -,y r Pt K Am-r", --- ---- ----- POP sa It .f I A X0 Aar AtWl V. S jr U.. ISW Isr 148* I.,V 140- 136, 19 other small islands. Two major rivers, the Yukon and the Kuskokwim, empty into the eastern Bering Sea, forming a large marshy delta with many dis- tributaries. Farther north a few smaller rivers enter the Chukchi Sea; some of these are the Kukpuk, Kobuk, and the Noatak. On the arctic coast east of Point Barrow, the Colville is the largest Alaskan river. Flow of these rivers varies greatly with season (Table 1). Adjacent to this coast in the Bering and Chukchi seas is a broad, flat, continental shelf (Fig. 2). The gradient on this shelf is only about 0.13 m/mile; depth averages 45 to 55 m (Dietz et al., 19614)' Circulation in the eastern Bering Sea is northerly, although intensity may vary seasonally. Pacific water enters through the Aleutian passes and flows north along the Alaska coast into the Chukchi Sea. Velocities are generally low, except in Bering Strait where they reach 1 knot (Fleming and Haggerty, 1966). Fleming and Haggerty also studied summer temperature and salinity for part of this area (Figs. 3 and 4). Ekman (1953) compiled a comparison of summer maximum temperatures for @his region (Table 2). Water continues its northerly flow on the Alaska coast of the Chukchi. Off Point Hope, the flow diverges and one arm continues north along the.coast toward Point Barrow (Zenkevitch, 1963). The northerly Chukchi flow and the anticyclonic gyre of the Beaufort Sea converge at Point Barrow. The northerly flow of relatively warm Pacific water from the Aleutians into the Arctic permits rangeextensions into the Arctic of many boreal (north temperate) species of marine animals (Ekman,,1953). Tides along the ite stressed coast diminish in the Bering Sea with the increasing latitude (Dietz et al., 1964). In the Bristol Bay region tidal amplitude may reach 6 m. In the Bering Strait region this is about 0.5 m,and at Point Barrow it is only 0.1 to 0.2 m (Fig. 5). An additional non-tidal variation in sea level at Point Barrow ranges from 0.27 to 0.65 m, being lowest in March, and is caused by changes in atmospheric pressure (Beal, 1968). North of Bering Strait tides have a minor influence on the scouring movements of sea ice on the beach. South of the sea ice edge, in Bristol Bay and on the Alaska Peninsuia, tidal energy imparted to coastal ice causes the major scouring action. This scouring mechanism is confined to the intertidal zone, whereas that on the arctic coast reaches much deeper (Rex, 1955). The beaches of the ice'stressed coast are primarily composed of sand or gravel with vary- ing mixt u-kes of silt and clay (Rex, 1964; Carsola, 1954, Creager and Mcm@nus, 1966;@.,M,60re,: 1966). One exception to this is Fairway Rock in Bering Strait (Si2humway e@'al , 1964), and others exist around some of the Bering Sea island groups I(Prebie and McAtee, 1923). The -absence of hard substrates north of Bering Stra'it.,is an important factor determining the types of biological communities on this coast. Table 1 Monthly mean discharge (ft3/sec) for two northern streams in Alaska (1966). Data from surface water records of Alaska, 196Y, Part 1, Surface water records. U. S. Dept. of Interior Geological Survey, Water Resources Division .Jan Feb Mar April May June July Aug Sept Oct Nov Dee Snake River near Nome 36 28 22 20 55 1,480 380 280 149 227 85 50 Kobuk River at. Ambler 1,300 900 800 950 15,140 58,?30 30,980 23,980 12,360 9,406 3,000 2,000 21 RCTIC CEAN BEAU RT SEA %000 SIBERIAN '00 SEA 10 PT. ARROW CHUKCHI S A A 5 K A KOTZEBU SOUN C'. P.. .V-' E - I R I 0 NRTON SOUND ST LAWR NCE 1. Z. w IL IQ B E,R-I G" S E A PLO 17e Ise lee Fig. 2. The Bering - Chukchi - East Siberian continental shelf. Contours in fathoms (from Dietz et al., 1964). 22 $To- ITO jtg. ITO- -68, 1661 64' 162o '60. TV 2.0 6.0 "r... zo 5.0 SLO 10 or C91 or 64' 12.0 6.0 9.0 ED 1.6 S7' 10.0 <7.0 12.0 14. 6.0 2 6 W. .4. or &0 8.0 11.0 t S.0 16.0 9.0 10.0 10.01 9.0 <6.0 10.0 14.0 8.0 10.0 .10.0 1&0 11A 2.0 12.0 < 12. 172- 170. -68- 166. 164- 62* Fig- 3* Suriace temperatures in summer in the Bering and Chukchi seas (from Fleming and Haggerty, 1966). 23 1761 174- .72. 170- 168- j66- t64- 162- 160, I I I - 70 28.0 30LO 29.0 31.0 /32.0 ?0. 31.0 -69, 3L5- 32.0 30.0 -68 29.0 26.. 2 5.0 67. 3 LIO 31JO .3 3L5\ 2 32-0 ':27 .31.0 29.0 32.5' 31.0 29.0 28.0 32.0 31.0 31.5) 27.0 2&0 31.0 SAUNITY IN 26.0 27.0 25 62 1?4' M- 170- '68- 166- 064- 2* Fig. 4. Surface salinities in suumr in the Bering and Chukchi seas (from Fleming and Haggerty, 1966). 1600 1800 1600 1400 ARCTIC OCEAN 0.1 NA A, 0.7 60 ALASI(A 10.9 1.0 6.6 7.8 BER//VG qEA GULF OF ALASKA 500 1800 1600 Fig. Tidal differences in meters at selected locations on the coast of Alaska (fro Geodetic Survey, 1966). 25 Table 2 THE HIGHEST SUMMERTENPERATURES OFF TH@_ ALASKAN COAST oFTHEBERINO SEA AND TIM POLAR SEA. A: AT UNALASKA IN THE ALEUTIAN CHAIN; B: BETWErN UNALASKA AND TIM PRIBILOF ISLANDS; C': OFF PRIBILOF ISLAND; D. OFF NumVAK ISLAND; E: NORTON SOUND; F: BER1NG STRAIT; G: NORTH-EAST OF BEJUNG STRArr; H: SouTH-wFST ov PorNT BARROW (Elenant 1953) Bering Sea Berin? Strait Polar Sca Depth A B C D E F G H 530 5"' N. 550 30'N. about 57* N. about 60* N. 63* 3W- 65* 20@46* N. 660-68* N. 70*-710 N. 1 640 30'N. 0 M. 7-559 C. 7-4-10-2* C. 6-52-7-91*C. 6-29-9-430 C. 10-13-420 C. 7-27-12-290 C. 7-7-10-780C. 0-09-6-83*C. 10 7-20 6-9-9-3 7-10-7-26' 6-16-7-89 10-72-11-50 3-91-11-39 8-3-10-29 -0-11-5-31 20-25 6-67 6-5-8-6 2-96-7-47 6-11-7-71 6-90-6-92' 2-44-4-92 6-13-8-12 -0-51-5-11 so 6-33 4-6-7 2-84-6-21 4-65-5-28 100 5-25 3-24-5-2 3-8 200 3-4-1. 16-00 1800 1600 1400 1200 I ARCTIC 'OCEAN N ;T> 0.1 GAN A 0. A 600 0,7 ALASKA 6do 10.9 5.2 1.0 6.6 7.8 CRING SEA GULF OF ALASKA 500 50* L 18010 1600 1400 Figure 5. Tidal differences in meters at selected locations on the coast of Alaska (from IT.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey, 1966). 27 A characteristic feature of the entire length of 'the ice stressed coast is a series of shallow lagoons separated from the sea by barrier islands, beaches, and spits. These lagoons grade from marine, where several passes connect to the sea, to freshwater, where the basin is entirely closed. They vary in size and conditions from the very arctic Nuwuk Pond (228 m long) on Point Barrow (Mohr, 1953) to the more temperate Izembek Lagoon (50 miles, or 80450 m, long) on the Alaska Peninsula (McRoy, 1966). The lagoon system experiences different types and intensities of stress than do the adjacent ocean beaches. .The human population of the ice stressed coast is sparse and scattered. Major towns are Nome, Kotzebue and Barrow; not one of these e:kc66ds 2500 people. There are scattered villages of a few hundred or less, mostly less, along this coast. Outside of the three larger towns there are no pollution problems posed by these communities. The people are Eskimos. Perhaps unlike all other systems associated with man in the United States, these people use their skill and talents within the structure of the natural ecosystems (Saario and Kessel, 1966). The climate along this coast has many similar features. The lower latitudes are, of course, warmer than the arctic region but the entire coast in summei,has a cloudy maritime climate. In winter this becomes a more continental type since the sea is covered by ice and snow (Wilson, 1963). The transition from a cold continental climate to a maritime climate is abrupt. The majbr winter storm tracks are a sort of giant spiral beginning at Japan and ending north of eastern Siberia; in summer the tracks tend to be zoned following the north coast (Fig. 6.). The intensity of atmospheric circulation is,closely related to the extent of the arctic ice pack. The studie's of.the heat balance of the Arctic have revealed a startling integration of global climate and ice (Fletcher, 1965). BIOLOGICAL SYSTEMS An arctic beach is a rigorous environment. The intertidal fauna and flora characteristic of the sea in almost all other parts of the world do not exist in Arctic Alaska (MacGi.nitie, 1955). Ice combined with the low tide range and unconsolidated beach sediments provides conditions too rigor- ous for the development of a permanent fauna and flora. The mesopsammon, the animals smaller than sand grains, however, has nbt been examined, and an assemblage could exist, at least in the ice-free season. In areas of Arctic Canadawhere the tide range is greater than the ice thickness and the shore is not directly exposed to the open seaorganisms can occupy the lower levels of the littoral (Ellis and Wilc6, 1961). Although the intertidal is barren the sublittoral contains many species (Table 3). The diversity of species here is much loss than on lower latitude beaches but the total number of individuals is large. Quantitative studies of the benthos on the Siberian (Soviet) coast of the Chukchi Sea indicate a low biomass of 25 to 30 g/m2 or less at 7 or 8 m deep (Zenkevitch, 1963). The mud- bottom population in depths of 30 to 50 m in this same region can be much higher (Table 4). Soo je fro as IM oft q%,.%4r 000 .4 ae 40 0 to + Oft % tic "Wb .0.0 61 6 Principal tracks of lqws in January. Principal tracks of Fig. 6* Principalstorm tracks in January and July in the Northern Hemisphere (from Wilson, 1963). 29 Table 3. Sublittoral invertebrates in order of relative abundance on soft bottoms near Point Barrow (from MacGinitie, 1955). 1. Infauna of Near Shore Mud Zone: Echiurus echiurus alaskanus (echiuroid worm) Arenicola glacialis (polychaete) Myriotrochus rinki (sea cucumber) Antinoe sarsi (polychaete) Melaenis Zovenis (polychaete) Harmothoe imbricata (polychaete) Haminigia artica (echiuroid worm) Halicryptus spinulosus, (priapulid worm) Burrowing anemones (2 species) Burrowing tunicates (2 species) Mya truncata (clam) Mya japonica (clam) II. Infauna of Outer Shore Mud Zone: Cerianthus sp. (burrowing anemone) Macoma calcarea (clam) Astarte montaqui(clam) Myriotrochus rinki (burrowing sea cucumber) Nucula tenuis (clam) 111. Epifauna of the Mud Zone: Foraminifera Dulichia porrecta (amphipod) Pagurus spundescens (hermit crab) Pagurus trigonocheirus (hermit crab) Hyas coarctatus alutaceus (crab) Serripes groenlcrndicus (clam) Liocyma fluctosa (clam) 30 Table 4 . Biomass of sublittoral benthic invertebrate groups on the Siberian coast of the Chukchi Sea (from Zenkevitch, 1963). Invertebrate Biomass Group g/M 2 Polychaetes 35.2 Crustaceans 31.8 Echinoderms 16.2 Gastropods 2.0 Lamellibranchs 114.6 Others 14.4 Total 214.2 31 MacGinitie frequently walked the beaches around Point Barrow collecting marine animals. In the summer of 1948, his total collection consisted of one polychaete, one empty snail shell, and fragments of bryozoan colonies. This was an extreme year but it indicates the paucity of the intertidal life. MacGinitie (1955) took no quantitative samples of the benthos but was impressed with the abundance of life along the Point Barrow coast. He estimated the maximum biomass to be about 260 9/m2. Apparently the effects of ice diminish rapidly below about 10 m and the benthic community attains a biomass comparable to other shallow seas. Zenkevitch (1963) says that the mean biomass of all shallow Siberian arctic seas is similar (about 200 g/m2). Ice affects this zone, as geological evidence indicates, but the effects must be irregular, permitting a well-developed community. South of Bering Strait, especially along Bristol Bay and the Alaska Peninsula, littoral organisms are not completely removed by ice. These organisms are frequently exposed to freezing. Typically these organisms are adapted to survive freezing (Kanwisher, 1955 and 1957). Eucus sp. for example, can survive temperatures down to -400C and photosynthesizes. immediately on thawing (Kanwisher, 1957). Scholander et al., (1957) found that fishes in shallow arctic water altered the osmotic concentration of their body fluids to prevent freezing and some deep water arctic fishes actually exist in a super- cooled condition during winter. Freezing adds additional stresses to the systems of arctic and subarctic organisms. Low temperatures, in general, also physiologically stress metabolism. The arctic and subarctic littoral biota have apparently adapted to compensate for these conditions (Dunbar, 1968). In the lagoons along the ice stressed coast the patterns and intensity of stresses can be quite different, resulting in improved conditions for marine life. Elson Lagoon, adjacent to Point Barrow, apparently receives heavy ice scouring similar to the nearby open beaches, for the fauna collected by Mac Ginitie did not differ much from that from other areas. The more southern lagoons can be quite different. The marine angiosperm eelgrass (Zostera marina) occurs sparsely in the lagoons on the Seward Peninsula north of Bering Strait and forms dense populations in most lagoons from Port Clarence to Izembek (McRoy, 1968). Eelgrass in the lagoons on the Seward Peninsula survives the winter under I to 2 m of ice in near darkness. These lagoons apparently receive little scouring below the intertidal zone and a well developed community exists. Biomass (live weight) ranges from 1.3 to 5.7 kg/m2 in summer. In Izembek Lagoon, the southernmost of this lagoon series, the eelgrass beds are very shallow and as a result of the relatively large tidal differ- ences (compared to the arctic coast) slabs of sea ice scour long furrows through the eelgrass. These scour marks are visible for several years. The amount of scouring varies with the intensity of the winter; generally only a small portion of the standing stock is removed (McRoy, 1966). Here summer 2 biomass is an average of 1.46 kg/m . A somewhat restricted intertidal fauna develops in this lagoon. 32 The arctic coast has few macroscopic algae. Collections of the Canadian Arctic Expedition ( Collins, 1927), the U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey (Wilimovsky, 1953), and the Naval Arctic Research Laboratory (Wilimovsky, 1954; MacGinitie, 1955) have produced laminaroids and other macrophytes at only 12 of more than 150 stations that stretch 'from Wainwright to Barter Island (Fig. 7). Mohr et al., (1957) list the algae that have been found at the one known kelp bed a@id` ;-ther places along the Alaska arctic coast (Table 5). The lack of marine macrophytes and invertebrates along this coast is attributed to several factors. The physical scouring by ice will of course prevent any organism as fragile as a marine plant from establishing itself in the upper 5 to 8 m. Ice normally pushes the beaches of the arctic coast into mounds and ridges that sometimes reach 7 to 10 m (Hume and Schalk, 1964). This action, which is an irregular but usually annual feature of northern beaches, may move from 1 to 10% of the beach sediment. Pressure ridge ice frequently scours the bottom down to 30 m off Point Barrow, creating ridges and trough features (Rex, 1955). This deep grounding of pressure ridge ice plus the usual shallower scouring of unstressed sea ice mixes the upper 1 to 2 m of sediments. The sediments are thus oxygenated but the life of the benthic infauna must be disrupted. Perhaps the animals burrow deeper into the bottom in the Arctic than they do in other areas. MacCarthy-(1953) studied the shoreline in the vicinity of Point Barrow and found it to be rapidly eroding as much as 3 to 5 m per year. The erosion is not attributed to the action of sea ice but to erosion by waves and currents. The ice actually prevents erosion by protecting the beach from waves and currents. Even in the summer a large portion of wave energy is spent on the scattered offshore ice floes. Ice wedges formed by permafrost action in the bluffs and beaches however promote beach erosion and make the shore much more susceptible to erosion by the sea. Continued erosion exposes more and more of the permafrost to thawing, which in turn promotes erosion. MacGinitie (1955) considered the tundra plants that were frequently dumped into the sea by this erosion to be the major detritus food web source for benthic invertebrates of the region. He says that enough plant material to supply detritus for several years will wash into the ocean in one month and will drift over a great area. An estimate of this quantity is possible from the rate o@ erosion and the measure of biomass of the tundra. The ci1culation indicates that shoreline erosion may annually add from 0.3 to 1.5 metric tons of plant material (dry) per mile of beach to the surrounding ocean. This is probably greater than the annual production of phytoplankton in the near shore waters of the Point Barrow region. Sediment carried by ice can also affect benthic fauna and flora. Ice rafted material could cause high rates of accumulation of sediments pre- venting sedimentary epifauna and slow-growing plants and restricting the character of the benthic community to the most active infauna and epifauna. .... Bafrow arm "isre than 100 dredge stat RARRO BEAUFORT SEA Z!I, -Marine algae reported by Canadian Arct sf, O..-.Drd, Stations. U.S.C. and G.S. Red. 19 WRL Dredge stations, Aittic Research Labora POST /_.'._Pwts of I-inaioids taken in dredge m Kill, @., zll@_ N \\"k_Wh.It laminahoids taken X p_,:BuW-y 0 SCALE OF MILES 20 20 -0 0 p WAIP@ WRIGIjer 0 06 Z10, Io' Pi@i i, :j Fig. 7. Locations rof biological collections along the arctic coast showing known @'(From Mohr.et al., 1957). C 34 Table Macrophyte 'algae collected from kelp bed on arctic coast of Alaska (from Mohr et al.., 1957). Brown Algae Phyllay@ia dermatodea Lcminaria saccharina Desmarestia viridis Red Algae TurnereZZa pennyi Phyttlophora interrupta Antithcmion conericanum Phycodrys sinuosa PoZysiphonia arctica OdonthaZia dentata RhoJomeZa Zycopodioides f. ftageZZaris 35 The lack of a hard substrate for attachment is undoubtedly the most crucial factor restricting the distribution of macrophytes in Arctic Alaska. Macrophytes occur on the rocky Siberian coast of the Chukchi Sea (Zenkevitch, 1963) and Fairway Rock in Bering Strait has a kelp bed below about 5 m (Fig. 8). More rocks at suitable shallow depths should increase the abun- dance of macrophytes on the coast near Point Barrow'.' Light is also an important factor for marine plants but it does not appear to determine presence or absence. Light does influence rates of production and the species composition of the flora. Even the autotrophic higher plant, eelgrass, survives the long periods of darkness under the ice in the lagoons of the Seward Peninsula. Through adaptation marine macro- phytes in the Arctic have solved the problems of survival. 36 %-SROAL) LEAFED KELP ACTINIA STARF13H -SEA LEVEL sm T-" R.m6v@ f 20M -25M t Fig. 8. Biological zonation on Fairway Rock i n Bering Strait (from Shumway et al., 1964). 37 Chapter D- INSHORE ARCTIC ECOSYSTEM WITH ICE STRESS Richard W. Faas Lafayette College Easton, Pennsylvania 18042 MTRODUCTION, ECOSYSTEM OF POINT BARROW, ALASKA Natural arctic ecosystems with ice phenomena dominating their regimes,, are found in northern Alaska, specifically characterized by the Baxrow area of the Arctic coastal plain. Estuarine systems are located on both the north- western and northeastern sides of the Barrow peninsula. None has been exten- sively studied at any one locality, but an attempt will be made to integrate the available data into a meaningful classification of estuarine types. Point Barrow, the northernmost point of mainland North America, exists as a peninsula of land at the confluence of the northeasterly trending Chukchi Sea currents and the westerly trending Beaufort Sea currents (Fig. 1). The tidal range at Point Barrow is only about 6 inches. Variation in barometric pressure and onshore winds have a greater influence than the tides on the local sea level. This influence is further modified by the presence of the floating ice pack which tends to dampen any sea level oscillations. The Barrow quadrangle (north of 710) contains a total land area of 1731 km2, of which 90 kW2 represents area covered by estuaries (Brown, tt I., 1968). This area of the Arctic coastal plain is underlain by the Gubik For- mation of Pleistocene age. The sediments consist of ice-cemented sands, Silts, and clays deposited under nearshore, estuarine, and lagoonal conditions, much like those presently existing in the area today. The climate at Point Barrow is truly arctic. Permafrost (permanently frozen ground) extends to a depth of 1300' (Lachenbruch, 1957). The winters axe long and cold with temperatures as low as -350C (-6ooF). Summers are short and cool with temperatures seldom exceeding 150C (700F). Precipitation is less than 25 ems (10 inches) annually. Low clouds and ground fog which limit solar radiation are characteristically found during the su r months. These are accompanied by 10 to 30 mph winds and temperatures between 5.40c (350F) and 23.40@ (450F). Freeze-up usually occurs in September or early October and lasts until mid-June. Vegetation is characteristic of cold northern tundras, consisting of various grasses, mosses, and dwarf willows. Shoreline Processes Studies indicate there is a great deal of coastal erosion and the area my be considered to be unstable. The factors responsible are climatic and depend generally upon the temperature and the winds which blow almost con- stantly NE-SW. The particulax form of erosion of importance to estuarine studies CHUKCHI BEAUFORT SEA POINT SEA BARROW ARCTIC COASTAL . ..... PLAIN A C . ...... .. .. C UMIAT '. 0 S R A L A S K A C A N A D A BERING SEA C1 AFt, a C3 0 , 3 Fig. 1. Map of Alaska showing the Arctic coastal plain and Point Barrow. 39 is known as "thermal niching" (Walker and Arnborg, 1963),j a uniquely arctic phenomenon consisting of the thermal undercutting of ice-cemented sediments by waves orstream water. The frozen soil melts on contact with water and re- leases the sediment particles, which are then redistributed by the action of the currents. A second phenomenon) saturated Boil flow, Occurs during the summer when the active soil layer is melted naturally and the water is unable to drain downward through the permafrost. The water laden sediment flows down to a lower level, often onto the beach, where it becomes available for redistribution within the estuary. Numerous workers have observed the effects of erosion on the higher areas exposed to the sea. (Black and Barksdale, 1949; MacCarthy, 1953; Rex, 1955, 1964; Rex and Taylor, 1952-53; Carson and Hussey, 1960; Lewellen, 1965; Hume, 1965; Hum and Schalk, 1964, 1967). Estimates of erosion rates along the southern shore of Elson Lagoon were reported by Lewellen (1965), based on the analysis of aerial photographs taken in 1949 and again in 1964 by USA CRREL (Fig. 2). He found removal rates varying between 0.2 meters and 2.0 meters per year at various places along the Elson Lagoon shoreline, from the Barrow sDit to Dease Inlet. This is attributed to the efrect of wind-driven waves which undercut the banks by thermal niching and remove the slumped material deposited on the strand line by saturated soil flow. On the extreme end of the Barrow peninsula, Hume and Schalk (1967) re- port shoreline changes occurring since 1948 at the tip of Eluitkak Spit and in an area southwest of Point Barrow. The latter area grew about 250 feet between 1948 and 1960 from swash-line deposition and the northeasterly flowing long- shore currents (Fig- 3). They estimate the total net yearly transport to be about 10,000 cubic yards of beach material. The net yearly growth of Eluitkak Spit is estimated to be 4,500 cubic meters. Rex (1964) found that the coarse sands and gravels of the spit extend- ing southeastward from Point Barrow directly overlie the gray muds of Elson Lagoon with no transition zone between sediment types* This would indicate that the spit has been migrating over the lagoonal sediments in response to changes in sediment supply, currents,and sea levels, although Lachenbruch considers the Barrow area to have been relatively stable for the last few thousand years. Brown and Sellman (1966) show that the Barrow Spit may not have been in its present location earlier than 700 years B.C. Radiocarbon dating of freshwater peat exposed in a breached area of the spit suggest the existence there of a shallow freshwater lake from 2600 to 700 years B.C. Retreat of the shoreline destroyed the lake, probably forming an estuary for a short duration, and finally covered the shallow basin. These stages of landscape development can all be seen along the northwestern shore of the Barrow penin- sula today. 40 R-1son Lct7oon'- ?5 meters Fig. 2. Line drawing of aerial oblique photograph of southern shore of Elson Lagoon Taken in 1964. Inset shows same view taken in 1949. (U. S. Army Terrestrial Sciences Center) W 0 '0 0 200 390 FEET 4 SHOREURES ------------- ------- ........ c1b 0 0 0 0 a WV W 0 PO#V 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Ob a 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 *0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Op 0 0 Fig. 3. Map of western part of Point Barrow, Alaska. Shorelines for 1948, 1962, and 1964 are shown (after Hume and Schalk, 1967). 41 The effects of the October 1:963 storm, the worst in 200 years to hit the Barrow area, were thoroughly investigated by Hume and Schalk (:L967)- In addition to causing major property damage, the high waters, estimated to be about 10 feet higher than normal, flooded the low-lying areas, including the entire Barrow Spit, the estuaries and freshwater lakes. The most obvious change which resulted from the storm is that Point Barrow temporarily became an islamd. Three breaks occurred in the spit, allowing the Arctic Ocean to flow directly into Elson Lagoon. Resurvey of the area south- west of Point Barrow showed that approximately 200,000 cubic yards of material had been added, the equivalent of twenty yeaxs of normal transport. Eluitkak Spit was extended southeastward by 45 feet, 22,000 cubic yards of materialhaving been added to its tip , while elevations-on the spit were increased from 4 to 7 feet above sea level. Changes also occurred in th6 b6a6hes. NoAheast of the break in the Barrow Spit, the beaches retreated about 30 feet; while to the south of Barrow Village, the sea cliffs, composed of ice-cemehted sands and silts of the Gubik Formation, retreated about ten feet. Records of similar storms occurring in the post may be preserved in the lagoonal sediments (Faas, 1966). Hume (pers. comm.) indicates that the point will soon become complete again, the gaps requiring only about 50 more feet of growth to close. It is expected that the point will again be rebuilt by spring 1969. However, by the end of the summer 1969 field season it still had not completely closed, Circulation Patterns Horizontal circulation patterns are quite pronounced in estuaries on both sides of the Barrow peninsula. In each case) during the spring thaw, all tundra pools and estuaries axe filled to overflowing. Runoff is particularly effective at this time as percolation into the tundra cannot occur due to the impermeable nature of the then frozen soil and.pernafrodt. Arnborg, Walker, and Peippo (1967), in their work on the Colville River delta, showed that the river, although flowing over 4 months of the year, did the greatest amount of sediment transportation during the first few weeks f the summer season. In 1962, 43% of the total annual digeharge (16 x 109 and 73% of the total suspended inorganic load (5-8 x iO tons) were transport- .ad to sea in the 3 week period immediately before, during, and after the spring breakup* Breaching ot the gravel bars across the estua:ey mouths on the NW side of the peninsula and flushing out of the hypersaline,,,waters may take place during this period. Hypersalinity occurs during the winter ice-covered period as a result of expulsion of salt at the freezing front of the ice, enrich- ing the bottom unfrozen waters with salt as the ice cover thickens. Generall3; uninterrupted interchange of waters between the ocean and the fresh tundra melt waters continues for a period of a week or more. Finally, northeastward long- shore drift of,sediment closes the bar across the mouth of the estuary, the water becomes brackish, and the normal .cycle continues. Periodic storms may top the bar and add saline water to the estuary and, in some cases, may totally disrupt the continuity of the bar for short periods during the summer. When the ice freezes again in the fall, all circulation ceases and winter stagnation begins. Water bodies less than 6 ft. deep in the Barrow area freeze completely to the bot- tom during the normal winter. This includes a great many. of the tundra lakes and those estuaries created from the truncation of lake basins by an eroding shoreline. 42 On the northeastern side of the peninsula, runoff conditions are much the same. All small estuaries channel drainage from the tundra into Elson Lagoon. In addition, the @bad, Inaru, Topagoruk and the Chip rivers flow into Admiralty Bay and out into Dease Inlet and Elson Lagoon. East of Elson Lagoon is Smith Bay, another large estuary into which flows the Ikpikpuk River. MacGinitie (1955) indicates that this large outflow of fresh water, flowing through Elson Lagoon exercises a greater ipffect on the ocean water near Barrow than any other freshwater source. The tundra runoff is only about 50% of the measured annual precipitation (Brown, et al., 1968). In addition to increasing sedimentation rates by transporting large quantities of mud, this outflow of fresh water carries large amounts of fresh vegetation and peats from the eroded shore of the lagoon and river watersheds, and deposits this material on the ocean bottom for a distance of 25 miles offshore. Vertical circulation patterns are quite uncomplicated if, indeed, they exist at all. Due to the shallowness of Elson Lagoon (3-5 m deep), winds are effective at mixing and, for the most part, the waters are isohaline and iso'- thermal throughout. Holmquist (1963) identified the existence of a two-layer system in Elson Lagoon when measurements on July 21, 1961, showed a temperature of 4.10C and salinity of 23.2%oat the surface and 3.60c and 29.6%,at 3-0 meters depth, indicating an inflow of fresh water. This was of short duration and on July 26, 1961, a windy day, 60C and 29@vwere found at all depths. Productivity Soil productivity at Barrow is limited by low phosphate and nitrate contents. Nutrient recycling was thought related to periods of lemming highs, during which phosphates and nitrates would have been concentrated through greatly increased animal feces. Livingstone (1963a)comments on the more luxuriant vegetation around snowy owl perches and human settlements where such accumilation normally occur. Pieper (1-963) indicates that increased phosphorus, nitrogen, and potassium were found in the tundra vegetation in the early part of the lemming high of 1960. Schulz.(1962) believed that depth of thaw of the active layer and release of frozen nutrient material may be accelerated during a lemming-high due to removal of insulating plant material through increased grazing. This same material may become incorporated into the estuarine sedi- ments during spring runoff, providing a cyclic increase in food supply for detritus feeders. A suggestion of such organic matter accumalation is seen by.the alternating light and dark laminae in cores taken from the estuarine sediments (Fig. 4). While not strictly estuarine, a study of primary production in tundra ponds in the Barrow area by Kalff (1965) may be useful, inasmuch as the smaller estuaries, when sealed off at their mouths, behave in a similar fashion as the ponds - as catchment basins for tundra runoff. Kalff observed great variation in the timing and size of phytoplankton blooms in the adjacent ponds within a few hundreds of meters of each other. It was obvious that the ponds, and presumably the estuaries, were deficient in nutrients and sometimes in other growth factors. Phosphates appeared to be most deficient, followed by nitrates. However, he also showed that light was of greater importance in determining algal production rates than increased phosphorus in the ponds during a lemming cycle. The amount of carbon fixed by the phytoplankton was dependent on light intensities, with diurnal differences affecting the rate of photosynthesis. Ynxinum photosynthesis occurred between 0.09 and 0-17 langleys per minute during the diurnal period of maximim intensity. Values greater than these caused inhibition of photosynthesis, and'at lower values total carbon fixation decreased. He considered the ponds to be nutrient traps, contributing little to the pro- ductivity of the tundra. Obviously, much more work needs to be done concerning the relationship between the organisms of the tundra and nutrient transfer in and through the estuaries. 43 T @;I A-4 'jWt 7777777@@@ Fig. 4. Line drawing of a core taken from sediments underlying Esatkuat Lagoon, showing distinct alternations of organic matter (from photo taken by author, 1962). 44 Tundra ponds and lakes may be more productive than the estuaries, part- icularly those which are self-flushin@- WohIschlag (1953) indicates that fish taken from Elson Lagoon are thinner and more undernourished than most taken from the inland lakes. Very little material seems to be available concerning northern Alaska estuarine fish populations Stress Factors Certainly the most significant stress factor that has emerged from all the preceding statements has been the effect of the low temperatures of the arctic environment. All other factors adding to the degree of stress in any given environment way be directly or indire'ctly related to the cold. The in- creased salinity found in the unfrozen bottom waters of estuaries and lagoons is a result of both downward brine migration and salt expulsion ahead of the downward moving ice fi-ont during the process of ice formation. (Adams-, et al., 1960). The drastic salinity shocks, from hypersaline to 'fresh to brackish, results from the influx of fresh meltwater from the tundra due to release of previously frozen water contained in the snow cover. oxygen deficiencies found in some isolated water bodies develop during the period of ice and snow cover when photosynthesis of algae ceases. The paucity of littoral forms of life is due to the grinding and crushing action of the sea ice on the bottoms during the long cold winters. The littoral fauna of lakes, lagoons, and estuaries is similarly endangered when, during the spring thaw, the central ice mass covering the water body lifts from where it has been frozen fast and bounces from shore to shore, depending upon the prevailing winds. As might be expected in high stress situations, animal diversity is not large, nor are populations overly abundant. For those organisms which do exist under these cohditions, adaptation to the rigorous environment has surely taken place. Holmquist (1963) cites the amphipods, myslAs and other organisms of estuarine systems which do not hibernate as resting stages but apparently prefer to remain in the hypersaline unfrozen bottom waters. Their mechanisms of sur- vival require further study. Yjys.s relicta has been found in waters varying in salinity from 29 mg Cr/l. to 37,600 mg Cl-/l. These euryhaline organisms must be able to adjust their osmoregulation when migrating through these different layerso Mysis can also live in very low temperatures (-20C) as well as a cons-taut 17 to 180C (Holmquist, 1959)- It'has been suggested that the metabolic rates of the mysids are very low during the winter and the maturation of the animls is retarded. Young mysids from Elson Lagoon do not escape from the brood pouch until late July. In other environments they were found in continuous propagation. Mohr and Tibbs (1963), in discussing the amphipods which live directly below the ice in hypersaline conditions, note that during the spring runoff and period of under-ice incursion of freshwater, the amphipods do not appear to avo'id this water. Rather, they remain in it until it is incorporated into the normal sea water, usually in a few days. Such drastic salinity shocks would seem to require that the animal make rapid osmotic adjustments. Boyd and Boyd (1963) measured very low salinities under the offshore Chukchi Sea ice (Fig. 5 ) in early spring of 1957 (5,96 ppt). This increased rapidly to 26.20 ppt a week later. Waters deeper than 4 meters showed variation of only 2 to 3 PPt (Table 1). As usual, one can observe how selection by a stressful environment has served to develop a unique relationship between ecologic niches and groups of organisms. Bursa (1963) attempted to define six specifically arctic ecologic PhYtoplankton niches, all of which depended to a greater or lesser extent upon the presence of arctic ice. They were: 45 go' 40' 30' 20' 156. 1w 71*25, 1 1 1 7r 25* POINT BARROK ALASKA BEAUFORT SEA AND VIaNITY PO 4T SARROW 5000 METERS O@+ A C AUKCMI SEA to AR all ELSON LAGOON BARROW 0 0 71- W C, 7rd Ocy 50, 4d v zd owid Sketub map of the Poft t Barroxv showing the various sampling stations. Fig- 5- Bacterial sampling in northern Alaska (Boyd and Boyd,1963) 46 Table le Bacteriology and salinity of the ice-covered Chukchi Sea 0.8 km off Point Barrow Date Depth (cm) Temperature, C Sampling Bacteria per m13 Salinity (1957) Ice Snow Air Water' depth (m)' Fresh Saline4 W 7 March 115 40-60 -20 -1.5 6 (bottom) 2 1 15 March 125 40 -27 -1.5 6 10 3 - "22 March 175 35-55 -29 -1.6 6 11 15 28.43 29 March 135 55 -22 -1.6 6 11 12 28.38 12 April 125 50-55 +2 -1.4 6 2 8 29.35 19 April 115 50-60 - 8 -1.6 6 4 11 29.73 26 April 135 55 -12 -1.4 6 11 10 29.55 18 May 115 50 - 2 -1.3 6 10 35 30.05 24 May 130 40-45 - 0.6 -1.4 6 18 8 29.40 31 May 120 0-30 +4 -1.2 6 69 71 29.35 5 91 88 - 4 290 260 - 3 500 520 29.20 2 460 470 - under ice - - 29.20 7 June 100 15-20 +3 +0.5 6 370 240 29.39 5 500 410 (15-20-cm snow in spots; other- 4 590 510 29.40 wise, 5-10-cm snow melt-%vater 3 460 450 - covered ice) 2 36 28 - under ice - - 5.96 14 June 130 0 + 3 -0.2 6 500 470 28.31 5 550 520 - (approx. 10-cm water on top of 4 620 590 - ice; difficult to measure ice tbick- 3 2,000 2,000 27.00 ness) 2 1,600 1,300 - under ice - - 26.20 1 Water temperature measured at the surface. I Depth measured frorn top of ice. (Boyd and Boyd, 1963) 8 Bacteria cultured on ZoDells agar medium. A Aged seawater (28.40.. salinity) used to make saline medium. 47 1. The phytoplankton cycle below the ice. 2. The microflora of the melt 'water pools on the ice. 3. The phytoplankton cycle in coastal and offshore leads. 4. The phytoplankton cycle in lagoons and lakes along the shore. 5. The phytoplankton cycle of the inshore waters. 6. The benthic microflora, of sandy and muddy sites. The arctic ice acts as a stress factor for 9 to 11 months due to its inhibition of photosynthetic activities by these organisms. However, when this stress is finally withdrawn after spring breakup, the ice masses form new and 'uniquely arctic ecologic niches. EXANPLES OF ICE STRESSED COASTAL SYSTWS TWO water bodies, Esatkuat.Lagoon and Elson Lagoon, represent the doastal systems in the Barrow area* They are both unique arctic types of ice-stressed ecosystems, yet differ enough from each other to warrant independent classification. In addition to the obvious size differences existing between the two, each undergoes different stress conditions. In some cases these differ only in intensity of stress, in other cases they differ in total stress environment. I have decided to call Esatkuat Lagoon an arctic "multiple-stressed" system in view of its being affected by the normal environmental stresses and, in addition) from stresses imposed by man. Elson Lagoon, a barrier island- lagoon complext is an example of an "ice-stressed-intertidal" ecosystem- This classification must be explained inasmuch as the low astronomical tidal range in the Barrow area makesthe term "intertidal" slightly inoarm-ect. However, the effect of winds on these shallow basins is sufficient to cause singular water level changes. Rex (1964) indicates changes up to 4 feet in Elson Lagoon are associated with longshore currents impinging on shore-fast ice, generating local pressure gradients. Hume (pers. comtu.) reports changes of 3 feet in the lagoon at Pt. Lay to the southwest related to a strong offshore wind, and Brown (pers. comm.) has observed the Elson Lagoon bottom exposed a distance of 30 feet into the lagoon as a result of a similar wind. In all cases, intertidal areas were exposed to drastic environmental stresses, but not at regular, predictable inter- vals. Esatkuat Lagoon A Multiple Stressed Estuary The water body immediately adjacent to the village of Barrow has been studied for a number of years in connection with a progran to provide a contin- uous supply of fresh water to the facilities of the Bureau of Indian Affairs and the U. S. Public Health Hospital. It is a body of water covering 937,750 M2 (1,550 m by 605 m), composed of three separate basins; a central oblong trough with a maximim depth of 10 feet in the center; a smaller western basin which drops quite steeply to a depth of 8 feet; and an eastern basin., possessing a sinuous channel with a nearly constant depth of 11 feet extending back some distance into the tundra (Fig. 6). An investigation in Esatkuat Lagoon in 1962 (Faas, 1964, 1966) was con- cerned with a stratigraphic study of the Pleistocene sediments underlying the 48 ARCTIC JOVM S44r OCEAN 1-14foom 71 018 BROWERVILL E 05A 7XIA 7'@ 460oa BARROW Pim Feet Soo Fig. 6. Map of Esatkuat Lagoon. Note the three part subdivision, i.e., the small western- most basin, the elongate central basin, and the easternmost basin. 49 modern ladoonai sediments. The most readily recognizable sediments of the modern lagoon bottom are black, highly organic silts and clays. A few lient- icular units of gravel exist near the coastal side of the lagoon and apparently represent washovers of the barrier bar during severe storms or slight adjust- ments of sea level. The sediments exhibit higher organic matter contents then usually found in near-shore sediments. Sanples from the black clay units in Esatkuat Lagoofi average 8.6% organic matter, ranging fr9m 7.3% to 9-5%. This may be attributed to deposition within a small restricted basin and incorporation into the sedi- ments prior to a major breakthrough of the estuary-mouth bar. Normal runoff from the tundra, bringing particulate [email protected] and humic acids, plus con- tinual erosion of the lagoon banks, is the source of the organic material(Fig 7). Stress factors affecting this estuary axe 1) oxygen deficiency, and 2) violent salinity fluctuations. 'These factoris axe the direct result of, and axe dependent on, the existence of the thick ice covering (often in excess of 6 feet) and the normal desalting process which occurs over the winter period. Since smaller water bodies in the Barrow area are characteristically undersat@rated with respect to dissolved oxygen due to high orgahic matter con- tents (YAlff, pers. comm., 1965), 'Oxygen deficiency is believed to occur during the winter months when ice prevents exchange between the -water and the atmos- phere.. This is assisted by the normal metabolic activities of the estuarine organismsi and possible bacterial decomposition of the organic matter in the bottom muds which occurs after the ice-cover is complete (Brewer, 1958). The author has observed the bottom 'Sediments to be extremely black, sticky, and foul-smelling. Foraminifera taken from these sediments are characteristically pitted with many missing chambers. Acidic muds resulting from anaerobic con- ditions would most probably cause such solution features. The modern lagoonal sediihents contain a shallow water foraminiferal fauna composed of eurythermal and euryhaline spec ,ies. E@aAdium incertun. (Williamson), E. orbicUaxe (H. B. Brady), E. bartletti (Cushman) and Nonionella auricula (Heron-Allen a@ Eaxlamd) are-the dominant species. Representatives of these genera have been found in marginal environments worldwide. A noticeable number of aberrant forms were found in these bottom muds. In many cases the terminal chanber was observed to be offset from the normal symmetry,, leading to a grotes- que bulge on the organism test. Complete and disarticulated ostrdcod carapaces also occur. Many of these axe heavy and coarse-shelled and belong to the genus Normanocythere. The remaining genera exhibit varied morphologies and were not identified. A few scolecodonts and numerous chitinous insect parts, i.e., heads and mandibles, were also found. Heavy concentrations of plant organic matter, i.e., large woody chunks, stems, and fibers, are also locally concentrated on the modern lagoon bottom. Forazidniferal distribution is unpredictable, being locally concentrated in more favorable environments. This " patchiness" in animal distribution is not unique to the arctic and has been commented on by @bhr (1959) as probably a re& ponse to localized food concentrations. Elson Lagoon - An Ice-Stressed, Non-tidal Barrier bar-lagoon Complex Elson Lagoon is a shallow water body, 55 km long and 10 km wide in its 50 western part, located directly southeast of Point Barrow Figure 1). It is bounded on the northwest by the peninsula itself) on the northeas-t'by tne Plover and Tapkaluk Islands. To the southeast Elson Lagoon turns sharply south- west and becomes Dease Inlet ending in Admiralty Bay, a significant estuary extending far inland. Some wide openings connect Elson Lagoon with the Arctic Ocean, chiefly Eluitkak Pass at the northwestern end, through which a strong current travels, sometimes exceeding four knots (Rex, 1955). However, most currents in Elson Lagoon are weak and wind driven, generally to the west. Some reversing tidal currents through Eluitkak Pass were observed by Rex (1964) where inflow was occurring in the face of an opposing wind of 15 knots. Other openings exist between Deadman's Island and the Tapkaluk Islands. Mst of these openings are quite shallow. However, Eluitkak Pass is 13 meters deep. The maxirmim depth of Elson Lagoon does not exceed 3.5 meters. Oxygen content seems to be no problem in the larger water bodies. Elson Lagoon is well-aerated due to its shallowness. Bursa U963) indicates the high oxygen content could also be produced photosynthetically by the auto- trophic plankton, benthic algae, and microflora that blanket the bottom of the lagoon. Brown, et al., (1968) have recently completed a study of hydrologic factors affecting a I.rk7 drainage basin at Barrow. The data were obtained from 1963 through 1966 and included a great range of summer climate, from cold/ extremely wet, to cold/extremely dry. Water gauging stations monitored the runoff into Elson Lagoon through Central Marsh Slough, a small drowned river valley which is presently an estuary. Several periods of peak runoff occurred throughout the four year study period and it is seen (Fig. ?) that specific con- ductance varies inversely with discharge. Minimim conductance values for the maximin runoff ranged between 230 to 290 millimhos. Peak conductance values are usually associated with low runoff as seepage through the marshy tundra. No analyses are available for total ion content of Elson Lagoon waters. However, Brown also determined Na+, K+J9'Ca++.9 and Mg++ for the runoff into Central Marsh Slough for 1964 and 1965 (Table 2).- Greatest variation of Na+ (0.77 meq/1 to 2.9 meq/1) was seen in 1965- In both cases a general increase in total ion content is shown over a summer, associated with a4ecrease in volume of discharge through the watershed. Very little data are available concerning the chemistry of the Elson Lagoon waters. As stated earlier, Holniquist found a maximirm salinity of 29.9% in late July, and indicates that salinity conditions are probably variable in the spring, becoming more stable in the su r, and reaching maximum. stability under winter conditions. Temperatures may rise as high as 60C in '811 r and be below freezing in the winter. Several studies concerning the phytoplankton and the brine shrimp (Y [email protected]@z rel*cta) of the Barrow area have been completed recently (Holmquist., 1.96.3; b@@-sa,1963)- Much of the work done included observatiom,@ on the biota of Elson Lagoon. In general, the fauna of Elson Lagoon is quite marine. Holmquist lists hydroids, a sea anemone@ bryozoans, the poLychaetes Ptatinaria and Lepidonotus, priapulid worms Balicryptus spinulosus and 1'riapulus-caudatus, bivalves, snails and ax3phipods Gammarus and Gammxacanthus, the isopod Mesidotea entomen, decapod 51 103 0 1 qr@ z AUG 13 - SEPT 5 :< 104 0 & D 0 0 . 2A3 1963 Z 0 C@' *0 'k 0%0 *001, C% 0 0 JULY 23 - AUG I a 8 f i�66 00 CL JULY 12 -AUG 30 W CL Figures indicote the number of coincident points 10 2. 2 . I , , . . I I II . I I I A I I I 10 10- 10 D I S C H AR-G E I i ters sec Fig- 7- Composite plot of Specific Conductance versus Discharge from Central Marsh Slough for 1963, 1965, and 1966 (After Brown et al, 1968). Table 2, CaUOR cOmWsitiolm of mooff water (mee/ilter), Barrow watershed.* Sample date Na+ K+ ca++ H'g+ + Sum Cs (pmhos) 18 Jun 64 2.1 0.03 0.11 M2 2.96 357 14 Jul 64 2.7 0.01 0.33 1.1 4.14 480 3 Aug 64 3.3 0.01 0.43 1.4 5.14 570 7 Aug 64 3.3 0.01 0.37 1.4 5.08 565 14 Aug 64 3.3 0.01 0.41 0.91 4.63 630 27 Jun 65 0.77 0.08 0.06 0.19 1.10 135 2 Jul 65 1.1 0.06 0.12 0.34 1.61 198 14 Jul 65 1.7 0.01 0.17 0.68 2.56 315 27 Aug 65 2.9 0.01 0.28 1.0 4.19 500 2 Sep 65 2.1 <0.01 0.21 0.77 3.08 362 Analyses by Walter Grubs and Williain Webster. (from Brown, et al., 1968) 50000 SALINITY CURKVI OR TO (MTYPIC Q 40000 30000 10000 0' EAKU4 R ANI)@@ RUNOFF 1963 19" 1965 19" Fig.8 Plot of yearly variation of total dissolved solids for Nerravak PRI AM @ ji". (Esaikuat) Lagoon, 1963 to 1966. After Buchanan, et al., 1966, 52 larvae, a few euphausiids (Thysonossa raschi), some medusae and the chaetognath Sagitta. Three mysid shrimp, Yjysis relicta, M. litoralis and M. oculata were found, the former two species most abundant. Sampling offshore, bbnzies and @bhr (1962) found Mysis relicta restricted to the coastal ax,eas with variable salinity. They also includethe isopod Idotoega sabini sabini forma barentsi Gurjanova in their collection from Elson Lagoon. Bursa (1963) found the benthic algae, Ulva sp., EnteromorpIM sp., Cladophora sp., Sphac laria sp., and Lithoderm sp., attached to the bottom gravels. Strictly estuarine dinoflagellates were Goniaulax catenate, Chaetoceros wi and Ch. sociales. A.phytoplankton collection from the lagoon in mid-August sh7owed_"9_,930 diatoms, 1,280 dinoflagellates, 10,900 unidentified flagellates, dominated by Polytomella, and 400 ciliates per liter.. Two weeks later Polytomella showed an increase to 82,400 cells per liter, 5,380 diatoms, 1,340 dinoflagellates, and 160 ciliates per liter. It was be- lieved that the maximm had occurred earlier in July and these figures reflected a decrease in numbers. Lieski (1964) investigated the role of solar radiation in causing the breakup of the ice in Elson Lagoon during the winter of 1962-63. Warming and deterioration of shore-fast sea ice commenced in late YDXch by thermal conduction from the overlying snow. Although the greater warming period occurs from May 1 to 25th,, ambient air temperatures averaged -40C, and midnight temperatures of the snow at the 10 cm level averaged -30C, demonstrating that the snow warms the ice by conduction and is itself warmed by radiation? not by turbulent ex- change with the air. The conduction rate and sign are controlled chiefly by the net total radiation exchange at the snow surface, and internal absorption of short wave radiant energy by the ice is negligible until the depth of the snow is less than 25 ens- @basurements of total radiation for the months of January to June, 1963 gave the following: -3,250, -i,6oo, -2,550, -1,260, 1,250 and 4,200 calories/cM12- By June 1, the entire ice mass was near its freezing point, making the total amount of energy (4200 calories/cm?) available for phase' transformation. Holmquist (1963) indicated that the bottom sediments of Elson Lagoon are composed of a yellowish-brown to gray clay or mad in the center, becoming blacker closer to shore, to be finally replaced by coarser material at the shoreline. This distribution is normal and expectable for such low energy, enclosed basins. No work on foraminiferal distribution is yet available for Elson Lagoon, MU AM THE ARCTIC ESTUARIES The severity of the arctic environment poses hardships for all inhabitants 53 of the tundra, including man himself - The basic problems are two-fold, 1) acqui- sition of sufficient water to supply a growing population, and 2) disposing of the waste products of that population. Several publications (Boyd and Boyd, 1959) 1965; Boyd, 1959) have summarized these problems in general for the Arctic. However, these particular problems are being solved at the village of Barrow in o unique fashion. The lagoon lying just northeast of the village is being used both as a water supply and as a sewage outfall. This appears to be a strange combination but has proved effective. Initially, with the construction of the new school of the Bureau of Indian Affairs and the U. S. Public Health hospital, it became obvious that the traditional method of obtaining water, by cutting ice and hauling it to the village over the tundra, was no longer feasible. Several alternatives were consideredbut rejected in favor of developing Esatkuat lagoon as a water supply. T he central part of the lagoon is about 0-7 miles long and 0.3 miles wide. It is approximately 10 feet deep at its deepest part giving a total water capacity of approximately 280,000,000 gallons. However., during the winter the ice freezes to a thickness of 6 feet, leaving only 30,000,000 gallons available for use. A dam across the lower end of the central lagoon would allow the water level to be raised three feet, increasing the amount of usable water to 78,000,000 gallons. This quantity is suitable for projected use for many years. The construction of the dam across Nerravak (Esatkuat) Lagoon presented a number of unique problems (Buchanan, Dudley, and Peoples, 1966). Use of available construction materials required borrowing gravel from the beach and using as 11riprap" many 55 gallon fuel oil drums, filled partially with concrete and covered with steel landing mats. As expected, freshening of the normally brackish lagoonal waters began almost immediately, hastened by a 4500 9PM PUMP which pumped the denser saline lower water layer from under the ice and out of the lagoon ( Fig. 8). The dam has withstood the greatest storm in 200 years and is operating efficiently today. Waste disposal in the Arctic is also a difficult problem. Boyd and Boyd (1965) indicate that the town of Inuvik in the Canadian Arctic, a settle- ment of 2,000 people dumps its raw sewage directly into a shallow freshwater (oxbow) cutoff which opens into the Mackenzie River. Oxidation occurs during the su r. After the fixst freeze, an opening from the cutoff into the river is effected which dilutes and disposes of sewage for the year. At Barrow, a complete sewage disposal plant has been designed which grinds ail solid material into a slurry that is treated and aerated. The sewage flows to a final tank, is diluted further, and disposed of in the lower basin of Esatkuat Lagoon. It is well-suited to receive wastes and is separated from the water intake by the ice-cored dam. Periodic storms and annual tundra runoff flush the lower lagoon clean, probably also assisted by percolation through perme- able beach gravels. We see a multiple use of a small estuary which has made possible both a water supply and a sewage disposal area for the village of Barrow, Alaska. Without a doubt, similar usage could be made of other small estuaries, particularly if they have higher tidal ranges and are self-flushing. 54 A note of caution must be sounded at this point. Measurements made recently (Hume, pers. comm.) indicate the Barrow beaches have retreated over 30 feet since 1964. Construction of a new airport facility in Barrow has made extensive use of gravels from beaches lying southwest of the village. Since the longshore current flow northeasterly, sediment will be carried away from the beach at Barrow and nothing will be available to replace the lost material. Further erosion of the area between Barrow and Browerville will affect the sewage out- fall at the lower end of Esatkuat Lagoon. Removal of the gravel bar will create greater fetch and a sufficiently large storm could seriously damage the Bureau of Indian Affairs dam which impounds the remainder of Esatkuat Lagoon. Outlook At the ]present time, the influence of man on most of the estuaries in the Barrow area is relatively small, with the exception of Esatkuat Lagoon. Cer- tainly Elson Lagoon will retain its identity as an "ice-stressed, inter-tidal" estuarine system for a long time. However, as is seen by the example of Esatkuat Lagoon, an entirely new system can be created by the input of relatively minor amounts of energy to a "multiple-stressed" arctic estuary, already existing as a small; isolated unstable system. The recent oil strike in northern Alaska is quite likely to produce new emerging estuarine systems which will be imposed on natural arctic systems. An arch or flexure, which includes the Prudhoe Bay anticline, and which is char- acteristic of many oil producing basins, extends westward through the Beaufort Sea and beyond Pbint Barrow. It can be anticipated that with further exploration and p@oduction from these coastal areas, emerging systems associated with petroleum shores, sewage, and possibly petro-chemicals, may develop within the arctic bays'and estuaries. Microbial activity, being reduced under arctic temperatures, cannot be expected to effectively decompose hydrocarbon pollutants. One might predict that research under arctic conditions and understanding of the stressed arctic ecosystem will be slow in coming due to the inhospitable nature of the environment, and that remedial measures will again be too little and too late. However, advantage should be taken of the simplicity of these arctic systems which will enable theoretical studies to be made in a progr d fashion. Under- standing of the energy basis for estuarine classification may make possible proper management of these systems and serve as a stepping stone for increased efficiency in the utilization and management of more complex systems. Chapter D-4 55 SEA ICE AND UNDER ICE PLANKTON J. J. Goering and C. P. McRoy Institute of Marine Science University of Alaska College, Alaska 99735 Floating ice and ice covered sea water are an important type of ecologi- cal system of the Arctic seas of Alaska. The upper and lower surfaces of the ice form a substrate for life and affect the marine life in the waters below. Within the United States sea ice is a coastal system unique to Alaska. The ice itself is a type of beach with associated fauna and flora. Seals and walrus breed on the ice; diatoms and other algae grow on its undersurface; Eskimos depend on it for food and travel. The ice is a complex system very important in Alaska. A characteristic plankton develops in waters below. EXAMPLES Ice is the major feature of the Arctic Ocean and northern Bering Sea in winter. The southern boundary of the sea ice varies from year to year. This limit is frequently near the Pribilof Islands (590N). The summer boundary of the polar ice is between 10 and 100 miles off the arctic coast. During August and September the Arctic Sea adjacent to Alaska has the least ice. Advancement of the sea ice begins again in late September and October but the north flowing current through Bering Strait tends to keep the southern Chukchi Sea open longer. Ice closes Bering Strait by the end of October. In late October and November Norton Sound freezes and the sea ice progresses south to its maximum in midwinter. Breakup begins in mid-April. Open water does not extend into the Chukchi Sea until June. PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF SEA ICE Ice on the sea is not one continuous mass, nor is it flat and uniform. Winds, currents, and other stresses produce openings, hummocks, and ridges in the ice. The surface topography generally reflects the undersurface topography. Polynyas and leads, a result of stresses acting on the ice, are present at all seasons. Sea water in the Arctic Ocean and Bering Sea freezes to an average thickness of 2 to 3 m. This thickness varies locally with the severity of the winter. Losses due to surface melting are replenished by accumulation of new ice on the undersurface. 56 The boundary of ice-water may take a variety of forms depending upon the given freezing and melting conditions. In the open sea, only sea ice formed,by the freezing of seawater is important. However, near the coast, and in particular near the river mouths, floating river ice is introduced into the oceans. Defant (1961) presents an excellent brief discussion of the formation, terminology, and physical properties of sea ice. Salinity The salinity of sea ice is defined as the amount of solid matter remaining after evaporation of 1000 g of melted sea ice. The salinity of sea ice (usually 3-80/oo) is not conservative. Beneath the ice surface a part of the salt solution remains enclosed between the ice crystals and determines the salinity. The amount depends on 1) the salinity of seawater from which ice is formed, 2) the speed of freezing, and 3) the age of the ice. The faster the ice is formed the less brine can escape, which results in higher salinity. Also, as ice ages the salinity decreases due to leakage of brine. A selective separation of dissolved constituents occurs during freezing of seawater (Table 1). This begins at -8.20C. The first substance which begins to separate is sodium sulphate; chloride is retained since it separates at -230C. Thus, sulfate is steadily withdrawn by the freezing process from the water, which then becomes enriched in chloride (Table 2). A detailed breakdown of the chemical composition of ice brine is given in Table 3. Density The density of sea ice increases with salinity but varies due to air bubbles enclosed in the ice. More air is trapped in the ice during rapid freezing, resulting in a lower density. A second source of air- bubble formation is penetration of air during melting. In the upper part of a piece of ice which begins to melt on the inside the rise in temperature first widens the small intermediate spaces containing the salt solution. As the ice particles melt their volume decreases and air fills the spaces; these spaces finally become so enlarged that the melt water and the salt solution flow out and finally are replaced entirely by air, drastically reducing the density of the ice. Thermal Properties Extreme temperature gradients exist in sea ice. Temperatures within the ice vary seasonally. Surface ice temperatures are close to air temp- eratures and can be -300C or lower. The lowest layers of the ice are 57 Table 1. Precipitates from sea ice and temperature of their appearance. Precipitate Temperature (OC) Sodium sulfate, decahydrate -8.2 Sodium chloride, dihydrate -22.9 Potasssium chloride -36.0 Calcium chloride -54.0 Table 2. Differences in cation chloride ratio of sea ice and sea water. Cation Difference Na/Cl +0.085 K/Cl +0.008 Ca/Cl +0.003 Mg/Cl +0.0055 S04/C1 +0.097 58 Table 3- Chemical analyses of selected.arctic ice and water samples; all values in parts per thousand. IONS Sample Source Na+ K+ Ca++ Mg++ Cl- so- 4 Snow surface of 2.40 0.079 0.091 0.276 3.75 1.256 level ice,.4 cm Fresh snow 0.039 0.001 ---- 0.008 0.078 0.016 Sea water 10.27 0.37 0.394 1.309 18.47 2.55 32.893 Salinity Sea water 10.38 0.38 0.398 1.274 18.71 2.58 33.154 Salinity 59 near sea temperature, which is no colder than about -20C. Mechanical Properties Freshwater ice is much stronger than sea ice. The strength of ice decreases with increasing salinity and temperature. Large ice surfaces do not remain unchanged for long periods. The combination of wind, waves, and periodic tidal currents breaks large chunks of ice into many separate floes. With the aid of strong winds these separate floes are piled up by the horizontal pressures and pushed one above the other. The resultant mass, when covered with snow and cemented together by freezing, is pack ice. The coefficient of thermal conductivity is low in the surface layer of sea ice, due to air bubbles, and increases with.depth into the ice. This thermal conductivity is greater for sea ice than for seawater. During most of the year the water under the ice is warmer than the air above, and consequently there is a continuous upward flux of heat Malmgren (1927) estimates that an average of 6800 cal/cm2 passes @hrough the ice in a year. Seawater under the ice has a lower limit of about -20C. The relatively warm water under sea ice in the Arctic is important to birds and mammals. Irving (1964) and others have examined the physiology of marine animals in relation to temperature. BIOLOGICAL SYSTEMS OF THE SEA ICE Several interrelated systems are associated with sea ice. As in other oceans, there exists a pelagic and benthic fauna in the water under the ice; there is also a phytoplankton community that develops when conditions are suitable (English, 1961). Sea ice also has a unique community of micro-algae that develop on and in the undersurface of the ice (Apollonio, 1961). There is also a group of higher animals that is intimately associated with the sea ice (Wilimovsky, 1963). These sub- systems will be treated separately here for convenience. Algae of the Sea Ice A community of several species of diatoms actively lives and multiplies within the diffuse lower layers of first-year sea ice. Apollonio (1961) reported that brownish diatom pigment was apparent in the lower 3.5 cm. of arctic ice which was 2 m thick and Bunt (1963) found diatoms in the lower 30 cm, of antarctic ice which was 4-5 m thick. Within the diffuse layers more than twenty species of diatoms are present in both arctic and 60 antarctic ice (Table 4). It is noteworthy that these are not the same species found in other marine habitats of the area. In the ice the species pursue their individual growth habits, the free-floating or motile species re- maining in the interstitial water while the sessile species attach to the large ice crystals (Meguro et al., 1967). The algae live enclosed in a uniquely structured habitat consisting of large plate-like crystals of ice aggregated into a relatively loose matrix with a considerable proportion of unfrozen water. The boundary between the matrix of ice crystals and the main water column is clear and distinct, with somewhat uniform projecting ice crystals (Bunt, 1963). The temperature at any point in the ice column can be derived if one assumes the heat conductivity to be vertically constant. In the Arctic, where the under ice water temperature is about -1.70C, assuming an average atmospheric temperature of -200C, the temperature between 5 cm and 30 cm from the bottom of a 2-m ice column would lie between -1.70C and -4.5'C (Meguro et al., 1967). The light available for photosynthetic activity has been the concern of most studies on sea ice algae. Bunt (1963) made readings while diving under 4-5 meters of ice and found a mean level of illumination in the loose layer of about 8 footcandles. Apollonio (1965) froze a photometer in the ice at a depth of 170 cm which was close to, but not in, the diffuse layer and recorded values from 4 to 240 footcandles from March 21 until June 12. He concluded from his readings that probably less than 20 footcandles reached the algae during the peak period of chlorophyll production, and in the previous year, when the snow cover was 23 cm, probably only 10 to 15 footcandles reached the algae. The interstitial water was found by Bunt (1963) to be slightly less saline and of slightly lower pH than the water below the ice. Meguro et al.., (1967), in a more detailed study, found the salinity to vary from 180/o'o at 5 cm from the bottom of the ice to 440/oo at 30 cm from ice bottom. 'Furthermore they found nu'trient elements to be present in sufficient abundance for growth throughout the winter, but to be insufficient to support the bloom as soon as growth begins in the spring. In the Bering Sea the growth of ice algae begins in late February or early March (McRoy, 1968). In the Arctic it begins about the end of March and reaches it's peak near the end of May then declines abruptly as the snow begins to melt and disappears before ice breakup in mid-June (Apollonio, 1961). 'Bunt (1963) reports a similar cycle in the antarctic community, which increases rapidly to a peak in early January then disappears suddenly when water movements 'iaise the water temperature slightly. The factor preventing growth earlier in the winter seems to be an adverse osmotic pressure created by low temperature. Meguro et al., (1967) found'that a change of ice temperature from -1.750C to -4.455C caused an 61 Table 4, Diatoms in the sea ice off Barrow (from Meguro et al., 1967). Amphiprora kryophila Gomphonema exiginim v. arctica Navicula algida N. crucigeroides N. directa N. gracilis v. inaequalis N. kjellmanii N. ablusa N. transitans N. transitans v. derasa N. transitans v. erosa N. trigoncephla N. valida Nitzschia lavuensis Pinnularia quadralarea P. quadralarea v. biconsiracta P. quadratarea v. capilata A quadratarea v. constricla A quadratarea v. sluxbergii P. semiinfiata P. semiinflata v. decipiens Pleurosigma sluxbergii P. stuxbergii v. rhomboidis Stenoneis inconspiqua 62 increase in osmotic pressure of 380 mm of mercury. Once the temperature rises sufficiently to allow a reduction in0smOtic pressure below some critical point, active growth may begin. But once growth and multiplication get underway nutrients soon become deficient in the essentially closed ice habitat. Meguro et al (1967) suggest three possible sources of nutrient supply. First, there is the possibility of bacterial conversion of organic com- pounds contained in sea ice; second, nutrients, could be replaced through penetration of seawater under the ice; and third, nutrients could be made available by the process of desaltation. This last physical process may well be the key in rendering the lower ice layers habitable. Desaltation is described by Ringer (Sverdup et al., 1942): "In such rapidly frozen ice the cells containing the brine are large or numerous. If the temperature rises, the ice surrounding the cells melts and the separated salt crystals are dissolved, but before complete solution has taken place the brine cells may join, permitting the brine to trickle through the ice. If, on the other hand, the temperature of the ice is raised to OOC, all the salts dissolve, the cells grow so large that the ice becomes porous, and all the brine trickles down from the portions of the ice above t'he sea surface, and the exposed old ice becomes fresh and can be used as a source of potable water." Additionally, Meguro et al.(1967) observed in early April that sea ice formed near.Point Barrow, TfaTka, showed a gradual decrease in salinity from top to bottom with an average chlorinity of 2.40/oo. A s'ubsequent observation of chlorinity in the summer showed,just the opposite distribution with a low chlorinity at the top and a graded increase downward. The average chlorinity had dropped to 0.90/oo. Malmgren (1927) states that the amount of brine in the ice is related to the rate of ice formation or the temperature of freezing before desaltation has taken place in the spring. This gradual release of brine from the upper layers would progress upwards from the colored layer due to the light absorption and resultant heating of that layer (Meguro et al., 1967). This is true early in the spring and probably throughout most of the growth cycle, but the graded chlorinity increase from top to bottom in summer ice probably results from atmospheric heating. The most convincing evidence for nutrient supply by desaltation is given by calculations of the theoretical thickness of the algal layer which could be supported by a given total ice thickness. From the difference in chlorinity of spring and summer ice, the amount of nutrient salt supplied can be calculated. Then from the known nutrient requirements of the diatoms, the maximum thickness of the colored layer can be calculated as a function 63 of the thickness of the,solid layer above. Calculations made on this basis gave results roughly comparable to those observed in nature (Meguro et al., 1967). Besides the limits implied by nutrient supply, the algae must deal with severe temperatures and extremely low quantities of light. The problems of extreme cold include damage due to ice crystal formation with- in the cell, structural alterations, and accumulation of toxic products due to decreased solubility of compounds in the surrounding medium or due to differential slowing of metabolic reactions with consequent build-up of intermediates. Many organisms adapt directly to these hazards by enduring them (Allen, 1960). Many cryophils, however, show various amounts of re- sistance to freezing. Generally increased resistance can be associated with an increase in osmotic concentration of the cell contents, a decrease of free water in the cell, an increase in bound water in the cell, and a de- crease in the permeability of the cell membrane (Allen, 1960). Another general adaptation made by plankton to low temperatures is to increase t*he concentration of all enzymes. This helps make up for the thermal slowing of metabolism and slows the cell multiplication rate due to the greater amount of organic material that must be synthesized (Eyring et al., 1960) Probably most, if not all, of these adaptations contribute to the success of the ice algae, and further study may indicate others. Low light intensities also impose limitations upon the algae. Ryther and Yentsch (1957) give 100 footcandles as the limit at which photosynthetic producticn of energy just balances the energy requirement on the phytoplank- ton population in temperate regions. The less than 20 footcandles received by the ice algae must make some stringent demands on them. To meet these de- mands two major adaptations have been made. The first is the-general adap- tation made by most "shade-loving" plants and involves using a higher pro- portion of the cell material for photosynthetic enzymes (Eyring @!t al., 1960). The second involves more efficient use of available light. This is accomplished by the use of chlorophyll c in addition to chlorophyll a, which is only one half as abundant as chloro@hyll c in ice flora. Chlorophyll c was shown by Strickland (1960) to be at least six times more efficient than chlorophyll a in absorbing blue light,-which Thomas (1963) showed to be more easily trans- mitted by snow than the shorter wavelengths. No one has determined the compensation point of the ice algae. There- fore, it cannot be stated to what degree light limits the population. However, the fact that from April 20 until August 20 there is continuous sunlight at Barrow and the weather is normally clear in May and June (Apollonio, 1965) may be important. The important factors in destruction of the ice algae population appear to be light and temperature. Apollonio (1961) noted a drastic reduction in chlorophyll concentration in the arctic ice following artificial removal of 64 the snow to allow greater light penetration. Similar results occurred during natural snow melt. In the Antarctic, Bunt (1963) noted that a rise in tempera- ture from -1.70C to -1.40C brought about by water movements-caused the disa- ppearance of the community in six days. The abrupt decline in both cases may be the consequence of a breakdown of the physical structure of the ice habitat. However, in the Arctic it has been found that in the spring during natural snow melt the chlorophyll concentration falls long before the physical structure of ice changes. This latter observation would indicate that some optimal light intensity has been exceeded, possibly resulting in photo-oxidation of the photosynthetic pigments (Apollonio, 1961). The very abruptness of the increase of available light with snow removal or melt in the Arctic or the sudden temperature increase in the Antarctic may well explain the demise of the algal population. It is generally known that phytoplankton can adapt to considerable variations in light, temperature, and salinity, but these adaptations do not occur rapidly. Sudden changes often are fatal (Eyring @@t al., 1960). Further- more, Marre (1962) points out that algae adapted to severe conditions of heat or cold are highly specialized in that a slight change above or below optimum may impair biological activity. The algal population under the ice contains a chlorophyll a concentration many times higher than in the surrounding water (Table 5). This high chloro- phyll a concentration could indicate a high rate of production, but actual rate determinations are difficult and not yet available. Under Ice Plankton The production of organic matter under the permanent arctic ice pack is limited to the dilute arctic upper water (0-50 m), which is freely convective and characterized by physical and chemical homogeneity. When ice melts, water of lower salinity and higher temperature is added at the sea surface. The maximum change in the arctic upper water is only several tenth of one degree centigrade and several tenths of one part per mille salinity (English, 1961). One of the more striking seasonal environmental changes in the North Polar Sea is the amount of incident solar radiation delivered to the sea surface. The daily insolation, even as far north as 700N, is negligible from early November until early February. From early February thru May it increases rather uniformly and reaches a maximum about mid June, then de- creases through summer and autumn. Thus the radiation available for photo- synthesis is limited and is increased by melting of the snow cover, a de- crease in ice floe thickness, the formation of ponds on the floes, any de- crease in albedo, and the formation of leads. Maximal radiation in the water lags behind surface radiation, occurring after melting of the snow cover and the formation of ponds. An average ice floe appears,to reduce the depth of the euphotic zone to less than one-half of the depth of the freely convective layer (English, 1961). Table 5. Average-content of chlorophyll-a and nutrient elements in various sections of sea ice and sea water collected off Barrow in July and August 1964. (from Meguro et al., 1967). Chloroph),Il-a Chloride Phosphorous Silicon ;.gll. 0/00 1 P'Ug1l. Si -g-11. Phosphate-P *Diatom-P Dissolved *Dialain-Si silicate-Si Pool water at the surface of sea ice. 0-3 0.79 2.0 0-5 0.12 0.006-0,009: Middle section of sea ice. trace 0.92 9.3 - 0.07 Plankton-coloured layer at the bottorn of sea ice. 120.3 1-13 27-0 204-0 0-44 2-4-3.7 Sea water around sea ice just after melting. 3-1 4.71 10.0 5.3 0-05 o.o6-o.oq Sea water-in open lead. 2.1 13-3 17-0 3-6 0,14 [email protected] 'Diatoni-P,and Diatom-Si.are the elements of diatoms. The values arc-calculated.from chlorophyll-a content of the samples according to Parsons el al. (tq(ii). p/ch@a= 1,7 and Si/ch-a=9,4:in Costinodiscus sp.; P/ch-a= 1-7- and Si/ch-a= 14-1 in Skelintma Coslatum. ON 66 English (1961) studied the seasonal variations in primary production in the under ice water at IGY drift station Alpha. Chlorophyll a was used to obtain an estimate of the time of maximum phytoplankton populations and as a relative me@asure of production and photosynthetic potential. The 14C technique was also used to study variations in photosynthesis with light intensity, chlorophylL.a concentration, and sampling depth. Rates of carbon fixation were 5 - 6 mg C/m2 per day in July and Au5ust. The standing stock at this time was 30 to 66 mg chlorophyll a/m . Maxima in chlorophyll a was abundant in the water between floes. A fine net retained less than 10 percent of the chlorophyll a retained by a membrane filter (.45 u pore size), suggesting that most @hotosynthetic organisms were small enough to pass through the meshes. The 14C results indicated that the phytoplankton population is apparently not adapted for low light intensities. English also found an increasing proportion of photosynthetically inactive chlorophyll a with depth, and the ratios of 14C uptake to chlorophyll a concentration we-re lower than those reported for lower latitudes. Birds and Mammals of the Sea Ice Impressive populations of birds and mammals are associated with the sea ice..system. Many of the species of birds that form large nesting colonies along the coasts of the Bering and Chukchi Seas winter in the southern margin of the ice-covered Bering Sea. The ice edge also attracts large numbers of mammals. There are 13 species of birds and 10 species of mammals known to occur in the seasonal ice and permanent polar ice (Table 6). The birds all nest on land, but for most of the mammals the young are born on the ice. The walrus, beluga, ringed seal, and bearded seal stay with the ice as it annually advances and recedes. The other marine mammals become pelagic when the ice is gone from the Bering and Chukchi Seas. The narwal and harp seal remain with the polar pack ice (Wilimovsky, 1963). The populations of these animals can be immense. Only a few of the bird populations have been estimated. The most studied of the birds, the murres, are considered the most abundant birds in the Northern Hemisphere (Tuck, 1960). Tuck estimates that in the Polar Basin there are about 15 million thick-billed murres and I million common murres; in the North Atlantic there are 15 million thick-billed murres and 6 million common murres; and in the North Pacific (largely the Bering Sea) there are 20 million of both species. The total population of the Northern Hemisphere is then 50 to 100 million, Not all of these birds winter in the sea ice; a portion of the common murre population seeks warmer waters. The marine mammals attain equally impressive numbers (Table 7). 67 Table 6. Birds and mammals associated with sea ice in the Bering and Arctic seas. 1. Birds (from Irving et al, in press) Old Squaw (Clangula hyemalis) King Eider (Somateria spectabilis) Fulmar (Fulmarus glacialis) Gaucous Gull (Larus hyperboreus) Ivory Gull (Pagophila eburnea) Ross Gull (Rhodostethia rosea) Pacific Kittiwakes (Rissa tridactyla) Thick Billed Murre (Uria lomvia) Common Murre (Uria aalge) Pigeon Guillemot (Cepphus columba) Black Guillemot (Cepphus grylle) Snowy Owl (Nyctea scandiaca) Snow Bunting (Plectrophenax nivalis) 11. Mammals (from Burns and Kenyon, 1968; Wilimovsky, 1963) Spotted Seal (Phoca vitulina) Harp Seal (Phoca grochlandica) Ringed Seal (Pusa hispida) Ribbon Seal (Histriophoca fasciata) Bearded Seal (Erignathus barbatus) Walrus (0dobenus rosmarus) Narwhal (Monodon monoceros) Beluga (Delphinapterus levucas) Polar Bear (Thalarctos maritimus) Arctic Fox (Alopex lagopus) 68 Table 7. Population estimates of marine mammals associated with sea ice (from Burns and Kenyon, 1968). Estimated Number Biomass Species pf Individuals metric tons Ringed Seal 150,000 to 250,000 17,000 to 19,000 Bearded Seal 200,000 to 300,000 60,000 to 90,000 Spotted Seal 100,000 to 150,000 13,000 to 17,000 Ribbon Seal 75,000 to 150,000 10,000 to 17,000 Walrus 73,000 to 113,000 73,000 to 113,000 TOTAL. 598,000 to 963,000 173,000 to 256,000 69 The biomass estimates of these populations are accordingly large. The murres alone constitute 100 to 200 million kilograms, and the marine mammals more than 256 million kilograms (for the species in Table 7). These animals become quantitatively important in the food webs of the sea ice. They cycle large quantities of nutrients that are transported and concen- trated in waters around the ice edge. Wilimovsky (1963) put-together the generalized trophic cycle of life for the permanent ice pack region (Fig. 1). In the regions of seasonal sea ice this would include additional species resulting in a more diversified food web (Fig. 2). Man is intimately involved in these food webs of the sea ice system. The coastal Eskimos of Alaska depend on the marine mammals for food and materials. The Alaska Eskimos annually harvest 19,000 to 26,000 seals principally ringed, bearded, spotted, and ribbon, in the Bering Sea (Burns and Kenyon, 1968). The Soviets harvest an additional 37,000 to 48,000 of these animals. The annual walrus harvest by Soviets and Americans is about 4,200 animals (Burns and Kenyon, 1968). Burns considers these populatiops to be in jeopardy and strongly recommends cooperative international plans for the study and rational exploitation of walrus and seals in the Bering and Chukchi Seas. The polar bear is another mammal sought by man. About 300 are taken by Alaskan hunters (U. S. Department of the Interior and University of Alaska, 1966). The polar bear roams over a large region of the ice-covered sea and international cooperation is now in progress to develop circumpolar manage- ment principles. The birds, murres and eider, are also harvested for meat and eggs by Alaskan Eskimos. At one time the Eskimos also used the bird skins for parkas. Birds are not hunted on the ice but taken from nesting colonies. Eskimos also depend on beluga, other whales, and fishes. No estimates are available for their annual take of these species. Sea ice is a complex system that seasonally extends the coast and influence of man to large areas of the once open sea. The top trophic levels of this system are currently in demand by people of America and other nations. The sea ice system requires international cooperation for the basic research essential to management. 70 ADSORBED /7 \01$$OLVID kUTRIINTS' 100PLANXTON. g\ Fig. 1. Generalized food web of permanent North Polar sea ice (from Wilimovsky, 1963). IF0 SEA BIRDS MUTRIE HT 3AL13 PWYTOPLANKTON HUTRIP14T SAM SEAWEED '4=1 1.d ZOOPLANKTON (LdrSer indW1mj'KriJ1') (AltrTIC CHAR) CLUPEIO FI:SMFS - RORQUALS RIGHT WHALES - j 1// 0 us - .1 IIAL CAPLIN ='.AL HARBOUR 3E L@ OFNTHOMIC VVLRTEBRAT BeLUGA KILLER WHALE NARWHAL @SeARDCO SEAL-.@ ORFENLA D 3HA K r@ WALRUS --SENTMONIC INVrRTM8RATE5 Fig. 2. Food web of arctic seas (from Dunbar, 1954). T TSRAT' 7AL L 71 Chapter E-1 ESTUARINE ECOSYSTEMS THAT RECEIVE SEWAGE WASTES Charles M. Weiss and Frank G. Wilkes University of North Carolina Chapel Hill, North Carolina 27514 INTRODUCTION Manicipal wastewater or sewage is a mixture of materials in suspension and solution. Since these materials were originally plant and animal tissues they contain the elements N, P and K which axe essential to plant growth (Table 1). The application of sewage directly to land as a plant fertilizing procedure has been a method of wastewater disposal. While effective as a technique for handling of limited quantities of wastewater,, the fertilization of the land by application of sewage has generally not been too successful. However, when wastewaters are discharged to an aquatic environment, either fresh or marine, the direct utilization of available nitrogen and phosphorus by the plant life at the base of the food pyramid enhances development of dense associations of microscopic plant cells. A sewage waste system dis- charging into the estuary encourages development of photosynthesizing microscopic plants and in sequence the larger consumer microorganismsprotozoa, crustaceans, rotifers until fish at the top of the food pyramid become the ultimate benefactor of the fertilization. The precise temporal pattern relating to the inflow of 'waste and the developing sequences of organisms will depend on the degree of dilution and the nature of the indigenous and available species of organisms. Characteristic of the sewage wastewater system discharging into the marine environment, are abundant coliform bacteria, those organisms associated with human fecal waste and which are discharged from the intestines of all people. These bacteria disperse outward from the point of waste dis- charge reducing in numbers due to die off and consumption by planktonic animals, by filtering of water by shell fish and by antagonistic effects of metabolic excretions of other organisms until they reach numbers which are normally not associated with high wastewater concentrations. Because of their regularity of die off and disappearance, as well as possible association with discharges from a person who was ill or a carrier of a coranunicable enteric disease, the coliform. organisms and their numbers are generally used to define the boundaries of sewage stress systems and their numbers are used for the classification of such waters. Virus in New Hampshire waters is illustrated in Table lb. EXAMPLES Experimental Tank Microcosms With Sewage Waste Copeland and Wohlschlag (1968) examined such a stress on a laboratory microcosm. These laboratory simulations were filled with water, vegetation and mud from Red Fish Bay, Texas, and held at a constant 25 0C with a 12 hour Table 1& 72 Average Composition of Domestic Waste Water at an j@verage Volume of 100 gpcd, ppm (Fair, Geyer, and Okun, 1968) Solids, mg/1 State of Solids 11ineral Organic* Total Five-day 200 C BOD Suspended 65 170 235 110 Settleable 40 100 140 50 Non-Settleable 25 70 95 60 Dissolved 210 210 420 30 Total 275 380 655 140 Organic Composition Daily Per Capita Excretion 40% Nitrogenous Urine Feces substances Cl 7.0 gr --- 50% Carbohvdrates N 7.0 gr 0.9 gr 10% Fats P204 2.0 gr 1.0 gr K20 2.3 gr 0.2 Table 1b. Virus in Now Hampshire estuary (Source unknown) indicator Bacteria and Enteroviruses. in Oysters and Seawater overlaying Oyster Beds Seawater Oysters Numbers per 100 ml Numbers per 100 gm Samples Percentile Coliforms Enterovirus Samples Fecal Enterovirus (MPN) Isolations Coliforms Isolations (EC-MPN) 17 10 4.8 1/19 12 34 2/12 Median 49.0 90 94.0 1/10 30 10 4.0 5/8 10 15 Median 47.5 90 220.0 73 light-dark cycle. Artificial sewage was added every 60 days in concentra- tions constituting 0.01Y 0.1, 1.0 and 10.0.per cent of thd total'microcosm. volume. As shown in.Figure I(A)., the stirred microcosm res-ponded at-the lowest sewage concentrations with an increase in production of,CO2 whereas photosynthetic rates showed increases up to the 1.0 per cent sewage con- centration and then declined at 10 per cent s'ewage. The 0.01 per cent sewage concentration had the same effect as that of the control. The effect of strong wind action characteristic of the Gulf coast was simulated by stirring. Under quiescent conditions, as shown in Figure I(B), the rate of photosynthesis increased with increased sewage concentration up to and including the maximum added 10 per cent. In all cases the ratio of photosynthesis to respiration remained near unity as increases in photosynthetic rates were accompanied by an increase in respiration rate. This was the result of the production of labile organic material by photosynthesis which enhanced the respiration rdte,of the microcosm. Thus, the introduction of sewage into an estuarine ecosystem resulted in eutrophication and in increase in basic productivity. This increased pro- ductivity ray not be beneficial to man because the number of carnivores at the top of the food chain may be reduced due to increased toxicity or changes in energy flow pathways. The-net effect would have to be.characterized for each estuarine system on an individual basis. Comparing the results of this simple experiment which examines sewage stress on a laboratory microcosm with the estuarine environment, it is apparent that the system becomes infinitesimally more complex in estuaries since there exists the superimposition not only of the energy stress, but of differences in temperature, circulation, and distribution patterns as well as differences in the plant and animal communities into which the stress is being introduced. Sewage Wastes in Shallow Lagoon Great South Bay - Moriches Bay, N.Y. Shallow enbayments are commonly found behind barrier beaches along the Atlantic Coast. These embayments typically have low tidal flushing rates which allow for the accumulation of nutrient materials within the system. Such an estuarine environm ent is the Great South Bay - M@riches Bay - Forge River complex. This system has been studied in detail by Barlow et al., 1963, Ryther, 1954, lackey, n.d., Galtsoff, 1956, and others with regard 'EF tre polluting influence of the wastes from the many duck farms located along the shorelines of these waters. Since the resulting effect of introducing either duck farm wastes or sewage wastes into an estuary may be expected to be the same, namely the addition of plant nutrients (Pri ilY N and P) to the system, a description of the Great South Bay area is illustrative of the effect of nutrient build up in this type of estuary. The Great South Bay is about 25 miles in length and varies in width from 1.5 to 5 miles (Fig. 2). Its area is 90 sq. miles and its average depth 4.25 ft. The deeper parts of the bay do not exceed 13 ft. in depth except in the narrower inlet channels where depths up to 25 ft- occur. aq 00,+ GM CO /M2/DAy /M2 /D@ m cf- 0 GM CO 19 9) 1-4 1-4 Cf. 2 2 WH@-b2o OD Z, OD N 0 0 'A 1- 0 _0 .m Is 1+ 01 03 cl- m (D 0 ta. rIl 0 FA 12' g0 IE Is H > ci- 0 0w 0. G) co H C+ - C+ 1.4 W @10 -j If 9 , m P" 0 4 . 4 11 ID ID C+ 0 r) A) (D C+ 0 ro in Z 0 ti W 04 M1-4 m 0Ea z 0 0 ig -1 0, H ci. 9 C+ x 0 @-h ID (I > "+ M --4 C+ c 0 FA P P 0 CD C+ (D P, m t@ 0 0, z m Ft %..- C+ IJ* IOD C+ e (D C-4 m .4 cr Pj 0 FJ 89LLpmr wm SAMU ft G '0 0 Mob Pq E A 0 V 10.0, MO. Fig. 2A. Orientation chart of Great South Bay and environs (From Woods Role Oceanographic Inst 1951; Fig. 4). 76 N ")Tributary ST Receiving Sub-Surface Seepage PORT JEFFERSON HARBOR STONY B-."OOK HARBOR Duck Farms General Area-"% MORICHES BAY Duck Farms General Area STP -'ev' ca:' C'Peconic Rive STP FLANDERS BAY HEMPSTEAD BAY 0 1 2 ne r' @l Ar, S P ',Ge SCALE OF MILES CiAcRiver Fig. 2B. Duck farm waste areas on Long Island, Now York (Strobel, 1967). 77 Since Moriches Bay, 9 miles long and I - 2 miles wide, is smaller than Great South Bay, the tide rises earlier at the eastern end of Narrow Bay than in Bellport Bay. The result is that the current flows westward from Moriches Bay into Bellport Bay. The east winds also contribute to the westward flow of the water. Low tidal flushing and long retention times cause little net outward water movement from the eastern end of Great South Bay. It is estimated that the retention time in Great South Bay is one month. The long retention times allow the development of high water temper- atures - up to 300C during the summer months - and a dilution of the salinities by the imflowing fresh water to 50% of that of sea water in the bays and to less than 10% in the estuaries. Since 1940, there has been a decline in the oyster and fish production of Great South Bay. These conditions have coincided with the build up of the duck industry in the areas surrounding Moriches Bay. It is estimated that there are 6 million ducks on 40 farms on the tributaries and coves of Moriches Bay. The wastes from the duck farms effectively fertilized these waters but with a low ratio of nitrogen to phosphorus. As a result of increased nutrients, especially phosphorus, the waters of Great South Bay have exhibited increased algal populations. Heavy growths of algae developed in the early spring and persisted through summer and fall. At its peak, the concentration of algal cells exceeded 10 million/ml. The dominant bloom alga was a small, unicellular species often termed "small form." This alga differed greatly from the flora typical of bays and estuaries in the same region and its persistence over long periods of time eliminated the typical seasonal succession of forms in the bay. The decline of the oyster industry was directly correlated with the increase in the "small form." This was due to the fact that the opti conditions for oyster growth include a mixed algal population. Although oysters do feed on the "small forms," these algae axe an inadequate nutrient source. Serpulid worms which are capable of effectively utilizing the "small forms" for food have overrun the oyster beds periodically and thereby adversely affected oyster production by competitive exclusion. The growth of the "small form!' algae, Nanochloris and Stichococcus " in relation to the temperature, salinity and nutrient conditions of the bay waters was studied by Ryther (1954). Both species exhibited good growth in all forms of nitrogen. The commn neritic diatom, Nitzschia closterium* also included in the study, grew well in nitrate and nitrite, poorly in amm nia, and slowly or not at all in the organic N compounds. Lowering the N:P ratio had little effect on the diatom but approximately doubled the growth rate of Nannochloris and Stichococcus. It appeared, therefore, that the increased phosphorus concentration in the duck from wastes stimulated the growth of the problem algae. The duck wastes which enter the bays have been found to contain uric acid and ammonia with nitrite and nitrate present only in traces. The tri- butary waters were found to contain no uric acid and nitrogen but did contain ammonia. No inorganic N was found in any form in either Ybriches Bay or Great South Bay. Phosphorus, however, was found to be present in large amounts 78 in both tributary and bay waters. Filtered water samples from the bay supported growth of Stichococcus only after the addition of axmonia-N indicating that the latter was Th principal limiting factor for the growth of the bloom algae. The bloom algae normally occurred in Ybriches Bay and its polluted tributaries. The pattern of distribution in Great South Bay suggested that their presence in these waters was largely the result of the seaward flushing of Ybriches Bay water and that growth was confined to an area close to the source of the nutrient rich duck farm pollutants. In the original duck wastes, nitrogen occurs as excreted uric acid and amino compounds. Investigations have found that bacteria present in the duck farm effluents are capable of decomposing uric acid very rapidly. This decomposition is accompanied by an increase in a ni . In the sea, the decomposition of organ:4c nitrogen to ammonia is followed by the nitrification of the ammonia to nitrite and nitrate. This phase of the cycle appears never to occur in the bay area since the nitrogen, as the limiting factor, is utilized as quickly as it becomes avail-able. Therefore, the organisms which are able to utilize nitrogen in its earliest stage of decomposition have the advantage. The laboratory results indicate that the bloom algae have such an advantage over the marine diatom. The high concentrations of phosphorus (lower N:P ratio) in the bay waters also favor the growth of the bloom algae as shown by Figure 3. The three species of algae were grown in a series of media of different salinities. The optimim salinity for Nitzchia, the typical marine diatom, was near that of sea water. The bloom algae, however, grew well within a wide range of salinities. This is significant in that a wide range of salinities occu.-O in Great South Bay and Moriches Bay and their tributaries. The bloom algae are thus able to continue to grow as they are carried out to sea until their source of nutrients becomes depleted. At no time does salinity limit their growth. Studies of the effect of temperature on the growth of the three algal species revealed that the water temperatures in Moriches Bay from May to September (130 - 3000 favor the growth of the "small form" algae over that of the marine diatom. Since the heaviest enrichment of the bay waters also occurred during this period, both temperature and nutrient levels favored the growth of the bloom species. Barlow et al.(1963) studied the Forge River, the largest estuarine inlet on Mori@h-ed-Bay- It is 4000 yds long, 200-500 yds wide and has maxi depths of approximately 6 ft. Most of the allocthonous nutrients and organic matter in the estuary are from the river. The drainage from oxidation ponds treating duck wastes (note: probably installed since Ryther6 study) also adds nutrients to the estuary. The phytoplankton populations of this estuary were very large due to the heavy enrichment and low tidal flushing. The algae were maintained under a state of continually renewed nutrients and the limiting metabolic products 79 SMALL FORM 2- z 0 .j 0 0-3- TOTAL PHOSPHORUS AS P04 0.2- 0.1- 0- JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JUL AUG Fig. 3. Pbnthly concentration of small form and total phosphorus in bay watet off West Sayville in 1950 (From Woods Role Oceanographic Institution, 1951; Fig. 22). 80 were transported away and diluted by the circulation. This situation was conducive to the active growth of the algae. The average photosynthesis: respiration ratio of the estuary was 1.1 - 1.2, which led to a rate of cell increase sufficient to maintain the population. One effect of the large algal population in the estuary was to cause significant diurnal fluctuations in the DO. In the early morning, the DO often dropped to extremely low levels. Since the light penetration was reduced, there was little or no photosynthesis by the algae in the deeper water and anaerobic conditions often developed for extended periods in the bottom mid. The benthic forms must therefore be adapted to such conditions. The circulation patterns described above in which the net flow was from Moriches Bay to Great South Bay occurred only when Moriches Inlet was closed. When this inlet was open, the net flow was reversed. Consequently, in an effort to reduce pollution of Great South Bay, this inlet was dredged open in 1954. Pollution was substantially reduced. The inlet silted in, however, after a period of time and polluted conditions increased again. Another development is that increased septic tank wastes in the area may have augmented the duck farm wastes to a substantial degree. Also, as a result of bacterial contamination, many oyster beds have been closed. Sewage Wastes in a Deeper Estuary - Raritan Bay As described in Chapter 1, the medium-salinity plankton based estuary is the "typical" estuary. It is characterized by a high level of productivity and generally supports a diverse biota. Such an estuary, the Raritan Bay, is located between the states of New Jersey and New York. Many industrial and municipal wastes enter directly into the bay. its three main tributaries, the Raritan River, Arthur Kill, and the Narrows, are also heavily polluted and contribute their waste loadings to the total amount received by the bay. This example illustrates sewage waste system complicated by other wastes. Raritan Bay and Arthur Kill receive directly more than 480 mgd of wastes which represent a BOD loading of 430,000 lbs/day. When discharger. to the Upper Bay and Raritan River are included, the bay receives 1,500 mgd of wastes and 1,300,000 lbs/day BOD. Approximately 75% of the total waste volume is from industry, but sewage effects, such as bacteriological contamination and fertilization, are a major problem. From 1962 to 1966 various studies were conducted on Raritan Bay (us-FwPcA, 3-9671). Figure 4 shows the sampling stations -utilized. The mean water temperatures were found to be 15 to 160C and were uniform throughout the bay. The mean chloride concentrations averaged from 13,000 to 14,ooo mg/1 throughout the bay as against 20,000 mg/l for ocean water. ML-an BOD values ranged from an average of 3 to 4 mg/1. in the western end of the bay to less than 2 mg/l at the seaward end. The highest BOD value observed was 11 mg/l at Station 56. The average DO concentrations ranged from 6 mg1l at the mouth of Arthur Kill to 9 mg/l in the center of the bay to 6 mg/l close to the Narrows. Annual, tidal and diurnal cycles affected the DO values. Autumn appeared to 107 508 6 R 0 0 RARITAN BAY PROJECT SAMPLING STATION LOCATIONS 109 XILL -RARITAN BAY,ARTHUR S UPPER HARBOR X 69 STATEN ISLAND Sol 36 8330 602 ONE 0 70 603 604 37 71 605 606 38 39 40@ 607 A 608, 6 9 5 10 1@ C) 609 20 21 Nz- 611 4 612 3 613 2 12 b14 615 57 44 ?15 23 m .29 f-iP 616 25 17 33 32 47 48 24 1 62 6465 ........... 49 46 so so 55 708 is 51 707 is 70 'lllq@ 715 714 713 59 710 53 iL 706 ?05 LEGEND T TATION 5 BOA S 9 SHORE STATION Tit 0 SEWAGE TREATMENT PLAN 704 MILES NEW JERSEY 4 0 1 2 3 5 0 Representative PIWaktOrl Stations Fig- 5 Fig. 4A. Map of Raritan Bay and environs (From US-FWPCA, 19671; Figure 3). 82 _j 10 L 4 So 1/20 6/23 2 2 4 6 a 30 to MILES FROM RIVER MOUTH 11jAISIOINJOIJIFIMIA MIJIJIAIS Spatial distribution of surface phosphate phosphorus in the Raritan River before (broken line). and'after (solid lines) opetation of the trunk Surface inorganic pbosphate.@pbosphorus sewer. and nitrate to phosphate ratio (bar graphs) at sta- tions 1, 5, and 6. 30. 25. 15- 1"IRWANSITY BAY 10- RANTAN . $TAT= Tow mvvl M A M J J A- S Seasonal distribution of surface tem- Schematic representation of net currents perature in three estuaries, 1958. in Raritan and Lower Bays. Fig. 4B. Characteristics of Raritan Bay (Jeffries, 1962c, 1964) '70@612 3 83 4 Go 3. so A@A o. o. XI so G wiTm "v So 6TAM" Go -"now Go - P ilk @- Z-- @_, A Go - so oWOMY" a., L 90 - lom o Go RIYE. ':, G so Iwo-, Go VQft RrM so so. 30 o so 30 2o Go o M A M J J A S M A M J J A S Seasonal di stribution of Manus nau- Seasonal distribution of lamellibranch plii (B) and polychaete larvae (P) in per cent of W and gastropod (G) larvae in per cent of the total larvae of bentbic invertebrates. Sym- total larvae of bentbic invertebrates. Raritan Bay, metrical plot around time axis. Raritan Bay, 1958. 1958. P@ffom BAY 5o as a -COPEPOOS 0 GO. a so .TA@L PLAMKTO@ Q3 LfiftAL 5ENTMOS ---- 14 t! ...LARVAL IthRRAIA IITI "Y---- SENTHOS so 5b RAG TAN BAY Go Yost. MIYER so Go CHLOROPHYLL Io M A Total numbers of zooplankters and the Comparisons of the plankton I compo- concentration oftcniporary components in Raritan nents in Raritan Bay before (1957) and after Bay (5a). Relativeldcnsity of larval,benthos in. 0958) operation of the trunk sewer. Stations 1, three estuaries as a per cent of the total zooplank- 5, and 6 monitor the quality of water and its ton (5b). 1958. entrained populatiom Dashes indicate no obser- vations. Fig. 4C. CharacteristiCS of Raritan Bay, N.J. (Jeffries, 1964). P L+4 IMKI. WA. 84 be the most critical period throughout the bay although the critical period near the Narrows, Raritan River and Arthur Kill was during the summer. Photosynthetic activity appeared to be a major factor in maintaining the DO levels in the bay. Increases in net plankton concentrations were accompanied by increases in DO levels. The mean MPN confirmed coliform counts were higher at the conjunction of Arthur Kill and Raritan River and at the Narrows than in mid-bay. The densities also decreased from the Narrows through the bay into Sandy Hook Bay. The bacteriological densities along the Staten Island shoreline were higher at Arthur Kill and Narrows than at mid-island. Along the New Jersey shoreline, the bacteriological densities decreased from high values in the vicinity of the Raritan River to lower values in the Sandy Hook Bay. The relative mag- nitudes of indicator organisms along both shorelines suggested that human waste discharges were the cause of the contamination in these areas. stations 463, 54B and 18 were chosen for plankton analysis as most representative of the environmental differences within the estuary. Station 463 was influenced by the Raritan River and had the widest range of salinity. Station 54B was located in the path of outgoing water movement and thus the pollution from the western end of the bay,'and Station 18 is farthest removed from the pollution sources. Figure 5 shows the seasonal variations and abundance of phytoplankton at these three stations. At all stations the nanoplankton, which comprised 94% or more of the total phytoplankton population, was high during the su r and low in the winter. Phytoplankton populations were dominated by two algal species, Nanochloris atoms -1 a green alga., and Skeletoneuria costatum.) a diatom. Generally, fewer species were found towards the western end of the bay than at the seaward end. These results agree with those of Patten (1962b) who found that the mean diversity levels of net phytoplankton in the estuary increased down bay in association with diminishing pollution and that the spatial pattern was similar to the general patterns of water mass circulation (Figure 6). The diversity levels decreased towards the Raritan River mouth indicating the effect of the pollution in this river. Zooplankton density, as found by the FWPCA project, generally decreased from Station 18 to Station 463. Zooplankton densities exhibited seasonal variations paralleling both water temperature and plankton blooms. Jeffries (1964) compared the zooplankton pop@@lations during 1957 with those in 1958 after the installation in January, 1558, of a trunk sewer which discharged wastes into the bay. He found that the densities of holoplanktonic copepods that were produced in the summer of 1958 generally exceeded the 1957 crop by a factor of more than two. Two unidentified rotifers were found throughout Teffries'investigation. The distribution and abundance of these holoplankton appeared to be related to amounts of suspended organic matter in that: 1) maximum rotifer densities 10,000,000 85 STATIDN 54 B STATIDN 463 STATI@N 18 1,000,000 A 7. CC % 100,000 Cr_ w CL w LL- J 10,000 C5 z i A S 0 N D i F M A M j 1963 1964 DATE Fig- Total phytoplankton variation and abundance, 3 stations Raritau Bay (From US-FWPCA, 19671; Figure 13). 86 30 )35 Fig. 6. Species diversity jorofiles in Raritan Bay (From Patten 1962b; Figure 4). N.J. N.Y. LANTIC OCEAN n 0 V M N. J. tvk a be R A R I T A N j a SEWER NEW OUTFALL BRUNSWICK 8 A Y NAUTICAL MILES I.- I 0 1 KILCIMETERS It- 2 4 Fig. 7. Chart of Raritan River showing location of Stations a to s. (From Dean and Haskin, 1964; Fig. 1). so A\ .0 d f I $`Ulm's 1 4 Fig. 8. Abundance of species in the Raxitan River, 1957-196o. Number of species includes all species found regardless of sampling method.(From Dean and Haskin , 1964; Fig. 5) 87 coincided with the height of the spring diatom blooms, and 2) one species was limited primarily to the Raritan River during 1957 but spread seaward .when the sewer discharged quantities of treated wastes into the head of the bay. Nutrient levels (N and P compounds) as found by the FWPCA project, were generally highest at Station 463 and lowest at Station 18. High concen- trations of phosphate were found at Station 54B, while Station 463 showed nitrite and nitrate concentrations higher than the other two stations. Jeffries (1962c) sampled the Raritan Bay from June 1957 through August 1958 in an attempt to relate the distribution of physical and chemical factors to the patterns of circulation. He found that the nutrient levels in the Raritan River decreased after installation of the trunk sewer line. Nitrates were generally minimal at the most seaward sampling station indicating lesser contributions from the sea than from the river. The two major phosphate sources were the lower bay water entering the bay along the northern shore and discharged sewage and runoff. After the introduction of primary treatment and installation of the trunk line, the concentrations of phosphate in the river were lower than that in the bay. There was a rapid mixing of sewer effluent and bay water. Jeffries described the phosphate mechanism of the bay as follows: 1) waters high in phosphate enter the bay with the net landward tidal flow along the northern.shore; 2) absorption by phytoplankton reduces the con- centration progressing into the head of the bay where contributions from the river and trunk sewer are received; and 3) the utilization of phosphate continues in the net ebb current directed along the southern shore with the result that water leaving the bay is relatively low in phosphate. The FWPCA project collected benthic samples in 1963 and 1964. Those stations with sediment composed of the smallest size particles had fewer animals than those areas with the larger grain size. For all median grain size cate- gories the number of individuals and the number of species increased pro- gressively with distance from the mouth of the Raritan River. The polychaetes, or segmented worms, and arthropod crustaceans were the dominant benthic organism. Tube dwelling worms, regarded as pollution tolerant organisms, were more numerous towards stations adjacent to the Raritan River mouth, indicating a greater degree of pollution in that area. Jeffries (1964) identified larval stages of two bivalves, Mya arenaria and I*rceWia mercenaria in plankton samples. Yva increased in numbers from 1957 to 1956 and YUa young were found in previously barren areas signifying the success of spawning and survival in 1958. Yiercenaria exhibited a 50 fold increase in 1958 over 1957 in the Raritan River mouth. This was possibly caused by the initiation of the trunk sewer which improved conditions in the river. Dean and Haskin (1964) studied the repopulation of benthic organisms in the Raritan River before and after the installation of the trunk sewer line. The Raritan River is tidal to Km 33 (mile 30). Saline water extends 88 to about Km 19 (mile 11). Although the wastes entering the river were not exclusively sewage, the organic loading in the river was estimated to be equivalent to the raw sewage of 750,000 people before treatment. In 1957, no DO was found at miles 3.8 and 7.4 in the river (Fig- 7). After installation of the trunk line, the DO at these points ranged from 20-60% saturation depending on the time of year. Bottom sediments changed generally from 1957 to 1960 from coarse cobble to sand and silt with an increased abundance of decaying plant material. In 1957 no fresh water species of benthic organisms were observed and 17 marine species werefound. In 1958, 6 fresh water and 21 marine species were observed. In 1959, 13 fresh water and 25 marine species were found. In 1960, fresh water forms increased to 17 but marine species declined to 21. The changes in total number of species found might not be as important as changes in thepopulation densities. These densities increased yearly from 1957 to 1960 at most stations. There was a marked increase in the population density of benthic organisms between Km 10 and 20. This reach had no organisms in 1957 and 1958 but increased to 100-1000/m2 in 1960. For estuaries in general, under unpolluted conditions, the total number of species upward from the mouth decreases to a low point in the upper estuaxy and then increases as fresh water is entered. In the Raritan River in 1957 under polluted conditions, the number of species decreased upward from the mouth then failed to increase in fresh water. After pollution abatement, the number of fresh water species increased each year, and by 1960, the classic V-shaped curve of species distribution cited above was established (Fig. 8). The next two estuarine systems are also medium-salinity types but are sub-systems of the complex Chesapeake Bay estuary. The nature and location of the waste discharge relative to the head of tide and morphology of the river channel plays an important role in establishing the net effect of sewage stress. In contrast to the Raritan Bay system in which most of the wastes are introduced directly into the bay and the surrounding saline waters, the James River estuaxy in Virginia receives most of its waste loading indirectly from the fresh water portion of the river. The potential stress of the wastes to the estuaxy is therefore moderated by passage through the upper river. Sewage Wastes in River Estuaries James.River The James River, studied by Brehmer (1967) is the most southerly major tributary of Chesapeake Bay. It is 400 miles 'in length, 5 miles wide at its mouth and 0.1 mile wide in its upper reaches. Depths of up to 90 ft. have been reported. The James River is tidal from its mouth to Richmand, a distance of 90 nautical miles (Fig. 9). Salt water intrusion extends 35 miles upstream from the mouth.. At high run-off, fresh water extends to mile 20 above the mouth and, during drought conditions, saline water extends to mile 64 above the mouth. During the study period, salinities ranged from 20 to 240/00 at mile 4. RICHMOND HOPEWEL- J-47 AMESTOW.N I oo JAMES RIVER:`)"@- ej- .2i::,.. .. 4oJ-17 qj- 1. N-2 N-4 N-6 N-8 ...... @::NANSEMO N-10 RIVER N- 12 N-14 SUFFOLK Fig. 9. James and Nansemond Rivers. SamPling Stations designated according to miles (From Brehmer, 1967; Fig. 1). 90 The Nansemond River is 16 miles long and empties into the Ames River at mile 8 above the mouth. The salinity at mile 2 of the Nansemond River ranges between 11 and 200/00. At mile 15, the salinity ranges from 0.4 to 120/00. There were three main sources of enrichment on the James River. Richmond, at mile 90 has a population of 500,000 and 33% of its wastes entered the James River untreated. The BOD of Richmond's wastes exceeded the oxygen capacity of the James River during low flow. Each day 2.7 metric tons of phosphorous and 8.2 metric tons of nitrogen are discharged into the river from Richmond. Hopewell, at mile 60, and Hampton Road, at mile 8, also contribute nutrients to the James River. The Nansemond River receives the sewage treatment plant effluent from Suffolk. It is estimated that approximately 1.5 x 10-2 metric tons of phos- phorous and 4.5 x 10-2 metric tons of nitrogen enter the river from this source. The phytoplankton populations of the James River were studied over a one year period since over-enrichment produced atypical photoplankton populations which degraded the environment. In the upper, fresh water portion of the river, phytoplankton biomass increased as the water temperature increased. Dense blooms, surface scum and shoreline depositions were observed. At the two stations sampled in the estuarine section of the river, a slight increase in phytoplankton was observed in the fall. Degradation in the fresh water portion of the James River was produced by the blue-green alga Anacystis cyanea. The estua,rine pulses were usually produced by the diatom Thalassiosira sp. In September, phytoplankton densities were high in the fresh water James River at mile 76. Nitrogen was low. At mile 57, below the Hopewell outfalls, the nitrite and nitrate levels increased. The salt water - fresh water interface was between miles 47 and 57. The phytoplankton population decreased through this zone indicating that the blue- green alga responsible for the nuisance conditions in the fresh water region could not tolerate the increased salinity. The mortality and decomposition of this algae should lead to the regeneration of nutrients below mile 47. This did not occur in the estuarine areas nor did increases in phytoplankton density. In December, the nutrients introduced into the James River at Richmond and Hopewell were not utilized by fresh water algal forms. Nitrogen and phosphorous were present far in excess of the minimum required for phytoplankton growth. Phytoplankton densities increased toward the mouth in contrast to the situation in September. Since the nutrients were not regenerated in the estuarine section of the James River, it was postulated that these nutrients were incorporated into the sediments. Studies of the nutrient levels of the sediments indicated only a twofold increase in nutrients whereas a,90% reduction in phytoplankton had taken place. Phosphorous levels did not indicate an increase in benthic phosphorous due to phytoplankton deposition. Phytoplankton populations in the Nansemond River did not produce aquatic 91 nuisance conditions. The highest populations were observed during the winter months when water temperatures were minimal. An exception was,a bloom in June. In September, virtually uniform conditions existed in the NanseM0nd River for phytoplankton, nitrogen and phosphorous. In December, nitrogen levels increased in the upper estuary and a bloom of Thalassiosira sp.. occurred. In the lower estuary, no such growth was observed. In the Nansemond River, the normal reduction in total hitrogen in the water from the head to the mouth was not accompanied by An increase in sediment nitrogen. Sediment phosphorous decreased from head to mouth.@,.,This distribution was probably due to the net upstream current in the bottom water layer. The James River exhibited a difference in assimilative capacity between its fresh water and saline sub-systems. In spite of the fact that tidal action retarded the net downstream movement, an action which-might be.thought to decrease the assimilative capacity by allowing more time for phytoplankton uptake of nutrients and growth with resulting nuisance conditions, few adverse conditions developed in the brackish portion of the river. This may have been due to the lack of phytoplankton forms capable of utilizing available.nutrients. Nutrients introduced directly into the Nansemond River having saline water did indeed produce an increase in the standing crop of phytoplankton although the environment was not degraded. It is felt that the James River estuarine system is just beginning to feel the effects of nutrient addition. Adverse developments have only occurred under extreme conditions, such as low flow or high.temperature. Extended periods of nutrient addition as well as increased levels may well temper the ability of the system to compensate for the brief flare ups of phytoplankton, for example, and gradually the nuisance conditions will begin to remain after the extreme environmental conditions have subsided. Rappahannock River Of the many rivers flowing into the composite estuary of the Chesapeake Bay system, the Rappahannock, because of its configuration, isolation, one point of introduction of organic wastes, and the canalized channel provides an unique illustration of the stress effect of the tidal'oscillation on the stream biota. The Rappahannock is located in the northeastern part of Virginia, bounded on the north and west by the drainage basin of the Potomac River and on the south by the James and York River systems. East of Fredericksburg, the Rappahannock estuary has a controlling depth of 10 feet and a tidal range increasing from 1.8 feet.at Tappahannock to 2.8 feet at Fredericksburg, the head of tide. Whereas considerable fluctuations in river flow have occurred in the vicinity of Fredericksburg, the frequency distribution shows that the flow there is less than 250 second-feet for 36 days of each year and greater than 10,000 second-feet for five days of each year. Investigations carried.out by the Virginia Fisheries Laboratory (Massman, @t 1952) sought to establish the net effect of organic waste discharged by the city of Fredericksburg '(raw sewage) and industrial wastes from the American Viscose Company at Fredericksburg totaling for the two the BOD from 92 a population equivalent of 76,000 people. At the time of the study, neither waste received any treatment prior to discharge. As part Of the overall investigation, the U. S. Pablic Health Service, Division of Water Pollution Control, Worth Atlantic Drainage Basins (Weiss, 1952) established the dis- tribution and abundance of bottom organisms in the Rappahannock and adjacent rivers. The distribution of benthos illustrated in Figure 10 highlights the relationship between species composition and total numbers of organism as compressed into a relatively short distance by the tidal oscillation of this river. Not only was the organism distribution, both quantity as well as quality, related to tidal movement but the nature and quality of the bottom reflected sedimentation of particulate material with a seasonal movement of the sediments in a net downstream direction resulting from the annual rainfall and runoff cycle. The organic enrichment of the Rappahannock River by the waste discharge from the city of Fredericksburg and the industrial operation appeared to have stimulated the productivity-of the tolerant organisms by several orders of magnitude. At one station, the freshwater clam (Musculium. transversum) was found to number 2,860 per square foot of bottom. Another species of fresh- water clam (Pisidium sp.), also present in considerable numbers, reached a sampled pdak concentration of 880 per square foot. In comparison, other high productivity levels for similar sewage stress situations, such as on the Illinois River and the-Chicago Drainage Canal have shown a maximum production of M. transversum. of 388 per.-square foot. The Psmunkey River', the stream immediately to the south of the..Rapp6,hannock, and which received, at that time of the study, no pollution load, had as its dominant bottom organisms another species of freshwater clam, Elliptio, complanata. Comparing the productivity of the two streams on a numerical basis, the Rappahannock would appear to be the more productive river. 'However, on a weight basis, the average wet weight of M. transversum being .0937 grams and 4o4.2 grams for E.complanata, the productivity of the Pamankey based on'the maximum: clam sample was calcuJated to be over 12,000 grams per square foot whereas the Rappahannock yielded only 262 gram per square foot. Although another species of clam, Pisid was also present on the Rappahannock, their dimensions and weight was such'that they contributed little to the total productivity on a wet basis. While the contribution of nutrients to the Rappahannock River from the organic pollution resulted in a rise in productiviiy, it was limited to a short stretch of river and to pollution tolerant species. On a wet weight basis per unit area of'bottom, it did not compare as well as with the clam productivity of the non-pplluted Pamunkey River. The effect of tidal oscillation can be summarized in terms of both physical characteristics as well as the distribution and numbers of bottom organisms in the Rappahannock River. The zone of degradation and decomposition appeared to extend for a distAnce of approximately 4.1 miles (nautical) with a zone of recovery continuing for a distance of 0.8 miles. The reminder of the river that was examined for bottom organisms showed no material effect of upstream pollution. This comparatively short distance is, of course, a result of tidal action which tended to limit downstream movement of polluting materials and compressed the zones of pollution effects. While the enrichment of the Rappahannock 2800 8- 7- 6- Surface 5- E 1 4- 0 0 3- Bottom 2- Rappahannock River Nov. 6, 1951 1200- E w w 1000- a: a: 0 Psiolium sp. 0 0 musculiam Iran 0 0 0 0 rubificidde 800- 0 A Chlronomidde 0 0 (Data from Weiss-1952) Ca 4- 600@ z 0 .0 31 L S Cr_ 0 0 0 0 400- CL CL r- V) -6 '5 .0 @2 C 2100- Cn - Sludge INo IorganiTm7s HEAD 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 OF TIDE RIVER MILES Fig. 10. Mass of bottom animals in the Rappahannock Estuary. 94 River by organic pollution produced the development of enormous numbers of individuals of the pill clam, M. transversum, the enrichment did not surpass the total clam productivity on a weight basis of the Pamunkey River. It Should be noted, however, that these clans belong to the family Sphaeriidae' and serve as food for many species of fish. The Rappahannock with the fish food chain supplemented by enormous numbers of M. transversum, may thus sustain a greater fish population than the Parmxnkey along comparable stretches of river. A result of the general fisheries survey associated with the bottom organism investigation indicated that the pollution on the upper Rappahannock even though part of the tidal estuary did not appear to have any direct effect on spawning of those fish species which entered the estuary. Although the low oxygen conditions in the immediate vicinity of the organic waste discharge could serve to block upstream movement of young shad and other commercial species, the relatively short distance of stream involved did not seem to materially affect the total productivity of the overall estuary. It would thus appear that in an estuarine river, such as the Rappahannock, in which pollution is physically restricted by tidal mvement,'adverse con- ditions are minimized since a smaller area is directly affected. Sewage Wastes in a Sub Tropical Lagoon Many of the bays on the Florida coast are systems in which the shallow depth allows forlight, penetration sufficient for the growth of submerged vegetation and algae. Among the stresses caused by a sewage waste input to these systems, an important one is the limitation of light penetration and the resulting effect on normal benthic associations. Such a system, the Biscayne Bay in Florida, was studied by btNulty.@tal., 1960, wNuity, 1961, and Lynn and Yang, ig6o. Biscayne Bay is located between Idami. and Mdami Beach. It is non- uniform in width (2 to 4 nautical miles) and is approximately 6 nautical miles in length. The Miami River enters the southwest portion of the bay. There are numerous dredged channels in the bay for ship navigation pur- poses. The flushing time of the main ship channel is 7 to 9 days. The flushing time of the other parts of the bay where flushing occurs at all is 8 to 11 days. The flood tide surface currents are shown in Figure 11. The currents with the maximum, velocities are seen to occur in the ship channels and northward along the Miami shoreline. The average salinities in the bay ranged from 25 to 32-50/00 except at the mouth of the Miami River where a minimum of 17.5'/00 salinity was observed. The DO of the surface water of the bay was above 40% saturation with the exception of the Miami River mouth where septic conditions existed. The total number of sewage outfalls entering Biscayne Bay was 70. The Miami River, carrying the sewage from 29 outfalls, was the major pollutant source. It is estimated that 30 to 50 mgd raw sewage flows into the bay. In Biscayne Bay, as well as in other estuaries, there exists a rapid 95 .6 STAR AIRLI" Is OF VCLOCITY Flood Tide Sortoof Correct* Vector Loollth to Roots lot 111146 Fig. 11a. Streamlines of velocity, average flood tide surface eurrents (From @tNulty et.�,j-., ig6o; Figure 2). PHOSPHATE-PHOSPHORUS ZOOPLANKTON (016,61,0-410.0 per life,) VOLUMES WATER COLOR 04-9-10. f. pp..: (-I. *a- tO.000L.) of-OIL 2 0.031 vase 0.25 lourepwo So. Clark@ pier 5-10 lob No. 2 Post ------------ 0.5 3.5-4.5 0. 2 5 0.1 1116 10 2,11 sit _`*2 0.25 0.1 -0.1 "emlical miles N41., Alautleol 0116, Horizontal distribution of average Horizontal distribution of average Horizonta phosphate -phosphorus. zooplankton volumes. water color from Fig. Ilbe Properties of waters in Biscayne Bay$ Miami, Florida (McNtulty, Rey and Millers 1 960)o 97 decrease of coliform bacteria seaward from the sewage sources. Application of Ketchum's (Ketchum et al. 1952) mathematical model of coliform distribution produced an average Pf07;-eduction of almost 98% from the muth of the Miami River to the outer bay axeas I to 2 nautical miles distant. However, the final predicted MPN values were up to 4 times higher than the observed values. This difference was attributed to adsorption and sedimentationj predation by plankton which escaped the net so were not accounted forj predation by other organisms3and competition for the limited food supply. The phosphate-phosphorus concentration decreased from greater than 0.031 ppm at the Miami River mouth to less than 0.0031 ppm one to two miles distant in the outer bay. This same decrease in concentration was also observed for nitrite- and nitrate-nitrogen. Both phosphorus and nitrogen concentrations were high along the Miami shore where other outfalls existed and where high current velocities moved water northward from the Miami River mouth. Zooplankton was low in terms of volume at the Miami River mouth as in areas subject to tidal action. Zooplankton volumes were higher in areas where little tidal flushing occurred. Biscayne Bay was characterized according to the bottom communities present. The bay was divided into two major zones according to the fixed vegetation: 1),red algal zone; and 2) spermatophyte zone. Zone I was found along the Miami shoreline and Zone 2 covered most of the surrounding bay. Two other zones existed: 3) a zone of essentially no life found at 3 stations abolie the Miami River mouth in areas of degredation; and 4) a zone in mid-bay containing no fixed vegetation but characterized by the presence of the Ophiurian 0. linnicola. Fouling organianswere found, in terms of volume, primarily in areas characterized by 1) rich nutrients and zooplankton; 2) little tidal flushing; 3) an abundance of.pilings and sea walls; and 4) brown colored, turbid water high in DO-and never below 20/00 salinity. Tubiculous amphipods were the dominent fouling organism. Their appearance in abundance was limited to axeas of high pollution (MPN greater than 10,000). The softest sediments were found along the YAami shoreline just north of the Miami River mouth. Soft sediments also occurred in mid-bay with harder sediments along the shores of Miami and Miami Beach where the currents are stronger. The 'sorting of the sediments was most efficient along the shorelines where currents existed. Less efficient sorting occurred in mid-bay where current velocities were lower. The oxygen uptake of the sediments was highest just north of the Miami River mouth, in the northwestern-portion of the bay, and in the deep water south of the Miami River mouth. These @ones were relatively deep, had poor bottom circulation-and were zones of major deposition of organic-rich material. In shallower water,adjacent to these areas where the currents 'were stronger, lower oxygen uptake values were generally found. The oxygen demand in the.maJor navigation cut was higher than in surrounding areas. The mid-bay area, where tidal action was less, also had high oxygen uptake values indicating deposition of organic materials. This is consist&nt.with the finding of high MPN values in the mid-bay area. 98 The highest oxygen uptake values occurred in the softest sediments, generally in response to increased MPN. At larger grain sizes, low oxygen uptake values occurred regardless of NEN. This indicates that even though ar -irain size, as i the pollution was higher in these areas of I ge ndicated by high MPN values, current conditions prevented the deposition of an organic load. The relation between the major macro-organism zones and the other parameters studied is given in Table 2. Some species distribution may be related to sediment particle size, sediment oxygen uptake and NPN. For example, Figure 12 shows the abundance of three organisms, all of which show preference for medium size particles within the particle size studied, sediments of low oxygen uptake, and medium to high log NPN values. Other species exhibited dissimilar preferences. Both harmful and fertilizing effects were therefore observed in Biscayne Bay. The haxmf'u1 effects were indicated by the absence of life. These areas were within 200 yards of sewage outfalls, were greater than average depth and had soft, sticky mud with high amounts of oxidizable organic matter. The fertilizing effects were most pronounced in areas 200 - 600 yards from outfalls in shallow water with good tidal circulation in firm sandy mud. Species associations within definite cormLmities were found to be indicative of both the harmful and fertilizing effects. The Biscayne Bay system is illustrative of the fact that in benthic grass bottom systems, reactions to sewage stress such as eutrophication, low DO and bacterial contamination may be accompanied by changes in the composition of the benthic commanities. Sewage Wastes Trith Strong Tide - Duwamish Estuary High Velocity Channel Strong tidal currents, high flushing rates and deep narrow channels are characteristics of this estuary type. The Duvamish estuary in Washington was studied by Welch (1968) and Gibbs and isaac (1968). This river-estuary is very narrow (1/8 - 1/4 miles) and, due to dredging, extremely deep (500 ft.) in the lower portion. The lower part of the river was investigated in reference to the installation of a sewage treatment plant at mile 13.1 above.the mouth of Elliott Bay (Fig. 13). This plant began operation in June, 1965, and provides secondary treatment for domestic and industrial wastes before they are discharged into the river. At low tide, saline water extends to about mile 6 above the river mouth except during periods of very high fresh water inflow. At high tide, the river is saline to miles 8 - 9. The mean tidal range is 7.5 ft. and the diel inequality in tides, i.e., a difference in height of successive high and low tides, characteristic of Pacific Coast tides, is evident. The fresh water discharge varies from 200 - 12,000 cfs with a mean flow of 1,000 efs. The relatively great fresh water discharge and tidal flushing results in unstable conditions existing in the euphotic zone of the estuaxy during most of the yeax. 99 TABLE 2 Relation of Environmental Factor to Yajor Vegetation Zones (From YjcNulty, 1961) Environmental Factor Red Alg@Ll Zone Spernatophyte Zone Sediment Size Very fine to medium sand Silt to coarse sand Oxygen uptake of Very low to high uptake Very low to medium uptake sediments sediments sediments Pollution (MPN) Yedium to very high Low to fairly high 2.4-5.3 log NPN 1.8-4.2 log MPN The indicative value of the organisms in the designated zones may be inferred by the relation of the organisms to the MPN values*as follows: Zone I Red Algal Zone' Certain organisms within this conmunity association were found to preferentially occur in regions of specific M values. Some species were found in narrow MPN ranges while-others occurred in wide MPN ranges. Zone 2 Sperwatophyte Zone No clear orientation of these species to pollution. However, this comrminity was not found in areas with greater than 4.3 log Zone 3 - Zone of Little Life This zone was definitely indicative of pollution and occurred only where log N@X was 4.4 or greater. Zone 4 - 0. limnicola Zone ;This zone occurred only in the range of 3.3 - 3.7 log M 40 1 1 11 1 1 F-T- T. warolcolor M. P N. DISTRIBUTION a0 -ISO- a 0 0 0 Z -4=-4 1,0 0 N a 0 00 000a 00 0 Z 0 a :0 as .0 20 0 61yCera sp. 0 CY C; Z Ono 00 a 00 a 0.2 0*4 f 0. 0 0.8 I's 1.9 0.0 a 4 8 DIQ0 (me..) MOM. 0210, Log, MPN Modion mefer Fig. 12a. Scatter diagrams of the abundance of 3rd 10,00 0 order characterizing species of the red algal association against median grain diarw meter, oxygen uptake of sediments, and log. '0 .......... M. (From @bNulty, 1961; Figure 11). ....... NaUtIC01 Miles 2 Fig. l2bi Horizontal distribution o 1961; Figure 2, after Mir 101 122'20* IELLIOrT 8A@`:-*"J@- tpuoEr soilow) . ........ .. .... .... .. .. 47*3e SEATTLE Station Station 4.8 7.7 0 r Station 6.5 EXPLANATION 10.5 9 4.8 Station 7.7 Somplin q siolion 12.6 47*3d Numbers indicole distance upstream from moulh, in miles (upper number) and @ilometers (lower number) RENTON 50UNV:".1 TREATMENT PLANT SCALE f 2MILES Station THIS 13.1 -'FIGURE 21.1 WASHINGrON Fig. 13: This map of the Duwamish River and vicinity shows the principal sampling stations and the Renton Treatment Plant. (Mile x 1.6 km.) (From Welch, 1968; Figure 1). 102 The stability increases during the low flow conditions of late summer. Welch studied the effect of nutrient additives from the new sewage treatment plant on the productivity of the Duwamish River. He hypothesized that because the nutrient concentrations in the river were already high, the discharge of additional nutrients might increase the maximum biomass pro- duced during algal blooms. Welch found that although the amwnia, soluble phosphate and total phosphate concentrations were increased after the sewage treatment plant began operation, the algal blooms which occurred could not be attributed entirely to this cause. He found that the blooms resulted more from the hydrographic characteristics of the estuary than nutrient addition since in two of the three years studied, peak phytoplankton activity occurred during periods when the retention time and system stability were at a maximalm due to low fresh water inflow and tidal flushing. Thus,. it is apparent that even when nutrient concentrations sufficient to support algal blooms are present in an estuary, suitable hydrographic conditions must be present for such blooms to occur. Arctic Ecosystem The naturally occurring stresses of the Arctic estuarine systems in- clude ice cover, short photosynthetic energy inputs as well as silt loads from turbid rivers. One such system receiving sewage wastes is the Knik Arm at Anchorage, Alaska. Knik Arm is a long, narrow extension of Cook Inlet (Fig. 14). Because tributaries to Knik Arm carry heavy glacial silt loads, silt deposition causes mud and silt flats to be formed adjacent to Anchorage. The existence of the broad mud flats allows the establishment of a shallow tidal prism. The prism is warmer and lower in salinity than offshore waters and therefore tends to remain on the surface. Little vertical mixing occurs and the tidal prism floats on the surface of the incoming and outgoing tidal water. Although little dataare available concerning the effects of sewage wastes on the chemical and biological parameters of Knik Arm, the potential harmful influence which sewage wastes may exert on this system type will be apparent from a description of the Knik Arm estuary. There are three main waste sources in the Anchorage area (Alaska, Dept. H. and W, 1964). Elmendorf Air Force Base has two sewers. The Bluff Road sewer discharges untreated sewage near low-tide level but not below low-low tide level. The second sewer, from Elmendorf Hospital, discharges sewage 1,500 ft. from shore on the mud flats below low-low tide level. The second major waste source is the city of Anchorage from which two sewers enter Knik Arm. The Chester Creek sewer empties into Knik Arm 1,500 ft- out on the mud flats below the mean low tide level but well above the low-low tide. The Turnagain sewer discharges 700 ft. from shore on the mud flats well above mean low tide. This sewer therefore discharges on the exposed beach much of the time. The third source of wastes entering Knik Arm is fi-om Fort Richardson. This dischaxge empties into the Eagle River which enters the Knik Arm north of Anchorage. 103 0 Eagle River Outfo#Sewer 0 V Military Reservation Elmendorf Air Base) and FortRichardson/ Bluff Roo hip Ouffo# Se Elmendorf Hospi /"Ouffoll Sewer Mt. View C ORAG #f- CAW r Chester Creelr utfall Sew rurnogoin Ouffall Sewer SOO Lake enord metropolita Anchorage SondLo*e c_--_-;, coopbe' KNIK ARM POLLUTION STUDY OUT FALL SEWER LOCATIONS la GREATER ANCHORAGE AREA 0 1 2 U.S.DEPARTME NT OF HEALTH,E DUCATION a WELFARE SCALE IN MILES PUBLIC HEALTH SERVICE REGION Ix PORTLAND. OREGON Fig. 14. Outfall Sewer locations at Knik Arm, Alaska (From Alaska, Dept. HEW, 1964; Figure 1). 104 The combined total discharge of raw sewage into Knik Arm is 8.95 9.65 mgd-. Since Knik Arm is subject to poor flushing action due to the shallow prism, problem situations have arisen along the Anchorage water- front. Because of the shallow tidal prism, the untreated wastes which are discharged on the tidal flats enter and become part of the pool of surface water floating on top of the deeper water. Mixing and dispersion of the wastes do not occur, therefore, and the wastes are concentrated into a small body of water which continually sweeps back and forth along the shore of the Anchorage waterfront. The tidal fluctuation of up to 27 ft. does not cause sufficient flushing action to occur. Two main problems have arisen from this situation. The first is the presence of'floating solids which degrade the water and are deposited on the beaches. The second problem is one of bacteriological contamination. Based on the maximum allowable coliform concentration of 240 MpNllc)o mi, some locations along the beach are at times up to 280 times greater than the allowable limit. Since these waters and beaches are used for recreation, this situation is extremely dangerous. The Anchorage, Alaska, situation illustrates how improper outfall placement coupled with a shallow tidal prism can cause a stress on the estuary. Even though ample water is probably available for dilution, shallow sewer out- falls do not allow the entry of the wastes into the water of maximum movement and flushing. Instead, the wastes are introduced into the surface water which, due to the hydrographical characteristics of Knik Arm, undergoes minimal mixing and exchange with the deeper water. Sewage Outfalls in California The direct discharge of sewage waste into the marine environment by extended marine outfalls rather than into the intervening estuarine waters defines still another marine sewage stressed system. It is characterized by a long pipe line serving as a sewage outfall placed on the bed of the ocean and extending for some distance seaward. It is generally located, relative to current systems to usual water movement away from shore. It is generally also provided with terminal diffusi ng elements to facilitate and improve the mixing of the relatively fresh water sewage with full sea water. The use of marine outfalls is generally found along coastlines which permit major communities to develop on or adjacent to the shore and where there is no intervening river or estuary for more convenient location of waste dis- charge points. The California coast, due to the concentration of population and in- dustry in coastal commanities represents within the United States probably the most highly developed situation of ocean outfalls for municipal waste waters. It has been estimated that approximately two-thirds of the municipal and industrial water-borne wastes of this state are discharged to saline waters with a total of 125 comminities disposing of their waste water effluents, following varying degrees of treatment, through submarine outfalls. It is expected that as winicipalities increase with development and spread of suburban areas, the extension of trunk sewers inland will be reflected in an increase in marine waste disposal since it permits large volumes to be handled with 105 relatively low degrees of prior treatment. Complexing the problem in California is the high intensity of the usage of the coastal waters by various recreational activities as well as providing an environment for both sport and co r-cial fishing and the harvesting of kelp. As shown on the studies on the Rappahanock River, the distribution of bottom organisms relative to the inflow of'sewage waste and their move- ment down an estuary, establishes ecological niches into which specific organisms are capable of entering and multiplying. The specific organisms, their numbers as well as distribution, will depend upon the particular estuarine location relative to the proportion of fresh and sea water as well as their geographical location along the coasts of the United States. The characterization by the nature of the benthic organisms in the full marine environment into which wastewaters are discharged has been extensively examined by the studies of Reish (1960). In the waters of Southern California, where he carried out most of his.investigations in the small bays and harbors of this coast, the Polychaetes constitute approx- imately 60% of the total number of species and 25 to 50% of the number of specimens in the shallow offshore waters. The data from benthic studies are best summarized in the form of communities; that is, assemblages,of similar species that are grouped together with the community being defined after the generic name of the one or 'two dominant species. In the marine environment, not only did Reish find differences in species composition due to pollution but also changes in food'cycles which would in turn change the chaxacteristic of the community. He 'noted that.a natural marine environment is composed of plants and animals of all feeding types. Among ihe bottom dwelling animals are the herbivores, carnivores, scavengerso, filter feeders and detritus feeders. When pollution is intro- duced, the ecology of the area is altered. The plant life composed largely of algae is killed and cannot repopulate because of the toxic effect of pollution. Substrates may be eliminated reducing attachment capability as well as the decrease in the availability of sunlight due to an increase in water turbidity. The herbivores are thus eliminated and as waste discharges increase, the carnivores and scavengers then go followed by the filter feeders and finally the detritus feeders remaining as the only organism left of the community. The sludge worm Tubifex tubifex is characteristically the organism found in sludges near sewer outfalls in freshwater streams. In the marine environrent, this similar role seems to be taken by the polychaete Capitella capitata. With C. capitata characterizing polluted bottom areas, other organisms have been observed to be characteristic of increasing healthiness or reductioil in pollution. Two distinct comminities were found off the Southern California coast, a semi-healthy bottom area in which Cirriformia luxuriosa predominated. Another semi-healthy bottom showed a conramity with Polydora paucibranchiata and Dorvillea articulata predominating. The healthy bottom area was characterized by large numbers of polychaete species with the predominant forms being 12M parvus, Cossura candida and Nereis procera predominating. A sumnary of these results is shown in Table 3. 0 z 0 1 W. - pu CA N CA N En Go OD ip cr i ot -a 0 0 :1 0 0 0 n. cr b.... 't - M 0 0 -1 0 n 0 m cu (D (P 0 A. n M 0 0 0) so 4 0 pi (D M CL -Z @@ @% 0 (D lb (D 0 n 0 r. .4 > (D cr cr 0 0 ?14 P) m :3 Fj H W (D QQ M solo (D 0 pt R) (A (D QQ P o o m 0CY, lu 4 w x "1-4 @4 0 (1) 0 -4 -4 -4 Cl C% 5H 0) x n 0 M04 0 p gu :r CL 0 P) 4 M M H tr 40 cr OQ -4 -j -4 LO N N Ul 01 14 r. a. 0' 0 CC* 0 - -- CL n -4 -4 N r1i vi cr QQ 4 0 op 14, M IL Cf- -4 -4 -4 w w 0 FA. CL n N Lo r. 0 " C+ 5 m 4 C-4 m 0 to C+ -4 -4 N p 0 OD vi 0 0 ON 1-t 01-4 90T 107 The Hyperion outfalls in Santa Monica Bay consisting of a 1-mile effluent outfall in operation since 1949, a 7-mile digested sludge outfall in operation since 1957 and a new 5-mile effluent outfall in operation since 1960, have been studied in detail as to their effects on the marine environ- ment (Hume, 2t al., 1962). Biological effects at the end of the 1-mile outfall axe illustrated in Table 4 and Figure 15. At the end of the 7-mile sludge outfall large populations of polychaetes developed as illustrated in Figure 16. Worm populations reaching 200,000/m2 have been observed. The impact of the sewage and sludge discharge s on higher levels in the food chains is seen in the systematic fishing statistics of Table 5 and Table 6. Over a period of eight years, no indication of significant change in the standing crop of phytoplankton during the spring blooms was observed off the Hyperion outfall. The seasonal minima in succeeding winters dropped to nominal values(Allan Hancock Foundation, 1964). This is what might be expected along an open coast line where coastal currents complete a replace- ment of water at least once each year and thus the oceanic situation is not comparable to closed systems such as found in lakes where rates of eutrophi- cation exceed those of turnover and exchange. While this is but one of the many differences that exist between a waste discharge into the ine environ- ment and that found in a stream or lake-or an estuary, each marine environment will have its own unique feature. Whereas the Pacific is generally rich*in phosphorus and poor in nitrogen, other coastal axeas, to take an extreme example, the Mediterranean coasts, axe poor in phosphorus and rich in nitrogen. In general any effect of sewage appeaxs to be directly related to the dilution factor at the point of discharge and any effect in the larger marine environment is limited to the immediate area of the terminus of the marine outfall itself. MANAGENENT OF STRESSED SYSTEM For the foreseeable future, the estuary, the interface between fresh and sea water, may continue to be the ultimate sump of waste materials that have been hydraulically transported to this point. Whereas the degree of unstable organic material my be markedly changed by higher levels of waste treatment prior to discharge, the degraded organics and the oxidized forms of nitrogen and phosphorus will still be entering the coastal environment and imposing an additional stress on this particular ecological system. Since the input of nutrients, that serve either as a substrate for microbiological activity or f o r phytoplankton growth will continue, it is imperative that within the energy stresses established at each particular location by tide and temperature limits, the nutrientsbe so managed that the net effect optimizes pro- ductivity of the maxine environment rather than allowing exaggerated or undesir- able conditions to develop or that the nutrient s be rendered ineffective by too high a degree of dilution. In this manner, the marine environment can be managed to recycle as rapidly as feasible, caloric energy. ADDITIONAL RESEARCH REQUIRED 1. Since local conditions will play an extremely significant part in Table 5. Trawling results in Santa Monica Bay (1957-1959) (From Him et al. 1962). Item T-`--@,-- (a) FISIL 3,970 16, 11;3 19, 173 39, 2.-A I 16 W 14S 263 i-:;tch haid (Ltvg) 248 163 1:30 149 110. of species,,'CompIt.-te survey 40 49 56 - 110. SlWelics 9.3 tb) B%MrE:HRATE-@ 111iniber 6,916 99.195 75,243 181,354 h:LtL[.'3 16 99 1 ILI 227 Letell haul (avg) 432 1.000 iM! 1") .%I:tx no. of 81 tly.1 - Total 110. Tel'ie.'i - - 217 trU%%-Iir1g ll:LN-S 4 It; 20 Table 6. Stomach Contents of catches in Table 4. 1956 biological effects Santa ?,bnica.B4y (From Hume of 1-mile outfall discharge _0, al. 1962). (From, Hume et al, 1962) Common ',Sale Fond Habits Ptirifir Sand-lab :tnjpIjiptwj,@' 4-;ipIemsiid-, hrittlest,-,@, Dist: Ce AverueXumlwr jitidibranchs, shrimp, fr"M Fuunal Z.ne in f F@qh 0. fall BtrAbo3 midAnipmen, and gohi,.s. Dover Sule POIN-Chactes,sniall 0-1 Limilcil pollution 12.5 and brittle stars. fanna Spotfin Sculpin PoIN chaetes, sninil bivalv(@ 1-2 Pollution tolerant 16.0 shrimp. fauna 2-4 Limited cririobA 21.1.1 English 'Sole PolAchactess, brittle star,. faulla clam ,:iphons. 4-A Uidimiti-41 diniiniAwd -- Calico Rock-fish Anybipods, @gZolcmya john. rauna 8011i, crabs. 6 Normal faiinu )2A Yellow Chin -Small crustaven, fish egg. 4' "Culpin BIne Spotted Polvel1@10(-, amphipods. Poacher White Croaker Polyubactes, crago shrimp, fi@ h. Speckled Poll-L-Imetes, amphipods, Sandtlabs nudibranchs. Fringed Sculpin Shrimp, ruck erab. Rex Sole Polychavtcs, ampIdpods. shortspille PoIxellactes, amphipods, Combfish slLrinip. PAIN ch:Ietes. oq AVERAGE NUMBER OF FLATFIS" PER 10-MINUTE TRAWL 0 10 Ic+ Ft PD (D 0 ci- NX - 40 F ko C+ 0 110 too A RELATIVE SLUDGE DEPT041 SLUDGE OUTFALL goo FOOT RADIUS A -CAP!TELLIDAE I R :C@AETOPTEMOAC I -DORWILL!ZAE SIPVN4:ULIDAt I -CIRRATULI:AE :SYLLIDAC 0 [NOD LIDAIr "Es ONIDAC L I, :CTR' CH $*:ETALIDAE X-SCALIPPECV10AE F -0;114ELII O&E 0- A 11: ",IN e "I IVAC EIIA Z IS I;'QOO A WORM POPULATion SLUDOll OUTIALL V 500 'oOT RADIUS N 0. F M A IN 4 j A. S 0 M, OL a Fig. 16. Bottom deposits and worms in vicinity of 7-mile outfall. (From Hume et al., 1962). ascertaining the specific response of an estuarine ecosystem to the intro- duction of sewage wastes, the knowledge of the indigenous marine plants and animls is imperative at each location. a. What are the effects of various N/P ratios on specific phytoplankton? b. What higher organisms in the fish food chain are preferentially increased when raw sewage is discharged? 2. Controlled experiments will be needed to determine what level of input nutrients produces particular patterns with respect to organism selectivity and rates of growth. 3. Depending on the dilution factors that might be available, it should be determined what degree of pretreatment is optimim for maxirmun rates in the utilization of the nutritional input without reaching undesirable conditions. 4. What is the effect of tidal energy on the ability of the estuary to accept and mineralize sewage without anaerobic conditions? 5. The behavior of enteric bacteria and viruses in sea water following vaxious types of sewage treatment and their removal by physical and biological mechanisms is still a question that requires further resolution. CONCLUSIONS The introduction of sewage wastes into estuarine waters places a third stress, a nutritional one, on the existing tidal and temperature stresses that va,ry from locale to locale. Since the rate of interaction of the sewage waste in the estuary becomes a function of its initial strength, its rate of dilution which in turn is controlled by the tidal movement as well as temperature regime of.the particulax location, the net effect will vary not only monthly and seasonally but no two locations can be said to have a precisely similar set of interacting values. The management of the sewage waste stress system in the estuary offers the possibility of taking positive action in utilizing the nutritional values inherent in this material when handled on a properly controlled basis. How- ever, this will not be feasible until many questions concerning the effects of these wastes on ine organisms is more clearly understood. 112 Chapter E-2 SEAFOOD WASTE ECOSYSTEMS Eric J. Heald Howard T. Odum Institute of Marine Sciences University of North Carolina University of Miami, Florida 33149 Chapel Hill, North Carolina 27514 INTRODUCTION The dumping of waste fish or parts of fish into inshore waters, in the vicinity of a seafood packing plant for instance, introduces an additional source of energy to an ecosystem. Although qualitatively this nutrient source represents a return of materials previously removed, its release may be irregular and in a concentrated form often high in protein and fat. Such extraneous sources of nitrogen and phosphorus, as well as vitamin complexes and soluble growth-promoting factors, often lead to eutrophication. This is especiallyfrue in a semi-enclosed body of water which has a low rate of exchange with adjacent water masses. EXANPIZS Texas Harbors Receiving Shrimp and Crab Wastes At Aransas Pass and Brownsville, Texas, shrimp processing wastes are released to a small harbor which has little tide or wind circulation. Eutrophi- cation, high respiration, and blooms of phytoplankton develop, the waters being turbid with microbial activity. An investigation into the effects of seafood wastes on the harbor ecosystem was conducted at Aransas Pass, Texas by Odum , Ouzon at al. (1963)(See Figs. 1 - 3 ). Waste and refuse from fifty to 400 shrimp boats and associated pack- ing plants is dumped into Conn Brown Harbor (Fig. 1). The water, which is three meters deep, was found to be mixed fairly well at times owing to the continual passage of shrimp boats. Water exchange$ however, is limited and occurs through a channel entrance at the south end by means of wind-and tide- induced water level changes of small magnitude. Measurements of oxygen and carbon dioxide concentration over Short distances showed partial thermal stratification, and patchy distribution of areas of high and low metabolism during the daytime (Fig. 3). At night, with cooling at the surface or in winds, there was better mixing of basin water (Fig. 3b). The dominant role of metabolism 3n causing patchy variation in properties was indicated by the correlation of pR and oxygen. High phosphorus values (averaging 143 ppb) were found in the harbor as compared to the outside waters (49 ppb)4 The zooplankton species dive rsity of the outside bay waters averaged fourteen species per thousand individuals, decreasing to about six species per thousand in the north end of the harbor. other trophic groups exhibited a similar pattern, (Copeland, 196780- C3K3= looo FErr 113 V- 0 A Conn Brown Harbor Y Aransas Pass, Texas (Odum, Cuzon, Beyers, and Allbaugh, 1963). Zooplankton Diversity 0 0 March 30, 1962 CL to June 3,1962 0 Salinity 40 %0 30- 20 2C)o Total Phosphorus ,ugA Shrimp dock entrance 100- Aug. 28, 1961 - Jan. 21- 1961- 4 0 N PORTISASEL BASIN)-' BROWNSVILLE 26' N ::.BASI '20' 97. B o Distribution of variables in the Brownsville Ship Channel. Graphs and map drawn to borizontal scale. Fig. 1. Small boat harbors receiving waste from seafood processingo Conn Brown Harbor March 10-11, 1961 114 0 Surface 50 Surface 02 02 0 % Saturation Mg1l ....... . . 2.z7.0%.r"' 0 5.. 0 Wind 4,@ to- mph '287 1,2 .6% 2,27.8%r"' 0- 02 sum 4. 2.8 m 10 3 g1rre @0.2-/-- 0 1.28.6 5 2, 21278%.' 0 lopoo 1010 Pyrheliarnefer Rafe (.isitwe 53% fc 2971cal/d@y) 5,000 - -e gle1hr - uncorrected for diffusion 0- 2o-T OC - - - - - - - - - -3 @ 1, 4- 0.3 Surface. 1.5rn. and 3rn corrected X:2., k: 0 33 identical . 0.66 17 -L W 06 12 is 00 00 or, 12 it, 00 HOURS HOURS Diurnal record of wind, light, temperature and oxygen, in Conn Brown Harbor Nlarch 10-11, 1961. The sum of the 9 oxygen cur% .-cs is plotted 'and used to determine the rate of change. Diffusion corrections for reaeration are rna'de according to two assumptions using the perc'e"nt: Saftlira.- ition curve of the. 3 surface curves. r7a, Aft S,;As to selsi W ir PAI 30563 It 8 13 - .5 40. LIS gross N 97-08, channel Cause" Staflons and Salinity Total Phospnorus mg/m, 1962 Jarivory 17-18, 1961 March to- 14. June ZO, August I Species per 1,000 individuals Mar. 16. Apt. )3, Mar 23. Jurie 7 Distribution of variables at stations in and near Conn Brown Harbor, Aransas Pass, Texas. Diagram on the right depicts channel through Aransas Pass jetties. 5 @32 9 "1 ......... L T Surf.. rnad 3. ,.d d;nt5i Fig. 2. Data from Conn Brown Harbor with sea food wastes (Odum, Cuzon, Beyers, and Allbaugh, 1963) 12. 8.40 0, pH 6. 8.30 P &25 0. 6.20 12 24 TIME ELAPSED, MINUTES 14. 12. 1700, 02 M G/L __.V&@! 0400 6. 4. 06 12 Is 24 30 TIME ELAPSED, MINUTES Fig. 3. Patchiness in oxygen and pH in a hs.@bor with seafood waste-. a) Dual c channel recorder trace of a MqJwy-Okun electrode for oxygen and a Beck-mm model W pH meter, bothoperating on a pumped stream of water in amoving small boat in Conn Brown.Harbor during.the afternooni Dec. 3, 196l.. b) Comparison of recorder traces of-oxygen,with'the Mancy-Okun electrode during the afternoon and later at night after vertical sur- face cooling had produced mixing (From Odum, Cuzon st alil9631 Figs. 11 and 12.) 116 A similar situation was found in the Brownsville shrimpboat channel which also receives waste from seafood processing. Here the waste is dispersed over a much longer chamnel than at Aransas Fass. California Harbors Receiving Fish Cannery Waste Reish (19 r7b) in Los Angeles Harbor (Fig. 4), in Alamitos Bay, in the lower San Gabriel River, and in Newport Bay, California found that very pol- luted bottoms were without animals but were surrounded by a zone dominated by a red annelid worm Capitella ca-pitata. The latter were in numbers as high as 6ooo/M2 in sed'iments with little else except fish scales (See shaded zones in Fig. 4). Oxygen concentration of 3-5 ppm was mentioned for this zone. Within a short distance of the worm zones, animal diversity reached 15 species per station. The author discusses the possibility of higher fish populations (characteristic plankton feeders) around a sewage outfall in the harbor, but his data suggest that the station near the cannery outfall may have even more fishes, of many types. Tropical Harbor Receiving Cannery Wastes Tuna cannery"wastes discharge into Mayaguez Harbor on the western end of Puerto Rico along with some sewage wastes. Dredging of a channel has produced fine silts. Fig- 5 (Lowman, Phelps, Ting, Martin, Swift, and Escalera, 1967) shows circulation and relationship of islands and rivers, Ramsey (1967) compared Mayaguez Bay station6,in his study of fishes caught in 40 ft. otter trawls, with stations inBoqueron Bay further south, which he regarded as a control (Table 1). His trawl station 5 was a 30 minute drag in 30 to 35 feet depths along the harbor's northern shore over silt bottom possibly related to the ecosystem there receiving cannery wastes. Waters were clearer than further south near the sewage outfall @ station' 4). . In Table 1 the trawl station near the cannery outfalls had greatest number of fish and variety per'trawl. Per fish caught, species vaxiety was better in Boqueron Bay, a clear- water control area. Cannery Discharge in Alaska An operation in which organic enrichment is a potential (if not actual) Droblem is the Pacific salmon canning industry, particularly in Alaska, with sites in Juneau, Kenai, Sitka, Ketchikan and Kodiak. Salmon cannery waste' constitutes.about one-third of the fish's weightj and in Alaska amounts to more than 100 million pounds annually. Some is reduced to fish meal, a little is used as mink food, but a considerable proportion is dumped into the sea. Clark and Groff (1967) evaluate seafood wastes from plants. Kodiak has a peak daily volume up to a half million pounds. Total wastes for Unalaska and Dutch Harbor are 20 million pounds. Very high tides in these regions tend to spread wastes rapidly. In localities with strong tidal flow the unwanted heads, tails, fins and viscera are dumped directly into the water, together with fish blood emanating from the butchering operations. Indis- criminate dumping is prohibited in many areas not blessed with good tidal flushing, so the refuse is carried to deeper water by barges. Much of the waste from the canneries is promptly taken by seagulls. 117 DISTRIBUTION OF CAPITELLA CAPITATA NWINGM CHANNEL JUNE 1954 MA- OF LCS ACEELES --- LONG OUCH 11AFfCftS S1CW11C STATICII LOCAT1W A-'P 'H! r.ISTFI0b1ICN Of CAPITULI CONSOLIDATE,(), SUP CAPOIATA Oil THE RCTTD;,, JLN. A 1054. A WEST BASIN SLIPS _49@ 35 36 45 54 LONG BEACH 41 41 .55 CERRITOS CHANNEL 31 41 EAST BASIN 31 SUPI 41 0 BOSCHKE SLOUGH C A 33-0- 29 SAN PEDRO 3 0 N 0 _44- @ SAMPLING STATIONS 01.09 ANGELES HAMM -43, d LONG BEACH HMSOR @LOS ANGELES & LONG BEACH HARBORS 0 1 MILE a. I Fig. 4. Pacific harbor receiving seafood waste (shaded areas) and develop- ing capitellid worm bottoms (From Reish 1957.b; Fig. 1). 118 DELTA W I-S IEZ ES pv'r4 If taERTOAL i AND 2 FATHC#A ONES 0 Kv-LWETEr* 0 N-NL:T CAL 09, Bathymetry of Mayaguez Bay, Prom Coast and Geodetic Survey Chart 931- Fig. 5. Mayaguez Harbor on the western end of Puerto Rico (Lowman, Phelps, Ting, Nartin, -@wift, and Escalora, 1967). 119 Table 1: Fishes in 30 minute trawls with 40 ft. otter trawl near Mayaquez, Puerto Rico (adapted from Ramsey, 1967) Mean Number of Number of Fish Station Situation Species per per Collection Collection 1 Boqueron Bay, clear wateri, 4.2 9.9 sil+.,and RaloRhila 2 Boqueron Bay, like Sta. 1 3.3 6.4 3 Mayaguez Bay, south shore, 4.6 10.4 coral rubble, red algae, Halophil ; clarity varying 4 Mayaguez Bay, within 100 feet 3.2 14.9 of raw sewage outfall; turbid 5 Mayaguez Bay, north shore 100 4.0 16.8 yds. off docks,silt bottom. clarity varying (near tuna canneries) Clark and Groff discuss a report by Charles L. Jensen reviewing volumes, characteristics, and possible uses of seafood plant wastes. He gives BOD values of 30o5OO PPm (including considerable water) from one step in a Men- haden reduction process. Clark and Groff estimate that a probable BOD for whole fish wastes, without diluting waters, would be 150,000 to 200,000 ppm, or 0-15 to 0.20 pounds of oxygen per pound of waste. 120 EUTROPHICATION EFFECTS In response to high nutrient levels the photosynthetic rate of the community will increase provided that sufficient light is available, and a phytoplankton bloom will result. The bloom of phytoplankton produces turbid conditions, resulting in decreased light penetration, and consequently is to a certain extent self-governing. The abundance of nutrients available under eutrophic, conditions favors organisms which expend less metabolic energy, and also confers an advantage on forms which are able to assimilate organic breakdown products at early stages in the decomposition cycle. For instance, an autotroph which can utilize dissolved ammonia as a nitrogen source will be able to compete more successfully than an organism which requires the stepwise oxidation of ammonia to nitrate. Consequently, eutrophic conditions are often characterized by low species diversity. Dominant species under such conditions are those which are able to utilize urea compounds or ammonia as a nitrogen source, or those in which total metabolism involves low expenditure of energy. Indicators of Pollution by Seafood Wastes Most of the indications given here are typical of eutrophic conditions irrespective of the primary cause of eutrophication. 1. Blooms of phytoplankton, often nannoplankton composed of small green flagellates, blue-green algae, and small diatoms. 2. Slight excess of respiration over photosynthesis since input of inorganic nutrients is usually accompan,led by large quantities of organic matter. 3. Large amplitude of diurnal curves of oxygen saturation. Since both photosynthetic and respiratory rates are augmented by input of organic and inorganic material, normal diurnal fluctuations in oxygen content will be amplified. 4. Patchy water. Localized transient concentrations of nutrient-rich water cause high metabolic rates and possibly lowered oxygen content. 5. High concentrations of phosphorus. Derived initially from input of waste and maintained by rapid recycling through a system which has a high community metabolism. 6. Reduced species diversity in comparison with otherwise similar areas not receiving waste materials. 7- Stratification under certain conditions. 8. Some populations adapted to higher concentrations feeding on refuse. 121 Occurrence of Pollution from Seafood Wastes Although the potential for pollution is apparent wherever fish are landed such pollution rarely occurs because in most instances the fish waste is used for a variety of purposes and little is discarded. With one or two exceptions the major fisheries of the United States are concentrated at relativ&ly few ports. Consequently, supplies of fish waste and unwanted fish are available in sufficiently large quantities to permit economic processing of this material as fertilizer or' as a livestock food supplement. In general it would appear that pollution may often be a problem when a local fishing industry is too small to support a reduction plant, when the unwanted parts of the fish are not suitable for reduction to fish meal, or when large quantities of blood and straps of viscera are dumped into the water during washing processes in a large fishing port. Almost all waste material and unclassified trash fish from the vast New England demersal fisheries is used by fish meal plants situated in most major ports. Similarly, waste from the halibut and associated fisheries of Washington and Oregon is reduced to meal or is used as mink food. Waste materials such as heads and viscera from sardine canning houses in California are also reduced to fish meal. Species such as menhaden, Brevoortia spp., and alewife, Alosa' sapidissima, are taken almost exclusively for reduction to fish meal. In common with most reduction plants, these fish meal factories convert the wet fish protein into a dry meal of low oil content. Fish oil is extracted and sold separately. The waste water (stickwater) from the cooking and extraction@processes was formerly run off into the nearest harbor or bay and was a*serious source of pollution. However, since this water has been found to be a rich source of B complex vitamins and other growth-promoting factors, it is now further processed by evaporation andis no longer released into the environ@ent. Pollution can still occur if water used to pump out the holds of vessels is returned to the bay,but it is almost always recirculated and its content of fish solubles and oils extracted by evaporation And centri- fugation (Lee, 1963). There is at present little utilization of wastes from certain invertebrates of commercial importance. Among these are materials such as scallop, clam, and oyster viscera, shells and viscera,of crabs, and the head and thorax of shrimp. Some uniisable materials from clam and scallop processing plants are used as-a base for pet foods, bui much is discarded. Over eighty percent 6f the fresh weight of the commercially important blue crab, Callinectes sapidus, is waste, and thirty to fifty percent of this is dried to produce a low pi@otein flour. The remainder,is discarded. As shrimp are often 'headed' on board ship during actual fishing operations, pollution from shrimp packaging plants may not be a serious problem in most localities. 122 SUMMARY The pollution of inshore waters by seafood waste may be relatively restricted in comparison with other forms of pollution. A detailed survey may indicate that intense eutrophication occurs only in areas where fish meal plants are absent. Fish populations may be attracted. Reduction plants are located at most major fishing ports unless the unwanted portion of the catch is unsuitable for reduction, or unless landings are scattered over numerous small ports. Because of this relationship between seafood plants-and,the fish meal industry, the dumping of waste fish may increase when market demand for fish meal falls. Conversely an increased demand for fish meal may lead to a re- duction in the amount of waste discarded. Iw _Ae __!tool Alaskan Xing Crab which contributes to sea food wastes (Clark and Groff, 1967) J*" 123 Chapter E-3A SYSTENS WITH PESTICIDE I. E. Gray Duke University Durham, North Carolina, 27706 The indiscriminate use of insecticides in marshes, fields, and other places where the residues drain directly or indirectly into estuaries is a serious menace to the bottom fauna, and to the animals that feed upon the bottom fauna. la fact, insecticides affect all trophic levels. The report of Boudreaux, Strawn, and Gallas (1959) shows clearly the potential dangers and resulting diasters that can ensue from spraying from the.air. Heptachlor sprayed on fields to control fire ants, reached adjacent irrigation canals and streams, killing many species of fish, either directly by@contact with the insecticide, or through the destruction of crustaceans and insects used as food by the fishes. Cattle were prevented from coming in contact with water so deadly to fish, but there was a heavy toll of birds and other rM Is. Two months later young fishes, abundant prior to the poisoiling, were not found. There was 100% kill of fishes in shallow depressions in rice fields, and very severe effects in drainage ditches. The report deals primarily with the effect of heptachlor on fishes and points out that care must be used to keep it from streams. Only casual mention is made of the great mortality of birds, and of the insects that are the food of insectivorous birds. Harrington and Bidlingmayer (1958) provide a study of an estuarine dieldrin kill. Some of their results are given In Tables 1-3. In 1958 Dr. Robert Lunz reported grave dangers to fish and shrimp and other wildlife of marshes and adjacent bodies of water arising from the program of the U. S. Department of Agriculture to control fire ants in southeastern states. He indicated a total loss of shrimp in experimental p6nds after several low passes of a crop-dusting plane using benzine hexachloride, one of the milder insecticides. Benzine hexachloride when diluted one part to one million parts of water will kill fish and shrimp. Spraying for fire ants continued in coas- tal areas in the mid 1960's, without regard to'.the effect of the insecticide on animals other than ants. There appears to have been no survey of the.fauna either before or after the spraying. Visits of biologists not involved in the spraying to one marsh in three consecutive years revealed practically 100% mortality of ribbed mussels in the marsh and of mad-fidder crabs along the banks of the drainage canals, only very few of the normally abundant salt marsh dragonflies, and a pronounced scarcity of other insects and birds. It is not known what happened to fishes and crabs in the streams and drainage ditches. See Table 4 for additional data by Chin on toxic effects of heptachlor and dieldrin. A vivid example of what can happen when insecticides are liberated into waterways occurred in mid-July, 1968, in North Carolina. The pesticide Endrin, poured into a storm sewer, found its way through 'crioutaries into the Northeast Cape Fear River. Thousanas of fish in the river over a distance of 40 miles were killed (Durham Herald July 19, 22, 26, 1968). At least twelve species, including several Teel, gizzard shad, striped bass) that are tigrants upstream from the sea, were involved in the disaster. The company responsible 124 TABLE I.-Fisti IN 200 FEET OF THE EASTERN TABLE 2.-Fisn I-, NVESTERNMOST 1,100 FEET OF A MAn6iNAL DITCH. KILLED BY THE MAY 4 5,600-FOOT DITCIL KILLED BY THE MAY 10 APPLICATION OF DIELDRIN 'PELLETS APPLICATION OF DIELDIUN PELLETS Species Number Pounds Species Number Pounds Ten pounder or bigeye Sea catfish (Caleichthys. fc1is) I - herring (Elops saUrIIS) I - RdinWater killifish (Lucania parva) I - Sea catfish (Galeichthys felis) 4 - \jtrSl, killjfisli Sailfin molly (Lifollienesia latipinna) 2 - (Fundt(lus c. conflijentus) I - Striped mullet (111tigil cephalus) 86 17% Gulf killit'ish (Fundulus g. grandis) 635 - Shook (Centropomys undc&irnalis) 7 15's LOngnose killifish (Fundulus siinijis) I - Irish pompano Broad killifish or variegated minnow (Diapterus OBS010401?111s) 237 151/19 (Cyprinodon v. varieplus) 214 - Cbann@l bass or red drum Eastern mosquitofish o"'gambusia (Sciaenops ocellata) I - (Ganibusia affinis holbrooki) 18 - Spot (Leiostomus xanthurys) 12 - Saafin molly (Mollienesia .latipinna) 148 - Sheepsbead Striped mullet 01ti-il cephalus) 635 104% (Archosargtts probatocephalus) 7 1% White mullet (111ug'il curenza) 37 - Totals (9 species) 357 37 Irish pompano (Diaptcrus olisthostoinus) 17 - Spot (Lelostoinus xanthurits) 26 - Atlantic croaker (Micropogon tinduLtils) 8 - Pinfish (Lagodon Momboides) 13 - Fat sleeper (Dormitator maculatus) 9 - Emerald goby (Erotelis srnaragdus) 6 - Mapo (Bathygobirts soporator) 6 - Lyre goby (Evorthodus lyricus) 25 - Esmeralda (Cobionellus smaragdus) 7 - Spotfinne'd whiff (Citharichthys spilopterus) 8 - Southern bogehoker (Trinectes maculatus lasciatus) 4 - Toadfish'(0psanus tau) 4 - Totals (22 species) 1,824 1151/, TABLE 3,-BiwEEKLY CENSUS ALONc 5,600 FEET OF MARsH DITCH AFTER A CATASTROPHIC MARSH-WIDE FISH KILL By DIELDRIN Weeks after Treatment 2 4 6 8 10 13 17 -6-bT Obs. Coll.- Obs. Species C-11-- b. Ob@. C.11.2 Coll.x Coll., Colin Tarpon atlanticus4 - - - 17 Galeichthys felis Stongy1ura marina5 2 8 - 9 - 4 10 - - - - Fundulaq C. grandis - so 7 100-200 61 common abundant 63 30 332 Fundulus c. confluentus - - 14 - 7 - - 182 6337 Fundulus sim0is - - - - 2 - - - I- tens of Cyprinodon v. variegatus 13 800-1000 10 1000-2000 495 abundant thousands 15 9 247 Cambusia a. holbrooki - - 3 - 17 - - - 2 16 63 Mollienesia latipirina - - - - 24 - - 3 - 64- Mugil cephalus 28 33 - 53 - - 18 - - - - Mugil curema - - - - - - - - - Diapterus olisthostomus 3 7 - - - - - - - Sciaenops ocellata - - - I - - - - - Dormitator maculatits - - - - 2 - - - - Evorthodus lyricus - - - - 4 - - 1 - Sphoeroides spenglerO 1 4 - 7 - 26 - - - Fiddler Crabs 10 64 - 25 - 20 12 - - - - Blue Cribs I none 7- none - none none - - - - Shrimps few - - - - - - Amphipods few - - - - - - Nudibranchs and Snails common abundant abundant - abundant abundant - - - - West end of ditch in algae. 2 Nvest end of ditch, I East end of ditch. 4 Tarpon. 5 Atlantic needlefish, a Puffer. (Frora Harrington and Bidlingmayer 1958; Tables 1, 2, and 3) 125 Table 4. Heptachlor and dieldrin concentrations toxic for a variety of shrimp and fish species (From Chin 196o). Heptachlor Dieldrin Species Avg. length 24-hr. TI.Tn Avg. length '24.hr. TLM Brown shrimp 14 mrn. 11 P.P.b. 13 nun. IS p. p. b., Brown shrimp 50 zo 46 10 White sh-rlarp 86 43 96 60 Spot croaker 8z 25.50 Sai-Ifin moUy 42 50.0100 43 IO.Z5 Broad kiUifish, 42 143 35 <so Diamond killifish 25 (approx.) 150 Longnose killifish 77 250 Striped mullet 117 20.50 126 for pouring the Endrin in the storm sewer agreed to restock the river, but restocking is useless until the food for the fish has been restored also. The insecticide that kills fish also kills the numerous bottom invertebrates that serve as fish food. Since the breeding season of many of these inver- tebrates has passed, it could be many months before there would be an ade- quate food supply. As one wildlife protector stated, it will take from three to,five yeaxs for the river's fish populations to return to normal levels. As this was a single event and the insecticide became more and more diluted as it moved down stream, there was probably little or no damage to fauna in the Cape Fear tidal estuary. Had it been a continuing operation, or even an annual event (as in spraying marshes and tidal pools to control ants and mosquitos), permanent destruction of fauna could have resulted. Had it occurred nearer to the tidal estuary, crustaceans, oysters, clans, nursery stocks of many sea-going fisheso as well as the bottom fauna that serves as food for many fishes (and people), could have been destroyed. In newspaper reports of the Endrin episode, only the death of fish was mentioned, but just as impor- tant was the destruction of fauna at each trophic level. Apparently a few fishes can tolerate massive quantities of Endrin. The mosquito fish is one of these. Rosato and Ferguson (1968) found that Ena in- exposed mosquito fish, when fed to 11 species of vertebrates, including other fishes, reptiles, and birds, caused death among the predators in 95% of the cases. Although the mosquito fish are not food fish for humans, they are con- sumed by fish and other animals that are used as food for Mn. Ferguson (1967) also found that sunfish@ after eating End in-exposed mosquito fish, succumbed, although they themselves had not been exposed directly. Large-mouth bass, sensitive to Endrin, are absent in heavily contaminated areas. Analysis of green sunfish that had eaten exposed mosquito fish showed high concentration of Endrin (11 - 26-5 PPM) in edible tissues. Ferguson, Ludke, and Murphy (1966) showed that there are indications of physiological toleration. An Endrin- tolerant fish my survive, but release enough Endrin to kill other more sus- ceptible fish. If insecticides are stored in living fish, the danger to is apparent. Fig. I shows differences in hazard for different tissues of the same organisms. Another insecticide that has been a source of worry to estuarine biologists is DDT. As stated by Woodwell (1967), it is such pesticides as this that, once released'into the environment, may enter biological cycles that in turn distribute them and concentrate them in animals to dangerous levels. DDT sprayed on water may pass through all of the various trophic levels. It may be taken up by plankton and detritus; the detritus-feeders and filter-feeders may absorb and retain the DDT; predatory fishes and birds feed on the detritus- and filter-feeders and absorb and store the DDT in their tissues. Thus the DDT accumilates. It is very stable, breaks down slowly in a natural environmentp and soon becones widely spread. Coastal fisheries are vulnerable to the end effects of insecticides because of their dissemination in drainage systems and final accumilation in estuaries. Cottam and Higgins (1946) su:mmarized evidence that DDT, applied in adjacent marshes for the control of insects., was toxic to amphibians, birds, marine fishes, crustaceans, and shellfish re- sources. Holland, Coppage, and Butler (1966) have shown that in some species survivors of DDT exposure have an increased sen itivitY to further exposure, and succumb to very law concentrations. 127 DOT, COD TOTA- DOt COD FILLET mum= DOD, COD TOTAL DOD COD FILLET w DOE, COD TOTAL DOE, COD FILLET wmm 0.000 0@100 0.1200 03100 0;00 O.L A. CONCENTRATION Of PESTICIDE PPM.' --Reduction of chlorinated pesticide residue present In cod (Gadus morhua) following filleting. DOT, LOBSTER, TOTAL DDT. LOBSTER, EDIBLE CA% DOD, LOBSTER, TOTAL 000, LOBSTER, EDIBLE ODE, LOBSTER, TOTAL DOE, LOBSTER, EDIBLE V.M@ MOOD 0.100 (1200 0.300 0.400 0.300 B CONCENTRAVION Of PESTICIDE (PPM.1 --Reduction of chlorinated pesticide residue present in lobster (Homarus americanus), following cleaning. Fig 1. Chlorinated pesticide residue in cod (A) and lobster (B) and its reduction following filleting or cleaning (From Fish and Wildlife Service Report, Circular 262, Bureau of Commercial Fisheries 1967; Figs. 5 and 6). 123 Woodwell, Wurster., and Isaacson (1967, See Tables 5 and 6) reported that DDT residues in soil in a Long Island salt marsh (Great South Bay) averaged 13 lbs. per acre, with a maximum accumulation of 32 lbs. per acre, and that DDT concentrations increased with each trophic level from 0.04 ppm in plankton to 75 ppm. in gulls. The greatest concentration occurred in scavenger and car- nivorous fish and birds. The birds had 10 to 100 times that of fish. 'DDT has a cumulative effect in bottom feeders: shrimp, mid snails, hard clams, toadfish, and flounders. Lowe (1965) found that juvenile blue crabs, reared in flowing sea water containing sublethal dosages of DDT, fed, molted, and grew for nine months in water containing DDT at a concentration of 0.25 part per billion, but could survive only a few days in concentrations above 0-5 ppb. Only 22% of all his experimental crabs were able to survive the full nine months of his study. Butler U966a)showed that shell deposition (growth) in oysters is greatly inhibited by continuous exposure to DDT (10 parts per billion) (Fig. 2). Growth is completely stopped in dilutions as low as 0.1 part per million. DDT is stored in various tissues -- intestinal tract, digestive gland, gonads, and eggs. (See Tables7-10 ) Ames (1966) related DDT levels in Ospreys,to nesting success (Fig. 3). Holden gave pesticide levels in fresh water and marine 'fish (Table 11 and 12). Bailey and Hannun (1967) reported high levels in Suisun Bay California and the landlocked Salton Sea (Table13 ). Pesticide concen- tration in sediment increased as grain size diminished (Figs.4 and 5). Johnson (Figs. 6, 7, and 8) showed selective distribution of pesticides in food chains with bacteria and animals. George and Frear U966) analyzed tissues of the skua from the Antarctic and found evidence of DDT at this remote location (Table 14). Koeman and Van Genieren (1966) related high levels of pesticide in tissues to death of animals in a coastal habitat (Table 15 and 16 Kerswill et al (1960) related decreased numbers of young salmon to forest surayiniz with-DDT (Pig-.9)- t&rtality of fish in a@tidal marsh ditch fol- loving application. of DDT is shown in Fig. 10. large differences :Ln species sensitivity are suggested by the data in Table IT. The general widespread distributions of pesticide in the United States is suggested by the river basin maps in Fig. 11. Tables 18-22 show pesticides in estuarine animals in hassachusetts from upstream agricultural use. 129 Table 5 DDT residues (From Woodwell, Wurster, and Isaacson 1967; Table 1). DDT residues (DDT + DDE + DO 'D) (1) in Carmans River marsh and in the bottom mud of Great South Bay, N.Y., August 1966., Each sample was a composite of six subs@mples, taken to the debths indicated. Sam- Depth Total residues Zone PIC (cm) Lb/ Kg'/ No. acre ha Spartina that 1 0-20 2.69 3.01 2 Q-49 @.23 10.3 3 0-20 7.86 8.81 4 0-40 32.6 36.5 Mean 13.1 14.1 Drainage ditch 1 0-20 4.63 5.19 2 0-40 1.10 1.21 Mean 2.87 3.21 Bay bottom (sub- merged) 0-40 0.28 0.31 Table 6 DDT residues in whole organisms (From Woodwell, Wurster, and Isaacson 1967; Table 2). DDT residues (DDT+DDE+DDD) (1) in samples from Carmans River estuary and vicinity. Long Island, N.Y., in parts per million wet weight of the whole organism, with the proportions of. DDT, DDE, and DDD expressed as a percentage of the total. Letters in parentheses designate replicate samples. DDT Percent of residue as Sample resi- dues (Ppm) DDT DDE DDD Water* 0.00005 Plankton, mostly zooplankton .040 25 75 Trace Cladophora gracilis .085 56 28 16 Shrimpt .16 16 58 26 Opsanus tau, oyster toadfish (immature)t .17 None 100 Trace Menidia menidia, Atlantic silversidet .23 17 48 35 Cricketst .23 62 19 19 Nassarius obsolefus, mud snaflt .26 18 39 43 Gasterosteus aculeatus, threespine sticklebackt .26 24 51 25 Anguilla rosirata, American eel (immature)t .28 29 43 28 Flying insects, mostly Dipterat .30 16 44 40 Spartina patens, shoots .33 58 26 16 Mercenaria mercenaria, hard clamt .42 71 17 12 Cyprinodon variega!us, sheepshead minnowt .94 12 20 6@ Anas r"bripes, black duck 1.07 43 46 11 Fundulus heteroclitus, ummichogt 1.;4 59 18 24 Paralichthys dentalus, summer floundert 1.28 28 44 28 Esox niger, chain pickerel 1.33 34 26 40 Larus argentatus, herring gull, brain (d) 1.48 24 61 15 Strongy[ura marina, Atlantic needlefish 2.07 21 28 5t Spartina P@atens, roots 2.80 31 57 12 Sterna hirundo, common tern (q) 3.15 17 67 16 Sterna h irundo, common tern (b) 3.42 21 58 21 Butorides virescens,, gieen heron (a) (immature, found dead) 3.51 20 57 23 La,-us. a,rgentatus, herring gull (immature) (a) 3.52 18 73 9 Butorides virescens, green heron (b) 3.57 8 70 22 Larus argentatus, herring gull, brain� (e) 4.56 22 67 11 Sterna albilrons, least tern (a) 4.?5 14 71 is Sterna hirundo; common tern (c) 5.17 17 55 28 Larus argentatus, herring gull (immature) (b) 5.43 18 71 11 Larus argentat"s, herring gull (immature) (c) 5.53 25 62 13 Sterna albifrons, leasi tern (b) 6.40 17 68 15 Sterna hirundo, common tern (five abandoned eggs) 7.13 23 50 27 Larus argentatus, herring gull (d) 7.53 19 70 11 Larus argentatus,,herring gull� (e) 9.60 22 71 7 Pandion haliaetus, osprey (one abandoned egg)JI 13.8 15 64 21 Larus argentatus, herring gull (f) 18.5 30 56 14 Mergus seirator, red-breasted merganser (1964)t 22.8 28 65 7 Phalacrocorax auritus, double-crested cormorant (immature) 26.4 12 75 13 Larus delawarensis. ring-billed gull (immature) 75.5 15 71 14 *Estimated from Weaver et W. (4). t Composite sample of more than one individual ' T From Captree Island, 20 miles (32 km) WSW of study area@ i Found moribund and emaciated, nortb shore of Long Island, 11 From Gardiners Island, Long Island. 130 IOW - (b) 100 - 0 0 0 10- 0 to- 0 0 20 40 60 so 110000 0 2a 40 60 so 100 Shell growth decrease (*Q Time (days) Fig. 2, (a) The relation between the environmental concentration or DDT and the percentage decrease in shell deposition in oysters in 96 h. (b) The relation between an initial body residue in the oyster of 151 ppm and the time required to flush it out in an unpolluted environment. Scales are semilogarithmic, (From Butler 1966a; Fig 1). Average 5-1 (b) z 5- Average 3-0 0 1 4 5 6 7 a 9 10 Total ODT residues (gg/ml) Comparison of residue levels in eggs of Ospreys from (a) Connecticut, and @b) Maryland, in 1963. Fi .9- 3. DDT residues in osprey eggs from Connecticut LAN I @veage 3 /0 and YBxyland (From Ames 1966; Table 1). Table 7. DDT accumulation by molluscs (From Butler i966a; Table 1) 131 Accumulation and retention of DDT by molluscs exposedfor 7 days to 1-0 pg/l in flowing sea water Residue (pprn) Mollusc After 7 days After 15 days After 30 days exposure Rushing flushing Brachidontes recuryus, Hooked Mussel 24 - Crassostrea virginica, Eastern Oyster 26 2-5 1-0 C'gigas, Pacific Oyster 20 16.0 - Ostrea edulis, European Oyster 15 8-0 4-0 0. euestris, Crested Oyster 23 5-0 - Mercenaria mercenaria, Northern Quahog 6 0.5 Table 8. DDT accumulation in oysters and their gametes (From Butler 1966b; Table 2). -Accumulation of DDT and its metabolites in oysters and oyster gametes following 12 days exposure to 1.0 part per billion of DDT Sum of DDT and Sample metabolites (parts per million) Experimental Whole oysters 10 males 20 10 females 14 12 individuals, unsexed 5-23 Average 10 Gametes eggs--5.1 milliliters 25 sperm--0.3 milliliters 9 Control Whole oysters 15 unsexed 0.06 Gametes eggs and sperm-1.4 milliliters Not detectable Table 9. Pesticide deposition in oyster shell (From Butler 1966b;Table 44). -Yariations in shell deposition in oysters exposed to common pesticides [Numbers -represent average percent decrease or increase in rate of deposition as compared to controls after 96 hours] Concentration Pesti- (parts per million) cide 1.0 0.1 0.01 0.001 0.0001 Aldrin 100 86 43 36 11 Endrin 70 40 20 0 DDT 100 52 0 DEF 100 50 0 Baytex 91 +4 0 +14 Dibrorn 6 2 +15 +20 Table 10. Comparison of pesticide toxicity (From Butler 1966b;Table 3). -Relative toxicity of common types of pes- ticides to estuarine fauna compared to herbicides rated as unity Pesticide Plank- Shrimp Crab Oyster Fish type ton Herbicide 1 1 1 1 1 Insecticide Organophorus,horus compounds 1,000 800 1 2 Folychlorinated hydrocarbon compounds 3 300 100 100 500 132 Table 11. Concentrations of pesticides in fish (From Holden 1966; Table 5) Table 5. Pesticide levels in various salmonids Range of concentration (ppm) Gills Muscle Liver Salmon parr* Dieldrin - 0-01-0-06 - (Highland area) DDE - 0-01-0-06 - Brown Troutt Dicldrin 0-02-0-10 0-01-0-03 0-01-0-09 (arable area) DDE 0-03-1-05 0-40-0-26 0-11-0-80 * Eighteen fish in sample. t Nine fish in sample. Table 12. Concentration of pesticides in sea trout (From Holden 1966; Table 6). Table 6. Pesticide levels in Sea Trout* from estuary Range of concentration (ppm) Gills Muscle Liver Spleen Pyloric cacca Dieldrin 0-02-0-08 0,01-0-03 o-01-0-05 0-01-0-12 0-01-0-10 DDE 0.02-0-07 0-01-0,09 0-03-0-09 0-02-0-32 0-01-0-13 TDE 0.01-0-04 0-01-0-03 0.01-0-04 0-02-0-35 0-01-0-07 DDT 0-01-0-02 o-Ol-&05 0.01-0-10 0-03-0-35 0-01-0-17 *Six fish, in sample. 133 Table 13. Pesticide concentrations in animals from Suisun Bay and the Salton Sea (From. Bailey and 11%unwim 1967; Table 4) -PESTICIDE CONCENTRATIONS IN AQUATIC ORGANISMS SAMPLED IN SUISUN BAY AND THE SALTON SEA, CALIFORNIA Crude Concentration, In micrograms per liter Sample Organism Age -In Fat In years perce@tage DDT/DDD DDE Toxophene Lindane DieldrLn Totals Not Plankton 0.6 15 10 .5 30 Shrimp 1 2.0 50 5 5 10 Anchovy Fry 1 2.1 135 45 140 10 1. Anchovy 2-3 4.8 300 200 Soo 40 1.340 Pond Smelt 1-2 8.7 470 100 400 50 25 1,045 Starry Flounder 2 3.4 25 0 so 400 10 710 American Mad 1 4.5 430 130 .300 25 35 920 Striped Bass Fle:h 1 2 0.9 100 170 200 24 494 Fe h 2 3-4 4*7 300 160 300 210 1.050 Fntrail Fat 2 3-4 69 10,300 4,000 8,000 280 22,580 Carp Flesh 4-6 7.5 1,600 750 500 50 50 2,950 Eggs 3.9 200 150 14 364 Corvinab 12 Inch 1 3.0 18 9 9 36 17.5 inch 2 1.4 100 40 7 147 18 In h 3 1.1 480 220 100 10 1 2 0, 0 :4 nch 3 2.3 32 1 140 100 ils a b Total derived from summation of identified compounds. Salton Sea samples consisted only of Corvina. Table 14. Concentrations of pesticide residues in the Skua (from George and Frear 1966; Table 3). Data on age, sex, date and place of capture, tissue analysed, and residue if any in parts per million (ppm) for the Skua (Catharacta skua maccormicki) Field Date of Wet weight ollection Age Sex capture Place of Tissue(s) ppm residue number (1965) capture analysed DDT DDE 43 A F 4 January Cape Roberts Pectoral muscle 0-04 0-06 Viscera 0-03 0-04 44 A F 4 January Cape Roberts Heart 0-07 0-05 Liver N.D. 0-05 Pancreas N.D. 0-05 Pectoral muscle N.D. 0-03 Kidney 0-02 0-02 Lungs 0-10 0-02 45 A M 4 January Cape Roberts Pectoral muscle 0-01 0-06 Heart 0.11 0-05 Liver 0-02 0-05 Pancreas N.D. 0-05 Lungs_ 013 0-04 Kidney 0-03 0-02 46 A F 4 January Cape Roberts Heart N.D. 0-26 Gut 0.01 0.05 Brain N.D. 0-04 Lung N.D. 0-01 Liver N.D. N.D. Ovary N.D. N.D. Pectoral muscle N.D. N.D. 47 A F 4 January Cape Roberts Lung N.D. 0-18 Ovary N.D. 0-09 Heart 0-28 0-07 Pancreas N.D. 0-07 Liver 0-06 0-02 Kidney N-D' 9-fti. 134 Table 14 (continued). (From George and Frear 1966; Table 3). Field Date of Wet weight collection Age Sex capture Place of Tissue(s) ppm residue number (1%5) capture analysed DDT DDE 51 C 6 Jat)uary Dailey Island Whole chick N.D. 0-03 52 A F 6 January Dailey Island Lung N.D. 0-17 Liver N.D. 0-13 Pancreas 0,37 0-10 Kidney 0-05 0-04 Heart N.D. 0-03 Pectoral muscle 0.02 0.03 53 A F 6 January Dailey Island Pectoral muscle 0-11 0-08 Heart 0.21 0.05 Kidney 0-09 0-04 Liver 0.03 0-01 Lung 0-07 0-01 54 A M 6 January Dailey Island Pancreas 0-12 0-11 Pectoral muscle 0.04 0.08 Liver N.D. 0,06 Kidney N.D. 0.04 Heart 0-07 0-03 Lungs 0-10 0-03 Testes N.D. 0-03 55 A M 6 January Dailey Island Gonad N.D. 0-08 Lung 0-27 0-05 Heart 0-16 0-03 Kidney N.D. 0-03 Pectoral muscle 0-07 0-03 Liver 0-12 0-01 56 A M 6 January Dailey Island Heart 0-68 0-38 Pancreas 1-1 0-36 Testes 1-3 0-30 Kidney 0-12 0-10 Pectoral muscle 0-07 0.05 Liver 0-06 0-03 57 A M 7 January Hut Point Kidney N.D. 2-8 McMurdo Lung N.D. 1-5 Pancreas N.D. 1-2 Liver N.D. 0-73 Heart N.D. 0-15 Testes 0-30 0-10 58 A M 8 January Cape Crozier Kidney 0-13 0-46 Pectoral muscle N.D. 0.40 Heart N.D. 0-38 Lungs 0-49 0-31 Pancreas N.D. 0-09 Liver N.D. 0-07 Testes N.D. 0-05 59 A F 4 January Cape Roberts Pancreas 0-31 0-34 Pectoral muscle 0-15 0-32 Ovary N.D. 0-26 Heart 0-15 0-19 Kidney 0-07 0-09 Liver 0-32 0-03 60 A M 4 January Cape Roberts Kidney 0-67 1-2 Liver 0-15 1-1 Pancreas 0-25 0-32 Heart 0-1.1 0-22 135 0.25 to d w.,rb 020 Z 0.15 NOTE EDO PD,nt ept-ts the .... Go. a C."weiot,z dt--d,1 fr- 12 t. 64 sompias 54 2010 Y 0.05 20 40 60 60 00 120 40 160 100 DISTANCE FROM THE PACIFIC OCEAN IN MILES -LONGITUDINAL VARIATION IN PEST1CIDE CONCENTRATIOI@'S IN SUR- FACE WATERS Fig- 4. Concentrations of pesticides in surface waters in California From Bailey and Hannum 1967; Fig 2). 06 NOTE; E-II @-d t., '0 t,, 14 d 4 2 03 .02 0 0 0 100 200 300 400 500 $00, TOO too too 1000 TOTAL IDENTIFIED SEDIMENT PESTICIDE CONCENTRATION IN MICROGRAMS PER LITER -PESTICIDE CONCENTRATION IN SEDIMENTS OF VARIOUS GRAIN SIZE Fig 5. Concentration of pesticides in sediments (From Bailey and Hannum 1967; Fig 4). 136 LABORATORY FIELD $0 75% ODE 60 . so . so 40 . 40 30 . 25% 30 20 z 13% ' 0 La-0-0 i Eli 7_11@1 a 0 0 0 E T IE' T g T E T Ir T 1E T It ? T E P T 0 MTERIA QVSTM PWGH AMBER44CIC POFSKM MIROK GULL DUCM CELL WALL CELL INfERIOR --Distribution of DDT and Its metabolites, ODD Comparison of the distribution of DDT and its and DDE, in representative organisms of a food chain. metabolltesin the cell wall and cellinterigrof a marine bacterium (Pseudomonas piscicida), Fig 6. DDT distribution in a food Fig 7. DDT distribution in a m9xine chain (From Johnson 1967; bacterium (from Johnson 1967; Fig 9). Fig 8). 100 90 90 ?3% 73%. 70 E 0 56% 0 0 50 z x 40 W 0 0 30 z Z 2 _j 20 x z 0 t --Relative growth of algae, illustrating break- down of malathion by a marine bacterium. Pseudomonas piscicida. Density of algal cells is determined by the amount of absorbance in a spectrophotometer. Fig 8. Breakdown of malathion by a marine bac- terium (From Johnson 1967; Fig. 10). UZ; Table 15. Pesticide residues in birds (From Koeran and Van Genderenll'966; Table I)Resiaues of chlorinaied hydrocarbon pesticides in birds found aeat4 or dying in a coastal habitat Dieldrin Endrin pp'ribE Species Region Tissue per million) Spoonbill* Texel Liver 5.8 2-0 0.1 (Platalea lencorodki) Spoonbill* Texel Liver 6-1 3-0 0.9 Bre8t muscle i-8 0-4 Spoonbill* Texel Liver 6.0 0.6 0.1 Breast muscle 2-6 0.5 Oystercatcher* Texel Liver 94 Trace 1.6 (Haenjalopus ostralegus) Oystercatcher* Texel Liver 9.5 0-3 1-6 Sandwich Tern* Texel Liver 4-6 0.9 0-2 (Sterna sand vicensis) Sandwich Tern* Texel Liver 4-2 0-4 0.5 Common Tern* Texel Liver 9-1 3-0 6-0 (Sterna hirundb) Common Tern Goeree Liver 5-8 Present 0.1 Breast musclet 2-2 0.9 0-4 Kidney 4-@ 2-6 0-2 Brain 2-0 1-2 Common Tern Texel Liver 1-8 0.5 Trace Breast muscle 5-6 3-9 0-7 Kidney 5.9 7-9 0.2. Brain I_j 1.5 Black-headed Gull Den Helder Liver Trace 0-5 (Larus, ridibundus) Breast muscle 0-2 Brain 0.3 Black-headed Gull Den Helder Liver 0.8 Breast muscle 6-') Brain 0-2 Eiderduck* Texel Live r 2-2 (Sonzateria mollissima) Shelduck Texel L 'iver 0-7 1-05 (Tadorna ladorna) Breast mu9cle 0.1 0-2 * Specimen submitted to gross pathological and parasitological examination. t Results of Tunstall Laboratory: Dieldrin, 1-4 ppm; Endrin, 0-4 ppm; pp'DDE, 0-2 ppm. Table 16. Pesticide residues in seals (From Koeman and Van Genderen 1966; (Table 2). Residues of chlorinated hydrocarbon pesticides in seals found dead or dying in a coastal habitat Dieldrin pp'DDT pp'DDE pp'DDD Species Region Tissue or fat (parts per million) Harbour Seal* Wadden Sea Subcutaneous fat 2-3 9-8 14-0 3-6 (Plioca vitulina) Harbour Seal* Wadden Sea Subcutaneous rat 1-4 3-5 5-4 &7 Liver 0-07 0-4 Harbour Seal* Tcxel Subcutaneous fat 0-3 3-7 7-4 1.0 Liver 0.1 Specimen submitted to pathological and parasitological examination. 1954 1956 1957 138 V V V FRY 45 16 Cir 30 0 0 0 F] El U. SMALL PARR , 30 0 Ci 0 15 LARGE PARR 0- F7 F7 F-I 1950 '51 '52 153 '54 '55 '56 '57 Fig. 9. 1xbrtality of young salmon in years of forest DDT spraying 1.954, 1956, 1957) (From Kerswill et al. 1960). Days After Application Spiel" No. Site 9 4__ 6 a 10 12 14 Is Is 20 22 2,4 Striped 89 0 0 pnUflet (am) 82 C -4 0 Stdw IS D -1&4 Mallet (1261 27 C - - -44.5 li@pshftd so 0 so "innow (aft) 96 C - -- -12.5 sh"Pshood 84 D a 0 follinow 090 51 C - - 26.3 Longnose, 4 0 0 killillish 5 C Legend Relawater 27 0 65.2 Mortality: killffish 22 C -46 PWC*m Tidewater 5 D 0 incomplete 15.2 adverside I C F--4 I -i L=111 . I N :1 -Cumulative per cent mortality of fwih held at holding sites C and 1) Fig. 10. Mortality of fish folloving application of DDT to a tidal marsh ditch (From Croker and Wilson, 1965)- 139 Table 17. Toxicity of organic phosphorus-insecticides to minnows houseflies, and white rats (From Henderson and Pickering 1958) Fathead M. domestica White rats Compound minnows Topical LD50 Oral LD '50 96hrTLM. microgram/ rnilligrams/ ppm. gram kilogram EPN 0.20 1*9 12-40 Para-oxon 0.33 0.5 3-3.5 Parathion 1.4 0.9 13.0 TEPP 1.7 - 2.0 Chlorothlon 3.2 16.5 880.0 sistox 3.6 - 6.2 Methyl parathion S. @ 1.6 14-42 Malathion It S 28.0 1375.0 OMPA 121.0 - 10.0 Dipterex 180.0 60.0 140 Occurrence of dieldrin in major river basins, September 1964 Western Great Lakes Basin ea aci ic a w est oke Erie ,in Up er a i is r Bosi 'A@iississi i iver reot Bosi North Atlantic Ohio iver Basin Ba irt Colo r d Southwest a s i River Tennessee ColiForni River Basin Basin Wes ern Gul a So t ast B s* Lower Dieldrin MississiPPi Present Ri@er Sosir@ Presumptive 0 Absent-' Occurence of endrin in mijor river hasins, September 1964 Western Great Lakes Basin N this a in Pac 'c No west Lake Erie asin Up e, Basin is Basi Ississi Ri River Great Basin Basin North Atlantic Ohio ive Basin Basin.. Colo do Southwest Basin River Basin Tennessee California River Basin Basin Wes ern Gu u as Loer Endrin Missrsv;ppi Present pi-, Bosi@ 0 Presumptive 0 Absent Fig. 11. Occurrence of dieldrin and endrin in major U.S. river basins (From Weaver et, @@I. 1965; Figs. 1 and 2). Tabl a 18. Pesticide Analysis o,"FinjIsh Samples Ta'Un at Carr's Island, Salisbury, Merrimack River Estuary, 1964. 141 Dieldrir** or DDE DDT Date Collened Source of Sample (ppm) (LBW)* (ppm) (LBWj July 7 Intestine (Alosa pseudoharengus) 10,000 10.000 July 7 Body Muscle (Alcsa pseudobarengus) 5.900 5.800, July 7 Intestine (Alosa aestivalls) 0.260 0.800 July 7 Body Muscle (Alosa aestivahs) 4.500 3.400 *(LBW): Live Body Weight. **Dieldrin-DDE: Not separable by methoe. used. Table 19 Pes6cide Analvsis of Ciam Afe,.;t Samples Taken in the City of Quincy, Quincy Bay, 1964. Heptachlor Dield:in** Heptachlor Epoxide or DDE DDT Date Collected Station Site (ppm) (LBW)-" (ppm) (Law) (ppm) (LBW) (PP-) (LBW) Februay 24 Quincy P, (combined) 0.027 0.046 Quincy P2 July 31 Quincy Pt 0.013 0.079 0.0110 0.030 July 31 Quincy P: 0.013 0.044 0.006 0.003 July 31 Quincy P. 0.088 0-011 0.014 0.013 '0 (LBW): Live Body Weight. **Dieldrin-DDE- Not separable by meth9d used.. Table 20 Table 21 PesticIde Concentrations *n Water Samples Taken at --'esticide Crticentrations in Clom Afea; Samples Newburyport and SaUsbury, SitcsPI andP2,Merrlmack Taken at Sites P. and P2, Newbu)@.porr and Salisbury, River Estuary,-1964. Merrimack River, 196$. Heptachlor D@eldrin* Da!e Heptachlor Fleptachlor " *Dieldr,in or DDT Date Sample Fpoxide or DDE DDT Col- (pprn) Epoxidee DDE (ppm) (ppm) Collected Ske (ppm) (ppm) (ppm) ir.!ted Sit x (I.,BvV)* (ppm) (LBIV) (LBW) (LM June 17 F, No Test 0.001 0.001 Juxie 26 P, No Test 0.100 0.1420 !.ISG 17 P3; No Test 0.001 0.001 26 P2 No Test 1.530 j.500 0.460 July 10 P, 0.002 NIcne 0.003 Ju!y 10 P, 0.033 No Test No Test 0.008 10 P2 0.001 None 0.001 10 P, 0.027 No Test No Test 0.016 July 20 P, 0.005 No Test 0.002 -July 20 P, 0.125 No Test No Test 0.030 20 P2 0.006 No Test 0.002 20 P2 n-108 No Test No Test 0.012 July 30 Pi 0.001 None 0.002 July 30 P, No Test 2.5(X) None None 30 P2 0.001 None. 0.002 30 P3 No Test 2.500 None None 'Dieldrin-DDE: Not separable bymethod used. 30 P2 No Test 2.800 None None 30 P, No Test. 2.750 None None Sept. 8 P, 0.100 No Test No Test 0.033 Table 22 8 P_. 0.100 Nc Test No Test 0.025 Dec. 28 P, 0.070 None None None Pesticide Conceir.,rations in Mad Samples 7@zkex, at 28 P, 0.008 None None None Sites Pi and P2, Newbisr)porr and SahrhuU, Aferri- mack River Estuary, 1964. *(LD\\D: Live Body Weight (ppm). Heptachlor Dieldrin" "Dic)drin@-DDE- Not sepa;-aHe by met*iod used. Daie Sample Epoxide or DDE DDT CoHec*ed Site @pprn) (DW)* (ppm) (DW) (pprn) (DW) Tables from Jerome) Chesmore, Anderson) june 17 P, No Test None 2-400 and Grice (1965)- June 17 Pt No Test None 4.100 July 10 P, None None 2.60G July 10 F.- None None 5.30D *(DW-): Dry WeighL **Dieldrin-DDE: Not separable by method used. Chapter E-313 142 PESTICIDES IN ESTUARIES Don W. Hayne Institute of Statistics, North Carolina State University Raleigh, North Carolina 27607 Thomas W. Duke Bureau of Commercial Fisheries Biological Field Station Gulf Breeze, Florida 32561 Thomas J. Sheets Pesticide Residue Research Laboratory, N. C. State University Raleigh, North Carolina 27607 Organic chemicals have been important as pesticides for only about 20 years but their uses, primarily in control of insects and weeds, have reached a high level. The United States roduction of all,pesticidal chemicals in 1966 was estimated to be 4.5 x 109 kg. Some of this is exported, but large quantities are used in the United States. For example, the estimated domestic use of DDT for the cropyear 1965-1966 was 20.9 x lo6 kg (Shepard et al., 1967). Early it was observed that catastrophic damage to aquatic life accompanies heavy application of the synthetic chlorinated hydrocarbon insecticides in estuaries (Springer and Webster, 1951); more recently it was recognized that accumulation of the persistent pesticides in the environment is also a hazard. Meanwhile, evidence was accumulating that some aquatic life is sensitive to very low concentrations of these chemicals (Butler, 1964; 1965a). At present, some ecologists feel that pesticides may be exerting deleterious stresses on the biota of estuarine systems; apprehension of such damage, actual or potential, was expressed in a number of the states visited (introductory remarks!). No documented case was found where pesticide stresses alone have produced such changes of an estuary that it must be termed a new system. This statement means little, however, because this question has been given almost no study. There is some cause for apprehension and a corresponding need for investi- gation to provide missing answers. Estuaries are required by many invertebrates and marine fishes for residence during part or all of their life cycles. This is especially true of the species supporting the estuarine-dependent seafood resources. Waterfowl, shore birds and fish-eating birds also use estuaries. At the same time, estuaries are traps for nutrients and pollutants. The greatest source of estuarine pollution is the inflowing streams. Suspended colloids and sediments may settle out; if they remain suspended there is a long residence time in the estuary. A major fraction of the human population and two-thirds of the factories making agricultural pesticides are located in the coastal states with drainage into rivers that feed into estuaries; in some areas drainage is directly into estuaries (Pimentel et al., 1965). Fig. I illustrates movement of pesticides with respect to an e-stuary. The suspicion 143 ATMO P ERE RIVER WATER ESTUARINE WATER.. @TIPOCEAN WATER MARSH AQUATIC ANIMALS ANIMALS CRASS-+- FISH BIRDS SHELLFISH MARSH ROOTED PLANKTON SOILS PLANTS RIVER SEDIMENTS *ESTUARINE SEDIMENTS -rZ-*-OCEAN SEDIMENTS Fig. 1. The more important paths of pesticide movement into, out of, and within an estuary(dashed circle). N.. @" QUJ4 N IM IS H EL ,r E @DP@A N K TS 144 that pesticides are potentially a hazard to many valued species in estuaries is supported by the findings that some are toxic at low levels, that DDT is apparently ubiquitous in distribution and that dieldrin and endrin are present in low concentrations in many estuaries. ANALYTICAL CHEMISTRY AND RESIDUE DETERMINATION The chemical analysis of residues is a vital part of any quantitative study of pesticides in the environment. Increasingly, this is an area of sophisticated specialization of methods and instruments. The sensitivity of gas chromatography is now at a level where repeatable measurements of some insecticides and herbicides in water are made in the parts-per-trillion range. But as the sensitivity of measurement has increased, so have the requirements for experience and ability of the analytical chemist. Interference problems are acute at such levels. Each new environmental substrate has its problems of analysis. For example, methods developed for terrestrial soils are not always adequate for aquatic sediments which sometimes need additional cleanup stages. Because extremely low concentrations are ordinarily found in water, large volumes must be extracted in order to detect and measure the pesticides. Such extensions of methods require additional concentration and cleanup steps. The determination of residues in the environment is emerging as a separate specialized field. Methods of pesticide analysis based on gas chromatography have benefited from many developments in electronic engineering during the decade. Advances in this eminently successful technique have been dependent on the development of highly sophisticated electronic systems for detecting and measuring small amounts of certain elements as well as separation by gas chromatography. The electron-capture detectors, utilizing mainly tritium and nickel as sources of electronsP have made possible the measurement of chlorinated hydrocarbon insecti- cides., chlorinated phenoxy herbicides, and certain other pesticides in the parts-per-trillion range. Halogens, mainly chlorine, are the major electron- capturing constituents of pesticide molecules. Highly sensitive detectors for sulphur, phosphorus, and nitrogen are now coming into general use. One is prone to reflect on what the levels of chlorinated hydrocarbons might have been without these advances in instrumentation. The ability to measure at low levels led to discovery of environmental accumulation of the persistent insecticides and to regulation of their use. In spite of its success and usefulness, gas chromatography has some limita- tions. One of the major problems is positive identification of suspected pesticide residues. Ofteh the amount present is too small for usual confirmation procedures such as infrared, ultraviolet absorption, nuclear magnetic resonance, or mass spectra analyses. Confirmation methods now in common use are thin-layer chromatography and p-value determinations (Beroza and Bowman, 1965), both of which include gas chromatography as part of the procedure. Thus, as these useful methods have been improved, the requirements in support and experience have increased. The cost and availability of trust- worthy analytical services have become the factors limiting pursuit of environ- mental studies. An important investigation should be carried out by a team, with a chemist who can then become expert in the special problems of the study. A further requirement is the careful preliminary analysis of the problem to assure an adequate and appropriate sampling plan, 145 LEVELS OF PESTICIDES IN ESTUARIES Levels of pesticides in estuaries may be understood as a balance between inputs and outputs of the estuarine system. Inputs are primarily [email protected]@i@aterials, some dissolved, but many sorbed on sediments. Other inputs -include residues from direct application and drainage from adjacent areas, aerial transport including drift, washout from the atmosphere by rain, direct discharge from industry and sewer outlets, and movement of contaminated animals and plants (Figure 1). Within the estuary, pesticides circulate biologically and physically. Outputs from the system include outwash into the sea of.dissolved pesticides and those' so'rbed on fine sediments and residues transported b,iolbgically. Some of the sorbed pesticides may be at least temporarily removed bV burial. An unknown but probably small amount is lost to the air from.the water surface'. The estuarine system loses a pesticide continually through degradation of the molecule by chemical, biological or photochemical processes, Water transport is the most important mechanism of pesticide movement into the estuaHne @ystem. Chlorinated hydrocarbon insecticides are of very low water solubility and exist in solution only at minute concentrations. Rarely do values reported for pesticide content of water refer to the dissolved molecules, since ordinarily the transported sediments are included in the analysis. Residue transport on sediment is important, and sorbed pesticides prob ably account-for@most of the recorded values for the persistent chemicals in wateri The processes involved in the sorption of pesticides onto soil particles are not well understood, but knowledge is beginning to accumulate for some chemicals. Sorption probably occurs on land, and the pesticide-bearing colloid is then transported by erosion into streams. In the aquatic environment the sediments constitu.te-pne of the important storage reservoirs. The sorbed pesticide molecules are probably in equilibrium with the solution phase; thus release,from sediment could occur in response to shifts in the solution concen- tration. A relationship between particle size and pesticide content of bottom sediments has been demonstrated in the San Joaquin River of California, where the higher concentrations we Ire found in the finer sediments (Bailey and Hannum, 1967). The higher concentrations in water (including transported sediments) were found upstream in the section of river studied, with lower pesticide content downstream and in San Francisco Bay. In a study of the pesticide content of the important r'iver systems of the United States, a high fraction of stations with infrequent or no positive records were at or just below impoundments, elicitin@the comment, "This suggests that-sedimentation and other phenomena associated with impoundments are dominant factors in removing chlorinated hydrocarbons from surface waters" (Green et al., 1967). It seems quite probable, therefore, that the important pesticide transport by river systems may be tied up in the sediments being carried. Most reported values do not allow a direct comparison, but by.combining information from several sources, we observe that the concentration in water reported for DDT and its analogs near the mouth of the Mississippi River can be approximately accounted for by the transported silt burden if we can accept as the DDT content of silt that reported for bottom sediments at the same point (Green et al. 1967; Livingstone, 1963; Guilcher, 1963; Hammerstrom et al., 1967). 146 Important implications result from the probability that pesticides are transported on sediments. Flood stage e,vents must be important in pesticide transport into estuaries - Some of the pesticides sorbed on sediments may become biologically unavailable when'they are buried as sedimentation occurs. The very fine clay and organic colloids, which carry an important part of the residues, are spread widely throughout the estuary as well as transported directly into the sea. Relatively few determinations of pesticide content of bottom sediments have been made for estuaries. By far the most spectacular are those reported for 1966 from a brackish marsh in Great South Bay, Long Island, where cores 20 or 40 cm deep contained an average residue of 13 lb. per acre of DDT and analogs (range 2.7 to 32.6 lb. per acre) in the Spartina mat, 2.9 lb. per acre in a drainage ditch and 0.3 lb. per acre for the submerged bay bottom (Woodwell et al., 1967). In most other studies, only the top-la'yer of sediments has been examined and results have been reported as concentration (wet weight) instead of mass of res',idue (with terrestrial.soils, an approximation often used is that I ppm represents I lb. per 3-inch acre). For DDT and analogs, samples from San Francisco Bay have been reported (Bailey and Hannum, 1967) as 57-204 micrograms per liter (thus less than 0.06 - 0.20 ppm), while values observed in bottom sediments in the mouth of the Mississippi River and n@airiby estuaries ranged downward from 0.03 PPm (Hammerstrom et al., 1967)., Most important direct applications of pesticides to estuaries have been for control of insects in salt marshes and on beaches. The high Values of DDT and analogs observed in bottom sediments of the Long Island estuary pre- sumably reflected.mosquito control operations (Woodwell et al., 1967). In Florida, an unexpected peak in the DDT residues found in oysters was traced to an apparently minor control program where w 'indrows of sea weed on the beaches were sprayed with DDT to kill larvae of a biting dog fly (Butler, 1966a). There are also examples of run-off from local agricultural uses; for example, pesticide contamination after applications in @ranberry*bogs were reported from Washington and Massachusetts. Aerial transport carries some pesticides into estuaries, but the relative importance of this pathway is not known. Not only is there drift from neighboring aerial and ground applications, but a more general transport occurs in the atmosphere, both in the vapor phase (Abboit.et al., 1966) and as sorbed molecules on dust particles (Risebrough et al., T-96U. Atmospherically transported pesticides may enter estuaries as washout@-by rain (Abbott et al. 1966; Wheatley and'Hardman, 1965; Weibel et al.@,' 1966).. Discharge of pesticides directly into estuaries takes place from some pesticide manufacturing plants. Wastes draining from-dry-cleaning plants into streams have been suspected as sources of'die'jdri6 residues in rivers. Pesticides are brought in also through sewer discharge from cities; the storm sewers carry the surface discharge with residues-friom urban insect control programs, Ther'w is'biological transport of pesticide into and out of estuarine systems. The relative importance of this mechanism is unknown, though the tendency of the biota to concentrate and store the chlorinated hydrocarbon insecticides in body fat means that biological transport is much more important for these chemicals than the biomass of the animals might indicate. 147 Most pesticides (other than the chlorinated hydrocarbon insec-iicides) do not accumulate in.animals.' Compounds such as organic phosphate and carbamate insecticides and phenoxyalkanoic acid, s-triazine, and substituted urea herbici'des are metaboliz@8 in plants an-d animals to innocuous products or are excreted through normal waste elimination. Within the estuary, the-chlorinated hydrocarbon insecticides are circulated throughout the biota@ Bottom forms and filter feeders ingest sediments and organic,material and1remove the sorbed pesticides., The lower PH found in. many digestive systems is,probabl@ an important factor in biological availability (Johnson et 21., 1967). Once within the biota, pesticides may be passed through the food web into every form@ Differential storage in body lipids provides.the mechanism of biological concentration in food chain passage (6utler, 1966 b; Butler 1966 c; Ferguson et 21., 1965). Fish, shellfish, and probably other forms absorb pesticides directly from water containing very low concentrations. Stored pesticides are metabolized and excreted, providing a,second mechanism for exchange throughout the biota (Gakstatter and Weiss, 1967). Plankton car .ry Pesticides and provide another point.of entry into the food web. Few measurements are available. For DDT and analogs a value of b.040 ppm (wet weight) was observed for "Mostly zooplankton" in Great South Bay, Long Island (Woodwell et al., 1967@ and in San Francisco Bay a measurement of 15 micrograms per liter was 'made for net Plankton (Bailey and H6nnum, 1967). Monthly samples with a no. 10 pl .ankton net in Santa Rosa Sound, Florida from February through December 1965 ranged from trace to 0.89 ppm (dry weight) -of DDT and metabolites; values ranged from minimum to maximum in a 30-day.period and although there were not enough data to establish a good correlation with the dog' fly spray program, results were'suggestive (Butler, unpublished). The pathways and factors of chemical degradation have been investigated in the laboratory, and some work has been done on the influence of soil characteristics on degradation. But the rates of decomposition under the many varied conditions found throughout the ecosystem are not well known, are subject to speculationj and are confused by the unknown amounts that are transported elsewhere. We do not know the relative importance of the processes which are increasing or decreasing the stores of pesticides in estuaries. The question has two phases -- changes in stores which are biologically available, and changes in other stores including buried material. Has either phase reached the local condition of an approximately steady state postulated for some agricultural fields (U. S. Dept. Agric.,,1966)? What are the biological implications of sediment storage of pesticides, if in fact this is taking place? Will great storms ecologically mobilize these stores? Presently very little is known about even the order of magnitude of the processes of Pesticide transport and storage. Pesticide content for September 1966,was.reported for 169 river stations in the United States (Green et al., 1967). Using these synoptic values to represent annual means, the average for the 25 sites ne"ar a coast was,14 parts per trillion for DDT and analogs, when all determinations of less than detectable level were assigned a value of zero. the lowest value.reported was I ppt. The total discharge from rivers of the contiguous United States may be estimated at 14.8 x 1014 kq per year (Livingstone,.1963b@ if 14 ppt of total DDT is taken as an average for al-] river water, 20.5 x 103 kq per year of total DDT would be transported into estuaries and oceans. This is a small quantity in view of annual use in the 148 United States which has been estimated as 20.9 x 10 6 kg for 1965-1966 (Shepard et al., 1967). The river transport val ue seems even smaller when we consider the high levgls of United States use in former years ( a peak value of about 35.7 x 10 kg in 1958-1959) and the total use since the late 1940's of approximately 500 x 106 kg (U. S. Department of Agriculture, 1953- 1966). The total sediment load discharged by"the rivers of the United States has been estimated with different results by different authorities (Twenhoefel 1952; Howell, 1959). At an average value of 596 x 109 k9 per year, the seoiments may be expecied to carry an average content of 0.035 PPm (dry weight), assuming that they transport all the DDT (20.5 x 103 kg per year). To compare this value with the few records of sediment residues,' it must be adjusted to the wet weight basis (divide by perhaps a factor of 4). Thus there is approximate agreement with some of the values reported for surface sediments. PRESENT WORK Much of the work on the effects of pesticides on estuarine biota has been carried out at the Gulf Breeze, Florida, Laboratory of the Bureau of Commercial Fisheries, United States Department of the Interior. Support for this activity began in 1958. The earlier studies'emphasized identifications of those compounds that have the most acutely toxic effects on estuarine. animals, especially the commercially important species such as shrimp and oysters. Appropriate methods for quantitative bloassay were developed (Butler, 1964; 1965 @;'1966 a; 1966 b; 1966 c) and the features of the local estuarine system were studied. Laboratory tests demonstrated that growth of oysters is inhibited by many pesticides, with a measurable effect at one part pet billion of aldrin in water, and a 50 per cent reduction in growth with less than 100 parts per billion for several but jnot all of the chlorinated hydrocarbon insecticides, for some of the organophosphorus :insecticides, and for a few fungicides and herbicides. Bioassay with shrimp and juvenile fish revealed similar patterns of high sensitivity to some pesticidal chemicals, most but not all of which were chlorinated hydrocarbon insecticides. Recentlyj more subtle effects on estuarine organisms have been investigated. For example, it was found that fish avoided DDT by entering water free of the pesticide but generally could not discriminate between different concentrations. It has been shown that DDT interferes with normal thermal acclimation of fish (Ogilvie and Anderson, 1965). Investigat.ions of the capability of fish to develop populations resistant to DDT showed no significant change after eight generations, although other workers have demonstrated this effect with i6secticide's in field populations of freshwater fish (Ferguson et al., 1965). Studies have been made of the inhibition of cholinesterase in th;-fish brain by organ.ophosphate pesticide residues in the environment. Present emphasis is being placed on the effect of pesticides on the ecology of estuaries and on the dynamic aspects of pesticide pollution. For example, the effect of the herbicide dichlobenil on primary production is being tested on Santa Rosa Island where the ecology of four small ponds has been studied since January, 1968 (Walsh, unpublished). The herbicide was-added to one pond at a concentration of I ppm in the water. Preliminary results indicate that many of the important rooted aquatic plants were eliminated and that after they died, a phytoplankton bloom occurred. This bloom caused a seven-fold increase in phytoplankton chlorophyll from March to April, an increase not observed in the control ponds. There was also an increase in the die] oxygen pulse with little or no change in the ratio of photosynthesis to respiration. Herbicides labelled with radioactive elements are being used in studies of the rates of movement of herbicides through the water, sediment and the biota of experimental ecosystems. 149 Laboratory observations are being made on the rates of accumulation and loss of labelled herbicides I using estuarine organisms that are maintained under different environmental conditions. Special attention is being given to the rate of exchange of herbicides between estuarine water and sediments. Future studies at Gulf Breeze will emphasize movement of pesticides in estuaries and subtle effects of these chemicals on plants and animals. The research program will be divided into three broad areas; biological and chemical assays, ecological studies, and physiological studies. More work will be directed toward relating levels of residues in organisms to their effect on the organisms. As in the past, many of these studies will provide information for the Pesticides Registration Division of the United States Department of Agriculture to enable them to determine if particular pesticides should be labelled for use in or near the marine environment. MONITORING PESTICIDES IN ESTUARIES An important part of present investigations of the Bureau of Commercial Fisheries is the sampling of oysters or clams and sediments in estuarine environments as part of the National Pesticide Monitoring Program (Johnson et 21., 1967). This program is designed to measure present levels as a base line for future comparison, but data are now so scanty that the first results from the monitoring program should be highly informative. Technical aspects of the monitoring are built upon previous work at the Gulf Breeze Laboratory. Sampling sites have been established in 24 estuaries along the coast of the contiguous Istates. Samples of oysters, or clams when oysters are not available, will be examined three times each year, with more frequent measurements where cooperating agencies provide assistance. The uppermost layers of the bottom sediments are to be sampled at the same time. No detailed results have yet been formally published, but a summary (Butler, 1967 a) indicates that the molluscan tissues for the most part carried less than 0.1 ppm, with only one estuary where residues are typically as high as 0.1 to 0.5 ppm. In many others, measurable residues were absent for 6 months or more of the year (measurements were quantified when greater than 10 parts per billion for the identified compounds). The summary concludes that the majority of the estuaries of the United States are contaminated with organochlorine pesticides, but not to an extent that endangers man's food supply. The present state of knowledge about pesticides in estuaries may be summarized as follows: There is increasing apprehension based upon accumulating evidence of toxicity at low concentrations of chlorinated hydrocarbon and other pesticides and a growing body of facts about disturbance of the physiology at sublethal levels of these chemicals. An ambient level sufficient to promote body storage at measurable levels exists almost generally for DDT. But there are very few known facts about the biologically effective levels in estuaries or about the populationa? effects of these levels. It is fair to say that we know and understand the problem only well enough to outline the areas where we need to know more. 150 RESEARCH NEEDS Research on any subject which increases understanding of the estuarine ecosystem will also add to knowledge of how pesticides operate in this environment. From a more particular-view, the following five areas, two general and three specific, are proposed for immediate investigation. General questions: 1. What are the dynamics of pesticides in estuaries? How do they enter and leave and in what quantities, how are they picked up and stored in the biological and physical compartments of estuaries and how do they move through the food web and at what rates? What is the biological availability in different storage sites? What is the fate of pesticides which enter the estuary? Can a model be set up and quantified sufficiently with real information to help predict the behavior of a given pesticide in an estuarine system? 2. What are the effects of pesticides upon such measurable character- istics of whole ecosystems as energy flow, nutrient cycling, food web complexity, species diversity and system stability? Specific questions: 3. What is the present status of residues in estuaries; at what level are they stored and where? 4. What are the best sampling designs for estuarine studies? Can methods of residue identification and measurement be improved? Can levels of detection be reduced by a factor of 10 or 20? 5. Can index values be devised that will allow some judgement of the biological effect of pesticides, given certain observed residue levels in organisms, in the water or in the sediments? 151 Chapter E-4 SYSTEM RESULTING FROM DREDGING SPOIL B. J, Copeland Frances Dickens The@University of Texas University of North Carolina Port,Aransas, Texas 78373 Chapel Hill, North Carolina 27514 =ODUCTION @'A prevalent modification of coastal areas is the practice of dredging for navigation channels in the shallow areas and the construction of small- boat harbors. Not only is the environment modified by the increases in depth, but the deposit of spoil, often in the adjacent estuarine areas, creates an artificial sedimentation factor. Interruption of normal pathways of energy flow can result from dredging operations. The placement of deep channels cause channeling of tidal currents, thus changing normal circulation patterns and usual transport mechanisms for incoming foods and flows. The construction of "spoil banks", usually re- sulting from disposal of dredging spoil, not only modifies the current mechanisms by physical barriers, but covers large areas with a thick layer of sediment that eliminates the normal bottom component of biological energy cycling. Characteristic ecological systems result from the dredging modification, -governed by the new flow patterns and/or by the abrupt change in bottom char- acteristics. Although few reports exist explaining the results of dredging, operations, enough ecological information exists from scattered studies to construct a picture of a characteristic dredging-effected system. SYSTEM EXAMPLES, Upper Chesapeake Bay,.@Maryland The University of Maryland Chesapeake Biological Laboratory (1967, 1968) investigated the hydrography and biota of an area in upper Chesapeake Bay (near the mouth of the Sassafras River) during a dredging operation. A diagram of the area is included in Figure 1. The dredge was removing sediment from one area (indicated in Figure 1) and depositing it in an adjacent area. A map of the distribution ofturbidity during dredging operations and in relation to different tidal activities is shown in Figure 2. The movement of silt in the water was detected as a function of light transmission, which is plotted in Figure 2. High transmission indicates water with relatively little silt and low transmission indicates water with relatively more silt load. Dia- gram A in Figure 2 depicts the spoil deposit,2area after dredging had been interrupted for 8 hours previously, indicating relatively high light transmission of greater than 40% (10 cm path). Diagram B to D show the sa site after dredging operations had begun during a flood tide. Diagram E to G are during 152 CO BEAR PT GROVE pT W C AL -@--@D X 7 A C 8 A C D A 8 C 10 B C D C E 3TONY MOWELL PT PT Fig. 1. Diagram of upper Chesapeake Bay) Yaryland showing areas of dredging and spoil deposit. (From @bxyland University, Chesapeake Biological Laboratory 1967d.) -r@ JEA, PT UGROVE pi 153 A B C _uD G F 50% F 40-50% 20-33 3D-40% 10-20% M Fig. 2. Diagram of light transmission (10 cm path) in a dredged system, Chesapeake Bay, Mqxyland. The point of spoil deposit is indi- cated by the open or black circle. Lines indicate transects. (From University of Yaryland Chesapeake Biological Laboratory 1967a.) 24 oct 1966--1500 hrs.--No dredging. B. 24 oct 1966--16oo hrs.--Dredging; Flood Tide. C. 24 oct 1966--1800 hrs.--Dredging; Flood Tide. b. 24 oct 1966--igoO brs.--Dredging; Flood Tide. E. 25 oct 1966--1000 hrs.--Dredging; Ebb Tide. F. 25 oct 1966--1100 brs.--Dredging; Ebb Tide. G. 25 oct 1966--1200 hrs.--Dredging; Ebb Tide. 9E 154 ebb tide. The suspended sediment apparently moves in the direction of the current (which is affected by the tidal direction), thus dispersing sediment for several hundred meters aw Iay from the spoil area. In other words during flood tide there is tra .nsport of sediment up,bay and during ebb tide there is sediment transport down bay. Similax findings were discussed by Masch and Espey (1967) for dredgingoperations in Galveston Bay, Texas. Interruption of normal biota patterns were observed in the dredging and spoil deposit axeas. With the sediment transport from the spoil area, consider- able bottom area was covered with soft mad. A list of the benthic organisms collected in the area described in Figure I is presented in Table 1 in order of their abundance. The same number of organisms were found in both the dredged and spoil deposit areas, but the order of their rank in the system was different.. This indicates that some axe better able to withstand the stress of one kind than of the other. Macoma.balthica and M. phenax are among the dominant organisms in the dredged axea, but rank down the series from the spoil deposit area (Table 1). It is important to note that the numbers and species of organisms taken in the spoil deposit and dredged areas are quite different than those taken in surrounding areas in upper Chesapeake Bay (University of Maryland Chesapeake Biological laboratory 1967, 1968). Redfish Bay, Texas The effects of spoil deposition from dredging operations in Redfish Bay, Texas were studiedby Hellier and Kornicker (1962) and odum. (1963a). The study area is shown in Figure 3, with the saxipling quadrats indicated. An intracoastal canal was dredged through the area during 1959- odum. (1963a) described the area and sequence of events as follows: 7Frior to dredging the water was deepest at Station 1 where Th-alas-sia beds were maximal (about 0-5 m at ordinary tide levels), shoaling gradually to 0.3 m at station 5 with increasing percentages of Diplanthera. The dredge began to affect the area in the last of Februaxy 1959 with clouds of drifting silt obscuring the grass on many days during March. The dredging was stopped wh6n rock was reached so that by March 13 the dredge had been removed and the water again was clear. Final dredging began again in November 1959 with the deposition of the spoil island and silt on top of the grass as far as station 2." Sedimentation was measured by Hellier and Kornicker U962) before and after the dredging. Odum(1963a) measured the productivity and chlorophyll before and after the dredging. The sedimentation before dredging and one week and 18 months after dredging is reported in Table 2. A significant amount of sediment was deposited over stations I and 2, with very small amounts deposited over the other three stations. These data show that sediment deposition resulted from the dredging operations over a distance of less than 0.5 miles from the dredge site; at greater distances the sedimentation was negligible. Ingle (1952) reported that damage caused by deposition of sediment on the bottom did not extend beyond 0.23 miles from the dredge in a Florida bay, results very similax to those reported for Redfish Bay. Hellier and Kornicker further stated that little sorting of sediments took place during the spread of sediments from the dredge site. 155 Table 1. Benthic organisms taken from the spoil and dredged areas in upper Chesapeake Bay during dredging operations in rank of their density in the system. (From Maryland University Chesapeake Biological Laboratory 1968b.) SPOIL AREA DREDGE AREA Hydrobia sp. Hydrobia sp. Leptocheirus plumulosus Scolecolepides viridis Scolecolepides viridis Macoma balthica Garmwxus fasciatus Macoma phenax Procladius sp. Gammarus fasciatus Cyathura polita Leptocheirus plunulosus Monoculodes sp. Monoculodes sp. Rangia cuneata Rangia cuneata Chironomus attenuatus Cyathura polita Macoma phenax Tubulanus pellucidus Macoma balthica Procladius sp. Chiridotea almyra Edotea triloba Tubulanus pellucidus Chiridotea almyra Edotea triloba Retusa canaliculata Odostomia sp. Congeria leucophaeta Crypotchironomus argus Hylibniola grayii Coelotanypus sp. Nereis succinea Hypaniola grayii Rhithropanopeus harrisi Chaoborus punctipennis Mogula manhattensis Retusa canaliculata Oxytrema virginica Oxytrema virginica Crypotchironomus, argus Tubifex sp. Neomysis americana Corophium lacustre Physa sp. Congeria leucophaeta Tubifex sp. Neomysis americana Odostomia impressa Physa sp. Odostomia sp. Odostomia impressa Chaoborus punctipennis Epitonium rupicolum Acteon punctostriatus Acteon punctostriatus Epitonium rupicolum Amnicola limosa Gyraulus parus 156 Cho-Mel 1966: 4 Gulf v of Mexico- Trans Ct Sta:i0fts of .0 q. dredged channel$ r"z 34 5 4. Aronsos.@; POSS Turtle gross St Ho" P6rt. Aronscis Ra as nod" Isla 3> A,,.dredged N F@ig- 3. Map of Redfish Bay near Aransas Pass, Texas, indicating the study area, the 5 stations and the intracoastal channel. (From Odum 1963a; Fig. 1). Table 2. Amount of sediment deposited at the 5 Redfish Bay stations before and after dredging. (From i1ellier and Kornickar 1962; Table 1)6 Thkk..os of andiummnt Ze.19tal ThIckwes if Thkiwes, of Slati" in 9 trotmelho p6w Wdiveent I -wh i"las. is :.6 quadrat M diredgi.S. con al2w, dr.1gineg, con afteir dredging. on, I negligible 27 32 2 negligill: 22 33 3 iieg I igibl negligible 4 n:gligible 5 n gligible Thielknew of "neaval we 11*= "Is"WO to wuh "a r" sioread in Doesnoeber. 199. 157 The effects of the sediment transport on the benthic producing system were reported by Odum. (196@4, as indicated by productivity and chlorophyll measurements. The change in chlorophyll a concentration per square meter is indicated in Table 3. Productivity data are presented in Figure 4. The productivity and chlorophyll data indicate that fertility dirnini shed during 1959 when there was some disturbance due to dredging silts shading the bottom-producing system. Productivity and chlorophyll were less than during the previous year or the year following. Productivity values were extremely low during the main dredging operation late in 1959 and early 1960. During 1960, however, the productivity and chlorophyll values were much higher than for any previous year, indicating enhancement of productivity from the redistribution of dredge spoil. Thus, Ingle's (1952) suggestion that dredging may stimulate by adding nutrients my have writ. Dredging removed 125 feet of bottom area for the channel and between 0.2 and 0.5 miles of bottom production under and adjacentto the spoil, but did no permanent damage to the area further away. As compared to the findings of Ingle (1952) and Mackin (1961a),which indicated that damage was over a smaller area from the dredged channels in deeper water, the damage covered a larger axea. This may be related to the depth of water in which the spoil 'was deposited. Discharge from a channel of the Redfish Bay dimension into 0.5 m water or less may shoal water depth critically over a much wider zone than where the discharge is in bays 10 feet deep. Furthermore, the type of system was not bottom-producing in the studies reported by Ingle and Mackin; thus the sedimentation did not destroy the major productivity component. Intra -coastal Canal in South Carolina Marshes Lunz (1938).studied effects of dredging and spoil deposition from an intra-coastal canal on oysters in South Carolina marshes. Sample results of these data on sedimentation rate, mortalities, and weight of oyster meats are given in Figs- 5 and 6 and in Tables 4-8. Except where spoil was re- leased directly on oyster reefs, little if any direct negative effects on the oysters were found. No study was made of the effects of changed circu- lation or turbidities on photosynthesis or trophic aspects of the ecosystem. No acid waters developed. CONSTRUCTION OF DEEP CHANNELS The construction of channels in shallow coastal areas usually results in the alteration of current structure, which can either lead to deterioration of the system's productivity or enhance it. In most cases, however, the result is a change in the system's energy source and therefore alteration of normal energy cycling. When this occurs, the system structure is altered or replaced by another system or subsystem type. For example, reefs of molluscs have become established in channels because of the sufficient currents in the channel where there were no reefs before due to the lack of currents. Hargis (1966), in summarizing the effects of the large James River navigation channel and harbor in Virginia, noted that the current structure and sediment transport were modified. One result was the inability to transport oyster spat upstream, whereas before the construction of the channel the current structure was such as to allow the upstream transport of oyster spat. Hargis found little changes in the salinity values, but there was an alteration of the salinity structure with the alteration of currents and freshwater flow. 158 Table 3. Chlorophyll a in benthic plants along the Redfish Bay transect. Data in jm/mZ. (From Odum 1963a; Table 1). S......... . S Sim", A.-t 04.1 0 Station now 0.0 113* out of water 0.0180* as Rpoi I island. 0.0096* 0.029* 0.052* 0.0015* 0.115* 0.Wit 2 US mile east 0.0208* Beds 0.0106* rovered 0.0074t with 30 0.0052t emof O.Olmt soft silt; Om I I Ot no plants. 3 0.5 mile east 0.079V I.W 0,021 0.0 12� 1.21fi 0.019 O.m-, @ 1.32" 0. 153 0.022� 1.461 0. 103 0.062t 0.134) 0.012 0.055 0. 133 .1 0.75 mile east 0.087� 0.26! 0.033� 0.42V ().()I I � 0.49@ 0.0-18t 0.471.7 5 1.0 mile east 0.0150� 0.201 0.022� 0.2ff, (),0195t 0.2M Mcan 0.03379 0.6827 Nf- M. 1959. 15, IY59. NN 1 191.0, 159 REDFISM BAY 40 0 0 30 I 0 t 20 Z 10 0 MAY AUGUST 30 VERY HEAVY GRASS SOME MAIN DRED01 Me DRINING HERE 20 Hurricone C0,10 Sept-9 @R io SO 'P R 0 0 P 0 1 FM AMI J AS ONDLI J F MAM J J ASOND JFM AMJ J AS OND JFM. ANIJ J ASO @O 1957 958] 1959 1960 1961 Fig. 4. Record of salinity, gross photosynthesis and total respiration for Redfish Bay, Texas during 1957-1961. Most data taken between stations 2 and 3 on the transect from the dredging operation. (From Odum, 1963a; Fig* 6), WA or CO _YP .,CXA A C X, -09e fit-JAI -7 C@, ZZ@ -0 X@c @OC/)/ Aw, 16; ?ev 14 OL d OCA @'/CWX 41@- @WZAO 7A*-L--V -:;p Rd-AA771,WV )'0 -7,1-cwz AA-,r,4-1 jr.4-r 1w N Fig. 5. Section of intra-coastal canal dredging in South Carolina (TAm 1938; Fig. 18)e 161 Table 4. Rates of mud deposition before and during dredging (Lunz 1938). A. Amount of mud, in grams, settling on one square yard of bottom in 24 hours - Town Creek - before dredging. Station : June 4 June 5 : June 6 Im : 33.02 1.50 : 3.86 2m 0.99 : 4.12 3m 7.52 6.13 : 7.76 4m 11.20 6.12 : 7.85 5m 7.49 6.75 6m 56.13 48.72 : 54.86 7m 3.73 8.20 : 5.87 8m 3.76 4.06 : -- Average 17.55 10.82 : 13.01 = Ave. 13.79. B. Amount of mud, in grams, settling on one square yard of bottom in 24 hours - Town Creek during dredging. Station Aug. 7 Aug. 11 Aug. 12 Im 59.85 43.41 39.70 2m 74.90 288.76 28.87 3m 3.60 46.92 4m 22.53 99.26 50.53 5m 23.44 : 128.13 252.43 6m 37.98 : 21.65 21.65 7m 5.89 : 14.43 36.81 8m 37.85 : 18.04 25.24 Average 33.26 : 82.57 65.03 Ave. 60.29 C. Mud accumulating on oyster beds, as shown by mud boards - Five Fathom Creek Section. Amount of Mud Station (in millimeters) 57 0 58 0 59 Missing 60 +20 61 +10 62 +20 63 Missing 64 Missing 65 - 5 66 +25 67 Missing 162 @-4,4 r .@4 714-A C'O@-F @.41 -.4 rA-A-WA W .4 Fig. 6. Oyster mortalities relative to a shielding dyke (Lunz 1938). Table 5. Percentage of dead oysters in Bullyard Sound (Lunz 1938). Inside Dike Outside Dike Number Percentage::Number Percentage 1 6.82 2 5.26 3 4.62 4 3.64 5 6.12 6 8.06 7 6.84 8 6.25 9 6.35 10 7.55 11 6.66 12 6.12 .13 7.55 14 8.11 15 10.26 16 8.82 17 9.37 18 9.75 19 11.90 20 13.33 Average 7.65 Average 7.69 Table 6. Changes in weights of oyster meats (Lunz 1938). Sample: Change in Time (in days) : Distance from Site Weight between surveys : of dredging 1 +2.53 grams 94 days 10,560 feet 2 +4.02 grams 94 days 10,560 feet 3 -0.06 grams 91 days 10,560 feet 4 +2.70 grams 90 days 7,920 feet 5 -0.92 grams 91 days 6,600 feet 6 +0.78 grams 91 days 6,600 feet 7 -1.10 grams 89 days 6,600 feet 8 -1.45 grams 62 days 5,280 feet 9 +2.81 grams 82 days 2,500 feet 10 -0.46 grams 83 days 2,000 feet 11 +3.14 grams 73 days 100 feet 12 +0.20 grams 81 days 100 feet 163 Table 7. Number of dead oysters -,Five Fathom Creek.(Lunz, 1938). May - November, 1936. Number of dead oysters in baskets of 20 Station May 26 June 15 July 8-9 Aug. 5-7 Oct. 22 57 0 0 0 1 1 58 0 1 1 1 2 59 0 0 1 1 1 60 1 1 1 1 1 61 1 1 1 1 1 62 0 0 2 2 2 63 0 0 1 1 64 0 0 1 1 1 65 0 0 0 0 1 66 0 0 0 0 0 67 0 - 6 7 - Basket missing. Water Samples After dredging operations had begun in the Five Fathom Creek section on July 1, water samples were taken at intervals until the completion of the survey in November. The total results of these observations follow. Table 8. Salinity, pH and Temperature of Water - Five Fathom Creek Section (Lunz, 1938). JULY AUGUST OCTOBER Sta : Salin: pH :Temp. Salin: pH :Temp.: Salin: pH :Temp. tion: ity OF ity: OF ity OF 57 23.71 7.7 86.0 23.87 7.9 86.0 6.56 7.1 64.5 58 25.90 7.7 87.0 26.38 7.9 86.0 10.17 7.3 70.0 59 25.90 7.7 86.5 26.52 7.9 86.5 10.30 7.3 70.0 60 27.33 7.7 87.0 28.46 7.9 87.0 11.20 7.3 64.5 61 25.53 8.0 86.0 28.53 7.9 87.0 11.78 7.5 64.5 62 27.25 8.0 85.5 29.49 7.9 87.0 14.02 7.7, 65.0 63 28.22 8.0 85.0 30.56 7.9 86.0 16.-.21 7.7 64.5 64 31.04 7.9 86.0 32-90 8.1 88.0 19.05 7.8 64.0 65 31.98 7.9 85.5 33.39 8.1 87.0 20.93 7.9 64.0 66 33.04 8.0 86.0 33.21 8.1 86.0 18.86 7.7 64.5 67 34.51 8.0 86.0 33.21 8.1 87.0 20.81 7.8 64.0 164 Behrens (1966) reported salinity values in the Texas Laguna Madre for a year following the lowest three-year rainfall on record (77 years of record) to be limited to about 88 parts per thousand. In earlier years, before the dredging of the intracoastal canal throughout-the length of the Laguna, the salinity had reacned values nigher than 100 ppt (Rusnak 1960; Colliei: and Hedgpeth 1950). Behrens attributed the lower salinity values following the construction of the intracoastal canal to the fact that water could be transported into and out of the Laguna Madre through the channel, thus providing an exchange mechanism that did not exist before. Masch and Espey (1967) demonstrated that a dredged channel was useful for the transportation of silt downstream from accumulations in shallow areas. They pointed out, however, that the channel must be sloped downward and widened away from the shallow area to facilitate the transport of sediment. In Louisiana marsh systems, the practice of "cutting" channels into the marsh area has resulted in marsh destruction (Louisiana Fish and Game Division Report, Dr. Ted Ford, Personal Comminication). The deep channels allow salt- water intrusion, which kills the_Spartina alterniflora (the dominant marsh grass). After the destruction of the grass there is nothing to hold the soil structure, thus allowing severe erosion to alter the physical structure of the substrate. Channels in the Louisiana marsh system also allow rapid drainage of the system, which removes the nutrient pool and lowers productivity. DEPOSITION OF DREDGING SPOIL The most obvious effect of spoil disposal in the adjacent areas would be the alteration of bottom type, with additional layers of sediments deposited by the dredging operations. However, a subtle effect would be the additional sediments in suspension in the water. During the actual dredging operations@ sediments may be suspended in water at a greater concentration than usual (Masch and Espey 1967). Turbidities produced by there suspended sediments, however, are usually of short duration, thus causing only localized and short- time interruptions of light dependent processes such as photosynthesis. Studies designed to determine the rate of settling of suspended materials in marine waters have indicated that the settling rate is dependent to some extent on the salinity of the water (McCoy and Johnston 1964). The results from Currituck Sound, North Carolina shown in Figure 7 indicate that normal turbidities are achieved within 72 hours after additional sediment suspension if the water has a salinity at least 20% of sea water. These results can be interpreted to mean that water with 20% or more seawater salinity will not main- tain a turbidity greater than that already in suspension by natural means. As salinity is decreased, however, turbidity from dredge-caused sediment sus- pension could become a problem. Masch and Espey (1967) obtained similar results in Galveston Bay, Texas. Because of the sedimentation rate in rfiarine waters, suspended materials caused by dredging operations are not transported great distances from the dredge site. As shown in Figure 8 Masch and Espey (1967) reported that the suspended materials caused by shell dredging in Galveston Bay, Texas were de- posited by the time the material had been transported about 1200 feet from the dredge site. Mackin (1961a) reported similar results for Louisiana dredging operations. The sedimentation rate reported in Figure 8 (Masch and Espey 1967), near the dredge site, was appreciable and prolonged dredging in the area would cause a layer of sediment to be deposited on the bottom that would cover oyster reefs and bottom assemblages. 165 W ,,I Id 40 - (a) -40 - 20% 0 20 55 10, -1.9% 0 2 3 4 5 6 Hours 5.0. (b) 40. 30- 1.9% 20- 10- 24 48 72 Hours Fig- 7. Light transmission through a water solution of different percentages of seawater strength, each with initial equal turbidity induced by 10 grams of silt (From YmCoy et al. 1964; Fig. 1). The foot candle reading was 50 before the extra turbidity was added. 1@4 166 STA. A-2 W.08 - I.- z fr-.04 r1i 0 H-3 0 0 300 600 900 1200 1500 VISTANCE FROM DREDGE - FEET Fig. 8. Distribution of deposition rate from a dredge output (From Yasch and Espey 1967; Fig. vi-6). Table,q. Data from e)Teriments testing the effect on oysters of gradee turbidities produced by mad suspensions (20 oysters in each tank). (From @hckin l96I&-,-. Table 7. Tu,@idily; Ew,iw-t ftr@-"htd tank. pp- tank, P",nt tank. pp. tank. reffent Dal's 1 100 0 to 13-21-55 2 200 151 4-5-55 15 20 to 3 300 10 j 14-26-55 4 19)0 351 4-27-55 10 25 to 5 Soo 20 j 15-18-55 6 590 151 15 15 5@21-55 to 7 710 20 6-12-55 167 Mackin (1961a) reported the results of several experiments to determine the effects of increased turbidities on oysters. He found no significant difference in the mortality of oysters exposed to turbidity higher than found in the natural environment (about 300 to 700 ppm) than with controls in low turbidity water (Table 9). No data were reported, however, on the comparative pumping rates or metabolic characteristics. Demoran (1955) reported that fish were not harmed by increased sediment concentrations in water,,but the fish did tend to avoid the higher turbidity areas. 168 Chapter E-5 IMPOUNDMENT SYSTEM B. J. Copeland The University of Texas Port Aransas, Texas 78373 INTRODUCTION When a part of an estuary is isolated from circulation by spoil banks, dredgings, or dams, new ecological systems replace the old ones. This chapter concerns the class of disturbed systems that result. With the rapidly expanding industrialization and population along the waterways of the world@ impoundment of rivers to form freshwater reservoirs divert river waters so that the estuarine systems are changed. As summarized by Copeland (1966a), rivers a r e important contributors to the maintenance of coastal systems. Thus, the practice of impoundment of coastal rivers decreases the inflow of freshwater, nutrients, organic matter and circulation main- tenance of open channels. The practice of bulkheading and filling of marsh and mudflat systems in coastal areas for the construction of building sites for homes and industry has altered the morphology of coastal systems. Since these vulnerable areas are important for nursery grounds of many of the commercial and sports fishing organisms, the removal of them by impoundment considerably lowers the productivity of the coastal systems. These marsh and mudflat systems are also important for nutrient regeneration and cycling of organic matter, thus making them important to primary productivity as well. In some areas, where hurricanes are a menace, dykes have been con- structed to divert hurricane tides for protection of population centers. While these dykes seldom completely isolate the area behind them from the sea, they restrict flows of water through the narrow openings. In all of the above cases, the transport of energies through coastal systems is severely restricted. The incoming energies of organic fuels from rivers, marshes and mudflats and the energies of circulation necessary for system maintenance are limited through the practice of impoundment. SYSTEM EXU41LE - SOUTH BAY, TEYAS An example of a system resulting from impoundment is South Bay, the southernmost bay in Texas which is located on the south end of the Laguna Madre between the Brownsville Ship Channel and the Rio Grande. The area has been studied by Breuer (1962) and is shown in Figure 1. The Brownsville Ship Channel was completed to a depth of 28 feet in 193B, and much of the resulting spoil from the east end of the channel was placed in 169 G U L F 0 F 611 M E X I C 0 PORT ISABtL I&Y' QD LOWER LAGUNA MADRE Fig. 1. The South Bay areaq Texas. South Bay is adjacent to the lower Laguna Madre of Texas (From B@euer 1962; Pig. 4). Note the placement of the Brownsville Ship Channel., 170 a line along the north end of the bay. This and subsequent redredgings effectively closed the entrance of the bay with the exception of a very narrow, shallow inlet. The net effect was the prevention of circulation and flushing of South Bay by waters from the Laguna Madre and from the Gulf through Boca Chica Pass and Brazos Santiago (Breuer 1962). The maintenance of Boca Chica Pass was dependent on the strong northers to push large volumes of water from the Laguna Yadrep through South Bay,, and out through the pass to keep it scoured. As a result of the spoil deposition, Boca Chica Pass filled in rapidly and closed finally in 1945. Since that time, circulation in South Bay has become almost non-existent, and the average water depth has decreased from 1.2 meters to an average of less than 0.4 meters (Breuer 1962). The South Bay oyster population was destroyed due to the lack of cir- culation, especially i diately following each new dredging operation (Breuer 1962). With the new bottom of soft mud, the water remains relatively turbid because of wind action. This prevents the establishment of the thin grass bottom that formerly existed over most of South Bay. Price (1947) and others have discussed the area of bays as a controlling factor of the depth of the bottom. They indicate that in small bays, insufficient wave energy develops to keep the bottoms from filling in with sediment to very shallow levels. This seems:to be the case in South Bay after the impoundment operation, as it was apparently reliant upon large wave energies from the Laguna Madre wind-driven currents (northers push large volumes of water south- ward in the Laguna Madre during more than half the year-providing tremendous flushing activities, Copeland et al. 1968). Odum and Wilson (1962) indicated a lower productivity in the South Bay system because of the lack of circulation and smothering of grass bottoms due to the impoundment. Breuer (1962) found less fishand invertebrates in the system,, which he attributed to the sedimentation problem. Apparently, small bays are to some major-e@tent reliant upon circulation energies provided from adjacent, larger systems for circulation and flushing through passes and openings for the maintenance of high productivity. Other Examples Copeland (1967b) and Copeland and Jones (1965)., in their studies of the Mexican Laguna M3,dre, reported a decrease in productivity and an increase in sedimentation rates after the Lagoon was impounded in 1961. In addition to the increase in salinity because of evaporation and lack of circulation, the regular exchange between the lagoon and the Gulf of Mexico and the San Fernando River was eliminated. The impoundment of the Everglades in Florida is described by Tabb et al. (1962b) tIdyll (1965,b) and Kolipinski and Higer (1966). A schematic drawing of, the impoundment area is shown in Figure 2. With the decreased flow through the Everglades, there has been an increased salinity in the receiving bays, and the migration-and propagation of shrimp into the Everglade systems has been curtailed. 171 Iq CONSERV47.1 C4NAt 01V v e Rg i Td-i' W W W Turner WATER CONTROLS Miami PARKL. Lost"10 po 00 . . . ..... . .. . omestead dy DWI' IS qer F? O(A .40 RDYAL PALM RANGER STATION EXPLANATION 0 A Primary Hydro- -P biological Station IV 0 Supplementary Hydro- 2 biological Station Flamingo, Doi 160 SCALE IN MILES 00( Fig. 2. The lower Florida Everglades, showing the position of water control structures and the approximate limit of the brackish water zone. (Prom Kolipinski and Higer, 1966). 172 IMPOUNDMENT OF RIVERS Hydrography The most important hydrobiological parameter is salinity. Under normal conditions, salinity is variable in most coastal systems. Collier and Hedgpeth (1950) showed a direct correlation between river flow and estuarine salinity in Corpus Christi Bay, Texas. If river flow is res- stricted by upstream reservoirs, the salinity level in the receiving coastal system may increase to affect a change in biological communities. Coastal systems that have proved to be important nursery areas possess a well defined salinity gradient between river mouth and tidal pass, accommodating a large variety of species. River inflow maintains the salinity gradient to a large extent and without it the entire estuary could become hypersaline, as in the Texas Laguna Madre. On the other hand, too much freshwater inflow may cause the entire estuary to become fresh or near-fresh (e.f Sabine Lake, in east Texas) and destroy the salinity grad- ient. Pritchard (1967a), in summarizing the physical parameters controlling stratification And circulation in an estuary, stated that river input and tidal action were the most dominant. He emphasized the ratio of the volume of water flowing up the estuary during flood tide to the volume of fresh water flowing into the estuary during a complete tidal cycle. When the ratio is small the stratification and circulation resemble those of a salt wedge system, but when the ratio is large (on the order of 1000) they resemble those of a vertically homogenous system. Thus, impoundment of rivers could cause a complete change in the stratification and circulation of the re- ceiving system, robbing it of the needed energies. Closely connected to river flow,is the maintenance of natural inlets between barrier islands', connecting coastal systems to the sea. Simmons and Hoese (1959) suggested the necessity of river flow for maintaining dis- charge through Cedar Bayou, a natural inlet on the Central,Texas coast. Lack of river flow during the early 1950's resulted in the closing of Cedar Bayou. Passes can be kept open only at great expense if river flow is reduced below the level required to maintain them. The passes are important passageways for organisms between nursery grounds and breeding areas (Daugherty 1952; Hoese 1958; Copeland 1965b). Nutrients The influx of freshwater is one of the principal sources of dis- solved nutrients into coastal systems. The relationship of growth in estuarine phytoplankton to terrigenous nutrients is shown by the increase in growth following periods of rainfall and runoff. Organic materials, which are de- composed by bacteria and fungi to release large amounts of organic and in- organic substances that are absorbed by estuarine organisms via the aquatic medium, are brought into the system by river inflow (Nash 1947). 173 Vitamins, which are essential for the growth and reproduction of animals, are also brought into coastal systems from streams. Burkholder and Burkholder (1956) reported a greater concentration of vitamin B12 in the mud and estuarine waters of Georgia than in the adjacent seawater. Maurer and Parker (1968) reported similar results for muds on the Texas coast. Starr and Sanders (1959) postulated that productivity of the near- shore sea was greatly dependent on vitamins adsorbed to suspended solids brought into the coastal waters by river flow. Birke (1968) showed that tremendous amounts of vitamin B12 were transported into the San Antonio Bay, Texas via the contributing streams. The significance of vitamin B12 contribution is illustrated by the fact that the vitamin had to be added to filtered seawater in order to allow shrimp to develop from larval stage to juveniles in laboratory experiments (thus raising the possibility that larval stages of marine organisms require residency in coastal environments for reasons other than moderate salinities). Fisheries Products It is a well known fact that the young of many organisms important to the commercial and sports fishery of this country must rely on coastal systems for at least a portion of their life cycle. Not so well known, however, are the reasons for this dependence. One thing is clear; i.e., the migration into the coastal areas is related to freshwater input and its salinity moderation as well as the tremendous amounts of food energies required by the rapid growth and maintenance during metamorphosis. Oysters Oysters grow in a wide range of salinity, and the production of oysters is exclusively estuarine. Since the oyster is sessile, it depends upon the maintenance of current systems to bring food and vitamins to it and to transport its waste products away. Impounding river systems could affect the oyster through the alteration of the current system maintained by the freshwater inflow. Under normal conditions, occasional flushing with fresh water from rivers helps rid oyster populations of damaging parasites and eliminates species that compete with oysters for food (Galtsoff 1964). Reduction of freshwater input usually results in an increase in salini ty of coastal waters, resulting in an increase of parasites and competing species (Hopkins 1956, 1962; Andrews and Hewatt 1957; H. W. Wells 1959 , 1961). Galtsoff (1964) discussed the decrease in the oyster population of Texas bays during the drought of the 1950's. He suggested that the resulting increase in salinity in coastal water during that time allowed the influx of parasites and diseases, and the higher salinities restricted gonad development. The same thing could happen in coastal systems where the river input is eliminated by reservoirs upstream. Shrimp One of the more valuable fishery products, the shrimp are dependent upon the coastal systems for a part of their life cycle. Their coastal 174 dependence seems related to freshwater runoff as illustrated in Figure 3, which shows a correlation between catch of shrimp and average rainfall for the state of Texas. Correlation coefficients were significant to the one percent level when rainfall of the two previous yeaxs was correlated with an annual catch. This method of analysis was considered valid since the reproductive cycle of shrimp is one year or more and most of the rain in Texas falls during the fall after the major shrimp spawning has occurred. An increase or decrease in rainfall is followed by similax fluctuations in shrimp catch, generally after a two-year period. After,the drought in Texas during the early 1950's, white shrimp populations never full@ re- covered. Presumably, the addition of several reservoirs in Texas during this time prevented river output from approaching the level of previous years and the white shrimp axe more dependent upon lower salinities than other species of shrimp. Other fishery products A discussion of oysters and shrimp is only an indication of the re- action of the system to impoundment effects. Changes in speciation and structure of food chains are also indicative of coastal systems that axe affected by impounded strea-m- Texas coastal systems where fresh water under normal conditions is in short supply, yields the opportunity to study impoundment effects during times of drought. Hoese (1960a) reported changes in the speciation and community structure of a Texas bay when little or no fresh water entered it, as compaxed to a year later when the bay was flooded with fresh water. The data available for comparison of fresh water input and co rcial fishery output are scant. However, in Texas, where fresh water input is at a critical level in most coastal areas, some startling conclusions can be drawn. The minimim fresh water contribution required to maintain the present co rcial fishery is not reached in some years in Ylatagorda, Aransas and Corpus Christi Bays (Figure 4). In Galveston and San Antonio Bays, where fresh water input is relatively large, larger co rcial fishery yields have been harvested during years of intermediate or below average fresh water input - The data presented in Figure 4 do not complete the whole picture. Perhaps more important than the total commercial fisheries output is the change in species composition that makes up the total fishery harvest. During the year following an above average fresh water input, shrimp and oysters make up a larger percentage of the total. These organisms are@@ known to be more dependent upor@ fresh water and axe more valuable economically than are fish products, which make up a larger percentage of the total during years of below average fresh water input. IMPOUMNERT OF PARSH AIND NUDFIAT AREAS, The apparent effect of impoundment of marginal areas of coastal embay- ments is that of complete isolation of the area from the system to which it I'M 04 ANNUAL SHRIMP CATCH 0 (millions of lbs.) 0 :50 :b- 0 (D CD COMMERCIAL FISHERIES PRODUCTS ID Ln co F1 (M-41on Ibs /year) co C+- &0 .H 1:.'"I- 1 0 C+P 0 0 1-4 W W, 0if w @0 0 -zp -7- ---------- W 0 1-3 LA 0 "d CD "d FJXM CD 0P) Ea (D C+w -,02 C+ CD d" 0 0 0 0 I@ 91 03 (D a, C+ M 0 U1 l'-" F-j Id all \0 0 0 (1) CD 0 11 @-A . 0 ----- C+- \00 P z ........ UPI, 0 C+ Z 0 "I 0, F- 0 0 0 U'l ...... U'l -------------- . . . ......... 0 0 0 0 CD I@ 0 0 0 17 0 OD 0 OR 0 n a) . ....... to I @O M 0 - M (D 0 0 (D (a 01 :r 5@ AVERAGE ANNUAL RAINFAL ."r C+. (inches) CD CF (1) C+- (D 0 +1 176 is connected as a subsystem. Little, however, is known about the overall effects the isolation (and thus destruction) of these marginal subsystems exert on the coastal system. A diagram of such a system is in Figure 5. The construction of a highway through the coastal area of Louisiana and Mississippi has effectively separated the inland areas of the coastal marshes from the outer marsh areas, completely altering the circulation patterns of the entire marsh system. The result has been saltwater intrusion into the outer marsh system (in the absence of the freshwater inflow from inland sources now prevented by the highway), with the subse- quent results of soil alteration and eventually alteration of the marsh vegetation. The "dam" has prevented the normal circulation of waters, nutrients and organisms, which has resulted in lower productivity in the coastal systems (Mr. William Turcotte, Mississippi Fish and Game Commission; personal communication). In New Jersey, where the harvest of salt-hay is profitable, dykes have been constructed in marsh areas. The resulting change in circulation and salinity structure has led to Spartina paetens replacing S. alterniflora as the dominant marsh plant (�.ee New Jersey Division of Fish and Game 1968, for a discussion concerning marsh dyking in New Jersey). Drainage and diversion by dams hA interrupted the normal flow of fresh water from the Okeechobee area south across the Everglade marshes in Florida (Idyll 1965a;Kolipinski and Higer 1966). The resulting higher salinities in the Everglades estuarine systems has caused a decrease in shrimp and fish production (Tabb et al. 1962b; Idyll 1965a). The lower pro- duction of these more "desirable'@'_or_ganisms is only a portion of the change that has occurred as a result of the damming activities; there has been a change in the community structure (Tabb et al. 1962b). The practice of bulkheading and filling shallow area (mudflat subsystems) around the margins of coastal systems for d,evelopment of real estate is becoming widespread (G, W. Allen, 1964). These areas are important to the ecology of adjacent coastal systems as nursery grounds for the young of many estuarine organisms, nutrient regeneration and production of organic matter (Diener 1964). The loss of these marginal areas lowers the overall productivity of the coastal system. Price (1968) described the effects of the construction of a spoil bank resulting from the digging of the intracoastal canal in the Laguna Madre of Texas adjacent to a large mudflat area (about 35,000 acres). The spoil bank prevented the normal circulation of water from the Laguna over the mudflat during normal fluctuations of the tides. Only during the extremely high water levels of spring and fall and storm tides was it possible for the water to circulate on the flat. During the remainder of the year the water evaporated leaving a salt layer, which later was transported over pasture land by wind and destroyed several thousand acres of grass. 177 IV JOhn3 P033 qohns Pass -ST. PETERSBURG 0.7 ST. PETERSBURG 6 U L F GULF BOC 00 CIEGA BOCA 0 F 0 F CIEGAe BAY(aP MEXICO :.,...BAY MEXICO 6P PROPOSED FILL AREA FILLED AREA FILLED AREA 1945 T KEY 1963 MULLET KEY BOCA CIEGA BAY, FLORIDA Fig. 5. Diagram Of Boca Ciega Bay, Florida shoving the effects Of bulkheading and filling since 1.945. The black in the right hand figure represents loss of bottom from filling (From smith 3-966; Plate 4 178 HURRICANE PROTECTION DYKES To provide protection of population centers in coastal axeas, dykes have either been constructed or axe planned across the mouths of several estuaries. These dykes possess narrow openings through which the exchange of fresh and sea water occurs. Such a dyke exists in Narragansett Bay, Rhode Island and are planned for Galveston Bay, Texas and Mobile Bay, Alabama. C. A. Yaquire and Associates (Providence, Rhode Island) studied the physical chaxacteristics that resulted from the construction of the dyke in Narragansett Bay (report not available) and found that current structure and circulation were significantly modified. Hydrographic data indicated that the water above the dyke was fresher than prior to the installation of the structure. Saila (1962) reported the re- sults of a study concerning the migrations of winter flounder in relation to the dyke and found insignificant differences in migration patterns as a result of the dyke being there. More work needs to be done before general conclusions can be drawn concerning the effects of the dykes on the ecology of the coastal systems. Fip, 6 is the proposed impoundment for Galveston Bay. Fig. 7 is a proposed impoundment for Tampa Bay@, Florida. 179 SAN JACINTO HOUSTON RIVER EXISTING OR AUTHORIZED TRINITY DIKES AND SEAWALLS RIVER PROPOSED ALTERNATE 1111-400-0 DIKE ALIGNMENTS PROPOSED TIDE TRINITY SAY CONTROL STRUCTURE UPPER GALVESTON BAY EAGLE PT SMITH PT LOWER GALVESTON KILOMETERS TEXAS CITY SAY EAST BAY HIGH ISLAND-- GULF INTRACOASTAL ----------- ------ WATERWAY BOLIVAR BAY PENINSULA ROLLOVER PASS NEST FREEPORT GALY STON 11 LAND BOLIVAR PASS SAN LUIS FOLLETS IS PASS 6 UL F or ME;r1co --Proposed alignments for dikes and water-control structures to prevent hurricane flooding in the Galveston Bay area. Fig. 6. 11r'oposed impoundment for Galveston Bay (Hoogland 1966; Fig- 30)- t ...... Fig- 7- Proposed impoundment for Tampa Bay (From Finucane 1966; Fig 9). 40' 82-35'w. --Sampling stations, major commercial oyster producing areas, and proposed fresh-water lake im- poundment in Old Tampa Bay, Fla. 180 Chapter E-6 ECOLOGICAL SYSTEM RECEIVING HEATED WATER Donald B. Horton and David W. Bridges Pamlico Marine Laboratory, North Carolina State University Aurora, North Carolina 27806 The flow of hot water into estuaries may pr@duce new ecological systems which are characteristically simple in species variety, Our best knowledge of the role of hightemperatures and unusual temperature fluctuations comes from hot springs, some of which are additionally stressed by relatively high con- centrations of dissolved salts* With the proliferation of nuclear fueled steam electric power plants along the coast using tidal waters for cooling, hot water ecological systems may develop in estuaries where the factors of tide, fresh- water inflow and normally adapted marine populations introduce new dimensions. Although there is a large body of information on the thermal physiology of individual species, only a few case histories of ecological systems affected by heated water axe available. EXAMMS Patuxent River Estuary, Maryland Heated water is introduced from a nuclear power plant at Chalk Point (Fig. 1). This is an oligohaline environment where the salinity averages 6%Q. An example of the heat dissipation and thermal plume from the plant just before high slack water is shown in Figure 2. The plant is located in an area which comprises a spawning, nursery and feeding area for white perch, Roccus Americanus (Fig. 1). A before and after study in the vicinity of the discharge canal shows significantly more fish occupying the warm water during the winter (Fig. 3) but fewer immediately at the discharge site in the summer 4). There has also been a reduction in primary production as measured by C assim- ilation in the effluent water (Fig- 5)- Studies by Mibursky and Stross (1967) have shown that up to 95% of the plankters are killed on'passing through the plant condensers. San Joaquin River, Central California The Contra Costa Power Plant is located on the San Francisco Bay delta (Fig. 6) in an oligohaline environment that occasionally reaches a salinity of 2 - 3%ein the su r. The natural temperature regime ranges between 70C and 230C with a weighted mean temperature increase across the condensers of 90C (Kerr, 1953)- Fig. 7 shows a characteristic thermal plume at this location. The resident fish in this oligohaiine estuary are principally fresh water species (Table 1), but an important anadromous component of valuable co rcial fish either spawn at this location or pass through on their upstream and downstream migrations. Par- ticulax attention has been paid to protecting these commercially important species with the expectation that other less important species will be similarly pro- tected (Kerr, 1953). The juveniles of king salmon (Oncorhynchus ;fschqwyt_sch@), a cold wAter species, is particularly subject to the possible harmful effects 181 PATUXENT RIVER ESTUARY SCALE Of NILES 4 6 0 10 5, ZONE I :AKt Mo F 0 N E II VA. 7ON E 1IL ZONAL CHARACTERISTICS WATER . ...... ECOLOGICAL Use QUALITV FRESH BRACKISH t BY WHITE FE FICH Iff p6RI. X GO a K X X It I IM - - % 6.0 K 2 K IX - - K X Xmo X It X X41.0 K K X X18.9 X X -ZONE I A it IS.7 X X 1k J. ez 14 .1. C. Z ONE E ZONE ... -CM .. L-C.I... Fig. 1. Patuxent River estuary, Maryland, showing general ecological zones, collecting localities, and locations of tag returns of white perch, Roccus americanus. The inset of the Maryland portion of Chesapeake Bay shows the general location of the Patuxent tributary in relation to the upper part of the Chesapeake system. Relative salinity values in the various zones are as follows: low-1-8 ppt; medium-3-12 ppt; and high--6-15 ppt. Circle at Chalk Point indicates location of Pepke generating plant (adopted from Mansueti, ig6lb). 12.50C April 10, 1967 182 ... ....... 13.30C F Deep Landing I 5.00C . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17.70C Chalk Point 12.30C 0 NAUTICAL MILES Fig- 2. Diagram. of power plant, effluent plume-taken from N.A.S.A. U.S.G.S. infrared photo just prior to high slack water. Temperatures indicated are from nearby surface temperature recorders and are estimates of true values (From Cory and Nauman,1968). 183 ....... after before 3 CX Ui co 2 D z U- 0 0 0 3 7 9 11 STATIONS Fig- 3. Deep water trawl catch of white perch during winter in Patuxent River estuary before and after operation of ste@ akeetric station at Chalk Point,, Maryland (From MihUrsky,et al, IL967)- 184 after .3 before W Ui Co D z 0 0 0 .j .0 3 5 7 9 STATIONS Fig. 4. Deep water trawl catch of white perch during sumer in Patuxent River estuary before and after operation of steam electric station at Chalk Point, Maryland (From Mihursky,.2t al, IL967). CARDON U PT AKE @n MG /tA3/ H R 0 0 m m :j P, C@' C+ co cc+ 0 ol co m I (> 0% ;a C: (D C+ 0 Fb > 0. m 0 0 m -n 0 0 m C+ 0 (n Z C: m z C+ 0 C+ q ol@ C+ lCl+ Im C+ 0 m INTAKE TEMPERATURE (OC-) Ul 98T 186 '23'w 45, 30 111 e0d 45' 12" 3d C A L I F 0 R N I A N NAI _Iz- @11-1 40 45' 145' v*3O* 3d 15, Fig. 6. Vicinity map of the Delta showing the locations of Contra Costa and Pittsburg Steam Plants of the Pacific Gas and Electric Company (From Kerr, 1953). 187 N I AGO .... ....... ....... DONLAN ISL@A NO ... - - - - --62 Ve 4 e5 06 0 A QUO N A N N A,N r, b1b d d i600 3660i@r. 1000 . . .............. Run No. 2 3 4 Average MW 471 1471 1471 1 471_1 IP00 lopm 500-- 5PM 3 2 1 4 CP so wo 6- '.a 1.0 Qa -P 00 0 30 110 lot 129 lee 3 blootherm Ternpaninus Intake Ternp.(FO) %3C Twnpvatureabo- Amblenl(FOI Fig. 7. Isotherms in the San Joaquin River estuary, California from run no. 3 taken May 21, 1964 at the Contra Costa generating plant and offshore thermal characteristics during 4 separate surveys at the same plant site (From Cheney and Richards, 1966). 188 Table 1. List of common and scientific names of fishes taken in the San Joaquin estuary - site of the Contra Costa generating plant (From Kerr, 1953)- ANADROMOUS FISHES Pacific lamprey (Enfosphenus tridepttatu8) White sturgeon (Acipeiiscr transinotanus) Green sturgeon (Acipenser viedirostris) Shad (Alosa sapidi@isima) King salmon (Oncorhynchus tshawvtscha) Steelbead rainbow trout (Salmo gairdneri) Striped bass (Roccies Rmratilis) RESIDENT FISHES Sacramento smelt (Spirinchus thalcichthys) Freshwater smelt (ffypomesus olidus) Western sucker (Catostolnus occidentalis) Carp (Cliprinus carpio) Hardhead (Mylopharodon ronocephalus) Hitch (Lavinia exilicauda) Sacramento squawfish (Ptychocheilax grandis) Splittail (Pogonichthys inacrolepidotus) Channel catfish (Ictalurus punctaties) White catfish (Ictaho-vs catus) Brown bullhead (Ameiurva nebulosus) Black bullhead (Amebirus inelas) Starr@, flounder (Platichthys stellatus) Largeffiouth black bass (Micropterus salmoides.) Warmouth (Chaenobryttus coronarius) Bluegill (Lepomis macrochirus) Black crappie (Pontoxis nigro-maculatus) Freshwater viviparous perch (Ilysterorarpus traski) Prickly sculpin (Cottus asper) Staghorn sculpin (Leptocottus armatu8) 4W so, 20, 101 76* Do' 40, 40.. 4W 3W. go' *a. A. CA116 -go, to-- 40, go, to, 101 Te so' *0, Fig. 8. Lower Chesapeake Bay, Virginia showing the approximate location of Virginia Electric and Power Company's steam electric generating station at Yorktown, Virginia (Adopted from Patten, e-t al, 1963)- 0 C, r AM" 189 of heated water on their downstream migration during the warmer su r months. York River Estuary., Virginia Heated water from a power plant at Yorktown is discharged into the York River estuary near its mouth (Fig. 8). Characteristics of the thermal plume are shown at flood and ebb tides in Fig. 9. Where There is,appreciable stability imparted to the water col:uma by temperature cr salin1tv, the thermal discharges tend to be concentrated at the surface as shown in Fig. 9. This environment has an average salinity of 18%6and is dominated by regular diurnal tides. Oysters are an important natural resource in tais area and Warinnek and Brehmer (1966) have shown (Fig. 10) that the species diversity of benthic fauna is lowered within several hundred yards by the heated water discharge. Morro Bay, Southern California Here heated water is discharged directly into a high saline coastal marine environment (Fig. 12). North ( 1968a ) observed that species diversity was affected by the heated water. In the discharge canal (Fig. 11) mero- scopic algae were very rare but a total of 71 species of animals was found. Sea anemones that possess a symbiotic unicellular algae were particularly abundant, perhaps due to competitive exclusion of thermally sensitive species. However, in a similar canal discharging heated water into a Tm ine coastal environment at Humbolt Bay, California, algae were apparently not so severely affected as reported by North ( 1968a ) from personal comninication from J. R. Adams. Here, there was an abundance of green algae (Ulva and Eteromorpha) in the canal and red and green algae (Ulva, Iridaea and Odonthalia) iateiy- outside. In the transitional zone (Fi-g.11) algal species were sparse and the density of stands was low. Only seven species were found at transect A (Fig. 11) while 20 were observed at B in the normal region. Some preliminary evidence shown in Figure 13 indicated that the zonation patterns of the two zones was essentially similar, and there was no downward shift caused by the warmer surface waters. Only 27 animal species were observed in the transitional zone and low concentrations were characteristic. Reeovery to normal conditions occurred abruptly within a horizontal distance of 10 m. In the normal region there were 33 species of macrophytes and 44 animal species. River Blackwater, England This is a cold temperate high salinity estuary (31 - 33Q discharging into the North Sea (Fig. 14). Heated water is released into the estuary along a barrier wall. Figs. 15 and 16 show characteristic thermal plu a at high slack water and the concentration of warm water at the surface. There is rapid cooling due to initial mixing of the heated discharge so that the greatest recorded increase in water temperature was 5.60C within 100 m of the outfall (Fig. 15). An intensive before and after study of oyster populations, plankton and smaller benthic invertebrates has not shown any changes which could be attributed to the heated water. The zooplankton fauna was characterized by Acartia, several other calanoid species and the harpacticoid copepod, EuterRina acutifrons (Figs. 1-7 and 18)- There was a second brood of Euter2ina at the Barrier wall 190 +2. SURFACF 180TTOM +4- +2 LI [SURFACE ISU ACE 180 TOM ISOTTOM Fig. 9. Distribution of thermal effluents at Burface and bottom during (A ) MaximM flood current (left) and high slack water (right); (B) Mwdmim ebb current (left) and low Black water (right) (After Warinner and Brehmer,, 1966). 191 100 .100 400 foe 01sr,94ce hom Oufffffl-yds Fig. 10. Species diversity of benthic fauna according to the index S-1/in N at stations opposite a discharge can 1, (From Warinner and Brehmer, 1966). 10 8 6 4 100 meters .0 a. A 'Discharge B Canal Transitional Region Morro Norma I Bay Region IM Morro Rock Fig. 11. Locations of the regions surveyed. Transects A and B shown as dotted lines. Depth contours ( IM 0 W in meters (From iiorth. 1968a 192 SO N35023- 03 ORR r POWER PLA#vr ri U KE ROE C2 04 e. U3502 05 0 06 MLE @@l 0@2 0.3 0.6 G6 2 3 Run NO. 4 .5 6 7 8 9 A ge MWI -7581 868 -F 660 660 vera 8331 1 570 P-00 1160 660 f fjow 3 I A 3 E 10 6 7 N@ N ! i 9 9 50 Q5 e I W1 TI` 74 OV 4* Go 00 106 Iza 140 10;- -20 4-0 60 so 109 as KV hotherm Temp. minus Intake Temp.(FO) TwWwature above Ambisnt(FO) Fig. 12., Isotherms taken at Pacific Gas and Electric's Morro Bay Power Plant on run number 2, September 12, 1963; and offshore temperature char- taken on nine occasions at the Morrow Bay Power Plant (From Cheney and Richards, 1966). 4b @3 193 0 Lorninaria setch-ellii I Unable Colliarthron cheilosporiodes Vo Callophyllis flabellulata 2 - observe ilariopsis sjoestedtii 3 - Transect A j@@Frid-aea lineare ;9@14 fridaea splenders 4 - Y Prionitis lanceolota Peyssonelia pacifica 5 Phyllospadix torreyi 2 3 4 (D E 0 lj/70,61e 06se"Ve 3 - 4 - 5 - Transect B 6 - 7 - 8 9 1 2 a a 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 Meters @'no ble to 0bse rve Transect, Fig. 13. Distribution of principal seaweed species along Transects A and B at Yjarro Bay Power Plant (From North, 1968a @ 194 CLACTON M RSEA ONSEA ISL NO G4el x ER. CROU -RIVeR, ROACH SOUTHEND ON SEA' THAMES E3TUAFkY ID MILES Fig. 14A. Blackwater Estuary with power station (x) in England (Hawes, 1965@. SA.LCOTT. MERSEA- WEST MERSEA ................ ........ .... . ... ............. TOLLESBURY BARRIER ............. WAU ....... ...... WEYMARKS L -U'rCr 8 AD EL SL I a GENE STATION.. . ......... OEVIFT SRADWELL.' .......... 1SLAND WATERSIDE TH I a P I OECOY POINT BRADWELL OSEA .. ISLAND ............ ON SEA ............. .. ................ TONE .............. 2 3 staluts Miles 0 2 3 4 KilometrCs. MAYLANDSEA Fig. 14B. River Blackwarer estuary indicating position of Bradwell Generating Station and Barrier Wall comply areas (from Hawes, 1965). HIGH WATER SLACK 196 6 iod urv ty 4 3 21 2 --7 -20 I r, !S! Hai aht __Iq OD INEWLVF41 33018, 3?2 V x 1 CAA r1a 1-, 0 300 IS2 4 280 I St t, M W Outilut '-C- 120 12 o" 2 11 10 owa 0700 Km 1300 1600 2000 GM.T DISCHARGE OF COOLING WATER AT OUTFALL MEASUREMENT TAKEN AT SURFACE 16th NOVEMBER 1963 BRADWELL NUCLEAR I POWER STATION AR 9150 1OF 0-60C 2 1.1 3 1-7 4 2-2 S 2-8 6 3-3 7 3-9 a 4-4 9 S-0 10 5-6 ISOT14GRMS PELATIVE TO BACKGROUNO TEMPERATURE 0 600 metres d 0 10PO 20001cat Fig. 15. Isotherms in River Blackwater estuary from Bradwell nuclear generating station at the surface at high slack water (from Hawes , 1965). 197 10 HIGH WATER SLACK 9 DISCHARGE OF COOLING +6 WATER AT OUTFALL MEASUREMENT TAKEN AT 6 FEET DEPTH 16th NOVEMBER 1963 4 pf E urv BRADWELL NUCLEAR AR 9152 POWER STATION I 21 20 600 metres +1 0 0 HE WLYN) Is 0 1000 2000fect 310 16 3W 3 41- Is 290 '4 ja qt, 1Ltj t@t J @6 127.1 -7 -- 0400 0700 9M 1300 1600 2000 GMT ISF IDA 2 1-1 --3 1-7 A 2-2 5 2-8 ISOTWERMS RELATIVE TO BACKGROUND TEMPERATURE 1 C 10 ISOTW or' (BACK( Fig. 16. Isotherms in the River Blackwell estuary at the Bradwell nuclear generating station on the bottom during high slack tide (From Hawes,, 1965). 100 Tota13 90 - 198 80 - 70 - 60- 50 - 40- 30- 20- 10 0 20 - All others 10- 0 20 - Cirripedes 10 - 0 100 Horpacticolds 90- 80 - 70 - 60- 50- 40- 30 20- 10- On- Calanoids 20- 10- 0....... NIL 0" j f f m m aammj j jyjya-,as soon n Month of Year Lfl 3 3 Fig. 17. Number of zooplankton organisms per m x 10 collected at Barr ier Wall Station, River Blackwater estuary, 1964. (Hawes, 1965). 100 Totals 199 90- so- 70- 60 so- 40- 30 20- to- 0 Ail others 20 to- 01- to[ Cirripedes 0 1 - - too Harpacticoids 90- so- 70- 60- so- 40 30- 20- 10 0 Calanolds 30 20- 10- 0 j f f m M a a M rn j jjyjy(30 S soon n Month of Year Fig. 18. Number of zooplankton organisms per m3 x 10 3 collected at Nass Beacon Station, River Blackwater estuary, 1964. (Hawes, 1965). 200 station (Fig. 17) not recorded at the station outside of the influences of heated water (Fig. 18) nor in the before study. Fig. 19 illustrates that there wem considerable year to year fluctuations in the general succession and abun- dance of planktonic forms, but very little difference between heated water and normal stations. Although no effects were definitely attributed to the heated water discharges, it was emphasized (Hawes, 1965) that longer term studies are required. In some related studies, Crepidul transferred into a heated water trough at the plant site were found to grow faster, reach a greater size and spawn earlier than those placed in a cold water trough. DISCUSSION The effect of heated water effluents in estuaries is of only recent concern. One reason is that heat has not been considered a pollutant in the ordinary sense of the word in spite of the fact that heat kills commonly occur in the marine environ n (Brongersma- Sanders, 1957). However, all estuarine systems are subjected to daily and seasonal temperature changes which trigger the inception of migration for many species of fish and the release of gametes by benthic invertebrates. Only with the tremendous growth of the power indus- try and particularly with the adoption of atomic fuel rather than fossil fuel has "thermal pollution" been added to the list of.T-n-induced hazards to the estuarine ecosystem. It is obvious that if a cold water environment is re- placed by a warm water regime that profound changes in the estuary will result and a new system will emerge. In natural systems there are a few instances in which warm water meets cold water to bring about changes, sometimes catastrophic, in naturally adapted populations. In the Cape Cod Canal, significant temperature shocks are manifest on each change of the tide as warm water from Buzzards Bay meets the cold water from Cape Cod Bay. Fish have been observed to be affected arid there is a very marked reduction of species diversity within the canal. Similar temperature shocks accompany the meander of the equatorial counter current (El Nino) when it comes close to the coast of Peru and causes tremendous mortalities of fish (Brongersma-Sanders, 1957)- Glynn (1968) described heat kill of echinoids in a tropical reef environment and Redgpeth and Goner (.1969) a kill of sea urchins in an intertidal area in a cold-temperate environment on the cen- tral Oregon coast. As will be discussed later, frequent fish kills also accompany seasonal changes in temperature, particularly in temperate estuaries where there is a replacement of cold and warm water fish faunas seasonally. Natural fluctuations in temperature have been correlated to abundance of fishstocks in a number of studies reviewed by Hedgpeth and Goner ( 1969). They stress that these long-term natural fluctuations in temperature evidently influence the presence or absence of many species and must be taken into consid- eration in studies on the possible effects of thermal effluents. However, although these examples may be used to illustrate the potential dangers involving the release of thermal effluents, there is very little evidence that substantial heat kills have accompanied the installation of power plants on estuaries, and the indirect effects of heat and its interaction with other stress factors may be more important. R-esently, a large and growing volume of research NUMBERS OF BARNACLE NAUPLII Barrier Wall IN A SO LITRE SAMPLE 900 BRADWELL NUCLEAR Soo @ N 96/10338 POWER STATIO ezz; Elminius 700 iiiiiw Balanus IN 1962-3 THE SPECIES OF NAUPLII 600 - WERE NOT IDENTIFIED Soo - 400 - 300 - 200 0 100 now 0 997 .9 E NassBeacoM D 900 z Soo - 700 - 600 500 - 400 - 300 200 100 L 0 1Y Ia IS 1 0 1n I dif I'm I CIMI ja Is. a..n IM IL M a M j * i Jy d I j f M a jy'c 1 s a n d 1962 1963 1964 Fig. 19. Abundance of two species of barnacle nauplti during each month of 1962-1964 at the barrier tj C) wall station and the Nass beacon station in the River Blackwater estuary (from Hawes, 1965). 202 on the effects of heat effluents on estuarine organisms is underway. However, as yet very little has been published and most of the available information is preliminary in nature and does not involve complete estuarine systems. In this report we will attempt to summarize the important information available and present the possible consequences of thermal loading oii representative estuarine types.' Figure 20 presents in diagrammatic position the general problems assoc- iated with a power plant heat exchange system. The flow rate figures and discharge plume cha@acteristics are only representative and do not illustrate any specific installation. However., particularly in the case of atomic fueled steam electric generating plants which use about 30 percent more cooling water than fossil fueled plants (Hogerton, 1968), a large percentage of the net estuarine flow may be used. , Figures from Squire (1967) and elsewhere indicate that the cooling water is heated about IO*C above ambient water temperature before being discharged. The thermal plume is affected by the flow characteristics of the estuary and can be modeled like any other introduced contaminant (e.g., Pritchard and Carter, 1965)- Monitoring of water temperatures often shows that the plume is concentrated along the shore and that heat dispersion is rapid pro- viding the receiving body of water is relatively large. The plume is also ex- pressed vertically with the heated lighter water concentrated at the surface. Tide and wind displace the heated water so that large temperature fluctuations are characteristic except,in, and immediately outside of, the discharge can 1 (Fig. 9). Comprehensive bibliographies on thermal pollution have been compiled by Kennedy and Mihursky (1967) (1,220 entries), Raney and Menzel (1967) (1,217 entries), Raney and Menzel (1968 XWO entries), Gerber (1967) (863 entries). For additional information, review articles on the ecological effects of tem- perature on the marine envirofiment (Gunter, 1957b.).the Dlxvsiological effects of temperature on marine organisms (Kinne, 1963a, 1964b; and Prosser, 1967) and the effects of heated effluents on marine organisms by Naylor(ij65b) and Ydhursky and Kennedy (1967) are particularly valuable. Fig. 20 illustrates the three major consequences of heated water effluents from power generating stations: 1. Plankton, including fish eggs and larvae, and the larvae of benthic invertebrates can pass through the intake screens of the plant and are subjected to a rapid temperature increase. 2. High temperatures can directly affect organisms in the vicinity of the discharge canal. Depending on latitude and season, the lethal limits of endemic species could be reached in this area. 3. Outside of the zone of maximum temperature increase, a variety of direct and indirect temperature effects my be important. Temperature fluctuations can bring about inopportunegarnete release by invertebrates and heat or chill death'of fish. The joint effects of temperature, dissolved oxygen and salinity and the indirect effect of temperature on stability of the water column may be more important than any direct effect of a modest temperature increase. Although maximm water temperatures in estuaries during the su r are STEAM ELECTRIC GENERATING PLANT AT=IOOC COOL[ N@G A DISCHARGE WATER IN TAK E CANAL C 1000 CfS AT=40C D / AT=6*C AT=80C AT=20C ESTUARY NET FLOW 3000 cfs Fig. - 20. -Diagrammatic representation of a cooling water-diversion through a power plant. Locations are shown @where important thermal effects on an estuarine ecosystem may occur. (A),A significant proportion of the net estuarine volume flow may be-used for cooling. (B) Entrained organisms (plankton and juvenile fish) are subjected to a rapid increase in temperature up to about 1OPC above.ambient. They are-subject to the high temperature for varying periods of time depending on plant design, volume flou@and size of the discharge canal. (C) Fish are attracted to the discharge canal where they can be killed by a combination of high temperature and low dissolved oxygen. Fish can also be trapped in (A) when they clog the intake screens. Species diversity of benthic organisms may be severely affected at (C) and (D). At (E) various long term effects on increased temperature on to CD water column stability, plant and.animal respiration, benthic invertebrate feeding and growth rates U) may result in population shifts and species replacement. Fish migration may be blocked, and egg and larval development affected by meanders of the thermal plume. (F) Controlled system aquiculture could utilize the heat energy to commercial advantage. 204 quite similar throughout a broad geographical range (28-300C), in the more northerly areas, surface water temperatures in excess of 280C are rare. How- ever, to the south, surface water temperatures in shallow estuaries with res- tricted tidal exchange-are commonly greater than 300C for prolonged periods, and heat related fish kills frequently occur. Additional heat l6ading in these environments pose particular hazards. Certain estuarine systems may be particularly endangered by waste heat. -An oligohaline system already severely stressed @y salinity and low in species diversity my be more affected by thermal discha:@&p than a more stable system which has a greater capacity to absorb thermal shocks. Maltiple stressed systems of all kinds are similarly subject to greater danger. Plankton Based Oligohalifie Systems Althoug@ temperature is of importance to phytoplahkton in culture since many species have.specific optima for growth, virtually no bioassay of the effect of a sudden exposure to high temperature has been made for any planktonic organ- ism (Allen, 1969 ). Studies by Mihursky and Stross (1967) have shown that up to 95 percent of phytoplankton and zooplankton are destroyed after passing through a steam electric generating station. In view of the large quantities of water used in atomic-fueled plants, this effect becomes extremely important. If the regeneration rate is not able to keep pace with the rate of plankton destruction, then many species could become severely depleted. Thisleffect may be particularly severe in certain oligohaline river systems where most of the river flow passes through the turbines and tidal exchange is minimal. The seasonal succession of algal species is regulated in part by seasonal temperature changes. Cairns (1956) and Patrick ( 1969 ) show in an example appropriate to oligohaline systems, that diatoms, green algae and blue-green algae may succeed eac.'h other (Fig. 21) because of differences in temperature optima. The blue-greens with a temperature optima over 350C may be favoied in regions of greatest heat loading in the su r. However, as Patrick ( 1969 points out in her summary of temperature effects on fresh water algae, many other interacting ecological factors such as light and nutrient availability also influence the seasonal succession of species. Provasoli (1958), for example, noted that vitamin B12 requirements for flagellates were found to increase several hundred-fold with a small rise in temperature near the lethal point. Bottom Based Systems A general reduction in species diversity below thermal effluent outfalls has'been noted by Trembley (196o, 1965) and Cairns (1969) in freshwater . I environments, Warinner and Brehmer (1966) in a medium salinity estuary and North (19689 in a high salinity neutral embayment. However, reduct16n-in species diversity does not always appear to be a consequence of heated water insertions (Crains, in press ), and probably occurs only in locations which are subjected to high temperature stress for relatively long periods of time-(Patrick, .1969). For example, North (1968a)found a reduction in species diversity of animals and macroscopic algae over a distance of only 200 m from the mouth of a heated water discharge canal with a cooling water capacity of 300 m3/sec. Recovery to normality occurred within 10 m of the outer terminus of this zone. In the Hunterston Investigations in Great Britain, Barnett and Hardy (1966) have not 205 O-ATOW3 Olt YEMPCOATURS SC Fig. 21. Algal population shifts with temperature (from Cairns, 1956). W.) beat,/O'ecs 20- ftl.-, @'I- U-C" X- ITT@- - I-rT-rM IZ C @X 30 Fig. 22. Cirral activity/temperature curves for pairs',o f arctic and tropical species of barnacles (from So@pl@tihward, 1964). 206 observed any effect of heated water discharge on molluscan fauna during the first two years of plant operation. They report on laboratory investigations with Dosinia exoleta and Tellina tenius and observe that the pelagic phases are shortened at higheTtempe es and t&t this effect would be expected in the vicinity of the effluent outfall. However, the warming did not cause Tellina to spawn earlier. Perhaps the sampling techniques in current use are not sen- sitive enough to demonstrate changes in benthic invertebrate populations that can be attrfuuted to thermal effluents except in the immediate vicinity of the discharge canals. Subtle population shifts by competitive exclusion may only gradually be manifest and long term studies involving carefully designed sampling programs may be necessary to docu nt changes. At this time we can only infer from laboratory experiences what effects increased temperatures will have on natural corimmnities. In general, benthic species have specific temperature tolerance limits. Some are stenothermic, others eurythermic, but all can readily adapt to the natural temperature fluctuations of their environ n - When species are stressed with temperature fluctuations greater than those experienced in nature, various effects have been rioted. There can be a general failure to reproduce, or the larvae will not develop normally. Hedgpeth and Goner ( 1969 ) have reviewed the influence of temperature changes and thermal stress on estuarine benthos. They emphasize that temperature is the most important factor in synchronizing reproductive periodicity of benthos with the seasons. Light and other factors are only of secondary importance. Temperature fluctuations can trigger gamete release by invertebrate animals. If spawning occurs when other environ ntal requirements (e.g., food or temperature levels outside of the thermally stressed area) are not suitable then the larvae will not develop. Southward (1964) in studying cirral activity in barnacles.found that although activity was present over a wide range of temperatures, optimal activity was rather narrowly limited, and that different species had different optima (Fig. 22). This implies that a heated water area in a temperate estuary may favor the survival of species at the northernmost edge of their range which, under the new environ ntal conditions, have a greater filtering efficiency than endemic species. Controlled Systems In temperate and sub-arctic estuaries heat stress may result in the replacement by immigration of species ordinarily restricted to warmer temperatures farther south. Naylor (1965b) suggests that deliberate introductions of pre- adapted species could be made to replace endemic species elimin ted by pollutional stress. Ansell, et al. (1964) suggest that this phenomenon of species replace- ment could be used--Tdr-comercial advantage in growing clams. He describes a study (Ansell, 1962) which utilized the heated water effluents from a power station in England to grow the introduced American quahog, Yiercenaria mercenaria. Gaucher (1968a, 1968b) has reviewed the world-wide experience and co ial value potential in the use of heated water effluents to optimize growth of various species in aquicultural practices. The use of waste heat energy from power stations for controlled system culture would help to prevent thermal pollution of naturally adapted systems. Also,. multiple pollutants (e.g., heat, sewage wastes and C02) can be advantageously incorporated into aquicultural plans (Ansell, 1962). Doudoroff ( 1969 states that results from bioenergetic studies on 207 fish should form the basis for water quality temperature criteria. Inasmuch as fish can exist under a wide range of temperatures, water temperatures ' should be maintained which optimize the production of valuable fish species (Doudoroff, ibid) and not merely allow for the fish's continued existence. Unfortunately, a complex estuaxine system is composed of many species within different parts of their geographical range, having a variety of optimal temperatures for growth and production. Perhaps bioenergetic studies would be of greatest advantage in specifying the optimal temperature regimes in con- trolled systems, where one or a few species would be managed for maximm pro- duction at carefully monitored water temperatures, salinities and feeding rater.. Temperature and Productivity In nature, the effect of increased temperature on photosynthesis is probably unimportant although very little work has been done on this (Raymont, 1963a). WimpennY (1958) found that the percentage daily increase of carbon up- take of Rhizosolenia was 55% at 50C, 122% at 1000 and 168% at 150C using a standard illumination of 16,000 lux. Phinney and WIntire (1965) found that oxygen evolution of algae in artificial fresh water streams increased at higher temperatures when light intensity was 22,000 lux, but was not affected at 11,000 lux. At the relatively lower light intensities found in turbid estuarine environ- ftents, high temperatures may increase algal respiration more than photosynthesis and net productivity would decrease. Whursky and Stross (1967) have demonstrated substantial di 'fferences in carbon assimilation values for phytoplankton between the intake and thermal effluent discharge waters when ambient temperatures were greater than about 240C (Fig- 5)- Some of the differences shown may be due to the destruction of algal cells in the passage of water through the condensers. The indirect effects of increased temperature on estuarine primary pro- ductivity are much more important than any direct effect. Bacteria multiply faster and bacterial respiration increases at higher temperatures. Thus at high temperatures the mineralization of organic matter to nutrient salts is enhanced. Low oxygen concentrations brought about by bacterial respiration allows the release of nutrients through the reduced mad-vater interface. However, Sieburth (1967) presents evidence that bacteria in the water column may "void nutrients or recycle them" in such a way as to prevent sustained phytoplankton growth. His work was done in Narragansett Bay where bacterial populations were high in the summer when phytoplankton populations were at their lowest ebb. A rise in surface water temperature increases the stability of the water column; a condition that favors phytoplankton growth in the spring of the year in temperate estuaries. Vertical mixing is reduced by the thermally induced stability, and plant cells are allowed to remain relatively longer in the nutrient rich euphotic zone. Later in the season, however, the stable water column re- sists wind mixing, and nutrients are not renewed to the now impoverished euphotic zone. Although most estuaries are not sufficiently deep or stratified severely enough to prevent occasional nutrient replenishment in the su r months., -thermal effluents could increase the stability and the frequency of surface water nutrient depletion in already stratified estuaries. In severely stratified estuaries like Pettaquamscutt River, Rhode Island, heated water effluents at the surface would tend to permanently seal the bottomwaters from the surface. This estuary exhibits anaerobiosis with high concentrations of hydrogen sulfide below Bill- 208 Infrequently during the fall, a reduced thermocline and halocline (in dry seasons) allows brief periods of wind mixing with resultant fish kills in shallow waters. Induced stability from heated water effluents may prevent this from happening. Temperature and Fish Beat related fish kills are common in temperate estuaries where sudden changes in temperature., salinity and dissolved oxygen can occur. Fish can acclimate quite rapidly to increased sub-lethal temperatures. Doudoroff (1942)@ indicates that fish can acclimate to a 100C rise within 24 hours. However) the rate of acclimation to colder temperatures may be very slow. This latter physiological characteristic of fish poses specific problems in temperate estuaries during the winter months where hot water effluents are present. Small fish passing through the turbines or larger fish in the,discharge can I could acclimate to the higher temperatures, but may not bi!able to acclimate to cold temperatures with subsequent plant shutdown or with displacements of the thermal plume by wind or tide. Even if fish were not killed outright, immobilization by cold shock would render them susceptible to predation. Each species has specific thermal limits (Fig. 23)) and these limits axe narrower for successful larval development and narrower still for maximm egg hatch'(Fig. 8). Salinity interacts with temperature to affect hatching success and larval development of estuarine fish (Fig. 24). Work in progress at the Pamlico Marine Laboratory (Horton and Bridges, unpublished) shows that salinity acclimation has an effect on the resistance to high temperatures of some species of estuarine fish but does not have a significant effect on others. When there is an effect, survival at increased temperatures is enhanced at higher salinities. Spot, Leiostonus xanthurus.have a significantly greater resistance to high temperatures when acclimated at 16 hour photoperiods than fish acclimated at 8 hour periods (Horton and Bridges, unpublished), indicating possible seasonal differences in the ability of fish to withstand higher temperatures. Fig. 25 shows the effect of temperature orLoxygen consumption of different fresh water species. Fish metabolize more rapidly and require more oxygen at higher temperatures, but the solubility of oxygen in water decreases with a temperature increase. The multiple effects of high surface water temperature during the summer on oxygen solubility, plant and smi 1 respiration and water column stability, have resulted in significant fish kills (Fig. 26). A kill similar to the one illus- trated in Fig. 26 occurred on the North Shore of the Pamlico River estuary in North Carolina in the summer of 1967 following a strong northeasterly wind. Sur- face water blown offshore by the strong wind was replaced by deeper oxygen- deficient water. k1igratory Sub-Systems Particular problems are posed in regard to migratory estuarine fishes and heated water effluents. When anadromous fish move into an estuary on their way to upstream areas for spawning, they are liable to be affected in several ways by heated water in the vicinity of the discharge canal. MELny species of fish when offered alternative choices of routes in an upstream migration will choose the route with the greatest current velocity. Alabaster ( 1969) has found that when fish (bream) are presented with a choice of temperatures, the fish will choose according to their prior thermal history (Fig. 27)- He also- found (Alabaster, 1964) that when fish are in a thermal gradient, they will 209 *C 40- Caressrusauratus Amelurus nebulosus Lu 30 cc CL 20- 10- loo, 0 10 20 @50 40JC ACCLIMATION TEWERATURE Fig. 23. The relation between the acclimation temperature and the upper and lower lethal temperatures for Carassius auratus. Ameiurus nebulosus, and girella nigricans (from Brett, 1944). 12 CURVATURE COLLAPWM OF boo, EGGS --------- MAJORITY OF HATCHER 10 LARVAE NORMAL W CURVATURE or BODY WEA I -- EARLY f C K E ELL LARVA OE VELO@ MAXIMUM AIEITT @ IRREGULAR\ ORMAL MATCH COLLAPSINS W EGGS 6 IOLLA EARLY CELL EPSING DEVELOPMEXT 4 665 IRREGULAR -15 20 25 30 35 40 SALINITY M.) Fig. 24. Approximate areas over the salinity - temperature range examined in which various qualitative differences in development of English sole (Parophrys vetulus were observed (from Alderdice and Forrester, 1968). -C' .,No EARLY GAVEI ARE 210 ISO- 9-k T,W too jmM. Trow 90h"d arp E Smite/ ucke, 0 to! 1,0 11, 20 3jo 3'5 Tempa'al.re -C Fig. 25. Standard oxygen consumption in relatin to temperature for four freshwater fish species (from Beamish, 1964). NORMAL CONDITIONS SOUTHERLY WINDS TEMPERATURE AND OXYGEN Jec cl L S h1l On" ame -SO 40- 30 0 ?41LES 0 9FFS Q NORMAL CONDITIONS CALMS OKYGCM AND SURFACE TC@PCRATURE 2ec 14*c see X e MM"We wsthan*@ 'Sins) 40 30 20 MILES to OFF$ I-E 0 CONDITIONS DURING A MORTALITY kORIMERLV MKOS TEMPERATURE AND OXVCEM 22-C OM,d 1@h 20*C LE'S am mmuve OISE" ONE 39 13' 'Es to OFF 0 I-q-, HIS3 Fig. 26. Temperature and oxygen conditions with mortalities in Walvis Bay (from Copenhagen, 1953). BAY NUMBER -L 0 Cli CA (0 0 Pi H m 0 m ci. m 1-6 0 0 0 rs 0 m -P, 0 ll'Db I. (D @l c-F M 13, Ell 0 0 110 0 P, It FA. N) 9 0 0 (D c-F 1-i P, 1-4 -n \40 C\" 8 Fs- 0 Ib > -A Cl) 0 0 SD pj Ft 4@6 1-6 1 0 0 F6 m 0 0 0 4rF 'my 40 \,n cn 0 0 0 co cn 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 N .133A NI ON3 3NO MHA 30NVISICI TTZ 212 gradually become acclimated to and choose higher and higher temperatures. These data suggest that when upstream migrant fish encounter a thermal effluent plume they my gradually become acclimated to it even though they are cold acclimated fish. They my then be attracted to the discharge canal by a combination of warm water preferenda and rheotaxis to the discharge velocity in the canal. Most fish apparently do have the ability to avoid lethal temper- atures however. Trembley (1965) found that fish were attracted to the warm waters of a discharge canal during the winter, but avoided the effluent during the summer. Recent evidence on float marked or electronically tagged migrating fish indicates that some species follow the channel contours in the region of greatest bottom relief (Fig. 28). The work by Nakatani ( 1969 ) on salmon and trout and Merriman,_St_@,1. (1968) on shad is prelimin y and involves a relatively small number of observations. However, studies by Horton U965) on the small estuarine fish Fundulus heteroclitus indicated that the movement and distribution of these fish was relatively independent of depth and environmental cues other than bottom topography. Fish returned "home" by navigation along near-shore bottom topographical slopes. If this kind of movement-orientation is common to other upstream or intra-estuarine migrating fish, modifications to the -estuarine bottom configuration adjacent to the plant site could help divert migrants around dangerous discharge areas. Raney ( 1969 ) mentions the necessity of proper engineering of intake screens and'discharge can I diversions to aid in allowing fish to escape from areas of potential danger. After adult fish have successfully migrated past thermal effluent outfalls and spawned in upstream areas, the downstream migrating larvae and juveniles can be drawn into the cooling water intake of the power plants where they are subject to a rapid increase in temperature. Dean and Coutant (1968) exposed juvenile chinook salmon to high temperatures. As each fish lost equilibrium it was re- turned to the lower acclimation temperature. They found (Fig. 29) that although the initial recovery was 100 percent, a latent mortality of 85 percent was experienced. Tropical and sub-tropical species of fish commonly enter and inhabit tem- perate estuaries of the east coast of the U.S. as far north as Cape Cod. 'It is likely that fish of these species will be attracted to heated water discharges as the water turns cold in the fall. Substantial mortalities could result if the plant is shut down or the effluent plume suddenly diverted by-wind or tide. In some instances, warm water discharges have been found to benefit local fisheries. For example, the general temperature increase in the San Gabriel River from the California Edison power plant has permitted the establishment of a "winter haven" for fishes that would normally migrate to waximir waters during the summer months. Cooperative efforts between the power company and the City of Los Angeles have re- sulted in establishment of a year-round recreational fishery in the vicinity-of the outfall (Gaucher, 1968a). Summary Although there is very little information on the effects of heated water effluents on various estuarine systems as yet in the published literature, certain known effects of heat and its interaction with other environ n al fac- tors indicate that there are significant potential dangers. Oligohaline systems STEELHEAD TROUT 213 15 10 .. ...... ... . . . . . ....................... 0 cd CHINOOK SALMON 10 5 .........i .......... ... ....... %............ . 0 2-3 4-5 6-7 8-9 i0-11 12-13 13-14 FEET 0.61-0.92 1.2-1.5 1.8-2.1 2.4-2.7 3.0-3.4 3.7-4.0 4.3-4.6 METERS WATER DEPTH Fig. 28. Frequency of water depths recorded-for upstream - migrating chinook salmon and steelhead trout. (Depth data not'@' aken.for,,all fish) (rrom Nakatani, 1969). 0 Initial Loss . of Equilibrium Recovery at 15 IC 00100- a t 80 27 OC Mortality 60 40 CL X Uj 20 4- a 0 40 50 60 12 16 20 24 Minutes Hours Time Following Initial Exposure Fig. 29. Time course of relationship between loss of equilibrium and mortality of juvenile chinook salmon (from Dean and Coutant, 1968). 214 in temperate regions are perhaps most susceptible to the consequences of thermal pollution. These estuaries are already considerably stressed and low in species diversity) but contain high population densities of certain species, some of which have considerable economic importance (e.g. Y4ya arenaria). Oligohaline estuaries are also the locus of breeding and spawning migrations of many species of valuable fin fishes. Larval and juvenile downstream migrants of these species can easily be drawn into the cooling water conden- sers of electric generating plants where they may suffer severe mortalities. The most promising potential solution to waste heat-in the aquatic environment would appear to be in commercial aquiculture. The heat could be used in controlled estuarine systems, thus sparing the naturally adapted ones* 215 Chapter E-7 PULP MILI WASTE SYSTEM Frank G. Wilkes B. J. Copeland University of North Carolina The University of Texas Chapel Hill, North Carolina 27514 Port Aransas, Texas 78373 INTRODUCTION In the coastal areas of the United States where paper manufacturing and pulp production are conducted, the disposal of the waste products of these operations is a significant problem. As with other industrial wastes, the proper evaluation of the nature of the wastes and the character of the receiving body of water must be undertaken to understand environmental dis- turbances. There are two major pulping techniques: the sulfite process and the Kraft (sulphate) method. The sulfite pulping process consists of digesting wood chips under pressure in an@'@aqueous bisulfite solution containing an excess of sulfur dioxide. During this digestion, the cellulose fibers in the wood are freed by dissolving the lignin that binds these fibers together. The cooking liquor remaining after the digestion of the wood chips is termed Spent Sulfite Liquor (SSL) and contains everything that the wood chips con- tained except the cellulose: lignins solubilized by sulfonation and pentose and hexose sugars hydrolyzed from hemicelluloses. SSL is a clear fluid that looks much like fresh-brewed coffee and has a pH of 2 to 4. The characteristics of SSL vaxy with the bases used in the cooking process and the botanical species pulped. In contrast to the sulfite pumping process which utilizes an acid digestion, the sulphate (or Kraft) process employs an alkaline cooking liquor. The pH of the Kraft mill effluent is therefore-basic. The Kraft process allows for a greater recovery of the cooking liquor than does the sulfite process and usually produces lower organic waste loadings than SSL. Kraft wastes may, however, be more toxic than SSL as such toxic constituents as hydrogen sulfide, mercaptans, resin acids and soaps axe usually present in higher concentrations. Pump mill wastes, upon entering coastal systems, affect the system both directly and indirectly. One of the more obvious direct effects of SSL and Kraft wastes is the exertion of an immediate oxygen demand on the receiving in the SSL and the BOD waters. Both the chemical oxygen demand exerted by S02 exerted by the sugars are immediate in nature and serve to deplete the dis- solved oxygen in the water. SSL, containing a higher concentration of organic material, usually exerts a greater BOD than do Kraft wastes. Other direct effects include changes in the pH of the receiving water as a result of the acidity and alkalinity of SSL and Kraft effluent, respectively; turbidity which causes the shading of photosynthetic processes; temperature changes in the water as a result of waste introduction; and the toxicity of the wastes to 216 the biota. Indirect effects consist of turbidity where the suspended materials may settle out and form sludge banks which not only render the bottom sediments unsuitable for normal benthos but also my exert an i d- iate oxygen demand on the water; a reduction in surface tension which causes an increase in foaming, thus making the,water unattractive aesthetically; and the long-term subtle effects of materials on growth, reproduction and metabolism of the biotic community. In other words, the direct effects of pulp mill effluents are those which cause physical and chemical changes in the water, bottom sediments and the biota on a short term basis, with recovery possible in a relatively short time if the stress were removed. Indirect effects, however, gradually degrade the environment as a result of the build-up in the system of physically harmful and/or slowly oxidiz- able waste components. The general effects of pulp mill pollution discussed above my all be manifested in both freshwater and estuarine systems. The differences in the effects between freshwater systems and estuaries axe primarily a result of the hydrographical characteristics of estuaries. Tidal flushing, fresh water inflow, circulation patterns and saline stratification are peculiar to estuaries and these factors, in relation to the placement of the outfall, affect the degree to which the wastes exhibit a stressful influence on an estuary. The energy required for combating the stresses imposed by pulp mill wastes leavesless available for normal processing by the system, thus resulting in lower species diversity, productivity and adaptability. SYSTEM EXU41LE - SILVER BAY, ALASKA On August 26, 1965, water samples were collected in Silver Bay, Alaska, to study the effects of the surface discharge of SWL by a pulp mill located on the bay (U.S. FWPCA 1966c). The sampling stations, tidal conditions,, SWI distribution and turbidity measurements during the sampling period are shown on Figure 1. Among the other par ters investigated were dissolved oxygen concentration and pH. Figures 2 and 3 show the vertical distribution of SWL, DO and pH for six representative stations. The maximim SWL concentrations were observed at the surface at each station and decreased rapidly with depth. The hor- izontal distribution of the surface SWL and secchi-disc readings, as shown in Figure 1, indicated no strong one-way dispersal pattern away from the source. This indicates that the bay is subject to slow flushing action with no strong net outflow of fresher surface water. There seems, however, to be some net dispersal of the wastes against the north shore due to wind effects. The surface DO concentrations ranged from 40% to 71% saturation then increased with depth. A gradual decrease in DO concentration with depth then occurred below the depth of maximum concentration (Figs. 2 and 3). The depth of the low-oxygen surface layer coincided with the depth of the waste-containing) low-density layer of fresher surface water. The horizontal distribution of DO at a given depth was quite uniform throughout the bay. 217 ALASKA FA PULP 308 Ck L I /M12 2 0 4 71 284 ?. 7(D -\" 11 /311 X@2 SIA239, P49 IME IN HOURS (Pacific Standard Time) 1000 1200 1406 1600 1000 2000 to- SA MPL ING PERIOD X W 5 W MLLW Predicted tide ct.Sitka Fig# 1: Map of Silver Bay, Alaska showing station locations (circled numbers), SWL.concentration and secchi disk readings in meters on 26 August 1965. No./No. = visibility/SWL in mg/l. Inset shows tide condition and time of sampling. (From U. S. FWPCA 1966c; Fig. 3-6). 1Z\ PH 6 7 9 6 7 DOIM9/1) 3 4 5 6 7 8 3 4 5 6 7 8 SWL(Wd 0 100. 200 300 400 0 100 200 300 400 5.00 0 SWL '0- SWL 20 - D 0 DO LL) 30 - I I pH'@- p H< Z 4C - 50 0- Sta.2 W 60 70 - Sta. 1 80jr 7: ()O(Mg/1) 3 4 5 6 7 8 @% @ .,0 . ".- `;," - 3 4 5 6 T M 0q-'. 0. 1 1 - :@If.. 8 :4 30 0 - Cr_ W 32 PPM) 4 SWL W 10 at S face SWL z 20 H pHle@ DO:@@y P F- 0- 30 - Sta. 8 4 0 Sta-5 Fig. 2: Verti.cal distribution of water qual@ty parameters at stations 1$ 2P 5 and 8 in SI -Iver T3ay, Alaska on 26 Au,yust 1965 (F@rom U. S. FITPCA 1966c;Figs. 3-2 and 3-3). F ts 2 .0 SWC D 0 219 pH e 0-6 ON/11 4 .5 6 7 -8 5 4 5 6 T 8 'SIA&(Op(n) 0. 100 260 300 400 100, '200. 40'0'_'-'@ 0 10 SWL SWL 0 .:20 Cr W 30 pH pH W DO=z:t,.j- 40 z '50 a. w 60 Sta.12 TO Sta.13 e0jr Fig. 3: Vertical distribution of water quality parameters at stations 12 and 13 in Silver Bay, Alaska on 26 August 1965 (From U. S. FRCA 1966c; Fig- 3-4). 20 20 30 AO 20 .0 too so WILL I 0IFF,,t ER 400 00 E L I I __j A a DISTANCE FROM END of 'a IrFjj5ER ('.I Fig. 4a: Average surface PBI in Port Fig. 5: Vertical section of PBI at Everett,,, Angeles., Washington (From Bartsch Washington (From Bartsch et al-., et al. 1967; Fig. 9). 1967J Fig. 6). SWL L rDO-,-, 220 The vertical distribution of pH at each station was similar to that for DO. Low surface values were observed, followed by a rapid increase with depth to a maximum value at a depth between 2 and 10 meters. A gradual decrease with depth below the depth of maximum pH then occurred. The uniformity of the SWL concentration due to low tidal flushing in- dicated that the observed SWL concentrations were of sufficient levels to kill food chain arganisms such as copepods, euphausids, mysids and candle fish based on bioassays reported in a pre-pollution study of Silver Bay (Eldridge and Sylvester 1957). Since even higher surface SWL concentrations might be expected to occur during periods of strong southerly or westerly winds, SWL concentrations high enough to cause the death of herring and fingerling salmon might be reached. Laboratory bioassay tests have also indicated that SWL concentrations well below those found during the August 26, 1965, survey of Silver Bay may cause developmental abnormalities and mortalities of oyster larvae and bottom-fish eggs. The low-oxygen condition of the surface waters of Silver Bay was attributed to both the biochemical oxygen demand of the SWL and to a possible reduction in phytoplankton oxygen production as a result of the inhibiting effects of the pulp waste. The observed surface DO values are borderline to the generally reco nded minimun value of 5 mg/l necessary for,marine life. Since more critical conditions with regard to DO concentration my be expected to occur, sub-minimum. DO values could possibly develop during periods of low water movement. The pH measured in Silver Bay during pre-pollution studies generally increased from a low value at depth to a maximim near the surface. Such a vertical distribution is normal in coastal waters during the summer. The pH measured during the August 26, lgb5, study, however, increased gradually from a low value at the bottom to a maximum value at 2-10 meters depth, then rapidly decreased to low surface values. The low pH of the surface @iaste- confining waters was attributed to the combined effect of waste decomposition, the acid nature of SWL and reduced photosynthetic activity in the surface water. Effects of System Types on Waste Distribution The physical characteristics inherent in various coastal types affect to a large extent the transport and distribution of pulp mill wastes entering the system. The effect will be different, for example, if the wastes enter an estuary via the tributaxies or rather through some stratigically located wastes outfall. From Waldichuk (1960), Bartsch et al. (1967), Saville (1966 and others, the effects of different system typeToiFthe distribution of pulp mill wastes entering coastal waters are summarized. High Velocity Channel In high velocity channels, considerable water movement and flushing are provided by rapid currents resulting from tidal action. Port Angeles, Washington, is located on such a channel, the Strait of Juan de Fuca,.,.'@,,Where two sulfite pulp mills introduce wastes directly into the harbor (Bartsch et al. 1967).' The distribution'of the Ptarl Benson L3dex is shown in Figure 4. comparison of the data for the harbor station and a station in the Strait 221 Strait of Juan do ruca -E D r ff crom Zonerboth IFFIb rd r4 PORr MUM Isogram Showing Variation of Surface Hydrogen Ion (pH) Concentration Within Harbor 3tmit of Jmn do Ftwa a ;zz i'00 It 90 74 73 q1k Flbrebou-d 98 9& qq 99 VM ANUM Isogram Showing Percent Transmission of Blue Light Through Surface Water Samples Fig. 4b. Characteristics of paper mill waste system in Washing-ton (Stain, Denison, and Isaac, 1963). 222 Strait of Juan do Fuca Z If 0 0 K robM Zeller'ba. '0 )'10 Os > <is to to Fibreboa A 10, 10 PMT ANEIM Isogram Showing Distribution of Spent Sulfite Liquor 20 Feet Below Surface Strait of Joan de FUca I z M 0 0 X rown Z.1jerba Tibraboard 4.6 FORT ANGUM V Q 1.0 lsograrn Showing Surface Distribution of Dissolved Oxygen Within Harbor Fig. 4c. Characteristics of paper mill waste system in Washington (Stein, Denison, and Isaac, 1963). J/ 223 indicates that the water outside the harbor is little affected by the pollution in the harbor (Figs. 4 and 6). A Kxaft mill was built on Osborn Bay, B.C., in 1958. Osborn Bay is a restricted embayment with slow flushing and surface circulation by wind action. Little vertical mixing occurs, especially in the summer when the surface salinity is low and the temperature high. Oyster beds are located just out- side the bay. To obtain the maximum dilution of the wastes and to minimize their contact with the oyster beds, the outfall was located in the deep water of Stuart Channel outside the bay in a place where the high flushing rate would transport the wastes away from the beds. A dilution of the wastes at the oyster beds closest to the outfall was found to be 1:280 - 1:550. Although a dilution of 1:2000 is desired, no adverse effects of the Kraft mill effluent on oyster production has been observed (Waldichuk, 1960a). Sheltered deep estuary SSL is dischaxged into Neroutsos Inlet in British Columbia, a deep inlet with low fresh water inflow, a small amount of runoff and poor flushing char- acteristics (Waldichuk, 1960a). In the sii r, the surface water is of low density and high temperature with little vertical mixing. The wastes are discharged into these surface waters with the result that the wastes are con- fined to the surface layer for long periods of time. Adjacent to the outfall, the concentration of SSL is 600 ppm. At a distance of 10 nautical miles from the mill, the concentration of SSL is still 30 PPm. At depths below 20 feet, the SSL concentrations are below 20 ppm even in water near the outfall. Thus, it is apparent that a large amount of horizontal movement of the SSL occurs and little vertical diffusion. As a result, the surface layer has very low DO values and little or no life forms whereas the bottom waters axe still used by fish to migrate to the tributary stream - An example of a deep outfall is found at Everett, Washington, (Figs. 5 and 9) as reported by Bartsch et al. (1967)- Vertical distribution of the FBI indicates diffusion of wasT-e Through a mid-section of the system (Fig. The combined waste effluent from two sulfite mills is emptied into the estuary through a deep diffuser. The depth of the upper end of the diffuser is 91m and that of the lower 104m. In this estuaxy there is a thin freshwater layer on top and little vertical mixing. The net bottom current is north from Possession Sound and decreases with distance from the outfall. At the diffuser, the FBI increases at the lower depths (Fig. 7@- The pH and DO decrease at the lower depths. At a station 7.2 miles from -cne diffuser, the effect of the SSL is still evident though lower in magnitude and depth. Bioassays have shown that at times the water of Port Gardner Bay are lethal to juvenile chum salmon due to low pH and DO (Fig. 9). The concentration of SSL was not at lethal levels. Medium salinity planktonsystem Bellingham Bay in Washington represents this system and the pulp mill effluent enters at the head of the bay (Bartsch et al. 1967). The surface SSL concentration decreases with distance from th-e -waste source (Fig. 10A). 224 SAL IN ITT M.) 30 31 32 30 38 32 PH 7.11 g.0 7.5 4.0 00 logifl 0 2 4 6 a 0246a Pal (PPM) 0 20 40 60 so 020 40 so so 9 TT 4 ? 200 10 20 -A A- -2- - SALINITY 30 Pal 40 PH :Do I 50 so SALIM] To STATION A. HARBOR STATION 0. STRAIT Fig. VU at a harbor station and a strait station. 'Port Angeles., Washington (From Bartsch et al. 1967; Fig. 12). INALINITY064 all 30 nU PH '0 1.5- ?V is 00(.112 a 4 9 a 4 Pat (PPIR) wo SALINITY P Ilk ITS SALINITY 00 N AIf STATION A. DIFFUSER STATION a*WfLTCO Fig. 7. PBI at the diffuser and Mukilteo. Everett., Washington (From Bartsch et al.'1967; Fig. 7). BqLINITTISA -- - - - In .""n.. FK 7.0 7.4 -12 1.. 1. .. Do(-141 . . a4 Pei I pria Pei SALINITY IT STATION OFFPTFAMMZII A. OFF POST PX Fig. 8. PBI off Pt. Frances and Post Point. Bellingham, Washington (From Bartsch et al. 1967; Fig. 3). 225 EVERETT SCALE 0 1.00 METERS 71-g. 9. Zones of toxicity to juvenlle salmon as percentage of mortality in 24 boiirs at Everett, Wash-*.naton. Comoosite of s-lx tests (From Rartsch et al. 1967; Fj.g. 8). TI, 60 0 6 ef L, @NGHA.""' 50 200 72.2 11 2 2 R lob 0 OLA VAE BIOASSAY i STATION IN SITU BICASSAYI .0 S,T1 stCL A (D 67.8 31. 0 105 10 8, MEAN PERCENT A1311ORW.L LARVAE Sic '0 B 0 UNIV0FWASM 710 MEAN PEII S STATION 0 ST- 44.2 4 4o C@RVES * SOURCE P LLUTION Pal (PP.) 20 10 r 5 5 00, 3 _jB IIIt Fig. 10. Be llj-ngham, Tdashi.ngton. A. Average surface Pearl-Benson Index distributilon. 3. Distribution of abnormal oyster larvae in relat-ion to PBI o-istri-buti-on. (From Bartsch et al. 1967; Fig. 4). 226 The waters of the system are very turbid and light penetration is therefore low, with secchi disk readings generally less than two meters. The effect of the mill effluent in lowering DO levels is localized to within a I - 2 mile radius of the outfall, and oxygen saturation values of 120 - 140 percent often occur in the upper 10m during plankton blooms. As shown on Figure 8, the concentration of SSL (FBI) is greater at Station A nearest the outfall than at Station B approximately three miles further distant. The DO and pH are decreased in the upper 2m at Station A but are unaffected at Station B. The decrease in surface salinity at Station A is due to its relative position to the Nooksack River. The relationship between SWL concentration and percent abnormal oyster larval is shown in Figure 10B. As the PBI decreased the % abnormal larvae decreased (from 96 to 16%). Effluent from a Kraft process mill enters St. Joseph Bay, Florida, a medium-salinity plankton based system (Copeland 1966b). The gentle mixing of the bay system results in the waste becoming thoroughly mixed with the bay water in a short distance.from the waste outfall. As illustrated in Figure 11, the effects of the pulp mill wastes are detectable as far away as one mile. It is notable, however, that the lowering of redox potential is greatest near the surface at the outfall with mixing occurring as distance increased in the mixing bay water. Oligohaline system Kraft mill wastes are introduced into Albermi Inlet, British Columbia (Fig. 12). This inlet has a large freshwater inflow and good tidal flushing action. The outfall is located in mid-harbor in the-jet-stream of the river. The effect of the pollution therefore varies with the river flow and harbor stagnation is minimized. During the period of study, the DO of the harbor never fell below that of the incoming river water. The BOD of the harbor water ranged from 1 to-5 ppm while that of the Kraft mill effluent ranged from 30 to 150 ppm. There was no detectable loss of fish due to the Kraft mill effluent. In this case, therefore, an advantageous placement of the waste outfall minimized the immediate harmful effects of the wastes. A long term problem may arise in the harbor, however, from the settled particulate matter (Waldichuk, 1960a). The Fenholloway River and estuary in Florida is an example of a system in which Kraft mill wastes, while not the soledisturbing; factor, are the major polluting influence (Saville, 1966). The Kraft mill effluent is not introduced directly into the estuary but, instead, into the freshwater river approximately 23 miles upstream from the mouth on the Gulf of Mexico. During periods of low flow (300 efs) stratification is at a minirmim. The lower portion of the estuary becomes highly stratified in periods of medium flow (4oo - 6oo cfs), while above Bird Island, approximately two miles above the river mouth) the stream is essentially fresh water. When the flow exceeds 1000 cfs, the salinity intrusion is slight and confined to the mouth. The flushing action of the fresh water input pushes the mixture of waste and river water downstream to the estuary. The effects of the Kraft mill effluent on the condition of the river and estuary are shown on Figure 13. 227 @IAV) A -300 o Yig.11. Depression of redox potential from kraft proc:3sF waste in St. Joseph Bay.,_Florida with distance from the source (From Copeland 1966b) - = cm 00 00 000 LL LL LL U. U. "U. _j Boo C. 0. D. 400 - 0 Rolm 4 _j TOTAL ORG. NITROGEN 2 0 $0, - `j 60 LIGNIN (PEARL-BE NSON) - 0 40 - X 20 0 1000 COLOR U) 500.- z 0 FM _j 40 VOLATILE S.S. 0 Dam -30 -26 -20 _I@ -10 -5 MILES FROM STA F- I Fig- 13-Lohgitudinal Profiles of COD,- Total Organic Nitrogen, Lignins, Color, and Volatile'S nded Solidj, March 22, 1965. (From Ntille, 1966 Influence of the Kraft mil 1 effluent on the Fenholloway River and estuary, Florida. 228 0 0. 48 1194 40 Fig. 12a. C hart of Alberni Inlet in Barkley Sound, B.C. , Canada (From Waldichuk 1960a, Fig.. 6. 229 INLET ALBERNI A E Sao miles 4 STATIONS Salinity H G E D c A. to 30 ko UPPER ZONE 20 3. KALOCLINE to F 30 #0 10 %. 30' __Jj_ LOWER ZONE 13 SALINi ry*@ 20 H G F E 0 c a A 0 16 "@_iO""%l It 2. 22 6 '30%. .5 kzo- E Limit ot hal... 'i, --- to- Is- SALINITY M.) 26 6 27 Jurks.1941 20 ;..t 31.7 Fig. 1. Salinity structure in Alberni In.let, B.C. Fig. 12b. Stratification in a tidal estuary receiving wastes (Tully,1960). 230 EFFECTS ON SYSTEM COMPONENTS Although the impact of SSL and Kraft wastes is on the estuarine commmity as a whole, it is the response of the individual system components which makes up the total reaction of the system to the disturbance. Data are not available concerning the effect of pulp mill wastes on every com- ponent in the disturbed environment so that an analysis of the effect of this stress on all the individual system components and the interactions between them is not possible. There is information, however, available on the effects of pulp wastes relating to toxicity, reproduction, metabolic response, BOD exertion, productivity and species diversity that enable a sumn9xy evaluation of the system effects to be made. Toxicity The economic value of oysters found in estuaries has led to studies concerned with the effects of pulp mill wastes on these organisms. Toxicity studies have been conducted, but, for the most part, the investigations have attempted to determine the sub-lethal effects of the wastes. This emphasis has been a result of the fact that, in general, the toxicity of SSL is less of a problem than its BOD exertion and that the effects of the high BOD will be felt before those of a toxic nature. The toxicity of calcium-base cold blown SSL to adult oysters was re- viewed by Gunter and I&Kee (1962). They reported that after 132 days exposure, oysters exposed to 100 mg/1 SSL exhibited 34.4% mortality vs,18.7% for the controls. No effect of the SSL was noted up to 41 days exposure. In other experiments at an exposure time of 575 days, the two controls had a mortality of 52% and 53% and oysters exposed to 13.0, 26.1, and 128.9 mg/1 SSL had mortalities of 73%, 84% and 98% respectively. Thus, SSL is definitely toxic to oysters exposed for long periods of time. As previously stated, however, the other effects of SSL at these concentrations my become apparent before the toxic effects. The most critical life-cycle stages of organisms are the egg and larval forms. Since the organism is more sensitive to toxic compounds at these stages,whether or not the adult can survive is immaterial. Woelke U960a), summarizing about,ten years' efforts and data, reported the mortality rates of Crassostrea virginica (oysters) and Venus mercenaria (quahogs) eggs and larvae in various dilutions of SSL. In contrast to the data reported by Gunter and WKee W62) for the adult oyster, the eggs and larvae exhibited a very high mortality in relatively low concentrations of SSL (Fig. 14). The eggs of both species of molluscs were very sensitive to the SSL, with only about 10% of C. virginica eggs surviving 10 mg/l SSL. The significance of these data is th fact that unless eggs are produced elsewhere and then, after hatching, transported into areas affected by SSL, the oyster cannot reproduce in systems containing only small concentrations of pulp mill wastes. Holland et al. (196o) studied the effects of synthetic Kraft mill effluent on sal7m_@_. Their results indicated that the older chinook salmon were more susceptible to the waste than were the younger ones. Of the two 0 V" r " 4) "C C19S A MeIr Ce'u a V- &'-a e-111 S V,' r @,'&) Ic aIt t-vae. ca x 0 too- *A 13 A t2 13 2s- 7-5-- Sctrv;val Fig. V* Percent survival of the eggs and larvae of Crassostrea virginica and Venus mercenaria in various concentrations of SSL. (Summary of data presented by Woelke 1960a). 232 major components of Kraft mill wastes, the condensate was more toxic than the black liquor in the amounts in which they normally occur in coastal systems. The results of the study indicated that the toxicity threshold index of 20 day-old chum salmon exposed to calcium oxide-base SSL for 30 'days inaerated flowing brackish water was 880 mg/l, with little difference in the toxicity of ammonium-base and calcium oxide-base SSL.' Alderdice and Brett (1957) studied the effects of Kraft mill wastes on young Pacific salmon. Their results are summarized in Figure 15, which show that 50% mortality can be affected in a very short time at only 10% concen- tration. At low concentrations of Kraft mill wastes, fish can often survive but the condition of the survivors may be deteriorated (Fujiya 1961). Riminin ion of certain tissues of the surviving fish taken.from. a pulp mill affected estuary in Japan, revealed decreases in glycogen in the liver and RNA in the hepatic and pancreatic cells, and changes in kidney tissue. Other physiological changes were also observed. Little research has been conducted on the toxic*ity of SSL and Kraft wastes on plankton organisms even though they are a major food source of such economically valuable animals as oysters. Gunter and WKee (1960), however, discuss some preliml y investigations in this area that have been undertaken. They report that Woelke (1957) exposed the marine flagellate Nbnas sp., an alga used successfully to culture bivalve larvae, to hot- blown nium-base SSL. The SSL was adjusted to 10% solids. An SSL con- centration of 10,000 mg/I exhibited a toxic effect after three days exposure. No signi icant toxic effects were observed for exposures of 13 days to SSL concentrations up to 1,000 mg/l. On the contrary, a fertilizing or stimulating effect was indicated. Using the same type of SSL, Woelke (1958) studied the effect on three other algal species: Actinocyclus, a green diatom; Chryptomonas a red flag- ellate; and Z&2ghr @sis, a green flagellate. No significant effects of SSL concentrations up to 304 mg/l were observed on these algae. Lasater (1953) exposed two species of copepods, Epilabidocera amphitrites and Calanus fin chicus to SSL. Significant mortalities of E. amphitrites occurred at 157 mg/l in 48 brs and with C. finmarchicus in 50 mg/l after two weeks. Lasater (1956) did not find, however, that the high concentrations of SSL in the waters of Everett Harbor affected the zooplankton populations. Other workers (Academy of Natural Sciences of Fhiladelphia 1957) exposed a mixed culture of Paget Sound diatoms, 'predominantly Skeletonema costatum. and Asterionella japonica to a mixed calcium- and nium-base SSL of 12.TFsolids. The median toxic concentration after one week exposure was found to be 13850 mg/l. and the "biologically safe concentrations" were calculated to be 1160 mg/l for 12.6% SSL and 1460 mg/1 of 10% SSL. 233 W 16 as 7 4 a MUNI -to 4.0- -to $0 40 so to so to 79' 190 1000 TINIE TO OCArd I WINuMS) Fig.15. Time-mortality curves for sockeye salmon underyearlings exposed to various concentrations of kraft mill effluent (Alderdice and Brett 1957) Table 1. Summary of results of bioassays of sulfite waste liquor with 0lympia and Pacific oysters (From Woelke 1962). P.B.I.* at which Type of response adverse effects Type of bloassay measured occurred Floating live boxes Mortality and Average of (Olympias) condition Index 7 ppm. Long range laboratory Mortality About 16 ppm. bioassay (Olympias) Olympia oysters in Reproduction Between 8 and laboratory 116 ppm. Development of Pacific Percent abnormal 3 ppm. oyster eggs fertilized larvae in sulfite waste liquor Lagoon bloassays with Growth and 13 ppm. Olympia and Pacific mortality oysters Fertilized Pacific Percent abnormal 7 ppm. oyster egg development larvae in field water Pearl-Denson Index 234 Reproduction Woelke (1962) studied the effects of SSL on Olympia and Pacific oysters to determine if the SSL concentrations encountered by the oysters in their natural habitat were detrimental to their well being. He utilized in situ bioassays, laboratory bioassays, on adults and larvae, lagoon studies, and bioassays with fertilized Pacific oyster eggs using field water. The results of these experiments are reported in Table 1. The author concluded that although it was not established that the SSL was the only harmful influence, it was found that the existing ambient SSL concentrations could create a stress on the system. It also appeared that the reproductive stage of the life cycle was the most sensitive life stage. In another study, Gunter and WKee (1962) reported that "long term!' exposures of Olympian oysters to cold and hot blown SSL resulted in fewer lsa@vae being spawned in 17, 55 and 170 mg/l cold blown SSL and 55 and 170 mg1l hot blown SSL than in controls. While certain developmental stages of organisms respond in various ways to toxicity or other waste parameters, it is important to understand the ability of adults to reproduce in polluted systems. Even though adult oysters are known to "survive" in relatively high concentrations of SSL (Gunter and NbKee 1962), the ability to produce eggs and develop them to larvae is severely affected by relatively low concentrations of SSL (Woelke 1960c). The results of an experiment concerning the abortion of eggs by Ostrea lurida in various concentrations of SSL are shown in Figure 16 (Woelke 196 Above about 20 mg/l of SSL, a significant percentage of the 0. lurlda aborted eggs. The significance of these experiments lies in the inWbility to reproduce in waters containing relatively low concentrations of SSL, especially for sessile organ- isms like the oyster which is unable to vacate its environment. Yetabolic Response odlaug U949) studied the effect of SSL in "unpolluted seawater" on the pumping rate of the Olympia oyster, Ostrea lurida. He observed a 6% reduction in the number of drops pumped at 4oo-m-g71-SNL -in 54 minutes and an 83% reduction after 77 minutes in 5000 mg/l.SSL. The feeding activities of' the oysters would therefore be affected at these SSL concentrations. Galtsoff et al. (1947) studied some physiological effects of sulphate wastes on oysterYWoving in the York River, Virginia. Sulphate wastes were introduced into the upper river. Studies of the meat quality, as expressedas glycogen content, showed that the upper York environment was decidedly harmful to the oysters (Fig. 17). The-average glycogen content of the oysters in the i4pper York River was lower than that found in the unpolluted Piankatank River as shown in Figure 18. The glycogen content of oysters transplanted from the James River to the Piankatank and lower York Rivers increased much more rapidly than in oysters transplanted to the upper York. The authors state that apparently sulphate wastes cause an inhibition of carbohydrate metabolism. Laboratory studies by Galtsoff and his co-workers found that the pulp mill effluent reduced the number of hotrs that the oysters remained open and SS L (D Co C+ Fl. t-I (D 0' r-L 0 1.1 F-t c+ pli 1'. 0 0 Ft (D f-j CD ;I;r C-In CD OIQ cF CD m FJ- F" .PI 0 r- co Fj* C+ FJ* 0 @J :cn 0 C/) CD :3 r+ m C+ 0 cn 236 w LOWER YORK (STATION 801 a U10fte YORK (SUTIOR 31 WpElt V"It 12TATIM it i 0 Z, 3 of owl 0 Ir" 10 solo i..$ A 0 11 12 f '1 3 4 5 a 7 0 9 10 1, is I it 3 4 IS33 030 r931 Fig.17 Glycogen content of York River oysters from the lower, middle and upper parts of the river (From Galtsoff et al. 1947; Fig. 33) . IT POINT AVERAGE OLVOO4t* CONTENT 110 1 Of OYSTERS IN YORK' AND PIANKATANK ROVERII. can Pt POOO.OOFAW a 16 ALMOND'S 11"AMP 3. CL'ATSANK & OLD ST t . got Fig.18 Comparison of glycogen content of oysters in two river systems," showing the decrease attributed to pulp mill wastes (From Galtsoff et al. 1947; Fig. 35). 237 therefore decreased the time which could be used for feeding. The pumping rates of the oysters were also reduced by the sulphate wastes. After the oysters were removed from waste contact, the pumping rates increased. It was also noted that the pulp mill effluent depressed the activity of the ciliated epithelium of the gills. Chipman (IL948a)also,studied the effect of sulphate wastes on the time that oysters remain open. As the concentration was increased, the time that the shell was open decreased. Chipman also observed that the muscular activity of the oysters was affected in concentrations of 1:1000 or stronger. An irritating effect occurred i-fre-diately after the material was added as rapid and frequent shell closures were observed. In very strong concentrations, the oysters lost their ability to maintain their shell closed. The strength of the adductor muscle gradually diminished until, after the shells remained open for long periods of time, death ensued. BOD Exertion The exertion of oxygen-demand by the pulp mill wastes is manifested through its competition with organisms for dissolved oxygen in the water. The labile materials causing the BOD readily takes oxygen (thus making it un- available for organisms), resulting in a competitive disadvantage for organ- isms. An example of the effects of BOD exertion by Kraft mill effluent is given by Alderdice and Brett (1957). Not only are the respiration requirements for salmon increased with increasing concentrations of Kraft mill effluent, but the dissolved oxygen available decreased with increasing concentrations (Fig. 19). The point of intersection of the dissolved oxygen curves with effluent concentration, equivalent to a concentration of 2.5% effluent in the receiving water, provides an estimate of the concentration of effluent at which oxygen avail-ability becomes a limiting factor for fishes (Alderdice and Brett 1957). Other examples of BOD exertion have been -provided by Waldechuk (1960) for Neroutsos Inlet, B.C. and by Bartsch et al. (1960a) for Bellingham and Everett, Washington. In all three cases, the dissolved oxygen of the receiving waters was significantly decreased at the surface due to the input of the effluent. Productivity Hopkins et al. (1931) studied OaJaand Bay prior to and after the intro- duction of SSL Eiio the system. Oakland Bay has strong currents as a result of tidal fluctuations which range from 8 to 18 feet. Before the pulp mill was built, the water in the bay was clear, but after the wastes were introduced, the water bee brown. The concentration of SSL in the water ranged :rrom 1 part SSL/870 parts water to 1 part SSL/233 parts water. The oysters in the bay exhibited a high death rate after the pulp mill began operation and little spawning occurred. Other members of the community such as clam , barnacles, mussels and hydroids no longer grew on submerged objects as they did under normal conditions. The diatom Melosira borreri which was normally found in small numbers on the oyster beds grew in dense masses in'areas of slow current after the introduction of the SSL into the bay water. The community changes 238 IMTIMAT90 OXYGEN *9OUIAIMVM FOR 190 on t4- 3 OXYGEN AVAILABILITY I MYER WALOICHUR) 0 a 9 10 11 14 6 EFFLUENT By VOLUME Fig.19 Comparison of calculated net oxygen availability after effluent oxidation with respiratory requirements of sockeye salmon under- yearlings at various concentrations of kraft mill effluent (From Alderdice and Brett 1957; Fig. 5). A AREA W '150 as-it IL some@ S-31' 4r loin S@ X 0 to 0 0 so 50 4 F V A M J J A S 0 N D MONTH Fig. 20. Total monthly diatom population by geographical area of Bellingham Bay, Washington. The areas are listed in order of their increasing distance from the waste outfall (From Tollefson 1963; Fig. 8). 239 were not explained by changes in temperature or salinity. The concentration of SSL in the bay was shown by laboratory studies to adversely affect oysters. These data suggest that as a result of the SSL stress on the bay, an un- balanced ecological system developed and the net productivity of the system was reduced. The general pattern of pulp mill effluent effects on a bay system is one of depression of primary productivity in the area adjacent to the waste outfall due to toxicity, with a general increase in pri y productivity as toxicity is decreased and the fertilization effects axe utilized at greater distances from the outfall. As demonstrated by Tollefson (1963) for Bellingham Bay, Washington, diatom production adjacent to the pulp mill outfall was less than 1/2 as great as the production at intermediate distances from the outfall (Fig. 20.). Species Diversity It is an old principle that the number of species or organisms able to survive an environmental stress is decreased as the stress is increased (Gleason 1922). Thus, species diversity as a measure of system organization may be expected to decrease as abnormal, newly-organizing, less-evolved system combinations resulting from pulp mill wastes replace the older more- evolved systems. Copeland (1967a)reported the zooplankton diversity in St. Joseph Bay, Florida which is affected by Kraft mill effluent. The results of that study (Fig. 21) revealed that the diversity adjacent to the outfall was less than six species of zooplankton per 1000 individuals encountered and increased to 18 about four miles out into the bay. Copeland and Cameron (1968) calculated a correlation of 0.94 between species diversity and distance, indicating a direct effect of the Kraft mill waste lowering the diversity. Oliver and Dorris (1964) demonstrated the same relationship for algae species diversity in a fresh water system affected by Kraft mill wastes. HORIZONTAL AND VERTICAL DISTRIBUTION OF WASTES Wastes that are introduced into rivers may be expected to become uni- formly mixed within a relatively short distance below the outfall depending on the flow and turbulence characteristics of the river. In estuaries, however, with gradations in salinity and temperature, there may be only periodic periods when uniform conditions are prevalent and in many cases such conditions never exist. Therefore, the extent of horizontal and vertical movement of effluents depends on the location of the waste outfall, in relation to the water movement patterns characteristic of the estuary in questio n. As discussed by Pritchard (1960b), the horizontal and vertical distribution of the wastes from a point source is accomplished by turbulent diffusion. The oscillatory movement of the tide moves the wastes back and forth in the estuary and supplies the major energy for the turbulent diffusion. A net transport of wastes occurs from regions of high concentration to those of low concentration both horizontally and vertically. 240 Sludip Bad IN It Sfudge@ Bed Lee SO-dnq 46. 0 Ufa /0// scale in YOM 0 IM 30P 400 .Scale Drawing Showing Exact Location. Shape. and Size of Rayonier Sludge Deposits Fig. 4d. Characteristics of paper mM vast* system in Washington (Stein, Denison, and Isaac, 1963). 12 - 6 0 0 2 4 kfts ftm SOUMO Fig. 23, Zooplankton species diversity per -thousand individuals encountered in St. Joseph Bay, Florida as affected by kraf t mill wastes (From Copeland 1967aj-Fig. 2). 241 Vertical diffusion occurs most rapidly.in layers hav:Lng ve' rtical homogeneity. If relatively large density differences exist between estuarine layers, vertical diffusion will occur to a large extent only within each layer and interlayer.mixing: will occur-onlyslowly. The layers in a strat- ified estuary have varying seaward net-rmovements depending on the relative amounts of freshwater inflow and tidal flushing. The residence time of pulp mill wastes in estuaries therefore dePends.upon the net seaward movement of the layer into which the wastes are introduced. This, in turn, determines the residence time of the wastes in the estuary and, ultimately, the exertion of harmful influences. SUMMARY AND HINTS FOR MANAGEMOT It has been demonstrated that pulp mill wastes, upon entering the coastal environment, affect various components of the system. Where and under what coriditions the effluent enters the coastal system is important to the resultant effect of the waste in the system. Thus, any management scheme would necessarily have to consider the physical arrangement of effluent input. Different phases of the organismal structure are differentially affected by the effluent. For example, the young and/or reproductive stages of most organisms are more greatly affected than are the adults, resulting in the necessity in many cases of transporting organisms to an affected system from some other reproductive area. This would require energies expended by either man in artificially transporting juvenile organisms to affected systems or by the organism itself in reproducing in one area and swimming to the affected system. There would be no selective advantage to this scheme, thus tending to eliminate the organism in question. Generally, the effects of the pulp mill wastes on the basic productivity of a system is that of toxicity near the outfall and fertilization at some distance from it. This generality is supported by data from Tollefson (1963) and the diversity index shown by Copeland (1967a). Management, therefore, to take advantage of the greater productivity would involve arrangement of system components in such a manner as to avoid the toxic areas and utilize the fertile areas. For example, the movement of oyster rafts into the increased productive area would result in increased oyster production due to the increase food availability. Care would have to be taken, however, to avoid the subtle effects of tissue da ge to the organism by the small concentrations of waste materials as shown by Fujiya (1961). Even though some scheme could be devised whereby management techniques could be realized for "farming" systems receiving pulp.mill effluents, the solid components of the effluent axe persistant in.,the'@-ewironment (Selleck 1964). The slow decomposition of these materials would-exei upon the oxygen supply in the water as well as provide,a-bla@k@tover the bottom components of the system. Large deposits of fibers exist'in,,.some systems, particularly in the northwest where pulp mill processing has occurred over a long period of time and environ ntal temperatures axe low enough to prevent rapid decay. 242 Finally, BOD exertion of pulp mill wastes impose an oxygen demand upon the system, thus competing with organisms for'the available oxygen. The significance of this problem to the system is.that energies must be expended to provide oxygen or to develop mechanisms for the organism to survive low oxygen concentrations oxygen'shunt systems or special pigmentation for transport and exchange of"oxygen in low concentrations). In either case,- the end result will be the lowering of diversity and/or-the decrease in the energy available for growth and reproduction. The obvious recommendation, however, is that the wastes be impounded for periods of time to allow for oxidation of toxic and organic components before the waste enters the system. This would eliminate some of the direct effects on system components. Special Research Needed Unfortunately, a study of the effects of pulp mill wastes on a whole system is not'available. Thus, before the impact of the disposal of*pu]Lp mill wastes in coastal systems can be evaluated, we must know the magnitudes of energies involved in combating toxicity, BOD exertion, modification of tissues and interruption of energy pathways on-a system scale. We have shown, in this chapter, some aspects of individual responses, but were unable .to demonstr'ate the effects on the whole system. We recommend, therefore, that a study be initiated to analyze a typical system disturbed by pulp mill wastes. 243 Chamter E-8 SUGARCANE WASTE SYSTEM B. J. Copeland Frank G. Wilkes. The University of Texas University of Worth Carolina Port Aransas, Texas 78313 Chapel Hill, North Carolina 2751-4 INTRODUCTION In the tropical regions of the United States where sugar mnufacturing is of economic importance,, the shallow coastal systems axe receiving wastes from sugarcane processing plants and related activities. Because m6t estuarine systems of the tropical coasts are of high species diversity and are dependent upon high light penetration and constant environmental conditions, disturbances in these conditions result in emerging new systems characterized by different biota and ecological parameters. Wastes from sugarcane processing plants may contain bagasse (the leftover fiber), laxge quantities of silt from the bull- dozing technique of harvesting, and high concentrations of organic materials (mostly sugars). The m Iain,stress, therefore, is the reduction of light pene- tration by the high turbidity wastes which tends to eliminate the high light dependent organisms such as coral and its symbiont species. SYSTEM K014PT2 - HONOKAA..SUGARMILL OUTFALL, HAWAII Located on ii2e north coast of the island of Hawaii.(larg'est of the Hawaiian Islands) is a complex of six sugarcane processing plants (U.S. FWPCA 1967e). These mills are remotely situated along an inaccessible,shoreline characterized by steep cliffs one hundred to two hundred feet high. The alongshore currents push th&,wastes long distances along the shore and then out into the ocean. A diagram of the Hawaii Island coast is shown in Figure 1. A composite diagraxi (Fig. 2) has been constructed for a disposal area of the Honokaa sugarcane processing mill using unpublished data obtained from Robert Burm, Federal Water Pollution Control Administration, Honolulu, Hawaii. The main effects of the sugarcane wastes have been the sbading: of coral by the highly turbid waters, the occurrence of high phosphorus and coliform concentrations, and the,lowering of fish diversity and productivity. The slope of the ocean floor nearshore is steep and great depths are reached in a short distance. Thus, the mixing and dilution capacity of the deep water minimizes the effects within a short distance offshore, with some waste effects drifting along shore with the currents. Hydrography With the mixing and current structure of the steeply sloping ocean bottom off tonokaa, the effects of the sugarcane mill wastes on the hydro- graphy of the area is negligible. There is no significant ,difference in the 244 00 4 0 0 CO '00o 0' lu 40 V@ 04 .0 C oil, 0 < dv CA 00. V 04 <Ov 4 lop S. 10 904 0 -2 0 0 %'Oo < 40 Fig. 1. Diagram of the island of Hawaii, Hawaii, showing location of the " Y, @Ipq 00 Hamakua coast (From U.S. FWPCAp 1967e). 245 Coral :S Wap /0% PAC/ I C, > 5S MeF,44 (Ar4;j# too t4 ae lit Pt@ 40 00 ,4,14A W A 1. 1 lot. '40f@ Joe Fig. 2. Conposite diagram of the Hanakua coastal area showing the results of sugarcane mill discharge into the Pacific Ocean from the NDnokaa sugarcane processing mill. Island of Havaii. (Data from Robert Bm-mj Federal Water Pollution Control Administration, Honolulu, ifavaii, Personal Corn3mication). 246 oxygen concentration, temperature or salinity in the outfall area. The color of the waste from the sugar mill is that of the soil carried with the cane from the fields (the common mode of harvesting sugarcane is with the aid of a bulldozer and considerable soil is scraped up with the cane and hauled to the processing mill). The soil is a bright red-brown color, and this color, plus the turbidity produced by washing the cane before crushing, is discharged into the ocean producing a vivid contrast to the surrounding blue water. The alongshore currents carry this turbidity great distances along the shore in- stead of allowing it to be diluted further out at sea. System Components Coral One of the more distinguishing characteristics of a tropical coast is the large quantity of coral. In the sugar mill waste disposal area at Honokaa, the coral has been completely covered with sludge (composed mainly of bagasse and settleable solids) within a radius of one-quarter mile from the outfall. For the next one-quarter mile on either side of the sludge deposit, the coral coverage has been reduced to about 10% total coverage. For the third quarter mile down current from the outfall, the coral coverage is between 10 and 55%- The coral coverage on the down current side of the outfall does not reach nor- mal density until about 3/4 mile from the outfall., where coverage is about 55% (which is considered normal for comparable areas). There is little doubt that the reduced coral density is a result of the increased turbidity, since coral is reliant upon light penetration for its formation and maintenance (see chapter on Coral Reef systems). Bacteria I At many sugarcane mills, the normal procedure is to combine human sewage with the sugarcane wastes (Guzman, 1962). This practice results in very high concentrations of coliform. bacteria, as the bacteria in the warm sugar-laden waste multiply rapidly. At the outfall of the Honokaa mill, the coliform. count was 100,000 per 100 ml. The coliform, concentration was still as high as 1000 per 100 ml at a distai3 e of one mile down current from the outfall. Coliform, concentrations of this magnitude would render the Honokaa area un cceptable for bathing and other water sports as well as indicate the possible contamination of animals in the area available for human consumption. Fish Many tropical fish axe dependent upon the coral reef structure for protection from predators and on the organisms symbiont with coral reefs for food. Since the coral in the Honokaa sugar mill outfall area was destroyed, it is reasonable to expect that the fish population had also deteriorated. As shown in Figure 2, the diversity of fishes in the outfall area decreased to 16, as compared to a normal 60 found two miles away. It should also be noted that the biomass of fish was also reduced near the waste disposal area; 160 lb/acre during grinding season, compared to 600 lb/acre two miles away. 247 A list of the 26 species of fishes collected near a sugar mill outfall (lao Creek) on the island of Maui, Hawaii, is given in Table I. Collections were made by the Hawaii Fish and Game Division during 1952. Although the effects of the sugar mill waste disposal were not great, possibly because the wastes were diluted and ponded for settling before being released, the 26 species found near the area were mach less than the 44 species found in a similar area without the sugar mill influence. Nutrients Phosphorus concentrations in the Honokaa, sugar mill disposal area was. two to three times higher than in the outlying waters (Fig. 2). The higher phosphorus concentrations were possibly related to the sewage input in the sugar mill waste. OTHER EXANPLES Hawaii On the island of Yhui, Hawaii. there are three additional.eXaMples of sugarmill waste pollution (FWPCA, 1967f). Two of the three main mills on the island axe in the Wailuku-Kahului area and the third at Paia (Fig. 3). All three mills utilize a hydroseparator and settling ponds to prepare the mill waste water for irrigation by sediment removal. Problems result when excess effluent not needed for irrigation are introduced into streams which enter the sea. Heavy rainfall my also cause overflows of the holding ponds and flush out the streams thereby carrying an increased loading of waste water to the ocean. At the Wailuku Mll, the sludge pond supernatant and the hydro- separator effluent carry high color, sediment and a high BOD (500 to 1000 mg/1). The estuary of the receiving stream is red-brovn in color from the mud which shades out the coral in the Kahului Bay. The other two mills, with similar effluents, are located at Paunene and Paia and also empty into Kahului Bay (Fig. 3)- Puerto Rico Sugarcane wastes consisting of bagasse, sludge cake (cachaza), cooling waters, and concentrated wastes containing organic substances, simple sugars and scums discharging in Paerto Rico coastal systems are summarized by Biaggi (1968). A map of plant locations and disposals is shown on Figure 4. Related wastes from rum manufacturing are generated west of San Juan. One case of utilization of the bagasse from-sugarcane mill processing is at Arecibo, where the bagasse is utilized, by.a paper mill.to manufacture low- grade paper. Louisiana A highly seasonal sugarcane processing waste disposal activity occurs in Louisiana. Keller and Buckabay (196o) discuss the sugarcane processing problems in Louisiana. A map of the Louisiana sugarcane growing areas is shown on Figure 5. 248 Table 1. Fish species collected near lao Creek mouth, MEmi Island, Havaii. (From: Hawaii Division of Fish and Game 1953b.) 322cies �A-ze I II III IV V Total Acanthurus sandvicensis, 14 1 15 Ubrasoma flavescens 20- 20 1- 21 Zebrasoma veliferum 2 2 Acanthurus barienne I Acanthurus olivaceus 1011 3 3 Adanthurus lineolatus 5 Ctenochaetus strigosus. 2 2 Acanthurus leucoparicus -7 3 16 .Chaetodon setifer Chaetodon fremiblii. Cirrhitus pinnulatus 2 3 Red Uhu 2 2 T.halasoma duperrey 55 .100 37 13 31 236 Bodianus bilunulutus V-10" 4 3.1 17 IUiiBtiUS 22. Umpses cuvier .fteudupeneus pleuroatigma 2 4 2 8 Pseudupeneus porabyreus 2 6 Pseudupeneus bifasciatus 2 Fmauatrus jenkinsi 7 20 Abudefduf abdommalis 2 .Chielio inermis Canthigaster jactator i4onacanthus spilosoma Balictapus aculeatus I Zanelus cornutus 7 Total 385 rfVrwWK Nokaloj* pow NAPILI,' k,4 woih" Point Area 14 K Puu KUkUi Sugar can* Kahillmi say In 0 I PA64 1% Nuelo Point HAINA %% y KAHULUI P UUNENE a U kumehome 0 P, Canyon I -XI. f" , I Sugar Cone 0 FJ- 0110 c. MAALAiA (D 00f c% FJ- 0 Area 4. cl% C+ Naleaka- Waver Fo Gov't rest Preserve Reserve ci. C% '7- 250 mi. U- @@.Vwo i" Sbati@ ca -'@jj ",-4 PUERTO RICO Fig. 4. mgp or paerto Rico showing the loc ations or sugarcane Procesding plants and points of ocean'disposal Of wastes (From Biaggi .01-968; Fig.l). 7 Fig. 5. Sugarcane growing and Processing areas of Louisiana. (From Keller and Huckabay, 1960; Fig. 1. 251 The Bayou Teche drains the New Iberia sugarcane growing area and. receives considerable processing waster, during the grinding season (autumn). The Bayou Teche enters coastal waters in the Terrebonne Parish and the sugar- cane waste during autumn causes large fish kills. The Bayou (and at its mouth) contains brown water during the autumn grinding season that possesses an extremely high BOD from the sugar, which results in anaerobic conditions and a subsequent "kill-off" of-most organisms. 252 Chapter E-9 ECOSYSTEM RECEIVIM PHOSPHATE WASTES J. E. Hobbie , North Carolina State University Raleigh, North Carolina 27607 Phosphorus is needed in all living organisms, yet is present in very low concentrations in normal plant and animal environments. In estuaries, phosphorus as dissolved phosphate is found at close to 30 parts per billion (t pg-atom/liter; 0.03 mg P/1). Because the concentration is so low, the amount of phosphorus my fall to a point where photosynthesis and growth are reduced; the phosphorus is then con- sidered to be the limiting factor. Most of the high phosphorus levels found in estuaries are a result of sewage pollutionand other nutrients, such as nitrogen and vitamin , are also abundant. Estuarine situations where phoiphorus is the sole pollutant are rare and are confined to the phosphate mining regions of Florida and North Carolina. The mining activities also introduce two non-nutrient pollutants, slimes and fluoride, into the estuaries. This section, therefore, deals with effects of these three pollutants on the estuarine systems. The commercially important deposits are found as phosphate sands from the Pamlico River in North Carolina to Savannah, Georgia, and as phosphate rock in central and northern Florida (Odum, 1953)- One company is currently working in North Carolina (with four or.five others planning future operations) and close to fifteen operating in Florida. Whether the phosphate is in sands or in rock, the general mining and treatment procedure is the s, . The ore'is reduced to fine particles followed by several washing and floatation steps to concentrate the phosphate. At this point, the sands, clays, clay-sized particles of rock and unrecovered phosphate, plus the fatty acids and amines used in floatation, are transported to settling basins (slimes ponds). The phosphate concentrate is then treated to make phosphoric acid or fertilizer. Fluoride, from calcium fluoride-apatite,is the main pollutant arising from the last treatment, but a number of plant pollutants also escape to the estuaries and rivers due to cleaning of tanks, occasional pipe-line breaks, etc'. The possible effects of these various pollutants are known from laboratory experiments and observations on other aquatic systems. The most important sys- tem affected is the primary producers. Any changes in this group of algae and rooted aquatic plants will have tremendous importance for the remainder of the Organisms. Although many different ions are needed by the primary producers, the phosphorus and nitrogen compounds are usually the limiting factors because of their low concentrations. Increased amounts of P and N have led to different species becoming important and the increased productivity has led to deep-water anaerobic layers that have killed some benthic species (e.g. the mayflies in western Tmake Erie). Phosphorus as a lone pollutant will have little effect un- less nitrogen compounds are already present or unless nitrogen fixing tlue-green algae are abundant (e.g. Shapiro's (1965) work on the Potomac Estuary), If enough phosphor@c,acid or other acidic compounds are released, then the pH will be,drastically lowered and organisms eventually killed. For example, all of 253 the invertebrates were killed in Bear Branch (Florida) when the pH dropped below 3 because of phosphate mining effluents (Lanquist, 1953). Low pH also increases the amount of dissolved phosphorus in the water. The most important potential source of serious pollution is the slim waste. By definition, this is ultrafine material, consistiag of clay, silt, and phosphate sands smaller than 200 mesh. The majority of the solid material is between 0.3 and 3 Ax. An analysis of the Florida slimes was presented by McElroy (Table 1). He described it as a solution of several substances mixed with a colloid and containin - The '5 a coarse mechanical suspension of solids material can contain up to /3 of the phosphorus of the original ore. When the slimes axe pumped into the settling basin, most of the particles settle out and the effluent water is quite clear. The settled slimes still contain 60 - 80% water'and years of settling produces little change. Cattails will grow on the semi-solid top few inches of old slimee, but the material beneath the surface (which may be 8 meters thick) remains t;emi-liquid and will move out through any opening dikes. This is a real and continuing hazard and dike break- ages have occurred a number of times in Florida, the latest in March, 1967. In rivers, the slimes are kept in suspension by the moving water, but settle in every pool and kill many organisms by clogging their gills. Others dre eliminated by the blocking of suitable substrates or by the covering of their food, such as dead leaves. Some fluoride is also released from the mining operation. This is dissolved from the ore during treatment with sulfuric acid and usually will be contained within the plant. However, because of overflows and seepages, some fluoride is usually present in the plant wastes. Fluoride is poisonous at relatively low concentrations even though it is present in all waters. For example, oysters from the Pamlico River died in 30 mg F11 (the natural. level is 0-5 mg/l)- EXUULES Rivers and Tampa Bay The Florida mining operations discharge wastes into the Peace and the Alafia Rivers which run, respectively, southwest into Charlotte Harbor and west into Tampa Bay (Fig. 1). Table 2 indicates that the rivers have a high phosphorus content, some of which may also arise from the natural rocks of the drainage basin (Odum, 1953)- The turbidity and pH were normal during 1948 as less than 100 mg/l turbidity is not harmful to life. The large break that occurred on 11 March@ 1967 (Table 2) killed 91% of the fish (Ware, 1-967) over 76 miles of river (an estimated 983,000 fish). The flo6d of turbid water raised river levels by as much as 4 feet and deposited 1 to 3 inches of slimes on the banks and flood plain and up to 21 inches on the river bottom. Each heavy rain will bring these slimes back into suspension and it my taxe 5 to 10 years before normal habitat is restored. Based on the work of Lanquist (1953), it is likely that the missels and other clean stream invertebrates will be elimin ted and organ- isms typical of low oxygen, polluted 'waters will be the first to reenter the stream. This system will occur because the organisms are adapted to obtaining oxygen from air and have no gills to be clogged by the slimes. In spite of the phosphorus entering into Charlotte Harbor (Odum, 1953)., 254 Table 1. Chemical analysis of typical phosphatic slime. (McElroy, 1967) Substance % P 20 20.0 S102 21.0 CaO 18.0 Al203 20.0 Fe 4.5 F 1.7 Loss on Ignition 12.0 Miscellaneous 2.8 Total AM Table 2. Data from the Peace and Alafia Rivers Florida (from Specht and from Ware, 1967). Location Date Phosphorus Turbidity pH (ug-at_11) Peace River April 5, 1948 280 30 6.8 April 12, 1948 513 50 7.1 Alafia River April 2, 1948 17 25 7.3 April 23, 1948 150 25 7.0 Peace River 1.5 miles above pollution March 17, 1967 20 1 mile below break March 12, 1967 31,200 5 miles below break March 14, 1967 37,250 28 miles below break March 14, 1967 40,000 76 miles below break March 17, 1967 18,750 255 41@ T P a STATE PARK BIG PLANT C111 ST. PETERSBURG 2 LII A Milo low A MA INISK BRADEN 0 BIT ARASOTA ARCADIA STATE 111 Q GULF VENICE IN, OF UPUNTA SCROA MOORE I I MEXICO SLA RELLI 0 SAMPLING STA 11 WEATNER STA 9 CAGE STA CAPTIVA will ISLAND oil oil W. Fig. Ia. Florida west coast showing Tampa Bay and Charlotte Harbor (from Dragovich, Kelly, and Goodell, 1968). THE SURFACE GEOLOGY 256 HILLSBOROUGH] OF THE TAMPA BAY AREA V SUWANNEE LIMESTONE; NAKV TO SOFT. SOME CHERT TAMPA LIMESTONE. SANDY FIA DOLOMITIC E3 HAWTHORN FM.; SAND. CLAY, MARL, LIMESTONE CALOOSAHATCHEE FM. MANATEE[ SAND, SHELL. MARL El BONE VALLEY FM ............ SAND. CLAY. PHOSPHATE ANASTASIA FM.-. COQU(NA AND LIMESTONE -Surface geology and stream drainage in the area tributary to the Tampa Bav System. Fig. 1b. Phosphate bearing geological formations (Goodell and Gorsline, 1961). .097 .107 Hillsborough R 160 .274 .2 Alafia R. 720 .74 1.8 1 .84 1.61 Tampa 39? .285 Bay PPM 90 10 50 N .280 .284 Little Manate .295 .126 .154, '16n .130 .045 Manatee R.J .400 MILES 16 0 -Dissolved phosphorus in the Tampa Bay region, Florida. Data obtained in cooperation with Dr. Nelson Marshall, Flo@ida State University in the fall, 1952. Fig. 1c. Nutrient phosphorus (total) in Tampa Bay (Odum, 1953). 257 there is no evidence that any change in the natural estuarine system has taken place (Dr. Perry Gilbert, personal comminication). Evidently another nutrient., probably nitrogen, is limiting algal growth. The sediments, however, have an increased phosphate load (Fig. 2). Table 3 has data on fishes. The situation is very different in Tampa Bay, where sewage, phosphate wastes, and decaying water hyacinths have created eutrophication seldom equalled in the United States. There is so much nitrogen and phosphorus coming into Hillsborough Bay (the northeastern part of Tampa Bay) that the role of the phosphate wastes are difficult to determine. An F.W.P.C.A. project under the direction of T. Gallagher and J. Hagen (Southeast Water Lab., Athens) has determined that phosphate mining wastes are the major source of phosphorus for Hillsborough Bay. Data presented here are from a preliminary report (final report to FWPCA expected in early 1969). Hillsborough Bay (Figure 3) is a protected arm of Tampa Bay about 4 miles wide and 8 miles long. The maximum depth is 28 feet and the average is 12 feet. Several 34-foot-deep dredged channels traverse the bay. The tidal effect is slight and the maximm current measured was 0-5 miles per hour. Phosphorus enters the bay chiefly from the Alafla River (Figure 1) and the highest concen- trations, 4'.9 mg P/l, were found along the eastern shore close to the river. The concentration of organic nitrogen at the mouth of the Alafia River averaged 0.77 mg N11 during June, 1967. Decaying water hyacinths from the Hillsborough River enter the bay at the rate of ten million pounds/year or about 700,000 pounds of N and 56,000 pounds of P. The Tampa sdwage contributes an estimated 3500 pounds N/day (calculated from the sewage flow). In response to the abundant nutrients, the system of primary producers has changed. Instead of a mixed benthic flora now found in other parts of Tampa Bay, Hillsborough Bay has almost a pure stand of Gracillaria, a red alga. This alga is killed by fresh-water at least once a year and tremendous odor pro- blems result. Over one 16 month sampling period, the biomass of Gracillaria. fluctuated from 2300 to 400 pounds/acre or a maximlyn of 260 gm/m@. The domin nt primary producer was the phytoplankton with an average gross photosynthesis of 5-3 gm 02/m3/day (net 3.3; respirati -on 1.9). This was equal.to about 3.8 gm dry organic matter /m3/day or 1380 gm/yr. If the photosynth6tic'zone is taken as 2 or 3 meters deep, this becomes a very high value comparable only to the most fertile estuaries (Odum, 1959). A Gymnodinium. species had a bloom of red- tide proportions in Februaxy, 1967. Information available on the other aquatic organisms of Hillsborough Bay (Figs. 4 and 5) indicates a reduced fish population and lower numbers of lanceleta and brachiopods. Area IV in Figure 4 is Hillsborough Bay while Area III is Old Tampa Bay. In conclusion, it is obvious that the estuaxine system that has evolved in Hillsborough Bay is responding to the high level of several nutrients and is not a special phosphate-caused system. The phosphorus levels are 100 times higher than normal estuarine concentrations, but the nitrogen level is only slightly higher than normal. Usually a N:P ratio of 8:1 is expected in natural estuaries, but in Hillsborough Bay the ratio is close to 1:3. There is an excess of phosphorus in this system and nitrogen is probably the limiting factor. 258 CHARLOTTE HARBOR PERCENT PHOSPHATE IfA CONTINUATION OF PIACI 1IVE2 Fig. 2a. Phosphorus distribution in sediments of Charlotte Harbor, Fla. (from Huang and Goodell, 1967). 259 Lake Hancock 49,GDLufu Lake N .39 .190 Bear Branc 6 W5 0 4 20 .5 Peace River 5.3 Horse Crook Charlie Creek pprn P .273 .2 067 .3 A23 Charlotte Harbor .023 .073 .02 Caloosahotchee River Sanibel Island Figure 5-Dissolved phosphorus in the Peace River system. Data obtained in cooperation with Mr. Ellis Landquist. Fig. 2b. Total dissolved phosphorus in Peace River and Charlotte Harbor in 1952 (Odum, 1953). 260 A VO 2.9 40 & 2.7 3.2 "@?/L 4.4 4.1 2.9 4.9 2.1 Fig* Hillsborough Bayy Florida., snowing dissolved total Phosphorus and the amount of phosphorus entering the bay. 261 AREA I AREA 31 AREA AREA 33C I a 1 3 4 1 1 2 3 4 1 1 4 4 SILVER MULLET mmoll cvr*A@v 11 SILVER MULLET Armfil prichadan C) D 0 0 11 0 STRIPED ULLET mooll 0 0 0 OAG myeteraperce Cl CREVALLE JACK Capons hippos PERMIT Trachifiatus so. 0 SOT Mospomme rompharut 11 El N 0 C1 13 0 0 0 El E 0 El C1 SPOTTED SEATROUT c1floscion 60600sus 0 0 0 0 0 0 El 0 0 MOJARRA Euclaostomms quia [a 0 C1 0 0 ID "OJARRA Eucipostofflus argentoms El 0 IJ El El E] El SOJARRA plaplerus P/Um/fri E] El 1:1 m 1:1 El BLUE CRAB Calliftectes sapidtfs 1:1 El El 0 El 1:1 El 5 El [3 D 0 [1 [1 REO.ORUM -1 0 0 sclop"Ops Oct//&/* 1-1 El E 11 Cl 11 0 E) 1:1 WHITE SEATROUT", 3 C.vfloscioft arefflari 0 0 El m 0 0 0 0 L SHEEPSHEAD Archosargus E] 0 0 0 El 1:1 PINK SHRIMP pon"'Re dmorarem 0 m 0 0 0 a 0 0 0 0 0 0 El BLArK DRUM polvaids cromis El MENHADEN Br#rOortiff Petro&&& 0 0 0 0 MENHADEN 0 0 -0 0 no L 2. 3.4 - wi.t." SPH.q. 4 so a 50-100 too Fig. 4. Occurrence of immt-ure sPecies Of donmrciallY imPOrtant fish and shellfish in Tbmpa Bay, Fla., by season and area (from Finucane, 1966). 262 QUA GULF O-A. I A FROMMOr MIXI LIANWATIA TAMPA IXIC34 /CLEARWATIlt AMPA ";4 4- 51 'E'RISIURG., ST. PITINSSUNG A117 lot-Soo 21-15 d1w W d Fig., Quantitative distribution (number per sample of about 300 cm. 2 46-5 square inches) of the lancelet, B. floridae and the brachioprA Vyramidata, in Tampa Bay, Fla. (from Taylor and Saloman, 1967)- IIA.WAI.. 263 Pamlico River, North Carolina In North Carolina, the phosphate mining area is located.on the Pamlico River (Fig. 6). The phosphate, in small nodules intermixed with sand, is covered with 60 - 90 feet of sand, shell, and clay. Processing wastes are dis- charged at the plant (TGS in Fig. 7), and slimes decant water at S.P. The river section shown (15 x 3 miles) has a salinity of 5 to 18% and is rarely over 18 feet deep (average 12-14 feet). The tidal amplitude is only 1/2 foot and currents are slow. In general, this is an oligohaline estuary of the type described in another chapter. Shallow bays have Potomogeton and Ruppia growing on the bottom. The dominant bivalve is Rangia and dinoflagellates make up most of the phytoplankton. Data reported here have been collected by projects of D. B. Horton and J. E. Hobb ie - The decant water from the slimes pit is clear water containing up to 20 Pg at P/l. However, the discharge is small (50 lbs/daY) compared with the volume of the river and so little effect on the total phosphorus is noted (Fig- 7)- From this figure, the importance of the plant discharge is obvious and the gen- eral pattern of circulation can be noted. Water movement is slow enough so that the high phosphate waters could be followed for more than six weeks. Evidently a large amount of phosphate, perhaps as phosphoric acid, had escaped from the plant some days earlier. This was an unusually large discharge that only happened once or twice a year. The pH in the plant area was lowered to 6-5 from the usual 7.5 to 8. The response of the algal primary producers to the high phosphorus levels can be looked at in terms of biomass or of potential photosynthesis. The plankton biomass was estimated by direct count of sedimented plankton and is given in Fig. 8 as mg wet weight/I. The diameter of each circle is proportional to the cube root of the biomass with a range of 2.3 to 53.0 zg/I shown here. A large bloom of Peridinium trique , Prorocentrum. min and Katodinium sp. war. responsible for most of the biomass and this bloom lasted for nearly three months. Potential photosynthesis was estimated from surface samples incubated with carbon-14 under controlled temperature and light conditions. The diameter of circles is proportional to the cube root of the mg C/m3/hr retained in the algae with a range of 0.8 to 387 mg (Fig. 9). It appears that high productivity occurs in the middle part.of this river section., but that it is not necessarily associated with the high phosphorus levels. Figs. 10, 11, and 12 cover the same par ters for the end of July 1967- Although dinof lagellates, were still dominant, the Peridinium triquetr were absent and the biomss ranged from 0.8 to 4-5 mg. Dominant species were Peridinium trochoideum, Nitzschia closterium, Prorocentrum min a large Gymnodinium sp., and g estuariale,. The range of potential photosynthesis was 8 to 178 ZEodinium mg C/m@hr. At this date, despite the different concentrations of phosphorus found in the river, the biomass and potential photosynthesis wem at the same level throughout the measured section. Another way to examine effects of phosphorus on the Pamlico River is 264 i6 PAMLICO VVIeR 13 -35 35- 1 SCALE I 0 10 to so 40 NIL 6 . . --A 0 10 a V so OLas 77 ?6 Fig. 6. Location of Pamlico River, N. C. and February surface isohalines for North Caroline estuaries (from woods, 1967). 265 0 2 20 TGS 3 0 10 PAMLICO RIVER 3 P Fig- 7. Total unfiltered phosphorus in the Pamlico River, 8 January., 1968. Concentrations are in)ug-at./l- 0 0 TGS 0 0 0 PAMLICO RIVER Fig. 8. Biomass (wet weight) of phytoplankton in the Pamlico River on 5 January., 1968. The diameter of the circles is proportional to the cube root of the biomass (mg/1). -4-4 0 0 TGS 0 0 000 0 0 PAMLICO RIVER -0 0 0 Fig. 9. carbon-i4 uptake (mg c/m3/br) under controlled light and temperature conditions for samples from the Pamlico River on 8 January, 1968. The di ter '@A 0 of the circles is proportional to the cube root of the mg C fixed. 266 @\J TG PAMLICO RIVER Fig. 10. Carbon-14 uptake (mg C/m3/hr) under controlled light and temperature conditions for samples from the Pamlico River on 29 July., 1967, The diameter of the circles is proportional to the cube root of the rg C fixed. 0 0 0 TGS 0 0 0 0 0 0 PAMLICO RIVER 0 Fig. 11. Biomass (wet weight) of phytoplankton in the Pamlico River on 31 Juln, 1967- The diameter of the circles is proportional to the cube root of the biomass (mg/1). 3 4 TOS 2- 3 3 PAMLICO RIVER 0 Fig. 12. Tote-l unfiltered phosphorus in the Pamlico River, 31 JulY, 1967.. Concentrations are In jug-at, /l. 267 ,nt (Figure through nutrient addition studies. In this experime 13), water samples were t@ken inside the slime pit and in the river, 3/4 mile away from the pit. The samples were incubated in the laboratory with carbon-14 plus addition of phosphate, nitrate, vitamins, or other salts needed for algal growth. The. sample from inside the slimes pit showed no response over controls, but the river sample gave a good response to nitrate alone or to nitrate plus phosphate. Total nitrogen concentrations in the river are usually close to 1 mg at./l (0.014 mg N11). Examination of the distribution of benthic organisms revealed one anomaly; close to the present plant there is an area of river bottom devoid of organisms. This is probably the place where slimes were put into the river during a pilot plant operation before 1965. Evidently the slimes were not washed away in the slow currents of the estuary, and are -not suitable for benthic organisms. There is evidence that some fluoride is reaching the river from the plant drainage. Normal background in the river is 0.5 mg F11 and close to the plant over 10 mg F/1 have been measured. This quantity is rapidly diluted (Figs.140 15) however, and no increase over background is found 1/4 mile from the plant. In summary, the estuarine system of the Pamlico River has not changed measurably because of the phosphate mining operatiaa. The potential hazard of the slims has-been successfully dealt with so far and fluoride is mostly removed at the pi&nt. With a W:P ratio of 1:4 or 1:40 instead of the 8:1 usually found, it is obvious that nitrogen is the limiting factor. In contrast to Hillsborough Bay, the nitrogen levels in the Pamlico River have remained low. Thus, although nitrogen is limiting in both situations, the increased nitrogen of Hillsboraugh Bay permitted new types of organisms to come in. Table 3 --Dominant families and species of fish caught in Charlotte Harbor and Pine Island Sound, January 1964 through January 1965 ZPercentage of catch taken from total number of fish caught monthly at five trawl and two beach seine stations in each area7 Families Catch Species Catch . I I I Charlotte Harbor Percent Percent Engraulidae ........... 47.9 Bay anchovy 46.2 Anchoa mitchilli. Sparidae .............. 12.3 Pinfish 12.2 Lagodon rhomboides. Sciaenidae ............ 10.6 Spot 6.5 Leiostomus xanthurus. Atherinidae ........... 7.6 Silver jenny 5.4 Eucinostomus gula. Gerridae .............. 6.0 Tidewater silversides 5.0 Menidia beryllina. Cyprinodontidae ....... 4.1 Menhaden 3.9 Brevoortia spp. 88.5 79.2 (Finucane, 1966) 100 268 N03 CPM P04 N 0, 50 CONTROL 6 18 2LF HOURS CPM A 50 HOURS Fig. 13. The effect of the additions of NO',, and P04 plus NO on the uptake of carbon-14. Samples'were taken from Le slimes pit (A) and from a Point 3/4 udle away from the N@_, pit effluent pipe (B) in the Pamlico River. E LECTRODE METHOD 269 Pm FLUORIDE IN P .145 40 40 .35 40 .35 40 45 .50 .55 0 to 20 Fig. 14. Distribution of fluoride (mg/1) near TGS. 270 19 2P MILES Washington N 'U 4r IWO L H MARS OINDIAN PAMLICO POINT .0 North Carolina Area C' INNER Ile& MIDDLE New OCRACO@E Bern -N P T'able 1. Comparison Between Total Fluoride Concentrations and the Concentration Determined from Activity Measured with the Fluoride Electrode Sample Total Free Complexed Percent F M. V x 105 M. V x 105 M. V x 105 complexed Inner Middle (S) 3.92 1.63 2.29 58 Inner Middle (B) 2.60 1.27 1..'13 51 Pamlico Point (S) 3.78 1.62 2.12 56 Pamlico Point (13) 3.84 1.62 2.12 55 Indian Isle (S) 3.10 1.56 1.54 50 Indian Isle (13) 2.16 1.22 .94 44 Ruinley Marsh (S) 1.94 1.19 .75 39 Rumley Marsh (13) 3.09 1.42 1.67 54 Core Point (S) 1.56 1.0.3 .53 34 Core Point (B) 2.53 1.54 .99 :39 Makils Point (S) 1.29 .66 .63 49 Mauls Point (B) 1.86 1. 14' .7 2 39 Table 2. Comparison of Fluoride Concentration Determined from In. situ and Laboratory Electrode Measurements In situ- Sample In situ M. F- Laboratory 1%@. V Laboratory Percent Act. x 105 Act. x 10, M. F- Act. x 105 Difference Inner Middle (S) 1.68 1.14 .54 32 Inner Middle (B) 1.66 .89 .77 46 Pa"ico, Point (S) 1.69 1.15 .54 32 Pamlico Point (B) 1.59 1.15 .44 28 Indian Isle (S) 1.42 1.12 .30 21 Indian Isle (13) 1.44 .88 .56 39 Rumley Xlarsb (S) 1.36 .87 .59 :38 Runilev Marsb (13) 1.27 1.02 .25 20 Core @oint (S) 1.56 . 76 .8o 51 Core Point (13) 1.20 L. 14 .06 Mauls Point (S) 1.23 .50 .73 59 Matils Point (B) 1.01 .84 .17 1-, Fig. 15. Fluorides in Pamlico River, North Carolina (Daugherty and Johnson, 1968). Chapter B-10 271 ACID WATERS When maxine waters become very acid, ordinary marine organisms cannot develop ecological systems and are replaced by simple ecosystems with only a few species. The salts in sea water include 125 ppm carbonates and some borates which maintain the solution's acid-base balance in estuarine waters mainly between 7.5 and 8.2 on the PH scale (7 is neutral. A, doerease of 1 means a ten fold increase in acid ions). The fluids within animals have similar composition and maintain their own necessary homeostasis in a similar way. Fig. I shows the PH range where Calabrese and Davis (1966) found continued development of eggs and larvae of oysters and clams. Because plants must incorporate carbon dioxide in their photosynthetic process, because animals must get rid of the excess carbon dioxide from their respiration,and for other reasons the acid-base condition in the external waters and in their tissues must be held within a small range if their functions are to operate without stress. If acid is added to sea waters in large quantities, the buffering salts are neutralized, the PH values drop,driving out the carbon dioxide in well stirred waters. Below PH 5 there is little carbon dioxide for photosynthesis. The external acid conditions put a stress on other organisms to hold their interior acid-base equilibrium. It has been observed in studies of acid waters, mainly in fresh waters so far, that very character- istic populations replace the ordinary ones, the new organisms apparently adapted as specialists capable of developing an ecological system in the acid conditions. Since many wastes have acid content, the acid water ecosystem occurs with varying degrees of complication due to other wastes. EXAMPLES Acid Marine Pond from Oxidized Marsh Mud An example of an acid water system developed in some ponds newly dug and lined with marsh mud at Morehead City, N. C. (Fig. 2). Oxidation of sulfides occurred while the mud was exposed to air, developing sulfuric acid which dropped the sea water to PH 3.6 when the pond was refilled. A chaxacteristic phytoplankton developed as compared with control ponds. Many normal organisms which had been added such as grass shrimp dropped out. Photosynthesis as measured with diurnal oxygen methods was much less than in control ponds, or in the same ponds after they were neutralized later by pumping in new waters. Adams (1962) dried and aerated sulfide-containing marsh muds allowing oxidation. After rewettingi. Na7 low PH's resulted as given in Table 3.. Wherry (1920), Edelman and Staveren (1958), and Fleming and Alexander (1961) found acid soil important in marshes and a factor in the determination of comminities at the margins of marshes. The acid condition in the two new ponds at Morehead City were studied by several staff of the University of North Carolina. J. D. Johnson and J. Day repeated the drying experiment done by Adams with similar low PH resulting (Progress report to North Carolina Board of Science and Technology, Dec. 31, 1968). They titrated the acid waters finding some residual buffer capacity even though carbonates had been eliminated. too $Do - 90 90 P i so- 4C 1 00. 2 0 70 1 70- z j 0 .j go- GO. z $a so - U SL 40. 4L 0 40 z 30 t 30 -OYSTER EGGS 20 OYSTER LARVAE 20 *,------CLAM EGG3 @-____*CLAM LARVAE 10 10 6.0 6.3 zo Z5 8.0 8.5 9.0 9.3 6.0 6.3 TO 7.5 8.0 8.5 9.0 9.5 ADJUSTED INITIAL P" ADJUSTED INITIAL PH Percentage of clam and oyster eggs that developed into normal straight-hinge Percentage of clam and oyster larvae that survived at different pH levels, larvae at difforent pH levels, expressed as a percentage of the number developing into normal as a percentage of survival in control cultures. larvae in control cultures. Fig. 1. Survival of m ine organisms as a function of pH (Calabrese and Davis, 1966). (C O'N T R 0 L 273 PONDS C 3 SOUND FRESH WATER C2 3 U. N. C. INSTITUTE OF MARINE SCIENCES L ts LIM- SALT YfATER WASTE PON DS 7 P& SEWAGE PLANT MIXING ,M ARI Hr P2 (TANK MOREHEAD CITY, N.C. A'-T WATE, wASTE WATER OA-LICO CREEK f ]pig, 2. Ponds at Morehead CitY, N. C. C and C-3 bec*-me acid after filling. 274 Table 1 Soil pH (wet) versus soil pH (dried and rewet) at Oak island and Southport, iq.C. from Adams, 1962). Oak Island Southport na b 45 46 Mean pH wet c 5-75 7.62 Mean pHrewet 4.19 7.62 Mean PH change 1-56 0.48 pH greater than: Percent of Samples 1.0 33 6 2.o 28 2 3.0 7 4 Total % with pH change greater than 1.0 68 12 aThe symbol (n) indicates the number of samples used in computing the respective means. bpH of-the original samples (1:1 soil/water slurry). cpH of the rewet air-dry samples (1:2 soil/water slurry). Table 2. -Distribution of recog@ized genera and species of plants and animals occurring at or below pH 3.9 Plants Number Animals Number of species ofspecles Tballophyta: Protozoa: Fungi.____@ ------------------------- 2 Nlastigophora- Algae: Euglenidae -- --------------------- 7 Myxophyceae ------------------- a Protornastigina -------------------- .7 Chrysophyceae: Sarcodina: Chrysomonadales ----------- 3 Rhizopoda ------------------------ 15 Chrysotriebales ------------- I Ileliozoa -------- ----------------- 2 Bacillarieae; Infusoria: Pennales -------------------- 5 Ciliata ---------------------------- 19 Chlorophyceae: Trochelminthw: Volvocales ------------------ I Rotatoria ----------------------------- 6 Ulotrichales ----------------- 2 Oastrotricha -------------------------- I Chlorococcales -------------- I Nernathelminthes: Zy-nematales ---------------- 6 Nematoda ---------------------------- Dinopnyceae ------------------- 2 Arthropoda: Bryopbyta ------------------------------ I Crustacea: rteridophyta --------------------------- I Isopoda --------------------------- Spermatophyta ------------------------- I Copepoda ------------------------- Arachnida: Lackey (19674) Tardigrada ------------------------ In%ecta ----------------------- : -------- 'Amphibia ------------------------ -------- 275 E. J. Kuenzler and L. D. Davidson describe phytoplankton bloom of Ochromonas (Fig. 3) and a low diversity of other species whereas the non-acid pond started at the same time had 17 species. Moore and Odum provide a diurnal curve of productivity in the acid pond (Fig. 4) showing a product- ivity similar to that in the non-acid ponds at the same time even though the acid Ponds were very low in carbon dioxide concentrations. A. Williams and R. Outen found highmortality in marine invertebrate larvae in the acid condition. Marine Waters Receiving Strong Acid Industrial Waste Strong acids are frequently disposed at sea, often from barges far from land where large volumes of water dilute and neutralize the acid against the bicarbonates. Whenever these wastes are released into restricted and poorly mixing waters, the bicaro6natesnay be driven out with the result described for the marsh mud oxidation case. A possible example is a large effluat v2m cr 890 tons per day sulfuric acid proposed for Helgoland on the North Sea in Europe. Kinne and Rosenthal (1967) sbicUed the effect of the acid on the eggs of herring, finding them sensitive in their early stages of fertilization, start of development and development of locomotion with negative effects down to 6 ppm. Where the acid is sulfuric, the sulfate added may be small relative to sulfate already in sea water. For example, only 300 ppm sulfate.goes with a PH of 3. Thus effects may be due to the hydrogen' ion (acidity) rather than the anion (sulfate). In the impure waste studied Prs hi h for.effect on herring of high coucentrations, howevery iron was ent V C precipitated a's PH was raised by dilution in sea water. Precipitation of iron has been used in laboratory work for removal of living micro-organisms and their normal organic metabolites, whichbecome incorporated in precipitates. As seen in Tahle3 for coal vastes, soluble metals tend to Accompany the acids. Ketchum (1960) shows acids released fm abarge in open sea wateis neutralized in 15 minutes (Fig. Fresh Water Mine Drainages In instances of stress, the differences between fresh and salt water ecosystems tend to disappear,,especially if the population pressures of the sea are removed as in partly isolated lagoons. The patterns of life in the better known acid mine waters were similar to the pond situation observed At Morehedd-City. Lackey (1967a)provides a list (Table 2) of characteristic organisms.oi acid mine waste waters. At or below pl@ 3.9 few species were found only 11 at PH 2.6. Characteristic species of the plankton are shown in Fig. 3 from Ronnd (1965b)and Lackey (1967a.). See patterns in Fig. 6 and 7. The acid water system is one of many kinds of disturbance ecosystems that are involved with extensive mining where excavations are in reduced or anaerobic sediments. There have been recent discussions of mining below the marshes of the Atlantic coast where acid pool systems are likely to be a result. Proposed copper mining in Puerto Rico and elsewhere may increase the frequency of acid mine drainages reaching the sea. Table 3, from woodley and Moore (1967) shows some properties of mine drainages from reduced sediment. 276 Table 3. Mine drainage wastes -Quality of Drainage from Abandoned Coal Refuse Disposal Site Value on Given Date Quantity'Measured 12/12/62 11/15/63 5/20/64 6/10/64 11/25/64 pH 3.4 3.6 3.1 2.8 3.6 M.O. acidity (mg/1) 1,250 7,200 284 1,660 1,082 P. acidity (mg/1) 12,CM 7,000 2,450 10,200 0,4GO Sulfates (mg/1) 17,000 7,900 19,000 30,000 12,000 Iron (mg/1) 4,240 3,460 760 3,400 3,500 Manganese (mg/1) 40 - 50 50 40 1 (Woodley and Moore, 1967) AQUATIC LIFE IN ACID WATERS 7. Euglena mutabilis, showing two or three heavy chloroplastids, conspic- uous stigma, small rod-like paramylurn bodies, and apparent absence of flagellum. like paramylum bodies, and apparent a0sence of nageilum. Ochromonas (Round,1965b) Figures 3 and 4 Chromulina sp., showing one or two chromatophores, stigma, and large posterior granula. @z @V- Fig. 3. Aquatic Life in waters polluted by acid mine waste (Lackey, 1967a). POND C-3t AUG. 29-309 19681 32.4 277 0.8 - 0.7 - 02 Aug. 29 o.6 Aug. 30 0-5 Uo4 3*5 >4 0.3 0 -------- PH 7-4 0.2 011 3.0 0 06bo itun 11OU ZWO ?-6 25 0 '-, 24 Aug.29 23 Aug,30 22 21 20 120 100 August 30 z August 29 0 80 +0,,5 Net Photosynthesis +0.2 C%I 0 Gross Photosynthe- bo 0 sis 29 A .29\ 0.2 Fig. 4. Diurnal record of oxygen, pH, and photosynthesis in an acid marine pond# August 29-30, 1968* (A. Moore and H,T, Odum). 0. 278 DISTANCE Folds, 0 000 JODO NICK, 4000 sm ':___ A-P-64'I I- -,- I Is 0 74 ... f NORMAL ON Of SEA WATER LONG ISLAND 6".-Vt Owe 0 6 . " ! *' a Is FREEPORT t7:; -EEPSNEA as, so 4% 0 0 so Ad' 4or 50' 30* SCOTLAR 3 0 0 0 I@ ANDROS[ a -00 a. ..0"LA JI 0 Is WASTE -61b .0 D AREA S Is 4110 ISPOSAL 91'MAR 10 -20 0 9R.ELLt. A W to 0 40* e NEW The surface distribution of pH In th JERSEY wake of a barge discharging a waste contain- Is I, ETURAIS zo 1. THIS AREA ing ferrous sulphate and sulphuric acid 50-ZD (Redfield and Walford, 1951). TOW S' TV The New York Bight showing the lo- cation of an industrial waste disposal area 3C and contours of the percentage return of drift bottles to the coasts of Long Island and New Jersey (Redfield and Walford, 1951). 25. DISTANCE GENIND SARGE. ya,46 0 Is0 Is 3 TIM* in 20 41, qu@ Raritan Bay IS Us _Tz. A. OF WAXII..i.w.. DISTANCE REMIND ROSE, lard. La Saco INsatians Light is. * * AIR 4 Time 16 boo" -194 The surface concentration of iron in Add OFINAXE,.-I.. the wake of the barge at various times (upper portion). Local concentrations in various The vertical distribution of iron parts of the New York, Bight at some distance (lower) and pH (upper) graph in the wake of from the disposal area are shown by the bars the barge (Redfield and Walford, 1951). in the lower figure. Pigs 5. Distributions of pH and iron in the wake of a barge discharging acid wastes (From Ketchum, 1960). 279 Chromml;M0 'C'FY'0JF*M.F Oro" 11uglema mutoNAs Chlvmjrafo@-r jpm AAW,W$ JA A@OPAO 'V'a 20. JP3 YOAM-Aorlil yokyllk IS 44 A,1;..,h,j, 14444 C'*VAd'1'WM JA'M 2777 0-w === 43 55 40.27 yerhro'lle 5AA /&as. Nar'CV14 40,0. 38.7/ "66 44 ZJ'81 Z6.39 39. 0 zo A 60 Pz,vcz,vr 0CCVq'V'r.^0Ce Percentage of occurrence of the 17 most common organisms in all samples. UJ R"Ahe Y*aMh SVVACO 14- S'FI@717 C::== /Z /0- 45 Ira IV k 8 6 4 Z6 Z7 Average number of species per sample within the pH range 1.8 to 3.9. 6 6 4. 4 06 Figs. and 7. Organimns in acid mine waters (Lackey, 1967a). 280 Chapter E-11 OIL SHORES Elizabeth A. YbMahan University of North Carolina Chapel Hill, North Carolina 27514 INTRODUCTION When the inflow of oil to a coastal area is large, special new ecological systems begin to develop. Whereas the oil serves as a stress and eliminates many of the larger organisms, it provides an energy source for specialized micro-organisms capable of metabolizing the oil. The interaction of oil and sediment produces characteristic substrates. Al- though few situations with steady, regular input of oil have been studied, there are a number of case histories of oil spill accidents which have covered relatively long periods, and these suggest the nature of the eco- systems that develop under oil stress. Previous Reviews Recent summaries and bibliographies relating to problems of marine oil spills include those by Hawkes (1961), moss (1963), ZoBell (1964), the Battelle Memorial Institute (1967), Yee (1967), Smith (1968), and Carthy and Arthur (1968). The most comprehensive general review of literature relating to oil spillage is the Battelle report (1967). It considers not only methods of prevention, control, and restoration, but also summarizes results of field and laboratory studies up to 1967 of biological and ecological effects of oil. The material is organized into sections, each with an extensive biblio- graphy. The Smith book W68) is a detailed report by the Plymouth Laboratory of Marine Biological Association of the United Kingdom on the effects of oil released by the wreck of the Torrey Canyon and of detergents used in the mopping up operations. It discusses properties of the oil and detergents, but is devoted mainly to a discussion of their effects on the marine life of British shores. ZoBell (1964) considers the occurrence, sources, and effects of oil in the sea, as well as the natural means by which it is eliminated: evaporation, dispersion, microbiological oxidation, settling, weathering, and so on. Rawkes (1961) reviews problems associated with oil pollution, especially its effects on marine life. 1@bss U963) deals mainly with the complexities and possible solutions to sea pollution by oil as these relate to tanker traffic, and Yee's paper (1967) consists of a bibliography of the literature (1950-1967) on oil pollution in marine waters, arranged by such topics as Sources, Prevention Detection, Treatment, and Effects on Marine Life. Carthy and Arthur (1;68@ have edited the proceedings of a symposium held at Pembroke, Wales on oil effects on littoral conminities. 281 Sources of Spills The use of petroleum and its products as a power source and for petro- chemicals has increased sieadily.during the last century. The consequent increase in amounts used and transported - both crude oil and refined petro- leum products - is reflected in the rise in frequency of oil spiils. Reports of oil release into marine waters come from every coastal state in the Union. For example, 75 incidents of oil pollution were reported in Cook Inlet, Alas- ka between June 1966 and December 1967 (Alaska Water Laboratory., 1968). Spills result from accidents in tanker traffic, leaksduring pumping and piping --such as the recent (February 1969) oil leak off Santa Barbaxa. California, clean- ing of ianrts, pumping of bi.Lge water, and disposal of petroleum wastes from industrial processes (Moss 1963; ZoBell !964; Maehler and Greenberg 1967; Pipel 1968; US Departments of Interior and Transportation 1968). some oil isalso released through natural submarine seeps off California, Louisiana, and Texas (Rosen et al. 1960, ZoBell 1964). EXAMPLES OF OIL DISTURBAME Laboratory Studies A relatively large number of laboratory studies have been.carried out testing the effect of vaxious concentrations of oil (or of oil-cleansing detergent) on the survival, growth, reproduction, ciliary action, etc. of various marine organisms. (See Battelle Report, 196t, tor'bibliographies). Tests by Galtsoff et alo(1935) gave evidence of relatively low toxi- city of crude petroleum oil. This was in line with earlier studies by Elm- hirst (1922) and Orton (1925). Lund (1957) and Mackin and Hopkins (1962) found no significant differences in ciliary action or mortality between oysters exposed to oil and control oysters, under the conditions of their experiments. Aljarinskaya(i966) reported that Mytilus galloprovincialis was able to stand relatively high concentrations of oil due -io the resis - ance of the ciliated epithelium of their gills and mantle. Tagatz (1961a shoved that resistance of American shad to petroleum products varied with the product (exude oil being least and gasoline most toxic) and with dissolved oxygen. A large number of studies of effects of detergents on marine organisms have been carried out* Hidu (1965) studied effects of surfactahts on survi- val and growth of iaxvae of ,claw tMercenaria mercenaria Iand*oysters (Crasso- trea virginica).'. Effect varied with kind of surfactant icationic's being more toxic than anionics and nonionics). Clam larvae were less sensitive than oyster larvae. 'Corner et al,,(1968), using the barnacle Elminius modestus, tested four kinds R_ Tetergent for toxicity. All were more toxic than crude oil, and effects on the barnacle varied with stage of developm6nt.''Bardach et g.(1965) found that very low concentrations of detergent (0-5 ppm),affected sensory,reception., swimming, and feeding behavior'in lake fishes (Ic'talurus natalis)., and Eisler (1965) showed that 282 the greater the salinity of the medium, the more toxic the effect of deter- gent on juvenile estuarine fishes (Menidi menidia,, Fundulus heteroclitus, Mugil cephalus, and others ). Studies of effects of detergents on isolated tissues from marine organisms have been made also. For example, Manwell and Baker (1967b ) obtained results indicating that detergents cause activation of certain enzymes, the inhibition of others and increase in the extractability of proteins from cells (See also the Battelle bibliography). Coastal Ecosystems Effects of oil disturbance on coastal ecosystems vary with ecosystem, amounts and kinds of oil released, tidal currents, wind patterns, and other factors. Most of the ecosystem types as defined in these chapters have been subjected to varyin"g degrees of oil disturbance at one time or another, but because of the tendency of oil to float and to wash ashore, Its effects on beaches and rocky shores are most obvious and most frequently recorded. Effects on mangrove swamps, marshes, and plankton systems have been studied to a lesser degree. Specific effects of oil on interrelationships of the components of an affected ecosystem depend on latitude, which determines the characteristic organisms present, but similarities in effect can be seen from case studies made at latitudes as diverse as those of Moclips, Washington; Cornwall, England; Guanica, Puerto Rico; and Baja, Mexico. In most cases in which extensive studies of effects of oil on an ecosystem have been made, the disturbance (usually resulting from a tanker accident) has been relatively short lived. Studies on long term effects on an ecosystem when oil is a dominant factor are very few. Documented cases of oil disturbance on natural coastal ecosystems in- clude the following: a) a wild oil well in Louisiana in 1956; b) the Tampico Maru oil spill at Baja, California - Mexico in 1957; c) the Guanica oil spill off the south coast of Puerto Rico in 1962; d) the oil spill at the Quinault Indian Reservation in 1964 off Moclips, Washington; e) the Torrey Canyon accident in 1967 off Cornwall, England; and others. The kind of oil released in most of these cases was crude oil, but in cases (b) and (d) diesel fuel was the disturbing factor. After the Torrey Canyon wreck, detergents were used in cleaning operations, and their effects were also considered in evaluating oil disturbance effects. Case History 1: Wild Oil Well in Louisiana (Mackin and Spaxks, 1962) On November 17, 1956 an oil well in an oyster-producing area around Lake Grande Ecaille vent out of control, caught fire, and spilled crude oil 283 for two weeks. Presumably all the light fractions burned or evaporated. The exact amount of oil that escaped was impossible to detenaine, but in regions of greatest concentration it appeared as a heavy.coating on the water surface, and shorelines nearest the well were entirely saturated. in an attempt to determine whether or not such oil might affect survival, growth, or setting of oysters under natural conditidiis, investigators establish- ed a series of 7 stations (4 experimental, 3 control) at varying distances from the well site. Six of them were stocked with trays containing oysters dredged from an area which had been exposed to the oil for more than two months. One of the control stations was stocked from an unaffected area. Measurements made over the next two years included oyster mortality and condition, surveys of the macroscopic fauna.of the trays (in addition to oysters), and analyses of the effects of the oyster disease produced by the fungus Dermocystidium. The four experimental stations were within the oil-affected area, vhr1_e__fh_e three control stations were outside it. Results showed that in none of the measurements made did the experimental and control communities differ significantly. The investigators concluded that modifications in the environment brought about by the crude oil were not reflected in any change in the normal oyster reef community. Normal survival, reproduction,, setting, and growth occurred throughout the study period. An hypothesis that oil might in some way be prerequisite to develop- ment of infection with Dermocystidium was disproved. Case History 2: The Tampico Oil Spill at BUa, California-Mexico (North, Neushul, and Clendenning 1965) On March 29, 1957 the tanker "SS Tampico Maru" was wrecked in a remote area on the Pacific coast of Baja about 180 kilometers south of the Mexican- California border. The ship blocked about 3/4 of the entrance to a small cove (roughly 100 x 100m) and acted for several months as *a breakwater for an enviroment that normally was subjected to violent water movements. The shore is one that is heavily pounded by stoi-ms during late fall, winter, and spring. Extensive upswelling occurs, and water temperatures are typically low (12-1600. About one-third of the cargo of 50,000 barrels of daxk diesel oil was lost at the time of stranding. The rest was liberated sporadically over the next 8 months. By the end of 1957 the ship had broken up, depositing strewn wreckage on the cove's bottom and exposing the cove once again to the full force of the surf. Several factors, therefore, were directly involved in modifying the ecology of the cove: oil spillage,, change inwave exposure, and bottom modifications. The investigators believed, however, that oil effects were a major factor in destruction of organisms in the area, both by killing them directly and by forcing them to release their attachments to the substratum and be washed ashore. Because of the cove's remoteness, its biota had not been surveyed in detail at the time of the accident, but a few pertinent observations had been. 284 recorded. Systematic surveys were begun about a month after the wreck and included not only the cove itself but also adjacent (presumably unaffected) areas. The cove was judged to be typical originally of the region in having luxuriant attached vegetation, the dominant algae being Halidrys dioica., Porphyra Perforata,' and Lithothamnion. Other algae were rl tless also present. __@itis pyri A small clump of giant kelp (MacFoc fera) was noted in'the center of the inlet shortly after the accident, a rather surprising finding for such shallow water. (See ChapterC-n for further discussion of kelp effects). The normally common animals of the cove were believed to include three kinds of abalone,, two kinds of sea urchins, herbivorous fishes., tunicates, scallops, mussels,, barnacles, cowries., sea stars, lobsters, anemones, peri- winkles, crabs, polychaetes, sea cucumbers, and other'small molluscs and fishes. The first survey was made in April 1957, when oil deposits were evident on beaches, in tide pools and on the water surface. A month later the amount of oil was much reduced, and two weekq after that only small amounts were noted on the beaches. Darther'spillage from newly-ruptured tanks apparentlj occurred in November, but on subsequeiit visits the investigators noted no unusual concentrations of oil. Intertidal organisms were surveyed in a 40 m section of the northern part of the cove, and sub-tidal organisms were surveyed along a 100 m transect line stretching from the middle of the cove shore line out to the center of the inlet. At first there was a complete disappeaxance of all but a few animals., a period lasting through the spring of 1957. Then forms capable of migration (e.g. fishes) certain crustaceans) began appearing in the cove, and finally more sessile organisms were represented as recolonization increased. An idea of faunal changesbetween 1957, the year of the wreck,'and 1961 can be gained from Tables 1 and 2, and floral changes from Tables 3 and 4. The species are grouped as intertidal or subtidal and are arranged by the investigators accord- ing to the year in which they were'first observed alive and apparently healthy. This arrangement puts them in a sequence vhich'is probably "indicative of the severity of the catastrophe upon the ecology of each species." The most resistant of.the animals appeared to be the anemone, Anthcpleura xanthogrammica, and the perivinkle'-Littorina' planaxis, both of which escaped destruction. A striking change in the cove's vegetation, which in turn influenced greatly the other biota, was a great accumulation of plant growth, chiefly the giant kelp, Macrocystis. Tremendous numbers of juvenile plants appeared whose age (as gauged by blad number) showed that their germination time coincided closely with the date of the accident and implied a correlation. A massive kelp bed eventually developed in the cove (Figure 1) associated mainly with the strewn bottom,wreckage, and between 1957 and 1964 passed through at least two complete succession cycles. These influenced profoundly the associated. plants and animals in ways not directly related to the ship wreck. Although 285 Table 1: Conmon aninals observed over a seven year period in the intertidal zone at the site of the Tampico Maru wreck. Date of Survey Years first Species q/ 4/ 5/ 6/ 7/ 91 5/ 7/ to/ 10/ '1/ 4/11 It/ Observed q/ 261 16/ to/ to/ ig/ i/ z5I to/ 15/ 4/ 28/ t/ 29/ Alive 16 57 57 57 57 57 58 58 59 6o 6t 62 65 63 AnIbopIriera eleganlisrime and/or P P P P P P P P P N N N N 1957 A. xanibogrammica Girella nigricans P P P P N P N N Litforina planaxis N N N N P P N N N N N N N Mytilux califernianur D D D P,D P,D P P N N P P Pac1;),grapxui crarsipes P N P P N P N N N Cb1bamalut fissus D P P P N N N N N N 1958 Utforina xcululala P P p P P P Lygia occidentalix P P Acantbina, xpirala P p 1939 Acmaeapelia andlorscabra P P N N N Balanus glandula D p p p N Haliolis cracheradii P D D P P p Mitella pol),merwr D P P P P Pisaster ocbraceus D D P P p P S rone P t Ulorentrotus francireawr D D P StronVIocentrolus Psirpmolms D D P N P N Tegulafimebralis P N P N P TeIradila squamose D D P P P N Cba.v.,a pellucida P 1960 Iselmorbilon sp. P P P P Pagartis spp. P P Clinocollut analis P P 1961 Fiisurtfla volcano P P N Lonta gigantea P p N Mopalia muscora P P P Thais em4rginala P P P P, present; N., concentration judged to be about normal for the region; D, dead or moribund specimens found. (From North, Neushul, and Clendennin 1965, Table 1.) 286 Table 2: Subtidal animals observed over a seven year period at the Tampico Yjaru wreck site. Date of Survey Year first species 9/ 41 6/ 6/ 7/ 91 111/ Y/ IN 101111 41 1/ It/ Observed q/ 261 10/ Iq/ to/ 19/ it/ 1/ .10/ Ij/ j/ 28/ 1/ IT"I Alive 56 37 37 51 57 17 57 18 59 6o 6s 6a 615 Girella n@cricanx P P P P P P t916 I lahotit filgen: P D 11aholis rtifeseens P D SirmtQ-1"entroluir frandreasms P D P P Sfroi@",Iocenfrohes Pin, P P P Puralml P D P Ani;etreniris daridsoxii P P P P p PP 9957 Antbopletera arlemeiia P P P PP Antbopleura xantbogranxim P PP PP Aply.ria ralifornica P PP P Atberinops affnii P P P Balanus nubilus D Balanui finfinabstlux D Canter producins D P.D Cilbariabyx sligmaem P Cor P ynactis californica P Embioloca jackienh P P p P p P p Hartnaclij allenuala P P Hermissenda crasikernis P P Hjperprosopon argentux P P p Afembranipora membranacew P P P Oxjjulis califernica P P P P P P Panuhrui interruplus D D P P P P PP Pateria miniala P P P P Pododeimut macrorchisswe D Pimelomelopon pukhrum P P P Pisa;Ier gigantemr P P P Selyaslodes sp. P P PP Seripbux polituf P 1957 Zonaria spadicea D Sponges (unidcntificd) P P P Slromgylura exifit P J@yela monlerej,ensis P P P P P Urobahs batteri P Zalopbur californiemi P P p P P Cyamicipban mbilit P 1919 Aletex squamigerow P jq6t Bracbyinhu frenalmr P Cliattopterms variqfie&Ixz P Dippatra sp. P H@pjurllx "ary, . P Milrella carin-ala P Pbanerodon furcalux P J'erpula vermicularit P P P P Slicboput ealifornirms P P Taenioloca Jaleralis P Norrhia norrisH P P 1962 Unidentified chiton P Megathwa tremlata P t965 Parielbyt -otaim: P L sro"Pa"n"'b"warm"re"r I D P Pp present; D, dead or moribund. (From North, Neushul and Clendenning, 1965; Tab le 2. 287 Table 3: Intertidal plants observed over a seven year period at the Tampico Yoxu wreck site. Date of Survey Species 91 4/ 6/ 61 7/ 91 1]/ 5/ 7/ to/ 101 t 1/ 4/ ]1/ Year first q/ z6/ 16/ io/ 19l i it tq/ tit it ayl ;01 '1" 4/ 28/ 291 Ob,,,,,d 16 J7 57 17 J7 37 57 )1 58 18 9 6o 61 62 6,2, Porpl?)-ra Perforala P P P P P P P P P P P P P 1956 Bossiella didjotopia D P P P P P P P Corallina offcinalij P P P P P P P Ectocarptij grantilow P P Egregia sp. P P P P P P P P P Gi .garlina ranalicalela P P P P P P P P Hahdrjs dioira P P P P P P Iridea sp. P P P P P P Liilpod M D P P P P P P P A farroryxlix P;,r' ergr P P P P P Pbrflo@padix tor'reji P P P P P P P Wra lactura P P P P P P P P P P P P P Endocladia m.yricaia P 1918 Gigarlina spinosa P P P P Nemalion lubritum P Smilljora naiadum P Codium friqde P P 1919 Brj,op.ti.r 1j)pnoides - P P tg61 Calfiarfbr@n cheikfperioidei P P P Cladopbora sp. P Latirenda gardneri P Rhodogloism axericanum P tg61 Sargasnim kgardbianum P L417-flarla anderIONI, P ig6i Leplocladia bingbanst .ae P 1963 P, Iresent; D, dead or aloribund. (From North, Neusbul, and Clendenning, 1965; Table 3.) 288 Table 4: Subtidal. plants observed over a seven year period at the site of the Tampico Maxu wreck. Date of Survey Date, 9/ 4/ 6/ 6/ 7/ 9/ 1 1 Species It/ 5 to/ fit 4/ 1/ If/ First 9/ 16/ to/ ig! to/ ig/ 21 1/ is/ 41 is/ 11 291 Observed 56 17 57 37 57 37 57 19 6o 6t 62 63 6@ Crslosrira osmundareae P P P P P P P P PP P 1956 A farrogslis pyriferd P P P P P P P P P P PP P 131trosipbonia dendroided P P liossiella dicholoma P P P P PP P 1957 Botryocladia psendodirbolowe P bol@),oglotyum farloiriannn P P P P P V Des'M' eylia 1@1@fronr P P or Ea.carps granulowt P P R''Crecia lactigala P P P P P P .'P P (.-,euWintn cartil.@qineum P P P Gi.garlina californict: P P G@garlina leptor4mebot P G@Rarfina serrala P Gigarlina spinosa P P P P P P P G@karfina rolans P P P P P 6'racillaria runnh@gbaxri 1) P C,'jwxi@gron 'cni leplapbyllmf P Laminaria anderSONit P P P P P P P P P P P P Alicrocladia coulteri P Nienbuqia anderrom .am P P 13bycodgi felcbeffli P Ilikea pinnala P I'locamium pacifleum P Polyntura latissima P P PoIr.ripbonia mollit P 11rionifir cornets P P P P P Prioniiii linearij P P P P Plilofa colif6rnica P P Ralfsia Pacifica P P 1957 Rbodogloisum axericammm P P Rbodumenia Pacifica P P P P P Smilbora naiaduor P P Ulm sp. P P P P Calharibrox cbeiliparioider D P P PP P 1938 Corallina q@Fcinahs P P P P ig6o Callopby.114 rialacea P P ig6t Cr)plonrxia obot,ala P I-eptarladia bing1jamiae P PP P Pbylloph0ed californica P Prionslix lanceolata P P Demarenia labacoides P 1963 Farlovia crairra P Lithothemsion giganteum D P P, present; D, dead or moribund. (From North, Neushul, and Clendenning, 1965; Table 4.) 289 9 UPI 1956 to 10 July 1957' 19 S"I 1957 12 Now 1957 25 July 1958 Oct 1959 15 Oct 1960 5 Noy t961 28 April 196 2 29 Nov 196 Fig. 1: Charts of the cove, where the Tampico Maru was wrecked, shoving fluctuation of the giant kelp canopies (Macrocystis) during the period from July 1957 through November 1963 (From North, Neushul and Clendenning, 1965; Fig- 3). A10 ' 40 del 79'0sieuply, '19"56F @t- 9 S"t 1957 1? N" 1"? 'Oftt'959 , 70c, -96@0 2 9 70.",9 '@3 290 many organisms had been re-established, the cove in 1961 was not the same as it had been prior to the wreck. Case History 3: The Guanica Oil Spill, Puerto Rico (Diaz-Fiferrer, 1962). On July 16, 1962 a tanker ran aground on reefs off Guayanilla Harbor on the south coast of Puerto Rico. In refloating the ship, 10,000 tons of crude oil were pumped into the sea. It was blown and washed ashore as a thick blanket on beaches as far west as the bay at Boqueron and onto offshore coral reefs. The shore area of Guanica, which was normally characterized by a particularly rich and varied marine flora, was first affected. It had been an algae-collecting station for an ecological study for a year prior to the accident, as well as during the years of 1958 and 1959. Extensive damage to the area was reported, including heavy erosion of the oil-soaked beaches, virtual destruction of heavily affected mangrove swamps, and a great mortality of marine organisms (lobsters, crabs, sea urchins, star fishes, sea cucumbers, gastropods, octopuses, squids, fishes, and sea turtles). Sea birds were reported to be absent from the sea after the accident. Plants living in intertidal. and sublittoraI zones were seriously affected, large rocky areas being completely denuded. Beds of the seaweed Thalassia werebadly affected. Monthly visits to the area were made to check on further changes and on recovery. In November 1962, oil-soaked sand was still evident under several feet of water and Thalassia, beds continued to degenerate. From October on, algae began repopulating intertidal rocks and pools. Algal types, however, changed to consist almost entirely of blue-green algae (Myxophyceae). Ca-se History 4: Moclips Oil @2ill at the Quinault Indian Reservation, Washington. (Hecknian, 19b4). The stranding of a petroleum barge in heavy seas on the beach opposite Moclips, Washington on Maxch 12, 1964 resulted in the release of considerably more than 500,000 gallons of oil over a period of T days. The released oil was reported to be mostly diesel fuel. The area is me in which razor clams are an important source of livelihood. A measure of the biological effect of the oil spillage was obtained by counting dead and dying razor clams on 16 plots (each 251 x 25'), representing four different stations in the area on March 15 and 16. The plots averaged 9 dead clams each indicating that the clam loss was of major proportion (estimated at several tons5. Subsequent checks showed a heavy kill of razor clams south of the wreck to a distance of 8-10 miles. Serious depletion of age classes of clams that would have supported digging for three years was reported. Dead horse clams (Schizothaerus nuttalli) and dungeness crabs (Cance magister) were noted in addition to razor clams* 291 Numerous dead and distressed sea birds were also found. In a one-mile stretch north of Boone Creek, for example (a region south of the wreck) 45 such birds were encountered. Case History 5: The Torrey Canyon Disaster (Cornvall,, England) (O'Sullivan and Richardson., 1967; Bellamy et al. 1967b- Bourne et L, i@98; Smith 1967; Nelson-Smith, 1968: C6rner et 1968; Simpson, A. C., 1960.- - On March 18, 1967 the tanker Torrey Canyon ran aground and broke up on the Seven Stones Reef 15 miles vest of Lands End, England. About 117,000 tons of Kuwait crude oil were released from her ruptured tanks over a period of several weeks. It spread over large areas of the sea and washed ashore on the coastlines of Cornwall (an estimated 13,000 tons), Brittany, and the Isle of Gurnsey (some 21,000)9 About lu,000 tons of detergent were used on British coasts to disperse the oil and to clean the beaches and rocky shores. The Plymouth Laboratory of the Marine Biological Association of the United Kingdom made both field and laboratory studies of the effects of oil and detergent on marine life. Surveys of the plankton and the biota of rocky shores, sandy shores, and river mouths were carried,out, as well as W laboratory toxicity tests. Rocky Shores: The rocky coast at Trevone had been studied fairly extensively prior to the Torrey Canyon disaster, so there was a good back- ground of information available for assessing changes in the intertidal biota there. On Maxch 29 and 30 Trevone received a deposit of oil reported to be more than half an inch deep over all the rocks. When the first biotic surveys were made, on April 10, detergent treatment had been under way for four days. Dead animals noted included limpets, top shells, petivinkles, dog-whelks, annelid worms, and crabs. The only apparently unaffected organisms were two species of barnacles (Chthamalixs stellatus and Balanus balanoides), mussels., and fucoid algae. On April 23, s-everal days afFe-rdete-r-ge-ny ing had ceased, many thousands of limpet scars were noticable on the rocks,, indicating sites of their former attachment. Shallow rock pools which, prior to the.accident, were known to have contained a variety of marine life (anemones, limpets, periwinkles, various sea weeds, small crabs, prawns, and small blennies), contained after detergent treatment only a single species of anemone and a few small algae. A small patch of intertidal rock (45 x 35 cm) @vhich had been photographed in August 1966 to illustrate the typical fauna of the area was rephotographed on April 23, 1967, after detergent treatment. The numbers and kinds of animals recorded on the two occasions were as follows: 292 Species Number in Aug. 1966 Number in Apri 1967 Actinea equina (anemong) 1 0 Chthamaa7us liatus (barnacle) many few Mytilus sp. (mussel) 2 or 3 (small) I (small) Pate--la vulgata (limpet) 24 medium & smal 1 0 Monodonta lineata (top shell) 11 1 Gibbula umbilicalis snall.) 1 0 Littorina saxatilis periwinkle) 4 0 ' This reduction in animal life appeared to be typical of the oil/detergent- affected rocky coasts, with the main effects attributable to detergent action. Differences in sensitivity were noted in both flora and fauna. At Porthleven reef, for example, surveys showed that damage to algae was extensive, especially to delicate filamentous, membranaceous red algae. Sensitivity varied with species. A similar variation in sensitivity to oil-detergent treatment was noted in the animal life of thearea. The anemones Actinia. equina and Tealia felina, appeared to be the most resistant animals on the [email protected] were in intertidal pools that had no other life. Other anemones (Anemonia sulcata, S2g2nia elegans, and Cereus pedunculatus) were much less resistant and rarely survived. Crustaceans were especially sensitive. The lobster Homarus vulgaris and,the crabs Porcellana 12latycheles, Cancer paguras, Portunus puber, Xantho incisls, Pilumnus hirtellus and Carcinus maenas were completeli -wiped out i the areas studied. No -shrimps, prawns, or gammarids were seen during the surveys, and dead Ligia oceanica and Orchestia sp. littered the rocks at high tide. The only resistant crustaceans were the barnacles, but even they were killed off in intensively sprayed areas. Among the mollusca the limpets were especially vulnerable. In contrast to the top-shells, for example, they had no operculum for closing out the environment. Oil and detergents first affected limpets by causing them to loosen their attachment to the substratum, after which gills and mantle edge were exposed. Differences in sensitivity even between the three limpet species in the area were noted. Patella vulgata was most sensitive, P'. aspers was most resistant, and P. intermedia lay between the two. Echinoderms were very sensitive. Only fragments of starfishes (Marthas- terias glacialis and Aterine. gibbosa) and sea urchins (Psammechinus milaris) were found following detergent treatment. Polychaete worms (Lepidonotus clava, Eulalia viridis, Nereis pelag ca, Perinereis marioni, Eunice haxassii, Lysidice ninetta, Marphysa sanguinea., ella iricolor, Dodecaceria concharum, Pot@Mla@reiiformis, and Dasychone bombyx) were relatively resistant. of sensitivity was pie-sumed on the basis of laboratory tests to be due paxtly to a natural physiological re- 293 sistance and paxtly to the fact that they lived in crevices or among weeds deep in pools where they could avoid the worst of the detergent-affected. water. Crevice-dvelling bivalves (e.g. Histella striata) also had better survival records, as did animals living on the underside of overhanging rocks. A particulaxly striking change in the ecosystem following the disturbance was the unprecedented growth of algae on the rocks, especially Enteromorpha, with heaviest growth at low water and mid-tide levels. Color photographs are included in the Smith (1968) book of a region on the Trevone coast near a sewer outfall where diluted detergent washing over the rocks killed limpets and top shells, but not mussels. One photograph, taken in 1955, shows the normal summer appearance of the rocks with ragged patches of algae, while the other photograph shows their condition on July 9., 1967, about 32-1 months after the accident. On this date the entire rock surface was an almost unbroken mass of green.Entero- morpha,, Ulva, and some Porphyra. The contrast between the two photographs is strikinji".-The cause of this extremely luxuriant algal growth was presumed to be the destruction of limpets and other grazing molluscs. Sandy shores* Oil deposits on sandy beaches were usually hosed with detergent into the water. Some of the oil was carried out to sea as an emulsion but much unemulsified oil and detergent m3a spread to varying degrees over the beach areas. Some oily layers were buried by wave action through deposition of clean sand on top. These sandy beaches, being unstable and normally low in organic food content, did not support much animal or plant life before the accident. A small isopod crustacean,, Eurydice pulchr , normally common on the beach at Mavgan Porth, was not ccdp-letelv eliminated by the detergent treatment and by August 1957 had repopulated the entire beach. Laboratory experiments showed it to have detergent reaistance that was "above average for crustaceans". Other animals typical of clean., sandy shores did not survive. Shortly after the detergent treatment, only remains were found for the sand eel, Ammodytes immaculatus, the small burrowing crab, Pirimela denticulata, the he@F Furc i1n, Echinocard-iu'm cordatum, the razor clam,-En-sis silLqua,, gn-dthe bivalve, Mactra. At Perranuthnoe, where surveys of a heavily affected beach vere made on May 10, 1957, sieving of sand through a fine net collected very few of the fauna under a millimeter in length that normally are found there. On the other hand., mmerous small living oligochaete worms and a few nematodes were collected in the same axea, again indicating the greater resistance of these Vorms. Plankton. Ten days after the wreck of the Torrey Canyon a plankton survey was made in the western English Channel, both in the Seven Stones.area and in presumably uncontaminated water. All samples contained apparently healthy plankton populations representative of these areas at this season, and relatively little damage to planktonic organisms was evident (Smith 1968) Spooner,, however, reported finding plankton injury (Battelle 1967). Effects of oil on seabirds Oil slicks on water are reported to have a special attraction for water 294 birds (U.S.- Dept. Interior-Depto Transportation 1968). Contact with oil leads to the matting of plumage, to loss of buoyancy and protection against cold, and to subsequent death by drowning., starvation, exposure, or predation. (See bibliography in Battelle report, 1967). Over 30,000 seabirds were estimated to have been killed as a result of the Torrey Canyon disaster (Bourne, Parrack, and Potts 1967). During the months following the wreck., 1223 wings, each re- presenting a dead bird from SW Britain,, were examined and identified. Nearly 98% were wings of the larger auks, guillemots and razor bills with guillemots predominating, while 2% represented 6 other species. Another group of 7,851 birds were sent to cleaning centers on the Cornish coast., and 2,000 to French centers in Britanny. Nearly all the birds at the cleaning centers died. Other spills Milford Haven on the S.W. coast of Britain is a major oil port which has experienced several serious oil spills. Studies of the normal marine biology have been made in order that effects of oil pollution might be detected (Moyse and Nelson-Smith 1963, Nelson-Smith 196T). In July 1960 the tanker "Esso Portsmouth" caught fire and released crude oil into waters of Milford Haven. Detergents were used extensively in cleaning operations. A decrease in populations of winkles (Littorina neritoides) was noted thereafter, and the algae Ascophyllum and Himanthallas _disep@eared in certain areas (Nelson - Smith 1966). George (1961) reported that where no detergents were used, the barnacles, limpets, algae and other marine organisms appeared to be relatively unaffected by the oil, which was gradually eliminated by such natural processes as evapor- ation,, weathering, and browsing by limpets. In-March 1962 the "Benjamin Coates" wrecked in the mouth of the Haven releasing oil which was subsequently treated with detergents. Most of the limpet population was eliminated, but many winkles, topshells, and sea anemones survived. Scallops (Pecten maximus) which lived under water on the shallow bottom appeared to be7u-naffe7c-ted, as did larger algae. Without limpets to graze them down., heavy grovths of algae developed on rocks (as in the Torrey Canyon case) and persisted for three or four years before returning to normal levels (Nelson-Smith 1968). In January 196T, the "Chrissi P. Goulandris" leaked several hundred tons of crude oil into the Milford Haven area which was treated with detergent. Following the spill, surveys of marine organisms were carried out to assess their distribution and abundance. Fig. 2 silows the data for tvo shores in the form of kite histograms (Nelson - Smith 1968). in general contrast to the Torrey Canyon case, the topshell Monodonta lineata was especially affected as was the barnacle, Balanus balanoides. Ceram6 - Vivas qt a (1968) described effects of crude oil released from the tanker "Ocean Eagle" which was wrecked in the mouth of San Juan Harbor in March, 1968. Nine days after the accident a brief survey of San Juan Bay 295 th % .4 t) ;Z ti t@ Ib t: -b % r3 Ib b 6 ft 'a t6 27- Hazelbeach 25- 23 - A MHWS 21- 19- 17 MHWN 15 13 MTL 11 9- 7- MLWN 5- MLWS Present Rare Llonreath Occasional 23 Frequent MHWS Common 21- Abundant 19- 17 MHWN 15 13 MTL M L WN. 5 3L 7 - MLWS Fig. Kite histograms shoving zonation of common plants and animals on two shores in Milford Haven, Wales before (in outline) and after (in solid black) disturbance by fresh crude oil and detergent treatment. Heights are in feet above the lowest water level. Width of histograms (as shown in the key) indicates abundance at that level. HNS., mean high water at spring tides; NHWN, mean high water at neap tides; MTL, mean tide level; NLWN, mean low water at neap tides; NLWS mean low water at spring tides (From Nelson- l968 Smith, Fig. lio 296 revealed a n4mber of dead fish representing several species, plus observation of gross lesions on living fish. Pelicans were found with oil-plastered featbers. Nineteen days after the accident incidence of lesions in schools of Opisthone 0ai (sardina) was estimated at 95%, with accompanying behavioral abnormalities. The causative agent was not certain, but was presumed to be associated with oil/ detergent effects. Toxicities of various detergents on sea urchins were also tested in laboratory studies. Rei8h (1965) studied marine benthic invertebrates chronically exposed to oil refinery (plus other) wastes in Los Angeles Harbor. The bottom sub- strate in the areas examined was oily, black, and possessed a sulfite odor. Physical, chemical, and biological surveys were made before and after dredg- ing, ts ]procwss which exposed uncontaminated substrate to the water. The n@rutber of species increased immediately after dredging, but diminished again as the bottom regained its cover of oily wastes. Reish concluded that decrease in number of species was related to waste water volume, high organic carbon, and low dissolved oxygen, and that the oil refinery wastes altered the environment within a short period of time. He could not determine whether death of benthic species was due directly to the oily wastes through toxic reactions or indirectly through oxygen depletion of the water, brought about by the biological oxygen demand of the waste. Some idea of longer range adaptation of marine communities to steady oil release is given in the case of an oil seep area in NE Venezuela at Lake Guanoco. The volatile compounds axe continually evaporating, leaving a large deposit of pure asphalt. Lasser and Vaxeschi (1959) studied succession in this system,, and found that at the border of the asphalt deposit succession begins with floating plants, continues through swamp plants, and leads eventually to mangrove scl-uD (Pterocarpetum rhizophorosum). Figure 3 illustrates a vertical view of the system. DISCUSSION Disturbance of coastal ecosystems by oil/detergent has been a short term effect in most cases so fax studied. Nevertheless it has been shown to alter the balance of these systems, especially those dominated by attached algal growths. The mechanism appeared to be the 'destruction of grazing organisms, such as limpets and sea urchins, leaving certain alase free; to expand enormously. This, in turn (as in the massive kelp growth following the wreck of the Tampico Mara, (North et al. 1965)).--attracted numerous organisms that might normally not have been found in the area. Although species varied according to latitude and geographical location of the affected ecosystems, the animals that appeared to be among the more sensitive to oil/detergent disturbance were crustaceans,, razor clams, echino- derms, and limpets. A tendency toward resistivity was shown by anemones, periwinkles, mussels, barnacles, nematodes, and certain polychaete worms. The reoi$tant animals possess certain adaptations that permit survival under condi- tions of temporary oil/detergent stress: physiological resistance, possession of sh-loWng devices such as an cperculum, and habits of hiding in crevices or among weeds deep in poolz. 297 'I'A A%k -3AI I km ASFALTO MANGLARES TIERRA CIENAGAS AGUA ISLAS DE VEGETACION Fig. 3: Vertical view of the asphalt Lake of Guanoco in NE Venezuela. The asphalt, land, and water components are indicated, as are the three zones of vegetation: mangroves, grasses, and islands of vegetation. (From Lasser and Vareschi, 1959; Fig. 2.) 9 3 Plant species also showed a wide range in sensitivity to oil/detergent. This was true not only for the algae of rocky coasts but also for other coastal plants. The Battelle report (1967) discusses studies by Mackin on salt marsh plants (Distichlis spica, Salicornia. begelovii, Spartina alterniflora ', and young mangroves) which indicated that those which grew with their roots and stems in the 'water were more subject @o injury by oil than were oysters. Oil concentrations had to exceed 10 ml/ft before injurious effects were noted, how- ever. Lasser and Vareschi (1959) reported that mangrove scrub (Pterocarpetum rhizmhorosum) and other plants grew at the border of natural asphalt deposits. Diaz-Piferrer (1962.) reported extensive oil damage to mangroves off southern Puerto Rico, and Clendenning (1959a) found an arrest in photosynthetic capacity of kelp blades when they were exposed to a 0.02 mm film of diesel oil for three days at 200 C. Disturbance effects have been most marked in littoral ecosystems, especi- ally in intertidal zones. Although intertidal biota have been selected for their resistance to relatively stringent environmental conditions (Smith 1968), they have been the ones most severely damaged by oil/detergent effects because the latter have been greatest in that zone. Rate and extent of recovery of flora and fauna in areas denuded by oil- detergent stress has depended on the severity of the treatment, on the presence of suitable substratum., on whether recolonization had to depend on emigration of motile forms or on settling of planktonic larvae, and on other factors. North et a .1. (1965) found that plant species usually tended to be found on denudeFareas before animal species. They suspected a difference in toxic thresholds, resulting perhaps from the possession by plants of a protective cell wall. In any case recovery was usually well under way within two or three months after the disturbance. Refaunation was begun to a large extent by the settling and establishment of juveniles of species with planktonic larvae. In most of the field studies made, oil/detergent appeared to have no adverse effect on plankton. Mackin and Sparks (1962) found that oyster spawning and rate of settling were not affected by the presence of crude oil. Wilson (1968 a,b) on the other hand, found in laboratory experiments that the larval form of the worm Sabellaria, ww inhibited from settling in sand treated with detergent. Crude oil appeared generally to be less toxic than diesel fuel or deter- gents (Orton 1925, Mackin and Hopkins 1962, Smith 1968). In fact, except for its lethal effect on water fowl, crude oil under field conditions was found to have low toxicity for marine life. After a few weeks oily patches on rocks axe actually eaten away by limpets and other grazers (George 1961, Smith 1968). An exception to this reported low toxicity was Diaz-Piferrer's (1962) report of especially bad effects of crude oil on the biota. of the south coast of Puerto Rico. This effect was presumably not one of latitude. Usually the argument is that organisms of cold regions, being highly stressed by the cold climate, are those having the narrowest limitations for tolerance of additional stresses such as oil exposure (Alaska Water Laboratory Report, 1968). oil decomposition is carried out through a number of natural processes, so that eventually oil that has been apilt in the sea will disappear. These processes include weathering, sand abrasion, browsing gastropods, evaporation 293 of volatile continuents into the atomosphere, sinking of oil-coated debris, auto- oxidation, and oxidation by microorganisms. Although a stress for larger organsims, oil serves as an energy source for many microorganisms. In equatorial regions the rate of oxidation of oil by Aicroorganisms may be several hundred grams of oil per m3 of contaminated sea water per year (Pipel 1968). Thin layers of float- ing crude oil may be completely colonized by bacteria in two weeks or less and completely decomposed in 2-3 months. Protozoa feed on the bacteria-which thus serve an important role in marine food chains (ZoBell 1964). Oil oxidizing bacteria have been shown to exist in Louisiana mud (ZoBell and Prokop 1966) and to be able to destroy large numbers of the compounds of crude petroleum. Following oil/detergent treatment of the Cornish coast after the Torrey Canyon disaster, sands from various places on the coast were examined for their bacterial content (Smith 1968). Oil-decomposing bacteria were found in high nimbers (up to 4oo,,ooO'OOO/m1 in wet sediment) along with other bacteria (heteratrophic-proteolitic types). Laboratory experiments showed that detergents at concentrations around 10 ppm were capable of killing most oil-degrading bacteriay but scme bacteria could survive concentrations of 100 ppm and multiply rapidly. Presumably this happened on the Cornish shores. The high bacterial concentration in the oil/detergent treated send led to the assumption that biodegradation of oil was proceeding at'a fairly high rate. Normally the sands of Cornish beaches are low in organic matter and do not exhibit.gray layers. From May 1957 abnormal and conspicuous development of gray layers was noted. Laboratory experiments showed that graying of sand resulted from the action of bacteria working on oil anaerobically. The anaerobic condition presumably resulted from activities of the main aerobic degraders. The intensity of grayness was related not directly to oil content but to lack of oxygen, Some investigators have suggested that detergent treatment may actually aid bacterial oxidation of oil by causing it to be spread thinly through a beach (Smith 1968). Others point out that'the toxic effect of''the emulsifier on microorganisms may reduce the rate of decompos .ition (Pipel 1968). The great increase in bacteria in sandy beaches of Cornwall may have been due not only to .the enrichment of the sand by oil but also to the decrease (through killing) of microfauna that normally live between the sandgrains and feed upon their bacterial films. For such interstitial animals, detergent either in inter- stitial water or adsorbed on sand grains, is of even more toxic significance than for larger beach animals (See Battelle bibliography, 1967). NEFXM RFMMCH Short term effects of oil disturbance have been well documented, but - I there is still insufficient understanding of what happens to an ecosystem when oil stress is chronic. In many estuarine systems (such as ship channels) the presence of oil is only one of many types of disturbances. Natural ecosystems near subterranean oil seeps as in the Venezuelan example (Lasser and Vareschi, 1959) should IrovIde study areao in which th6sustained effect of oil alore Can be evuluated. 300 Knowledge of oil effects on plankton and 6ther marine biota is accumulating from laboratory studies, but more information is needed from studies of natural systems. It has been suggested (corner et al. 1968) that detergent used in oil spill clean ups may enter the food chain with possible effects on man eventually. Such possibilities need examination. Since detergent action is often lethal to marine life, means for incteasing the rate of elimination of oil by natural means should be further investigated. For example,, continued research on oil oxidation by bacteria (see zoBeii, 1964) is important for predicting oxidation rates under different ecological conditions. 301 Chapter 9-12 TREATED PILING STSTEMS Eric W. Lindgren University of North Caa-olina Chapel HU1, North Carolina 27514 Wood in the marine environment is rapidly covered and riddled with boring and decomposing organisms such as shipworms and fungi. If treated with creosote and other chemical preservatives it resists invasion by most decomposers, and treated wood piling in piers often stand for many years. The chemical substances@ usually introduced into the wood spaces under pres- sure treatment., constitute a stress on the ecological system which may tend to develop in such wood. Treated piling do develop simple communities of boring animals, small crustaceans sometimes called gribbles or by the scien- tific designation Limnoria. The distribution of gribble ecosystems has been studied intensively In relation to environmental factors and types of wood treatment because of their economic importance in the fai-lure of matine installations. The relationships of the wood boring organisms and the chemical stress are like the adaptations of other ecological systems to chemical stress from waste disposal. As treatment concentration increases,, the ecological system diminishes in diversity and may be eliminated altogether., if chemical stress exceeds the. energies available to the community. One of thespecies of Limnoria is pictured in Fig. 1, while Fig. 2 diagrams the burrows in which it-lives, consuming wood which it digests as food and deriving oxygen from waters outside the wood. The simple gribble ecosystem contrasts with the more diversified communities of many species in untreated wood such as those shown in Fig. 3. The current creosote-coal tar processing tends to minimize surface fouling. Several reviews kCrisp, 1965; Woods Hole Oceanographic Institute, 1952a; Ricketts and Calvin., 1968) along with other chapters of this report adequately discuss fouling ecology. Treatment will also protect marine piling for many years against boring by Teredo or Bankia shipworms but neither creosote nor creosote-coal tar Tr-ocessing-7-seffective in preventing attack by a species of gribble, Limnoria tripunctata, commonly present in U. S. temperate and tropical estuaries (Colley, 1767; Nochman, 1967). The gribble is an isopod crustacean reaching a maximum length of only 5 mm though one pi-le may harbor several hundred thousand individuals collectively causing failure to the structure (Fig. 4). Although creosote treatment does markedly retard the attack through a lowering of the realized reproductive ability of the population, L. tripunctata does survive and reproduce in creosoted wood (Beckman, Menzies and Wakeman, 1957) and is the primary living component of this system. In contrast to most other systems of the estuary, the initial treated pi-ling system thus consists of the interaction between the physical and chemical environment with only one dominant species. 302 2 Limnoria lignorum. 1, Dorsal view of male. 2, Ventral view of gravid female, X 28. After Hoek, 1893. Fig. 1. Limnoria lignorum. 1, Dorsal view of male. 2, Ventral view of gravid female. x 28. (from Kofoid and Miller, 1927). Q^traitce res p L r mt o ry seawaUr to burrow PU4 Gribble, Limnoria lignorum, diagrammatic section of burrow with animals in position. (Modified from Russell and Yonge, The Stas.) Fig. 2. Diagrammatic section of piling with Limnoria in burrow (from Yonge, 1949). 303 WATE WAILR tv'rV& FOOD P9'pp---A, SH LL SNCLL CORAL U a I.ItASSMWIF chemica.L (1) SPONGES C2)BRYOZOA(-n-%,u-L',)CB)PHORDNiVA 'WAM. WAI&R SWILL NOLL akemeaA %SEGMENIED Awc(5) HON-SESWNTED WORMS (6) 8AFtNACLES(CvvSt--*) WATE R 4k@k-6vLcKisk-vftxvv4e Pnmh- vnwrLne wt-TEA aw PCOO MUD FOOD -Ihkl CLAY SHE wow ROCK COMA ONLY SM04-roftf IN a WX colacRaTe WOOD in G.MCAL T"" ovolep-L ct'r- CI-IDCLAMS (q) SEA URCHINS WAMR U Lt CL^Y t0%WvMCAL- ]BORING Am WOOD L CIO) ISOPODS CC,-Ustacemv%S) lamecrAiIie" soltING Ten Major Categories of Wood Borers. Fig. 3. Major categories of marine wood borers (from Menzies and Turner, 1957). "LL 304 -MEAN HIGH TIDE .0 Cy MEAN LOW TIDE MUD Fig. Diagram of a Sribble-infested pile illustrating hour- glass shape resulting from physical erosion. Inset shows wood chip formed as a result of extensive burrowing. .Circular burrow holes average about 1-5 mm in diameter. 305 C AREAS OCCUPIED BY LIMNIORIA U. S. A. S .4 MEXICO T WKS liCTATA, PFEF FE RI, PL ATYGAUDA, ETC. Distribution of American Gribbles. FiPg. 5@ Di qtribution of Liinupria-in America_(from Menzies and Turner, 1957). .X zj@OFTWAL KPftMK7M TEMPE"TURE- r ATLANTIC COAST, -@WT@L *Emoouc mE TeMPEPA TUA 11@ 0@a 44 PACIFIC COAST zo Geographical distribution, mean monthly surface sea water temperatures plotted at approximate longitude and reproductive temperature limits (the horizontal lines connected by the sloping block) : The shaded areas represent the period of time that the temperature is within the reproductive range of the species. The minimum repr6ductive temperature, 14' C., is estimated from the average of the three experiments to be at this temperature. At this point .one young would be produced for each adult. Fig. 6. Geographical distribution of Limnoria tripunctata; mean monthly surtace sea water temperatures plotte-d at-approximate longitude and estimated reproductive temperature limits. The shaded areas represent the period of time that the temperature is within the estimated reproductive range (140C) of the species (from Beckman and Menzies, 1960). 306 GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION The geographical distribution of Limnoria speci-es responsible for boring communities in treated piling is shown JR Fig- 5 (Menzies and Turner.. 1957). Particularly impressive is the wide range enjoyed by L. trieunctata, the species least affected by creosote-coal tar processing. The adaptation to temperature and light regimes with latitude is accomplished by species substitution. Fig. 6 (Beckman and Menzies., 1960) shows that Limnoria tripunctata is limited in breeding to temperatures above 140 C. fike some other stressed ecosystemss the treated piling system is similar in species composition over a broad latitudinal distribution. SEASONAL PATTERNS The treated piling system seems programmed so that migration, boring activity and reproduction in temperate latitudes coincide with the seasonal pulse of energy input. Mowever, tropical systems remain to be studied. Temperature appears to be of prime importance although other environmental factors such as day length may control programai-TIg. The review of Eltringham (1966) notes that temperature is probably the -most important factor controlling L. tripunctata'migration. It appears to initiate migration but the apparenT_tE_e_r_m=RrFFshold has considerable geographical variation. Fig. 8 (Johnson and Menzies., 1956) shows a definite seasonal migratory period in San Diego Bay which reaches its peak during the summer season of highest water temperatureso However, more northern observations (Figs, 9 and 10 ) tend to indicate a spring migration pulse prior to peak water temperatures* The onset of the breeding season of L. tripunctata is considered by most investigators to be dependent upon tenp`Rrature (Coker, 1923; Johnson and Menzies., 1956; Eltringham. and Mochley, 1961; Hochie@., 1966) but field observations of the critical temperatures also vary Vith the locality. Laboratory experiments (Kampf., 1957; Beckman and Menzies, 1960) under constant temperature conditions still show a seasunal pattern of reproduction. This suggests that seasonal gravidity does not appear to be changed by temperature. Study of a tropical system with small or no seasonal pulses my help explain programming mechanisms. VERTICAL DISTRIBUTION Boring occurs over a wide vertical range as shown by Greenfield (1952) in Fig. 7. The vertical distribution of L. tripunctata within the piling system may be correlated with decreasing light intensity. Laboratory experiments (Isham, Smith and Springer., 1951) on Limnoria exposed in a shaded vertical tube indicated tnat burrows were most numerous aT ow intensity (Fig. 11) and decrease in number witn increasing intensity of light. Bourdillon (1958) found that at light intensities greater than 0.01 lux,. the average phototaxis uf adults is negative but at lower light intensities the phototaxis is reversed or positive. The ecological role of light during settlement in nature thus results in most Limnoria exhibiting a photonegative Dehavior. Although attack between high 307 STATION 2 STATION 12 STATION .0 0 120 0 3. 2 *331 3 61 194 5 R44 TEMMO PEDICELLATA 0 so 0 0 39 2 to 3 6 as 3 10 to LWNORIA Fig. 7. Vertical distribution ot Limnoria under bay and river conditions. Numbers at left of each figure represent the depth of water in feet from surface to bottom. Numbers at the right of each figure represent the average monthly number of borers (from Greenfield, 1952). MIGRATORY INTENSITY - - - RATE OF YOUNG PRODUCTION RATE OF PRODUCTION OF SEXUALLY iNATURE ANIMALS PER WO ADULT 308 TCMA -C 2200 V DO 360- 1600 Ci x -"00 390 280 - ?400 2 -1200 240 99 0 _'000 *@200 .j 0. x 20 -800 ISO 0- -600 .0 so 400 a-200 --jx X ------- @7j F M A M J.4 A@S!O N D 4 0, M A M J J 9 5!1 Limnoria tripunctata. The reladonship between monthly production rates wid migration in two-mdfith pericIds, Station A, San Diego Bay. Fig. 8. Seasonal pulse of borers in southern California (Johnson and Menzies, 1956) C mea masom WASH. A two 100 4 0 "A111100 Mg. / 'CMP0A1A0WWtA5TP**1-M9. so- 0.2005 ------- WILLIAMHEA0, ansvis" COLWASIA lnomsorsv 0-ho- N.42s- M A M j j M A M j j A S 0 0 Lf"t"Oria lignoram. Percentage of seasonal attack in bimonthly periods in various localities. A and'B data from William F. Clapp Laboratories; C from Black and fr@ Elsey, 1948; D from Johnson, 1935; E and F Orn,S6mme, 1940. N = Yearly sum of animals on test blocks. Fig. 9. Seasonal patterns of Limnoria in different locations (Johnson and Menzies, 1956). A B TWO-MONTH BLOCKS 100 0"-..th b Cks 500- so PAIRIMC 4 400- < "t-Ohth bl.1k, CE 300- REFTODUCT101i 0 z W A 200- z so P&INING 0 100- Lat 0 In -0-- OVA 2 - :) 300- ONE-MONTH BLOCKS REPRODUCTiopi Z_ 40 200- 2 100- APRIL MAY 1957 JUNE J ULY Pairing and reproduction in the three I species of Limnoria in test blocks at Southampton -01 (Site A) for the months April to July 1957. Un- APR MAY JUN JUL AUG filled COlumns-L. tripunctata; hatched columns- 1957 L. quadripunctata; filled columns-L. lignorum. The migration of the three species of Limnors@ at Southampton (Site A) for the months @kprll to August 1957. The data are from blocks of one and two months' exposure. Unfilled columns- L. tripunctata; hatched columns-L. quadripunctata; filled columns-L. lignorum. 0 signifies the absence of bores of L. tripunctata from the April sample. Fig. 10. A, migration of the three species of Limnoria at Southampton, England, for the months April to August 1957. The data are from blocks of one and two months' exposure. B, pairing and reproduction in the three species of Limnoria in test blocks at Southampton, England, for the months April to July 1957. Unfilled columns--L. trip nctata; hatched columns--L. quadripunctata; filled columns--L. lignorum A 4D I A (from Eltringham and Hockley, 1961). 310 200. 000 500 600 4 CLO 200 1 4 5FEET AVERAGE DISTANCE FROM LIGHT SOURCE 83 50 24 11 6 4 PHOTOCELL FACING PANEL 228 r6a 74 35 20 PHOTOCELL FACING UPWARD ILLUMINATION IN FOOT CANDLES Mai p abution of borer atts,* on wooden panel of fourth experinmL Fig. 11. Distribution of.Limnoria attack on wooden panels (modified from Isham, Smith and Springer, 1951). 311 tide and the mudline increases with depth,, resulting erosion may be more critical in intertidal areas due to physical wave action. Piling with heavy Limnoria infestation often show a characteristic hour-glass shape (Fig. 4) due t this erosion. Migration at night (Menzies, 1961) may account for distribution throughout the piling despite high daylight intensity. BORIZONTAL DISTRIBUTION Low density Limnoria burrows (Fig. 2) are characteristically within a few mm of a well aerated surface and incorporate numerous fine openings through wnich water is circulated. In heavier infestations this pattern is more complex and varie@3 with prevailing currents and oxygen tensions. The burrows -usually traverse the soft layers between the annual rings of hard wood, and the surface layer is soon reduced to a porous mass subject to erosion. Horizontal distribution within the estuarine environment is defined by physical limits for settlement, boring activity and reproduction which are reviewed by Eltringham (1966). Low salinity between 15 and 16 O/oo usually limits survival (Fig. 12) while the reproductive opt@num ranges between 25 and 35 O/oo. Little is known of the lethal effect of temperature; however, Beckman and Menzies (1960) found that L. tripunctata will feed from 100 to 300 C. The reproductive temperature ranges fr7m- about 150 to 300 and the greatest population increase is near 250 C. In Fig. 6 the experimental results are correlated with the known geographic range of this species. Laboratory, experiments (Eltringham, 1961; Anderson and Reish, 1967) and field data (Menzies, 1957; Menzies, Mohr and Wakeman, 1963) suggest a limiting oxygen concentration from 0.12 to 3.0 ppm. Absence of borer attack in heavily polluted waters (Menzies, Mohr and Wakeman, 1963) may be due to such low oxygen concentrations. Distribution iz5 also related to water current (Dooch:W and Smith, 1952) with maximum incidence at intermediate velocities of about 0.15 knots as in Fig. 13. CME11ICAL TREATMENT The status of knowledge on pi-ling treatment is given by Colley (1967) and Hochman (1967). Fig. 14 shows tne results of survival tests of gribbles fed creosoted splinters from different locations in old piling. Aging apparently changes the chemical nature of the creosote and the usability of the wood by the animals. Whereas simple creosote treatment is effective in cold regions in the presence of the additional stresses of the environment., tne chemical treatment is not enough in stable tropical waters of steady high salinity and temperature. Some of the differences in preservation observed by Hochman (1967) are given in Tables 1 - 3. Much greater resistance was introducect when a second chemical agent such as an insecticide was included. The high temperatures accelerate the decomposition of chemicalso but other factors are apparently also znportant s:Lnce some tropical piling last decades whereas those in high salinity regions with little stress may last only a year or two. ENERGY DIAGRAM The general energy flow for the piling system is shown in Fig. 15. The dominant pathway is man-made treated piling eaten by L. tripunctata and the 312 1.00 90 80 70 60 0 a 40 30 #4 20 6 8 10 12 14 16 18, 20 2Z 24 2,6 2S 30 32 Salinity in Parts per 1%ousa"J Graph of the adivity of Limnoria lignman in Water of variov@ SalfnR@ft. Fig. 12. Graph of the activity of Limnoria in water of various salinities (from Kofoid and Miller, 1927). 313 ISO- too- so- 01 SECTION OF PANEL 0.13 0.15 0.19 0.25 OL35 0.5 0.8 1.5 AVERAGE WATER VELOCITY IN KNOTS intensity of boring by Limnorla in relation to water velocity and orientation of wooden surfaces. FiT81 tXPCfiMent- Square conventions, lower horizontal panel; triangle, upper horizontal panel, circle, ver- fical panel. Fig. 13. Intensity of boring by Limnoria in relation to water Velocity and orientation of wooden surfaces. Squares represent lower horizontal panel,.triangles represent upper horizontal panel, and circles represent vertical panel (from Doochin and Smith, 1952).- 314 I I I I 1 -1 JJ L I I I I I I I I 100 .. i I : I I I I - I I Fiod Inlortidal Zone oD so so 40-- 20 0 1100 - - -- - - - I I V1 so - I I . I From Abov* Water Urnwe so 40 go- 0 1 1 A 1 1! 0 1 2 a 4 5 6 Inches from outer edge of pile Per cent of Limmoria Surviving on Splinters from Various Oepths into the Interior of Leached Creosoted Piling. Fig. 14. Per cent of Limnoria surviving on splinters from various depths into the interior of leached creosoted piling (from Vind, Hochman, Muraoka and Casey, 1957). T\TT 'as h f, -i I 'A 315 -Preservative Values of Qeosote Solutions. at Pearl Harbor Exp..- Major( actor t Vestruct ion ALtacki"11 of Additi- (b) at P-I Herb., Organi ms I., ro@nexexL None 13 L 914 5% Chl-ld- 35 M 2.7 It Di.ldrl. 32. N 2.5 1% Endrin -.60 K 14.6 YA T.-Ph.- 154 L A.0 2% A.I.chit. Gree. 16 L 1.2 1% Tria.,ylti. Oxide hq L 3.8 1% Phanyleercuric 01-te 24 T 1.6 3% Copper Naphther.t. 70 &N >5.) 13 )L = Limnoria. T Teredo, M Martesia. (b) Basic treattTitnt it; CftbSOte. 15 Pcf. -Data on Piles in Areas of Severe bwororia Hazar& -Data on Piles in Areas Where Umnoria Were Presene pa!..".. Lac.6- L- I ty') Length of N-le No. Location S-i. C-d;,;o. Nne C-ple. P-!6.19 M;-i, F:.. 14 in ;.,.,;d.1 M-y U.n .,i a,,.,k Pl-5 San J-n, P. R. 15 to 16 Excellent P-20-25 S1. Th- 1,@, V. 1 5 1. P-11 Freeport, Te, 9 t-Ilent P-26 W,; Me y L;w-x; attack Beach. N. C. 7 i. Wwidal P-12 F..pa,t, Te.. 9 Slight Li.-,;o attack P-13 Freeport, Tax. 9 Mcclar.t. U.-io attack P-27-32 @on A.., P. A. 5 M-y t;-w a,m.k .n i.,widl P-14 N.-I., Fla. 4 Sl;ght Unnnovi attack carnpl... P-15 P--I., Fla. 20 A lmost c"'p late etanion, P-33 So. J-., P, R. 3 i. Wa,vid.1 in ;ntertidl zone P-42-43 Bay, C.b. 4 Moo" al-1, ;n P-46-7 TO,- Bay, Trinidod 18 F.i, P-52-57 L.@. Chnd.,, L.. 32 to 33 Excellent P-46-50 G.1-pon, Tax. 12 Moderate L;mnwia attack P-$B F1091., beach, Fla. 33. M.-Y L..g!wjg ....k L/ ll-ki- of I.ble 1, R.f-- 23. p-j9 Flag]., 8-@, Fla. 11 M.-Y Iki@@ .11-k P-60 Fit9l., Beach, Fla. 13 Money U.3m; .,..k D-91.0;' F-I 14 SI;qhI L;"wi attack F-13 N.-I Spply C..w F "I Dock, 10 AA.&.- Lionvew attack P-I ll-b.,, M-;i F-14 N ... I S@pply Can,., F,t.l Dock. Hear, L;- attack Pa.,, Hobw, Marai; 10 @-15 Apra Ho,bo,, G- 12 Excellent F-16 Apt. 12 Slight Urng0r. ctt-k LF-17 IAp,a HcI,br, G.- 12 E.C.11.M 1/ R-hion of Table 1. War.... 23- Tables 1-3. Comparison of piling service and resistance in different estiiaries (Hoebman, 1967). Energy Sources Man s Industry Pr ators Fungi Treatmont wor -on Limnoria Commensals wood Treated, piling Feces Tres Microbes Energy containing materials released to surrounding waters Fig. 15. Diagram showing flow of food energies and mork in a.piling ecosystem Symbols: energy source; energy storage-; work doneby one unit on another process., + Self maintaining organisms, 317 resulting energy is metabolized into heat or loss as feces to tne outside estuary. Microbial decomposition undoubtedly results in some energy loss from all components and is especially important in feces decay. Several living components other than the gribbles have been described in this system.. Reish (1954) has demonstrated remains of Limnoria in several polychaete annelids. The cornensal amphipod Chelura does not feed on wood but is dependent upon the feces of Limnoria (Barnard 1950; Bourdi-Ilon., 1958; Kuhne and Becker, 1964; Kuhne.. 1966T. -0ther invertebrate components may be present but their roles in the system are not well defined. The role of fungal infestation and possible nutritional enhancement of "conditioning" piling prior to ingestion by L. tr@2unct&ta is still contro- versial and investigators report conflicting results @Becker, Kampf and Kohlmeyer., 1957; Lane, 1959; Ray, 1959b; W and Stuntz, 1@;59; Schafer and Lanep 1957). Fungi may be important as a source of protein and vitamins for Limnoria but they are not essential for survival under all conditions. The major food of Limnoria, if not the only diet, is wood. The cel-lulase for digestion is a product oi the midgut diverticula (Fahrenbach, 1959) and is proauced by Limnoria itself rather than symbiotic microorganisms (Ray.. 1959b). A piling system is always in a state of deterioration and needs g-.onstant renewal of m@bstrates frcim man for continued existence. Interactions or infections of other piling systems occur chiefly by floating wood or Limnoria migrations. T1.e energy flow is simple with no primary production. 318 Chapter E-13 SALINA SYSTEM Scott W. Nixon Department of Botany,, University of North Carolina Chapel Hill, North Carolina 27514 INTRODUCTION A salina system is the sequence of shallow ponds used in an age old technology for the solar evaporation of sea water to produce table salt. The stages in the sequence of increasing salinity are accompanied by chex- acteristic organisms that appear wherever these systems are found through- out the world. The sequence has three main stages or subsystems: the first with blue-green algae predominating in benthic mats, the second with brine shrimp and characteristic species of the flagellated microscopic phytoplankton Dunaliella, and the third dominated by two types of red and pink bacteria. Although these stages may also develop in disturbed marine environments involving brine wastes, the salina is a domesticated version of the hypersaline lagoon systems that develop in nature (see Ch. A6) and is an example of the management of a whole ecological system for the service that it provides. The three stages of a primitive salina system in Puerto Rico are shown in Fig. 1, including the changes in characteristic organisms and associated sediments. A large French salt works is diagramed in Fig. 2, and a generalized flow chart for the extensive modern salina complexes of California is presented in Fig. 3. Historical Note Since the earliest times, man's inescapable physiological need for salt has led him to the edges of the sea. And here, by this limitless supply, he began the ancient business of removing salt from the ocean waters by using the evaporating power of solar energy and dry wind. Slowly he progressed in his knowledge of the art until, some thousands of years ago, a technology emerged that was based on a rather sophisticated though largely intuitive grasp of chemical succession and its consequences for organisms living in concentrated sea water. This technology came to involve the transfer and storage of water at various stages of evaporation, and required an interconnected series of large containers making up what is called in Spanish a salina system as shown in Fig. I and Fig. 2. Today, T_ though most of the world s salt comes from other sources, men are still about this antique occupation whose methods have changed little across so much time and learning (Baas-Becking, 1931a; Bloch, 1963). And for all of that time, a small number of living organisms have been with the briner as a part of his work and his tradition. Having evolved the special capacity to survive in this strange environment dominated by multiple chemical and physical stresses that isolate them from severe biological competition and predation, they form integrated living systems whose color contrasts sharply with the stark white of crystals and vast crusts of drying salt. RIOSIMORESCENT BAY PLANKTON-&AM SYSTEM OF OWOFLAGEL-10 SAW THM OL AIM" &LGA PUMPHOUNE mvp TROUGH WAWA PIANKYON H@ Cr"WIUMO P" Gw C-.W.*" P- am d PM A..V*ft W1. B.".rw 0 A'.W. -AR. AVI.6.NA- .W #AO-001 *ATM Ow in me PITATION \@-.VMVY PRECIPITAT a OF t 03 AND 4. pSMT&nam OF CeCOS MAD Cog% W_mK ANACA., . = BLKK ANAERW MIUDS ORG,M, "XW -6"X - ow"M OF BLUE-WAM A&LAftfiL ON ILUg-@VAMR MATS ewsm Fig. 1: Simplified schematic dravIng of a primitive salins in Rico. As total salinity increases, chemical and biolog succession result. 320 .10 '40 77 lo 4 4-1 4 IF -r-@.. J1 -- !!-@4' 4 .10 ........... .3- d Sri 3, AI !S :-Aj 40., 40. Fig. 2: Plan of a large commercial salina at Croisic-Batz, France, from Labbd(i924). The input trough (1) leads into large concentrating pans (2,3,4,5), and finally into the smaller crystallizing pans (6). @4 OW. 3 0 321 VATER VAPOR NET EVAPORATION 4umo.ow roxs RAINFALL IRC-CVAPONATED? NOT INCLUDE& IN DIAONAW. out AgGovatto F0 W me r evAPMATioN PONP LCARASES 0180COA009A A z 0 a 0 0 0 v 0 10 0 8 8 0. � q 0 k I Cr 0 2 cr 0 ANNUAL 116TAKE 306600.000 104S $AT WATCR. w $AL. a v Po" 2. MGM P"d A. pW4 S. ft" 106000jo0o ACRES CONCENTRATING P104 a. pow V. POW 4L 1.4 1@ p"Poo TONS AND CRYSTALLIZER ""as 10 @ @--I @;'@SALT IPTICAN To @e r,.!Al, 1111111111 iW "411 WtSTVAG0 0 p"M Wild be too ft-4GOpOO TONS CRUDE SALT s 6 POO TONS CRUOE SALT 24 000 t PRODUtTION1 40 al 0 a' noy: $.If MeWofted it" srefeed v1stes- plor ""s by weewpleve %@r"%Nwf4 thap" REFINED Ifted 19 40h 0 d) D oft"" rpm" PLANT Ran"911199 240,000 TONS SALT PRODUCTS Fig. 3: Production flow chart for the large balina cuaple)ms of California, from VerPlanck (1958)- 322 PRINCIPLES CF SALINA MPLIMEMEBT To obtain salt from the ocean is easy; one need only let the water evaporate to dryness and harvest the product, there is little technology involved. But for man's taste and needs, this has.not been enough. Sea salt is a complex and bitter tasting mixture of many things, including KC1, NgCI2, CaSo4, CaCO3, and.YzS04, as well as NaCl, the common table salt. To obtain the NaCl which makes up about 80% of the weight of the total mixture, and to obtain it in as pure a state as possible, the briner exploits the process of differential ion precipitation. Each of the many compounds dissolved or ionized in sea water has a characteristic solubility. As the water evaporates and salts become increasingly concentrated, those that axe least soluble and those present in.the greatest.concentration relative to their solubility begin to precipitate. In natural, unmanaged systems such as the hypersalin6 lagoons of Texas and Mexico, this process my con- tinue while many different salts become saturated ai2d the bottom becomes covered with layers of salt arranged according to the solubility series. In the salina, however, man exerts control and the water that remains after a given material has largely precipitated is moved by pump or by gravity to another section of the salina where the next salts may precipitate relatively free from contamination by the less soluble ions. After a number of precipitations and transfers, the point is reached where NaCl, one of the more soluble salts, becomes saturated and precipitates heavily. The re- maining liquid, now called the bittern and rich in Mg*+ and K+, is removed and the crystals of NaCl are harvested, washed, and dried (see Fig. 3). By this process, so fundamentally simple, the briner my obtain a product that is more than 99% pure (VerPlanck, 1958; Kaufmann, 1960) - As a consequence of the differential solubilities and precipitation, the ionic composition of the water above the precipitate progressively changes and becomes enriched with the more soluble ions. This continuously shifting chemical composition of evaporating sea water is shown in Fig. 4. The 11containers" mentioned earlier are actually broad shallow pans scraped in the ground, each some 15 cm. deep and much larger than a foot ball field. The general arrangement of such pans is shown by Fig. 2, a schematic drawing of a large commercial salina in France. The depth-area relationship of the pans is designed to evaporate large quantities of water as quickly as possible through solar heating in the shallow depth and through dry wind moving over a relatively long fetch and large surface, with the area of the first con- centrating pans being fixed at about 10-15 times the area of t12e final crystallizing pans (VerPlanck, 1958). These individual pans are microcosms of arrested biological and chemical succession in which a small number of unusual organisms have adapted to what Baas-Becking termed an environment on Ifthe borderland of physiological possibilities." The old briners appreciated the intricate coupling of biological and chemical components of these systems, and came to rely on it for the most critical aspect of salina management. Traditionally, they narked the appropriate time to transfer the evaporating water from one pan to the next by the appearance of certain indicator organisms and the death of others (Baas-Becking, 1931b). Now, though more precise measures of the chemical 323 Fig. 4: Ionic succession with increasing salinity as given by VerPlanck (1958)- 324 state of the water are used, such as specific gravity and conductivity, an appreciation is beginning to develop of the good science that was behind the briner's art. Repeated physiological studies of the common brine organisms performed during the last fifty years have shown that these species are very sensitive to the ionic composition of the medium, and that each is confined by this mechanism to a rather characteristic and narrow range in the chemical succession (Baas-Becking, 1931b; Boone and Baas-Becking, 1931; Croghan, 1958a). With this in mind, it would*have been possible and perhaps preferable to redraw Fig. 4 in more meaningful biological terms with different species of organisms instead of salinities on the abscissa. Now, after thousands of years, those who design to study these highly stressed salina systems and their compelling questions of chemical and biological coupling may feel a certain kinship with the briners of simpler times, whose intuitive grasp of a fundamental ecological principle begins to emerge from the echoes of their ancient instructions for taking salt from the sea. CHARACTERISTICS OF THE BRINE LIFE AND NEDIUM Stress and Diversity in Salina Systems The characterization of the brine ecosystem as "stressed" implies a certain operational concept of the term and what it mean to the organisms involved. Following the ideas developed by Odum (1967b), stress is con- sidered,to be the set of energy drains that are required of an organism to remain as part of a particular system. The magnitude of the energy drain or tax is, in effect, the magnitude of the stress. Such a definition re- duces many kinds of stress phenomena to a common operational basis which can be evaluated in Vniversal energy units. Special stress drains include not only the obvious metabolic work that may be required, such as ion "pumps" or enzyme systems for active transport, but also the work required to synthesize, maintain, and transport extra cellular organellp-sor special molecular structures and configurations. Few, if any, such complete evaluations have yet been made for any environment, and certainly not for the brine where several interacting stress factors dominate the biological dimensions of the system. It is only when the energetic drain of environmental stress becomes too large a portion of the organism's total energy budget that its behavior becomes markedly abnormal and the stress becomes obvious. Too great a drain, of course, results in death; but even at lower levels of stress, energy that is switched into doing this kind of work is no longer available for other activities at the species or system level. Thus stressed systems are low in diversity, often inefficient at mineral cycling, and develop other unusual and interesting principles for study. In salina systems, Copeland and Jones U965) as well as the author (Nixon, 1969) have found less than 6 species per 1000 individuals counted. Finally, energy that is channeled into the work of stress adaptation may be displayed in a variety of morphological, cytological, and biochemical ways, each basically analogous in ultimate function, but each following particular genetic programs that have been produced by the evolutionary histories of the different species. 325 Osmotic Stress Organisms living in the brine waters of salina, systems are faced with serious problems of osmoregulation. In these hypersaline environments the concentration of dissolved particles is greater in the medium than within the cell cytoplasm of the organisms. Under such conditions, as with the dry air surrounding life in terrestrial deserts, the cellular water tends to diffuse across cell membranes from the higher internal concentration toward the medium. If nothing were done to stop it, this process would continue until the concentration on both sides of the membrane was the same, and there was no free energy difference across the membrane. In order to prevent such cellular dehydration from occurring, the plants and animals of the brine must put a portion of their energy into some kind of osmoregulatory work. The physical chemistry of the medium acts to modify the energy drain somewhat. As the concentration of total salts increases from the relatively dilute levels of sea water (about 3.5%), the ions of the various salts begin more and more to react together to form ion pairs (Davies, 1962). These ionic pairs then behave osmotically as a single particle of solute, thus luwering the osmotic pressure from the value that would be expected for a complete ionization of the salts. In sucL highly concentrated solutions of electrolytes, it is this "activity" rather than the total concentration of the salts that is relevant to osmoregulation (Flannery, 1956). The "activity" of Nacl at several concentrations is given in a review by Ingram (1957 . This water stress may be met in several ways, as shown in some recent studies of well known brine organisms. In the halophil.i c bacteria, indications are that requirements for high salt are involved with a biochemical specialization of specific salt requiring enzymes within the bacterial cell (Larsen, 1967). Moreover, the evidence seems to show that in at least several species the salt requirement is specific for Na+ ions. When these enzymes are isolated from the halophilic bacteria and placed in low salt suspensions, they lose their activity. Results such as these indicate that some brine bacteria. may cope with the high osmotic pressure of their environment by adopting it, at least in part, for their own internal composition (Larsen, 1967)- Species with more differentiated cytoplasmic structures may develop more involved mechanisms for dealing with the osmoregulatory problem. Mrre' and his co- @workers (Mrrer et al 1958; M%=4 and Servettaz, 1958) have postulated an active transport system involving Te for the flagellated brine alga, Dunaliella salina. In this case, Ni+ ions were observed to be taken in across the cell membrane to raise the internal osmotic pressure as Mach as 25 atmospheres above that of the medium. In such a situation, water will tend to diffuse into the cell and must be pumped out, perhaps through a vacuolar system. It is interesting to note, however, that current work by Johnson et al (1968) on Dunaliella viridLs, a sister species of the brine environment that dominates at somewhat lower salinities than D. salina, indicates thtAt the internal salt content of these cells must be below that of the medium at higher salinities, since ATP dependent C02 fixation was quickly inhibited in cell extracts at NaCl concentrations above 1.7 molar. The activity of glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase extract was completely inhibited at concentrations of 1.28 molar NaCl, while whole intact cells 326 grew well at 2 molar NaCl. Still more involved means of regulating the internal water balance may be operating in the brine shrimp, Artemia, salina. Considerable vork'by Croghan (1958 a)b,c,d,e) on the osmoregulation and ionic flux in this organism has shown that it maintains a rather constant internal osmotic pressure in the haemolymph and gut fluids across a wide spread of external salt concentrations. This internal osmotic stability is shown in Fig- 5. The haemolymph osmotic pressure is kept below that of the medium, and seems to involve a coupling of active transport mechanisms in the gut and across the first ten palm of the animal's branchiae, with Nat being the ion of major flux. Assuming that active transport was the primary mechanism of osmoregulation in Artemia, Croghan (1958e) calculated a drain of 6% of the organisms'energy budget into this function. However., he points out that even this minimal figure which does not include the energetic cost of synthesizing and maintaining the transport system can not be taken too seriously, since he has presented evidence that other osmoregulatory mechanisms such as the Donnan effect may be operating in ways that are difficult to evaluate. More sophisticated measures of the energetic cost of ionic balance and water transport in these organisms must await more refined data on the various membrane phenomena involved, as well as on the pH of cellular fluids and the isoelectric: points of the proteins of hypersaline organisms, and the functional partitioning of cellular molecules and ions. Here, as in so mwW environments, the rich fields of biochemical ecology and ecological cytology are waiting to be developed. Using the energy flow diagrams developed by Odum (1967e, 1967d), the role of high salt stress as an energy drain can be shown as a general phenomenon as in Fig. 6. A Strange Chemical 1dx - Ionic Stress As the sea water evaporates, not only does the concentration of total salts increase, but the relative proportions of the ions in solution also change. This constantly shifting chemical composition of the medium places another severe stress on each of the brine organisms. Chemical succession is a consequence of the different solubility characteristics shown in Fig. 4., and can be seen in a different form in Fig. 7, where the amounts of the various major ions in relation to the amount of Cl- present can be seen changing as water from the liediterranean Sea evaporates in a costal salinao Redfield (1958) has shown in another context that such ionic ratios are important in selecting and maintaining species whose internal composition is as, compatible as possible with the medium, so that as little energy as possible must be put into differential ion uptake, and the use of nutrients is as efficient as possible. In the highly unusual chemical mix of the salina. waters, all of the species mast do some ionic work to overcome this stress. Data from Pillai (1954, 1955) is shown in Fig. 8, and indicates that blue-green algae from hypersaline lagoons accumulate and maintain an internal chemical composition that is quite different from that in the surrounding water. Studies by Boomand Baas-Becking (1931) and by Baas-Becking (1931b) on Artemia, salina. Duneliella viridi Dunaliella salina, and various blue-green algae, indicate that these organisms, even Tnough VWy-kre capable of life in a severely stressed osmotic environment, are very seWitive to the relative proportions of the ions such as e, Cs;++, Na+, and *r"r in their medium. This sensitivity my be a function of total 3217 4 de 0 10 Is 20 25 Osmotic pressure of medium (0/0 NaCQ Fig. 5: Relative osmotic stability in Artemia: the graph shows the relation between osmotic pressure of the body fluids and the medium. The open circles rep- resent gat fluids, the solid points represent the baemolymph., and the diagonal line through the origin represents isotonicity. (Croghan, 1958b). 328 Alew sa*v N.Cl > Nom"PUMPED WT* "Now I. Cl SAL" ------ - ------ >v LOSS @O SALT FECES OWREGULATION MODULE Dim#ellu salft THERMA4. INPUT ------->ORGANIC EXCRETION Orgmic Rwwhaml.@ Photasynth.SIS W.G. NET ORGANIC EXPORT UGNT L Nw.CI N.tflfiool F@fiw 020 -- WATER "PUMPED OUT" DIFFUSION "ZO Fig. 6: The energetics of 0owregulation, in Artemia salina (top) and Alrialiells, salins, (bottom). The l5j7)6thetical scheme for brine sbrimp is based on work by Ch:-oghan (1958c,d).. and the schem for Dunaliella salina is based on the data of Marre'and Servettaz (1958) @Nhrre', Servettaz and Albergoni (1958). U.-T 329 -.7.: ow t;, STBITT 13N 2`131 TTE RN -3 R 0131T T-E RN MEDITERRANEPN I E OR SEA ------ ------- Sr 3 7 V. S =Z75%. 5=33M. SrT?6&@ ...... Or 1.02;8 Grls./Cc. D: 1. 21 OV 1. 2 (04' 0 --j. 3 2. . .. . ..... .. .......... ...... Xk 0. 7 --- ---- 7 t--- 7 . . . . . . . . . .-. . . 0 7 < 7 7 :77 -7- -7@--,77- 7-@ .77 < 0.4. 77 - - - - - - - - - Z 0-3- 0.2- 0.1 N4 K caL r1l SN Br C03 K Ca r4l Sc@ Br CO. Na K CA M% SO, Or CO. sa K CA tit sc@ er cc@ Fig. 7: Changing ion ratios in the waters of a 1&-diterranean salina. The amount of each mineral (X) has been divided by the amount of cblo- ride to obtain the ratio. Note that calcium is removed early in the process, and that nagnesium and potassium become increasingly iinportant, as well as S04- Clarke (1924). 330 Mur-crREEN ALOAC. PALK SAY LAGOON MANDAPAMA ZHDIA . . .......... nSURROUNDING, wrut BLUE*GREEN ALCMES CELL FLUID., .:A; ::;:7.: ILI T.T. To .. ..... ...... 7?- 3C Iro 0 4 4C .... ...... J. Le r T. S; 04 CA fit K C4. PIS W4 K CA P4 Fig. 8: The ionic composition of some blue-green algae in India contrasted with the ionic composition of their surrounding vater at tbree salt levels increasing from left to right. Ratios were obtained by dividing the amount of each mineral M by the amDunt of chloride present. (Pillai, 1955)- 331 salinity and is further complicated by various sets of antagonistic ion relationships. Baas-Becking and Boonehave worked out a chemical matrix of survival in terms of ionic balance and antagonism for some brine organisms. Thei.r.results are given in Fig. 9. BaaB-Beeking relates the toxic effect of Ca"" and W++ on D. viridis to the pronounced negative c .harge that he reports these cells carry on the outside of their membranes. The Ng++ and C6"rr are antagonistic, and more Mg*+ is required to affect the Ca++ at higher salinities. Johnson et al (1968) have shown that the'Nat requirement in this organism is specific and can not be satisfied by K+ or by b4g4+. On the other hand, Baas-Becking found that while blue-green algae are tolerant of Ca++ at lower salinities, they become sensitive to.it at high salt levels, and to W1+ at still higher levels. At 4 molar NaCl, they would grow only when no bivalent metal ions were present. More recent work by Croghan U958a) has confirmed the sensitivity of ArU to K+ ions, and has shown the mechanism to involve a replacement phenomenon in which i& ions are rapidly substituted for Na+ ions in the haemolymph when the potassium concentration in the medium gets high (Croghan, 1958e). His data are also shown in Fik g. 9, and indicate that a ratio of Na+/K+ must be kept at 10 or above for the long term survival of brine shrimp. As D'Agostino (1965) has demonstrated, however, there are several physiological strains of Artemia, and the particular ionic tolerances my vary in different populations. Cole and Brown (1967), for example, have reported brine shrimp from a few waters having an unusually high V" content for these organisms. The red and pink bacteria of the highest salt pans, those last in the salina series, are also responsive to the ionic composition of the soup.in which they must live or die. As pointed out by Ingram (1957) and by Iwsen (1967) in recent reviews, these bacteria are particularly sensitive to the amounts of Me+ and e in the water, as well as Na+, and require relatively large amounts of these ions for good growth. As one compares these approximate ionic parameters marking the limits of survival for each of the major brine species with the distribution of the species in each of the subsystems along the salinity gradient of the salina, one must agree with Baas-Becking that the concept emerges of a set of coupled microcosms in separate pans, each regulated in species composition by' the interaction of salinity and ionic succession. That this concept was a part of the briner's traditional working technology iis shown by the fact that he timed the storage and transfer of evaporating water in each pan by the life and death of particular system dominants such as blue-green Ialgal nats, the green alga Dunaliella viridis the brine shrimp Artemia salina the red- orange alga Dunaliella salina, and the red and pink halophilic bacteria Halobacterium and Halococci7taas-Becking, i931b). In effect, the briner took advantage of the analytical results of a continuous ecological bioassay to control and manage his salina. Additional Stresses Oxygen The high salt levels of the brine systems act to decrease the amount of oxygen that can dissolve in the water, and force different species to channel larger amounts of energy into gas exchange through the synthesis of A A J A A A 13 a a L-41 A WL go so nol #%.I wit C 16 -0 "M T" ftWviv*l of Art@ia in @dia with "riataNs: X *a". Dlapm Ulustmdug nit antavo6whs Adcwi6- 7" 0"4 dot* ConMv6tion of n"ia rtprtmt munbuse (omation, the lap dab n*rmat osupUL In tbe. attas oKnot./L No nistA ,&. 4. c, and i vo &vvloj-t took ph- 0 0 A 100 som 3000 too Lj Fig. 9. I= antagonisms and salt effects in sow common salins, species; Figso 9A and B are-from ftas-Becking (1931b), Fig* 9C is from' Boone and Baas-Becking (1931), and Fig.. 9D is, ft-om Crogban (1958a). 333 increasing amounts of respiratory pigments such as hemoglobin in the brine shrimp (Gilchrist, 1954). The decreasing solubility of oxygen in sea water brine is given by Copeland (1967b) in Fig. lo. Temperature As shown by Adams (1934) and by Harbeck (1955), the effect of in- creasing salinity is to decrease the rate of evaporation and to raise the temperature of the salt solution over that of pure water under the same equilibrium conditions. For this reason, as well as their shallow depth, salina systems undergo relatively wide and rapid diurnal cycles of temperature that are not usually characteristic of aquatic systems. This responsiveness of the water to the high daytime temperatures of areas suitable for large scale evaporation also decreases the solubility of oxygen in water and aggravates the salt effect mentioned above (Copeland, 196,Tb) Pulsing Inflows The pulsing inflows in salina management also place stress on the living systems in the brine pans. By transferring water from pan to pan, each subsystem is faced with changes in total salinity and ion ratios, as well as with sudden changes in population sizes and species composition as the organisms are swept in and out with the transferred water. And after each transfer, each subsystem must again move through a short succession, only to be arrested once more. Of course, even if T-n did not intervene by his management, each subsystem would be destined to remain only a small span in the overall dominating chemical succession of changing ions and increasing salt. PH and Alkalinitj Copeland (1967b) has followed the changing pH and alkalinity of evaporating sea water and obtained the results shown in Fig. 11. Such oscillating changes may be of some significance, particularly in the range of pH 8 - 9, where the HC03- and CO3__ concentrations are changing rather rapidly, and the water is shifting from a system dominated by bicarbonate to one richer in carbonate. The actual biological consequences of such changes are still not clear, however, and some work such as that by Gibore (1956) indicates that brine algae may not be particularly sensitive to pH changes in this range. Older work, such as the classic study of a salina in France by Labbe'(1924) has emphasized the role of pH in regulating the different species along the salinity gradient, with special emphasis on the brine ciliate, Fabrea salina. labbe"'s curve of pH and species distribution in the salina is given in Fig. 12. Adaptations to Stress Whole systems as well as organisms must partition their flows of energy in various ways to m6et the work and maintenan e demands of stress environments. These drains of energy into work functions may take various forms and produce interesting and novel events for study. 334 10, 9. Laguna Tamaulipas Mexico 81 7- E 6 1 % z W 25C 4. .. ....... 37 C 3- ZZ 2- 00 2b iO 6.0 80 100 120 140 liO 160 260 2iO SALINITY - (PPO Fig. 10: "Saturation values of dissolved oxygen versus salinity. The open circles indicate 100% saturation in mg./l, using the solubility constants of Mruesdale et al. (1955), at 25 and 37C. The straight lines iTdft@ate theoretical saturation when the data at lower salinities are extrapolated. The open triangles and crosses in- dicate 100% saturation as measured in water from the Laguna Tamaulipas, 14@xico, at various salinities." (Copeland, 1967b.) 335 pH sea water 6- 1-WPELAN-1 @-MEXICAN LAGOON 1957 7 -j 0 50 100 150 200 SALINITY - (ppt) 7. 6. t z D Evaporation Experiment 3. 30 570 770 9b @0 lio .. 1@0 , lio 40 SALINITY - (pPt) Fig. 11: Changing pH and alkalinity of evaporating sea water. (Copeland, 1967h.) @te r @-WPELAN4 336 Ellep Visi6re Coobirru, fArc3 AJerne, Qrrn,@ d roo -to! 5 M-8 C"Um Cfewles Zone a A la Zone a Wompum rlem Zone a DuftahCII& Ofthns Ca P" TA16 dly. COVPhium Labra robrva &@[on& 8.6 300-9 8.5 ,..10-9 8.4 6410-9 8.3 7A 10-3 8.16 8,1 *9 8.1 ASXPO , B.Os Fig. 12: pff and dominant species along a salinity gradient in a large French salina. (Labbe'. 1924). 337 Some betterknown and rather striking responses to salt stress at the organismal level have been described by Gilchrist for Arte , including an increasing amount of hemoglobin synthesis (1-954), a decrease in the length of females and in the number of females bearing eggs@ and a decrease in the number of eggs carried per female at high salinities (1956). In a similar manner, Villeneuve-Brachon (1940) observed that the red-brown pigment of the brine ciliate Fabrea salina, also increased with salinity. Current studies on the biochemical development of Artemia by Warner and McClean (1968) show additional idiosyncrasies that may develop as a consequence of an organism being genetically,,.progr d for stress adaptation. Their results indicate that the brine sbrimp is not capable of the de novo synthesis of the purines, adenine and guanine. These nucleotides are usually formed de novo through a bi'osynthesis of some five simple compounds to form the purine ring structure, with adenine being formed first and then converted to guanine (West et al, 1966). It is interesting, though perhaps of no real significance in this connection, to note that the heat of formation of adenine is considerably higherthan that given by Morowitz (1968) for the p@rimidines or some thirty other common low molecular weight constituents of living material. Can this be an example of an energetic luxury being given up under stress? Artemia must obtain at least the basic purine structure through its food chain or, perhaps, through the organic soup of its medium, since it has been shown by Warner and McClean that once the purine ring is provided, the brine shrimp can complete the synthesis. The reference to the brine medium as an organic soup was prompted by the work of Wilson (1963), who found that the levels of dissolved organic carbon in brines are higher than for any other natural water measured, in some cases exceeding 100 p.p.m. Perhaps, as Odum (1967b) has pointed out, this is indicative of simple) stressed systems where species diversity is low and the heterotrophic consumption of stored organic matter is incomplete. Perhaps it is also of some adaptive value to organisms who must put large amounts of energy,into osmoregulation and ionic balance to excrete large amounts of organics into external storage. Such material could always be used later as organic fuel, while sparing the organisms the work of internal storage and transport. One is reminded of the vast differences in the com- plexity and the energy required for development and maintenance between con- ventional aircraft that must store and carry only one fuel component, the petroleum based oxidant, and the early rocket engines designed for operation in space that had to carry and store both oxidant and the oxidizer. Perhaps future research will center on the nature of these external biological fuels stored by stressed ecological systems and their role in the chemical control and coordination of living components in the system. At the highest salt levels, where osmotic stress is greatest.and the ionic ratios most aberrant, metabolic energy is put into the synthesis of large amounts of auxiliary pigments, and the red and pink Halobacterium and Hal6cocci, along with the red-orange alga, Dunaliella salina, become the dominant organisms. From above, they color whole evaporating pans a bright red, like squares on a giant's checkerboard. The color ii.due to an abundance of carotenoid pigments, and one wonders why organisms that must put so much work into meting other stresses would switch so much of their 338 remaining energy into carotenoid biosynthesis (Fox and Sargent, 1938; Flannery, l956). In both the bacteria and the algae, the function of these carotenoids has been attributed to the protection of the bacteriochlorophyll and the chlorophyll from photo-oxidation under very high light intensities (Dundas and Larsen, 1962, 1963). But other functions for the organisms and the system as a whole may be served as well. It is interesting to remember the red color of snow algae (Marre', 1962), and to speculate on the role of these pigments as good receptors in the infared regions of the spectrum. Tiffany (1938) has mentioned that their presence in snow algae greatly accelerates melting, and it is not difficult to imagine that such a mechanism of intracellular heating could be necessary to the metabolic kinetics of an alga growing at very low temperatures. It may also be beneficial to an alga or bacterium living in a medium of low'nutrients and high stress, where organic storages are large and metabolic demands for osmotic and biosynthetic work may favor increased respiration rates and more rapid turnovers of important nutrients. The simple explanation of light protection also ignores the bright green colors of Dunaliella viridis and the blue-green algae which grow under the same bright light conditions but at lower salinities and survive quite well without putting energy into the synthesis of large amounts of car6tenoids. It does not seem unreasonable to suppose that systems 'under severe stress will evolve mechanisms to use as much of the energy that is available to the system as possible. As mentioned earlier, brine systems are characterized by having only a small number of species present. This low species diversity means that the relatively small amount of energy that remains in the system after the adaptive drains for work and maintenance must be partitioned a ng fever compartments as it flows tbrough the system. Odum. (1967b) has speculated that the species that are included in such stressed systems may be nutritional generalists, and that "without specialization, the total consumer action is inefficient." Such inefficient consumption leads to an organic accumulation, and a series of possible substrates for the largely heterotrophic subsystems or red bacteria at very high salt levels. Lower species diversity may also Tmk these systems less stable and more sensitive to stresses and shocks for which they are not preadapted. OVERALL MRMOLIC PATTERMS OF SALINA SYSTENS Questions of the overall productivity and the diurnal patterns of photosynthesis and respiration in -the stressed system of 'the salins, have been studied by Carpelan (1957) and by Copeland and Jones (1965) - Fe_5Wr_s (1965) has published data on the metabolic patterns of brine systems in small labora- tory microcosms. Carpelan's work emphasized the lower salinity pans early in the evaporating series where large amounts of energy did not have to be put into stress adaptation and productivity was high. His results indicate an average production of about 700 gms. carbon/M2/Yr. in@'the lower salinity pans where the major nutrients were concentrated by evaporation, and the systems behaved as if fertilized. At the highest salinity studied, about 15%, he found the production of brine shrimp to be approximately 6-3 gms. dry veight/W/Yr. Using a crude estimate of 5-5 Kcal-/gi- dry''veight o,"f ani 1 339 tissue (Mbrowitz, 1968), this would mean a secondary production of 34.6 Kcal.IWIYr. of Artemia. The salina. in this study was located in California, and Carpelan found a strong seasonal pulse of algal production following the increasing inputs of solar energy in spring and su r. Copeland and Jones studied a 6alina"in Puerto Ricoland obtained data on diurnal changes in dissolved oyygen and carbon dioxide in systems operating at high concen- trationt of 15, 19, and 22% salt. They were able to show that productivity at these salinities was very low, with P/R ratios remaining less than 1.0 in each pan. Their curves and data are given in Fig. 13. The author's unpublished data on laboratory brine systems at about 15% total salt is in agreement with these values, though there is evidence that such systems, when enriched with inorganic fertilizer, can become,quite productive and m@intain themselves at.higher metabolic levels for long periods of time. Beyeis found P/R ratios of 1.12 in his unfertilized brine microcosms at 18.8% salt. Perhaps in nature the thick blue-green algal mats so characteristic of the first subsystems.in the salina act as nutrient sinks by effectively taking up and holding nutrients in their stored organic matter, and leaving the water that is to be tiansferred.on through the system low in nutrients. Such algal mats are cultivated by the briners because they help to bind the earth bottoms of the paw and redude-water loss through seepage. Laterp when the pans are used as crystalizing beds, the old algal mat helps to separate the white salt from the black anaerobic bottom muds during harvest (Hof and Fremy, 1933). The dark color of the algae also Inbances the thermal absorption in the pans and increases evaporation. Unfortunately, no.,clear picture has yet emerged of the details of the metabolic relationships and patterns in salina systems, though the available data suggest that the later subsystems at the highest levels of salt stress are predominately heterotrophic systems based on the infrared photo-stimi)l ted oxidation of organic fuels produced by photosynthesis in the earlier subsystems where energetic flo4s for stress adaptation remain relatively small. This relationship is shoNin in the energy flow diagram of Fig. 14j; 6. reflection of the present state of knowledge concerning these systems. Future research will have to be directed toward obtaining quantitative values for the principal flows and storages. 02 2. 80 MO /L PH ZI 01 0 40- no M T*C 100 MINA FORTUNA RIL 35. ISO %. SALINITY % . 1-90 19-20 Oct 1962 SAT so 30 -T OC TO co, +0.50- SALINA FORTUNAJIM 0.0 I 225%.SALINITY WWLAVII -20 OCT 19 MIR 0 2 +Q25- CHANCE 19 24 .0 -b. di-M. A. I.". 1 49 11111%, -*Air 19-26 Qdb@. 196L -0-50 z foo 1800 2400 - 0. swb. IN F-ft III- Fd 3 a 221L -may TI. w M. M oh. 6@ 4 d. di-I 4WO.W- Th. d..hW N- I. W b- S.Wh h 16. dk-d --w- ow dwh-b- 6 k 6. dw.0- -11A. I. Va.* wh@nwwVpled@ba%Wilmw 6- v tF It. x. I^ I:-. a. P^ IV so 1A F-emm P. L ?"d 1 10/10/02 150 V.&M3 TA4M 0.11 LSC-&* 31 1.14 IIA 0.9' L30 SM OJS 0.3 06 ft.d a 3 101191153 1" XMILS TAII-Tjs ex 18063M is 0.40 CA 0XI IA 1.16 0AM as 13 pwds IQ/IVM 2n 21LI-3YA 1364A 0.14 IJ040 13 M 121 90 4M L% 128 42 IJ 4'- Fig. 13: Diurnal patterns of oxygen and carbon dioxide metabolism in a small salina in Puerto Rico. (Copeland and Jones, 1965)- ................ ...... ........... .......... ...... ...................... ....................... ........... ........... a 04 341 Coft"tMtod 8" Woftr kVW Throwo SubbyrItim Notrie" I wan -50-70%. Vaim Zoniakto J fttrfmt 111boMMS Work INot Fka PM N.I 191d Wok S.Owtv 70- Uwe" W4 Work SLW D"W" 81"-G.M At at Met Orgate S v 01*90ad WA Nu Or"" Ift"ff In 01""d Mal a Beewd Uannlr.11" PM Stimw NOW PI" of OM@Okvd sdwft - 00-950%. soctvlo SffmN "Mir"Ne Cq*tGI1 r Sub ftd O"'Wk "Noy - 00-3w%. O"Grac moter Fig. 14: Major pathways of energy flow through the salina, system, showing principial species aAA storage compartments as well as work loops and flows. Later subsystems at higher salt levels become increasingly beterotrophic and depend on the organic input of carbon fixed in earlier less stressed sub- systems. (See Fig. 1). _J 347. chapter E-14 BRINE POLLUTION SYSTEM Frank N. Nbseley B. J. Copeland University of Corpus Christi The University of Texas Corpus Christi, Texas 78411 Port Aransas, Texas 78373 INTRODUCTION From desalinization plants and oil field operations come large quan- tities of highly concentrated salt water. Not only is the salt in high concentrations, but the ratio of salts is quite different from that of sea water. The energetics of the receiving systems are modified with the re- sulting changes in circulation systems, osmotic regulation, stratification, destruction of bottom co-mi-nities and soil structure, specific heat, hydrogen ion balance, buffer system modification, low species diversity, solubility of oxygen, turbidity and ion balance. From studies concerning salinas, natural hypersaline lagoons and the cases of brine polluted communities, a picture is developing about the new emerging systems characteristic of brine pollution. Very few organisms are capable of adapting to the high salinities, strange chemical balance and varying inputs of brine waters. System Example - Chiltipin Creek - Upper Copano, Bay, Texas An example of a system dominated by brine pollution is found in upper Copano Bay on the central coast of Texas. Chiltipin Creek, which serves as a drainage canal for extensive oil field activities@, empties into upper Copano Bay and carries considerable brine from oil wells. The type of oil field operations includes the pumping of brine water and oil from shallow wells and allowing the oil to float off in settling ponds and draining the brine to Chiltipin Creek (Telle@,1961). The ratio of brine to oil is about 50 - 100 to 1, resulting in about 8.6 million gallons of brine per day drained into Copano Bay (Teller,1961). A diagram of the Chiltipin Creek-Upper Copano Bay area is shown in Figure 1, in which the sampling stations are indicated by circled x's. The bay area is shallow (less than one meter in depth) and the wind-driven currents insure almost complete mixing. In addition to the brine being deposited each day, considerable oil floats into Copano Bay from escapes from the settling ponds at oil wells. Preliminary data not previously published from a yeaxb study of the upper Copano Bay has been made available here from an unpublished manuscript (Copeland and Wseley) Brine Characteristics Whether the brine water comes from oil field operations or desalinization plants, the chemical chaxacteristics are similar; i.e., they result from the evaporation of sea water. The chemical characteristics of sea water (the source 343 tn it le Rca 6-8 &IVS4 D&C'Va Ile Ha 0 3 fV-*V"<- I 0/0' 'D; ver6,* X.,V, NAUTICAL ARANSAS Ve -X MIL ES RIVE R CIPPO-1 hy 4.1 BAYS I COPANO BAY IL kley HILTIPIN H )WAY CREEK Fig. 1. Upper Copano Bay, Texas and Chiltipin Creek (brine source) with sampling stations indicated. (From Copeland and Moseley). Asterisk indicates representative conminity location. 344 of brine) are amazingly constant in all parts of the world (Harvey,1957),but during evaporation there is differential precipitation of salts (Copeland,1967b) so that a chemically unbalanced solution remains. Therefore, the character- istics of a brine waste would be a function of the completeness of evaporation processes. A. G. Collins (1967) discusses the chemical characteristics of Cretaceous and Tertiary brines in Mississippi and Alabama. The results of a chemical analysis of four types of brine waste and that of normal sea water are shown in Table 1. Some brines from deep formations contain more bromide than can be concentrated during evaporite formation, but it can be accounted for with association with bromide concentrators such as seaweeds, corals, etc. Most brines resulting from oil field operations on the Gulf coast are of types 4 and 5 in Table 1. The correlation coefficient for several ions was relatively high (Table 2). High correlations were found in the Tertiary waters between Cl and Total Dissolved Solids (T.D.S.), Cl and Na, Na and T.D.S., Br and Ca, and Ca and depth. Cretaceous waters exhibited high correlations between Cl and T.D.S., Ca and Cl, Na and T.D.S., Ca and T.D.S., Br and T.D.S., Na and Cl, Ca and Br, Ca and depth, and Cl and Br. A. G. Collins (1967) concluded that oil field waters obtained from marine rocks usually are relict sea water. Their salinity ranges from 35 parts per thousand to more than 300 ppt. As sea water evaporates, the carbonates pre- cipitate first, followed by the sulfates (Copeland,1967b; A. G. Collins,1967). Little or no bromide precipitates or is occluded with these. The increased chloride concentration can be attributed to evaporation. Magnesium depletion and calcium enrichment probably result primarily from dolomitization. Bicar- bonate depletion is the result of carbonate precipitation. Sulfate depletion is the result of gypsum precipitation and/or bacterial action. Thus, evaporated sea water, whether it is from oil fields or desalinization operations, 3ields a brine of strange chemical characteristics. A diagram showing the differential precipitation of evaporating sea water (from Copeland, 1967b) is shown in Figure 2. As the sea water evaporates, the certain salts precipitate to the sediments and leave a solution of imbalanced ions. SYSTEM CHARACTERISTICS Salinity Because systems dominated by brine-water pollution are receiving large quantities of evaporated sea water, the salinity of the receiving system is usually relatively high. As shown in Figure 3, the average salinity for the Chiltipin Creek-Upper Copano Bay area was generally higher than normal estuarine salinity, ranging from 10 to more than 60 parts per thousand (ppt). Even the tremendous flooding resulting from Hurricane Beulah on the Texas coast during September 1967 did not appreciably lower the salinity in the area after the flooding had subsided, whereas the coastal salinities elsewhere along the cen- tral and southern Texas coast were almost fresh (personal observation). It should be noted that individual measurements at the mouth of Chiltipin Creek revealed salinities as high as 110 ppt. 345 Table 1. Elemental analysis of four types of brine and normal sea water. (From A o Go. Collins# 19671 Table 1). Concentratim in Mg. per UW NO. Na CK. Mg a Dr S04 HRW Type 1 1,600 40 40 820 10 340 2800 HCOrNa 2 1,100 280 75 560 8 2200 420 S04-Na 3 10,600 900 1300 19,000 65 3900 160 Sea water 4 23,000 1,000 4000 36,000 118 1000 so Cl-Mg 5 18,700 120,000 9000 270,000 3200 0 0 ci-ca Table 2. Correlation coefficients for all samples between various elements (From A. Go Collins, 1967; Table 2). Depth T.D.S. Na Ca Mg C1 or - I HCOs S04 Depth 1.000 0.793 0.473 0.767 0.477 0.763 0.631 0.562 -0.387 0.329 T.D.S. 0.793 1.000 0.771 0.781 O@566 6.965 0.704 0.279 -0.402 0.277 Na 0.473 0.771 1.000 0.219 0.151 0.727 0.187 -0.026 -0.046 0.184 Ca 0.767 0.7181 0.219 1.000 0.657 0.760 0.890 0.474 -0.560 0.245 Mg 0.477 0.566 0.151 0.657 1.000 0.571 0.724 0.256 -0.464 0.089 C1 0.763 0.965 0.727 0.760 0.571 1.000 0.681 0.271 -0.404 0.261 Br 0.631 0.704 0.187 0.890 0.714 0.681 1.000 0.435 -0.568 0.209 1 0.562 0.279 -0.026 0.474 0.256 0.271 0.435 1.000 -0.343 0.217 HCO9 -0.387 -0,402 -0.046 -0.560 -0.464 -0.404 -0.568 -0.343 1.000 -0.004 S04 0.329 0.277 0.184 0.245 0,089 0.261 0.209 0.217 -0.004 1.000 CaSO4 N&CI MQS04 MgC12 NaBr KC1 ita @to 300 SALINITY (ppO Fig. 2. Precipitation of salts during evaporation of sea water. The end: CaSol of the barAndicates the salinity at which precipitation begins. (From Copeland 1967b; Fig 3). 346 so.liovity (rs-) 60- 40, go Al Y %T A T 1967 Fig- 3. Average salinity (total solids) for Chiltipin Creek-Upper Copano Bay brine dominated system for 1967-68 (Copeland and Moseley). Ar'sule SCLI;,w;fy R-4-tiss ch A S 0 F A A 1967 Fig. Ratio of salinity as determined by chloride titration to total solids in Chiltipin Creek-Upper,Copano Bay brine dominated system for 1967-68 (Copeland 9nd Moseley). 347 Renfro (196o) reported salinity as high as 60 ppt in.the Aransas River, nine miles from its point of confluence with Chiltipin Creek. He noted that appreciable salt water intrusion occurred in the Aransas River from the Chiltipin Creek brine source during times of normal rainfall on the Aransas River water- shed. As indicated in both Figure 3 and by Renfro's (1960) daia@ the salinity of the system is erratic. Thus, the organisms living in the biihe dominated system are subjected to both high salinity stress and high salinity shocks as masses of highly concentrated brine move into the area. The ratio of salinity as determined by chloride titration to total dissolved solids (T.D.S.) is a means by which normality of the brine saJAtion can be determined. That ratio for Chiltipin Creek - Upper Copano Bay is shown in Figure 4. On two sampling dates the ratio was significantly higher than one, indicating a dominance of chloride in the system. This is in contrast to the findings of A,G, Collins (1967) who found that there was a oh4-to-one r@Ltio of Cl to T.D.S. in the 132 samples of brine that he measured. The anomalous ratios in Chiltipin Creek mean , however, that the organisms.are subjected to anomalous ion ratios in the brine system in addition to the salinity shocks. This substantiates the findings of Copeland (1967b)f6r' evaporating lagoon waters in the Mexican Laguna Madre, where species diversity war. extremely low. Community Structure Apparently due to the stresses resulting from salinity shocks, anomalous ion ratios, strange buffer systems, high pH and low oxygen solubility, few organisms are capable of adapting to brine domini%ted systems. The pri y producers in the Chiltipin Creek - Upper Copano Bay system are composed mainly of Dumaliella sp. and a diatom Navicula sp. However, as indicated in Figure 5, the chlorophyll concentration in the system indicates fairly large populations of these apparently highly adaptable species. The zooplankton diversity was relatively low, with Acartia tonsa present in all samples. Diversity and population density of zooplanktoYWe-shown, in Figure 6., which is an average of four samples for each sampling date. During the June - July 1967 and the June 1968 population peaks the dominant zooplankton form was a rotifer, which made up about 90% of the zooplankton population during these times. The rotifer was not present during the other months. The number of species and the number of individuals of fishes were also low in the Chiltipin Creek - Upper Copano Bay system (Tables 3 and 4). During most of the annual cycle, only occasional fishes were collected although sampling was practiced during each month. Renfro (196o) collected only four species of fish at the higher salinities in the lower sector of the Aransas River adjacent to the Chiltipin Creek area (Table 3). All of the species collected by Renfro and us were plankton feeders, indicating an adaptation of the system for utilization of the plankton production. Significant pop- ulations of fishes existed in Chiltipin Creek area only during July - August in our 1967-68 sampling program (Table 4). All species shown in Table 4 correspond with those caught by Renfro (1960) in the lower Aransas River at the higher salinities (Table 3). 348 chAt-Pir, creek ./0 Huyricavie .06. Sev lah -C CX_ 0 U. 0 Oz --c M Jr J A S 0 N D P'4 A' /9&7 194 T Fig- 5. Chlorophyll a for two stations in Chiltipin Creek-Upper Copano Bay brine do7minated system. Each point represents*an average of four samples (From Copeland and Moseley, unpublished data). Table 3* Collections of fishes in the lower Aransas River, Texas by salinit.v ranges (From Renfro 1960; Table 1). from: .05 1.1 5.1 15.1 25.1 35.1 45.1 55.1 Salinity 0/()o to : 1.0 5.0 15.0 25.0 35.0 45.0 55.0 58.6 Collections in this - salinity r@nge 10 2 3 2 1 5 7 2 Lepis 0 steus spatula 1 - I - - 1 - - Brevoortia patronu8 3 - - - - - 2 Dorosoma cepedianum 47 5 6 - - 2 - Dorosoma petevense 32 - I - - - - Anchoa niitchilli 114 79 35 - - - - Notropis lutrensis 3 - - - - - - Ictalurus furcatus 1 - 1 - - - - Syngnathus scovelli 1 - - 143 - 21 - Fundidus grandis 8 - 11 2 - 4 17 2 Lvca@u .aj,'arva . 45 - - 3 6 19 1 - cyprmo , 'u rariegatus 144 12 46 28 11 173 161 13 i3aribusia affinis 22 6 1 4 - - - - Mollienisia latipinwa, 13 - 2 61 1 123 1 - Menidia beryllina, 285 124 75 302 484 137 77 7 MuVil cephalus 10 1 18 57 9 30 31 4 Mupil curema, 1 - - - - - - - Alicropterus salmoides - - - 1 - - - - Chaenobrytfus gulosus 2 - - - - c_ayi je Lepowtis inacrochirus 41 8 6 LI . inegalotis 4 - - B=711a chrysura - 2 Eucinostowtus arge7dous - - 3 - Cichlasoma. cyanoguttatum 7 1 - 4 Dormitator maculatus - - - - Gobiosoma. bosci I - - 4 Tlinectes maculatue 1 1 1 - 349 *do a 40 UT C-100 Lk Sao- ZQ10 Tna't .4 1 a Ub@s OP U0. A A tA c) Fig. 6. Zooplankton diversity (upper graph) and total individuals per m3 (lower graph) for two stations in the Chiltipin Creek-Upper Copano Bay brine dominated system (From Copeland and Moseley., unpublished data). 350 Table 4-i Total species and number of individuals per W2 at two stations in the Chiltipin Creek-Upper Copano Bay brine dominated system during July 1967 to May 1968 (Copeland and Ynseley, unpublished data). Sampling Total Si;cies Total No./z2 Period Species (Average) July 1967 3 Magil cepbalus 2.0 Dorosom capedianum ulus, grandis August 1967 1 Migil cephalus 1.0 November 1967 0 0 December 1967 0 0 January 1968 0 0 February 1968 0 0 'arch 1968 1 CZZinodon variegatus O.L Alwil 1968 1 Magil cepbalus < Oa jky i968 0 0 Blea4water Blue-green Lagoon July 25-26, 1961 10- OR MO/I 4 2 r--- Pyrheliorneter! 100 10.OOC - E 0 W @60 0 PH rl T . ..... \Vol 0.5- 35- p" 9C . ..... 30- 2 -.3 running 25 00 of 12 .1 0.01 HOURS HOURS Fig. T. Diurnal record or oxygen, pX, temperature, and light in X N a brine disposal lagoon discharging into tne Tj4pma Madre (inset nap shows position of stations and inflow of brine). (From odum et al. 1963; Fig. 8.) 351 Coupling of Food Availability Apparently the combination of stresses during winter limits the population to a few organisms and, with the fluctuating brine loads causing shocks, the number of total individuals is also low (see Fig . 6 and Table 4). During spring and early su r, however, the total number of individuals (while the species diversity is still relatively low) increases to bloom characteristics. The chlorophyll measurements (Fig. 5) indicate high populations of phytoplankton during July 1967 and Ynrch - April 1968, and the chlorophyll concentrations were higher than those for most stream mouth comminities (see chapter'on oligohaline systems). There is a direct coupling of food chains in the brine dominated system to correspond to the sporadic presence of the primary producer. In the Chiltipin Creek area the spring and early su r peaks-of phytoplankton @ indicated by chlorophyll measurements) axe accompanied by peaks in zooplankton Fig- 6) and abundance of plankton-eating fishes (Table 4). Apparently, the fish,, for example.. can not energetically afford to compensate for the strange stress of brine and have energy left over for foraging if the food materials are scarce; they can only afford it if the food materials are relatively highly concentrated. Thus, the coupling of trophic levels is necessary in order to provide immediate benefits in a system subjected to the stress of brine pollution. It is interesting to note that all of the fish captured in the brine dominated system are plankton feeders, thus eliminating the energetic cost of developing a tertiary trophic structure end high diversity system. Comn3nity Metabolism Localized lagooning of brine wastes from individual oil wells along the Texas coast develops dense blue-green algal mat systems where the water is shallow. Odum Ot,.a.J# (1963) reported the community metabolism of such a system on the edge of the Texas Laguna MWxe, near Flour Bluff, Texas (Fig. 7). Shown in the figure are a diagram of the brine lagoon and 24-hour measurements of oxygen, pH and temperature for three sampling stations. In the warm brine input ditch, the oxygen reached values above zero only during morning daylight end the PH was low (curve 3 in Fig. 7)- In the middle of the lagoon, where the blue-green nat was dense, the oxygen values far exceeded saturation during daylight and 'were zero during nighttime. Similar findings are shown elsewhere in Od=4141. (1963) and in Copelamd and Jones (1965) for natural evaporating brines in Texas and Mexico. I&RAGEMM HINTS As shown by the preceding data, the food chains in brine domin ted systems are short and the trophic levels are depressed. In other words, the highest order consumer level is the plankton-eating fishes. Also, those species of organisms that are capable of living in brine dominated systems are usually there in large numbers, especially when the brine input is at a steady rate (constant high salinity in the system). Man, therefore, should 352 utilize these basic attributes to manage and benefit from brine dominated systems. Whitney (1967) has reviewed the practise of introducing commercially important animals into inland mineral waters in various areas of the world, an environment not much different from the one provided by brine pollution. He noted the use of evaporating lagoons for culturing milkfish, mullets and prawns in Asia and eels and mullets in Europe. All of these organisms are plankton eating animals and axe capable of surviving salinities up to 100 ppt or more. It would appear to be economically feasible to pond brine wastes at the upper ends of estuaries and use the ponds to culture highly adaptable plankton eating fishes for commercial uses. Millet (Migil ceRhalus , a major food fish in some parts of the United States, is one of the major inhabitants of the Chiltipin Creek brine dominated system and has been used extensively for culture in high salinity lagoons in Asia and Europe. If the salinity could be con- trolled by a steady input of brine into these culture ponds, production approaching the levels indicated for July in Table 4 could be maintained during most of the annual cycle. 353 Chapter E-15 PETROCHENICAL WASTE SYSTEM B. J. Copeland and David L. Steed The University of Texas Port Aransas, Texas 78373 INTRODUCTION The refining of petroleum results in a waste that is not only toxic to most organisms, but also contains organic compounds that are not easily decomposed. These compounds, when injected into the aquatic environment, present the system with a strange chemistry that can not be easily attacked by present-day organisms. Thus, the energies required by organisms to develop capacities for decomposition and/or survival of these chemicals creates a serious energy drain on the system, resulting in altered species diversity, productivity, metabolism and system structure. Even though information con- cerning petrochemical waste dominated coastal systems is sparse, it appears that the emerging system possesses unique characteristics. The future of petroleum exploitation seems to be on the coastal areas and the continental shelves, thus the location of petroleum refining complexes (with their related industries) will necessarily be on the coasts.' It is probable, therefore, that the disposal of petroleum wastes in the coastal systems of the United States will become a greater problem than it is at the present. Since much of the petroleum refining has been centered in inland areas, much of the research concerning the effects of waste dispos 'al has been carried out in freshwater systems. It may be possible, however, to utilize the findings of research in,freshwater systems to construct a picture des- cribing the emerging new systems in coastal waters. Refinery Waste Characteristics Beychok (1967), in his book describing petrochemical wastes, gives tables of typical waste characteristics (Tables 1 and 2). In general, the 17 different wastes exhibited high concentrations of phenols, sulfides, ammonia, suspended and dissolved solids, oiland exerted high oxygen demands. What effects these uniquely characterized wastes have in coastal systems is not understood. It should be noted at this point that petrochemical wastes, when sub- jected to biological processing in ponds or other aqueous systems, decrease in toxicity and oxygen demand with time (Dorris et al-1961; 1963). It is reasonable, therefore, to assume that the effect@ive_ness of such a harsh waste is not only reduced by dilution in coastal systems but by time-degradation as well. Table I.' Miscellaneous petrochemical effluent analysis (from Beychok, 1967; Table 3a). Type of plans on refinery Oil raftnery on radneries Oil refinery Oil reduary On reanary, Oil refincM Oil nine" Oil raillery Oil ftftft7 oil reinm Location UAA. U.S.A. U." U.S-A@ U.S.& U.S.A. U.S.& cana" UAA. Canada Uj.& 01110 76,000 b4id. Average of Go 96,wo bjd 06.000 bj.dL 90,000 biLd. 25P00 bi.d. 32,000 bsd. 40,000 biLd. 2D.000 bid. 40.WO bAA redueria Reference B-5 (19W) B-S (19") B-7 (IM) B-4 (low). A-S B-9 (1952) C-6 B-8 (19") B-14 (1960) B-16 (1963)b 33-27 (ION) Clean water excluded Yes no probably la soino yes yes yes yes yes yea yea 7103 Boar water stripped ? nO probably In most yes yea yes yes yam yes yes Yes 90=4 ---tio neutralized yes no vrobably In some - - oiddizede yea no no ? .20 SpW --tic "eluded no yea probably In some yes Yea yes(phenolle) no yes yes ? 70 API separator W yes vary probably In yea yu yes DO YOR Yee yes 7W most Coagulation or notation no ILO no no no no so Other (after say-tor) no DO j1probsIbly 1. - 6@day inmopound Impound no no no no so W basin juseellausous Includes sani- Includes s%W- samples was ow. blowdown.a.w. and boiler ow. blowdown 'sprung'water c.w. and boiler aw. and boller tary waste tary waste probably final boiler blow- blowdown, do- Included included, blowdown. blowdown, &&W- and."p"W. treated afficent down, desaltel salter effluent sanitary tary waste In- water smuent ax- excluded waste In- 11"am eluded eluded Flow (U.S. B.P.EL) (412W) (6.6m) 500-M (626) (2.600) (5.000) (116) (500) (1.035) (SOO) (340) &-day BOD (p.p.=) (146)[2751 (150) (158) (1.600) COD (VvnL)d (490) [8801 (450) In-W (349) (M) (236) (1.800) Of, (P-P-) (266) [1,2401 (220) (30) (80) (PA) (90) (250) Dissolved solids (P.P.m.) 386479 (562) &wpended solids (P.P.m.) (103)(2501 10-W @ (26) (28) Pbsools (P.Pm.) (7) B-70 (24) (12) (20) (228) (W) 11401 (10) (W) (2") Salfides (ppm.) (15) 0-19 (3) (0) (2A) (W [Sol (26) Amumia(p.VZO (23) Others (as noted) IOD (21) MR (LI) lb/I.No barrels of fted: &day BOD (182) (110) (50) (287) COD (896) (26) (104) (74)a (325) Pbomb (6.2) (1-9) (3.8) (18.3) (12.6) (11.3) W)s (10.1) (25.5) Notes: 150-200 Denotes range of values 11 Barne refinery effluent system discussed in reference B- 17 also. (175) Average value 0 Sulfidic, caustic was oxidized and phenolic caustic was neutralized. (200) M-imuzo value. 4 COD toest method not defined in Xaferenow. (Probably 3-hour Diahrows" in mass, osses for U.S.A. 7he reference (B. 14) indicates that congulator was only used am a settler. rehranows.) Ul HUM? Jan 14 III-wrof f Few P- ps- K F1 Cc, 9: 19 w 0 i Z 0c FJ 94 8 g $Is: 6 oil 0 f, 1 H11 cc tit a OQ X@ 0 0 Nc@ 0 r z ON FL -03 .4.5 0 Fit,. 356 SYSTEM EXAMPLES Most petrochemical plants are located near coastal systems that receive stress from other means; e.g., related industries, sewage, splashing waves or high temperatures. Thus, in very few instances are case histories avail- able for the assessment of the effects of petrochemical wastes on a system. The following are examples of systems dominated by petrochemical wastes. Los Angeles Harbor, California Reish (1965) summarizes the effects of petrochemical pollution on the benthos in Los Angeles Harbor, California. i Shown in Figure 1, the Harbor area is used as an example. Wastes from oil refineries are discharged into the Los Angeles Harbor area at several points, most of which are partially closed basins or slips with limited water circulation. Bottoms of the dis- charge areas were essentially devoid of macroscopic animal life, and the substrate was oily, black, and possessed a sulfide odor (Reish 1965). Dredging activities in 1953 removed the oily substrate from the Con- solidated Slip area and the opportunity was presented to observe the time element involved in degradation of the area (Reish 1965). Schematic diagrams of the degradation of the bottom as determined by benthic organisms are shown in Figure 2 and tabulated species diversity of the affected area shown in Table 3. The healthy bottom was characterized by the presence of many animal species, with the polychaetes Tharyx parvus, Cossura candida, and Nereis procera predominating. Fewer species existed on the semi-healthy bottom with the dominant forms being Dorvillea articulata and Polydora paucibranchiata. Capitella capitata was dominant on the polluted bottom and the diversity was very low. No macroscopic animal life was taken from the very polluted bottom. There was a progression of polluted bottoms in the sampling area after the dredging had cleaned the oil sludge from the bottom (Fig. 2). This pro- gression of events was also indicated by the species diversity (Table 3), which gives the number of animal species collected during five bottom surveys. The effect of removal of the pollutants from the bottom can be visualized by observing that only five species were found in August 1951, before dredging, while a total of ten species were taken during 1954, shortly after completion of dredging operations. A decrease in species present in the sampling area de- creased after that until in December 1955 there were only two species present In the area. Oil Refinery Effluent Microcosms Copeland (1966b) reported the results of a laboratory study of the community metabolism of micro-ecosystems containing petroleum refinery effluents. As shown in Figure 3, for a system taken some distance from the outfall of a petrochemical refinery, one gets a metabolic pattern of initial P/R less than one, P/R greater than one at intermediate distances and P/R of unity after considerable distance and/or time (see Copeland and Dorris, 1964 for ex- planation). By the time P/R unity is reached, the level of community metabolism is relatively high. For systems taken from the outfall area near a refinery 357 AREA LOCATION-.4 /DMINGUEZ CHANNEL -4r Eq@ SUP A VT saw 54 LIM OUM CMTM CHANNEL EAST BASM "I 32 31 31 900CHKE S1 01 A 3v 4r. "M PC= (D ANGELE6 %AFAM -40 WO BEACH HARBOR Q) LOS ANGELES & LONG KA HAROM Iva Fig. 1. Map of the Los Angeles-Long Beach Harbors showing location of study area and station location. Petrochemical waster. come in at station 26, West Basiu: Consolidated Slip and in Long Beach Harbor (From Reish,1965; Fig. 1). 358 HEALTHY BOTTOM LOCATIONS OF OUTFALLS (D M. SEMI-HEALTHY BOTTOM (D INDUSTRIAL W POLLUTED BOTTOM DOM STIC E VERY POLLUTED (D STORM DRAINS .... ... ... .......... ,@j BOTTO1 STATION LOCATION A AUGUST 1951 8 DREDGING 1953 C JANUARY 1954 D JUNE 1954 NOVEMBER 1954 DECEMBER 1955 Fig. 2. Animal bottom conditions in the petrochemically polluted-area of Los Angeles Harbor (From Reish.,1965; Fig. 2). "To A ,@D 359 Table 3. Number of animal species on the bottom of Los Angeles Hexbor, 1951-1955 (From Reisl@,1965; Table I). Station Aug. Jan. June Nov. Dec. Number 1951 1954 1954 1954 1955 51 0 0 0 0 50 0 0 0 0 49 A, -- 7 0 0 40 1 0 0 0 0 54 5 7 2 0 0 48 A - .6 8 5 2 Total No 5 10 9 5 1 of Species Table 4'. Amount of organic carbon in the sediments of east area of Los Angeles Harbor, 1954 (From Reish,,1.965; Table 2). Station Number Jan. 1954 )Pne 1954 Nov. 1954 51 8.i % 16.7 1'% 9.4% 50 5.8 9.3 7.5 49 A 2.0 4.8 8.1 49 315 3.7 1. z 54 o.6 1.6 2.5 48 A - 1.4 1.8 55 1.8 2.5 2.1 360 go. Pq 7R, -0 01 6 110 20 30 40 so do DAYS RETENTION Fig. 3: Community metabolism and P/R ratios for Union Carbide bayou effluent (From Copeland, 1966b; Fig. 6). P Rr P1YR' Pq 0 5n I Ry @o 0 20 410 510 WS RETENTION Fig. 4: Community metabolism and P/R ratios for Suntide Oil Refinery effluent (From Copeland, 1966b; Fig. 7). 361 (Fig. 4), the pattern has one variation; i.e., no metabolic activity for a few days because of the severe toxicity of the waste. In contrast to systems receiving recently evolved organic loading, such as sewage, systems receiving petroleum effluent, with its now-strange compounds, exhibit initial depression in metabolic activity due to the organisms' inability to attack the materials. The pattern shown in Figures 3 and 4 are for holding time. However, the holding time ordinate is the same as distance or area in natural systems, thus making the laboratory studies directly applicable to the real natural system. Other studies of community metabolism in coastal systems receiving petroleum wastes include Odum (1960a) and Odum et al. (1963). The community metabolism reported by them was based on field measurements. Upper Galveston Bay, Texas which receives the multiple wastes of one of the largest petro- chemical processing complexes in the world, exhibits the same metabolic pattern as one advances from the outlet of th6,Houston Ship Channel into upper Galveston Bay (Odum et al. 1963). Similar results were reported for the Corpus Christi area by Odum et al. (1963). Fig. 5 shows waste distribution from refineries at Bahia Tallaboa, Puerto Rico (Cerame-Vivas et al. 1967). EFFECTS ON SYSTEM COMPONENTS While information does not exist to enable characterization of a system dominated by petrochemical wastes, data are available concerning effects on system components. In some cases, informa@ion concerning fr&shwater systems will be utilized to make conclusions pertaining to coastal systems. In the following discussion the criteria of toxicity, metabolism of certain organisms, community metabolism and species diversity will be considered to characterize the petrochemical waste dominated system. Toxicity One of the more devastating effects of petrochemical effluents on the coastal environment is toxicity. At the point of effluent entry into a system, many animals and plants are killed or, in the case of animals, driven out of the area. The effects of toxicity are often apparent over a large area, decreasing in intensity with distance from the point of entry, and with dilution and time. The most dramatic evidence of toxicity to marine organisms by petro- chemical,wastes is the incidence of fish-kills in coastal systems (U.S. FWPCA, 1960). However, large scale kills are usually confined to areas immediately below waste outfalls and are often associated with application of other .stresses (temperature, reduced oxygen tension, etc.) or with the event of spawning migrations into or through an area of high concentrations of toxic substances. These incidences are relatively minor when considered along with the possible long-term eff@cts of very dilute concentrations, mo 're normally occurring in natural systems, upon members of entire food-chains. Bio-assay methods such as described by Doudoroff et al. (1951) and by the American Public Health Association (1960) for estimating acute toxicity to individual organisms are not really meaningful in terms of a natural system. Still, even the use of these methods on salt-water organisms has been sparse. 362 W", W44, Pala AIIIIII y I,,*. pto. papill. Ciono do Aceit*j V areas 0 Cie.. Ac.lro- Cie.* Refld.o. Q.-ice. 10ii.06 0 of CORCO Carbide 49 QC.y* 11A.10 1% 49 0 A V@ . . . ..... 49 t.,G.t.y 4W 7.. On Coy. ------------- N Cayo Carl, Fig- 5, Map of the Bahia de Tallaboa, Puerto Rico, showing the location of two oil refineries and the distribution of waste from them (From Cera 'o-Vivas et al. 1967; Plate 2).- -.I. papilla 363 Some bio-assay data for marine organisms using petrochemical effluents have been gathered by Hood et al. (1960) with Artemia and Cyprinodon.. Copeland (1966b) gives 48-hr TLm for Cyprinodo and Lagodon using effluents from four refineries (Table 5). Marek (1959; 1960) and Spears (1959; 1960; 1961; 1962) performed bio-assays with several estuarine fishes using petrochemical effluents, along with,their chemical analyses. Perhaps more realistic are the long term methods described by Graham (1963) in which test organisms are held for several weeks. These means reveal toxicity tolerances to be much lower than indicated by the more usual short-term methods. The more subtle effects of slight mortality in a population of food fish are discussed at length by Copeland and Wohlschlag (1968). In Table 6, two hypothetical populations of fish are compared, in which 1,000 individuals of fishable size are recruited annually at age III and weighing 1.5 pounds. In both populations, 25% of each year-class are fished annually. The first pop- ulation has an additional 25% mortality while the second population, due to a slight pollution effect, has an additional 35% mortality. Even though the mortality difference can not be distinguished by standard methods, it can be seen that the total size of the population and total catch are significantly reduced. The most pronounced reduction is among the older and larger indivi- duals. Clearly,.survival would be further reduced if the same principle were applied to populations all along,the food chain. Bio-assays do not begin to give us a picture of the ultimate effects of petrochemical waste releases upon coastal systems. Organismal Metabolism Brett (1958) suggested the use of physiological criteria for assessing the presence of an indiscriminate or population stress such as chronic or sub- lethal toxicity. Because metabolism is an integrative characteristic, any stress condition placed upon an organism should be reflected by changes in metabolic rates. When critically evaluated, a metabolic indicator such as oxygen consumption rates may be useful in assessing the physiological state of an organism. For example, an increase in oxygen consumption rate may reflect greater energy demand for survival and maintenance in presence of petio- chemical effluents. Conversely, a decrease in respiration rate to below maintenance level, may indicate an overall decrease in the physiological state of the organism, thereby diminishing its chances for survival and/or repro-- ductive success. Abnormal metabolism due to loading or inhibiting stresses from petro- chemical pollution can have far-reaching effects on individuals, populations and the system. The alternatives are to leave the area or to remain at the expense of reduced ability to compete with other organisms, adequately feed, protect itself from predators and otherwise successfully exploit its present niche (Steed and Copeland, 1967). Steed and Copeland (1967) subjected several estuarine organisms to low concentrations of petrochemical wastes, which resulted in a depression of metabolic rates at higher concentrations (Fig. 6). In each case, the maximum concentration of effluent did not exceed the median tolerance limit (in other 364 Tabl,--:5.- Su--vival of LaLodon rhoraboides and lyprinodon variep-atus in arijus eDncentrations of petrochemical effluents (From CoPe1an0Aqi;6b.: Table 1). Survival after Stated Time interval Effluent Effluent and Cone. rL-40 Organism (%) (%) 6 hr 12 hr 24 hr 48 hr Effluent A Control 100 100 80 80 Lagod- 3@ 100 100 100 100 56 too .00 100 106 1 65 75 20 0 G Effluent A Controi 100 1 iOG 80 80 Cyprinodon 32 1 OG. too 80 80 48 75 i0o 60 20 20 too WG 0 0 Effluent B Control 100 too .00 100 Lagod- 32 100 100 100 100 56 100 100 too 100 65 75 30 0 0 0 Effluent -3 Control 100 100 100 1@* Cyprinodoh 56 100 100 100 90 75 96 90 i 70 > 100 100 70 60 60 60 Effluent 0 Control i0a 100 10G i0o Cyprinodoii 3.2 IW go 90 80 1 7.5 16 go W 50 40 Effluent D Contro-@ 100 iw i0o 100 Cyprinodan 1 75. 100 100 100 90 >1 100 70 70 70 .70 4&:or median tolerance limit (theoretical soitition concentration at which 50 percent of the fish survive). Table 6. Model of a hypo@hetical fishery, experiencing a slight increase in natural mortality (From Copeland and Wohlschlag., 1968; Table 20). Age III IV V VI VII VIII DC X X1 X11 X111 Totals Wt/Fish (Lbs.) 1.5 3.5 4.5 6.0 7.5 10.5 13.0 16.5 19.0 21.5 25.0 Stable Population (50% Survival; 25% Fished; 25% Mortality): Population 1,000 500 250 125 62 31 16 8 4 2 1 1,999 No. in catch 250 125 62 31 16 8 4 2 1 - - 499 Wt. of catch 375 438 279 186 120 84 52 31 19 - - 1,584 10% Additiona! Mortality Stable Pooulation (40% Survival; 25% Fished; 35% Mortality)- Population 1,000 400 160 64 2@ IQ 4 2 1 1,667 No. in catch 250 100 40 16 6 3 1 - - - - 416 Wt. of catch 375 350 180 96 45 32 13 - - 1,091 ,so & UNPOLLUTED T * POLLUTED A W4 02 WI 9M ;I a 0 0 M/MIN M MOQ ta, HM -10 M/MIN- 0Q 0 93 Zr :3 rt 0 fal 0 6'0- co 0 0 V 0 rt Ib rt H. 0 0 Z 0 @0 Zrr CL a: 40- a 0 ftJ MI-h F, N T' 00 M Z 0 F- rr ------ H. 0 @J a0 0 rr " 0 0 PI 0H V M MYQ rt -A 0r_ go Ca M EI I_Ih t-h C> to M 0 W 10 30 rt H OC Fig. 7: Oxygen consumption levels of pinfish calculated. for 10- and 100-gram fish, for petrochemical waste pol- t_n luted and unpolluted water and for zero and 10 m/min swimming velocities (From Wohlschlag and Cameron, 1967; Fig. 1). A@ 366 words, sub-lethal effluent concentrations). Copeland and Wohlschlag (1968), re- porting the effects of water from a petrochemical waste dominated system on the metabolism of an estuarine fish, demonstrated a decrease in metabolic rate when the fish were already affected by the stress.of cold temperatures. Wohlschlag andCameron (1967) worked out multiple regression equations for oxygen consumption rates incorporating body weights, temperatures, and swimming velocities for fish in polluted and unpolluted systems (Fig- 7)- Interpre- tation of their data indicates metabolic loading under multiple stresses, such that laxge swimming fish in the polluted system had lower oxygen consumption rates than non-swimming fish in control system, suggesting reduced capacity for growth and survival, especially at temperature extremes. Community Metabolism Measurements of the metabolism of the system as a whole give the opportunity to evaluate fertility, appraise disturbance, predict biological events, manage production, develop resource yields and to farm vast systems (Odum and Wil-son,1962). The introduction of petrochemical wastes, with its inherent strange chemicals, yields characteristic metabolic patterns in aquatic systems. Extension of knowledge gained from studying freshwater systems re- ceiving petrochemical wastes (Copeland andDorris,i962; 1964) and from studying systems receiving other organic loading (Odum,;1956; Odum et al. 1963), when compared to laboratory studies using marine systems (Cope_ia@d_,1966b), may lead to conclusions characterizing disturbed coastal systems in general. Results of diurnal oxygen curves for the White River, Indiana receiving organic pollution revealed a characteristic pattern (Odum,,1956); i.e., a P/R ratio of less than one near the waste outfall, a F/R ratio of greater than one at intermediate distances below the outfall, and a P/R ratio of near unity even further away. This pattern can be explained by the differential toxic and fertilizing effects of the effluent in the system. The low P/R ratio was the result of toxicity lowering the photosynthetic ability of the system while stimulating the respiration component through decomposition of the organic material. Later, when the toxicity had moderated through time, the effluent material acted as a fertilizer causing the photosynthetic component to in- crease resulting in a high P/R ratio. The later @/R unity with a high metabolic rate can be attributed to the system's ability to maintain balance at whatever level the organic fuels will allow (copeland,1965a)- Patterns similar to the above, for White River, were reported by Cope- land and Dorris (1962; 1964) for freshwater systems receiving petroleum re- finery effluents. The question now becomes, will this pattern be evident in coastal systems? The magnitude of photosynthesis and respiration in systems influenced by petrochemical wastes is extremely variable (Oclum et al. 1963: Copeland and Dorris 1964). The laxge variability can be explained by the presence of large amounts of highly toxic materials depressing metabolism in localized areas and the decomposition products enhancing metabolism in larger areas. Odum et al. (1963) reported photosynthesis ranging between 0 and 58 gm/m2-/day and rTsigation ranging between 0 and 87 gm/m2/day in-petrochemical dominated estuaries of Texas. Copeland and Dorris (196k) reported photosynthesis of 0 367 to 30 gm/m2/day and respiration of 2 to 51 gm/M2/daY in freshwater systems* In both casess the low values occurred at or near outfall areas# with the higher values occurring in well-mixed areas considerably distant from the outfalle Species Diversity There are many kinds of systems in which organisms must expend a large amount of energy to adapt to extreme physical and/or chemical conditions. Systems receiving petrochemical wastes represent this type. Because few organisms possess adaptations allowing them to exist under these conditions, reduced biotic interaction (competitiont predation, symbiosis, etc.) between species results in a low diversity of resident species and simple food chains, Maintenance costs are so high that if divided between several populations at the same trophic level, energy available for each would not be adequate for continued reproduction. As a result# those organisms able to adapt often abound in large populations as they are more or less limited only by food supplys The unusual condition of a system being influenced by petrochemical wastes alone was investigated by Copeland (1967a). As may be seen in Fig. 8, diversity of organisms was low near the source of the waste and increased at a greater distance from the source, Although the pattern shown in Fig. 8 was computed from zooplankton samplesq other kinds of organisms follow the same relationship (Bechtel et al. 1970). Phytoglankton Hohn (1959) reported the diversity of diatom species in the petrochemical waste-influenced Galveston and Chocolate Bays$ Texas. Near the Houston Ship Channel, the number of diatom species was 249 while in the open Galveston Bay the number of species reached as high as 165- Minter (1964) reported very low diversity of algae in freshwater systems receiving petrochemical wastes. Zooplankton In some casesq no zooplankton could be found in waters receiving large amounts of petrochemical wastes (Odum et al. 1963; Minter, 1964), In both reports the instances of no zooplanktc@n_@c_curred during the winterl when the stress of low light intensity and low temperatures was in combination with the stress of petrochemical wastes. Species diversity of zooplankton is always low in petrochemical waste polluted systems (Odum. et al. 1963; Minter, 1964) even when environmental conditions are optimal, Benthos The diversity of benthic communities are probably more directly affected by petrochemical wastes than are other community components because of their sessile (and thus inescapable) chaxacteristics. Wilhm and Dorris (1968), in their discussion of diversity indexes# demonstrated considerable decrease in benthic species diversity near and below petrochemical waste outfalls in streams and estuaries (Fig. 9). Oil refinery effluents caused a tremendous decrease in benthic diversity In Los Angeles, California harbor (Reish, 1965) and Alamitos Bayo California (Reish and Winter# 1954). The difference between observed species diversity and expected species diversity of benthos in South San Francisco Bay was correlated with toxicity and BOD of petrochemical waste in-fluenced bay waters (Pearson et al* 1967; Engineering-Science Inc. 1968). 368 B 20 10 0 f F 0 10 2.0 Miles from Source Fig. 8: Zooplankton species diversity per thousand individuals for a system receiving petrochemical wastes (From Copeland, 1967a, Fig. 2). 20- Spring Summer .................. 15- Fall Winter LLI U LLI CL 10 y 41 U_ Je 0 0 5 0 4 11 15 25 31 43 60 STATION Fig. 9: Variation in numbers of species downstream from a petroleum refinery effluent entrance site (From Wilhm and Dorris, 1966, Fig. 7). -Station 4 is nearest outfall with miles downstream for subsequent stations indicated. 369 Even though the species diversity may be lower, the total number of organisms may be higher in some areas affected by petrochemical wastes. Pimentel (1959) reported such a phenomenon in the Oso Flaco area of California, where the species diversity of benthic clams was lower but the total number of clams in the area was significantly higher. This may be attributed to the fact that toxicity is differentially effective, but those animals that survive do so in the absence of competitors and predators and in the presence of organic foods. Fish In many areas affected by petrochemical wastes, the fishes have vacated the zones near outfalls because of the toxicity of the wastes. A motile organism such as a fish will move out rather than tolerate highly toxic mater- ials (Steed and Copeland,1967). Chambers and Sparks (1959) reported no fish in several collections in an area near a refinery outfall.in the upper Galveston Bay, especially during winter when natural stresses were great. Even during optimal growing and nursery seasons, the diversity of fishes in the area was low compared to other areas. DISCUSSION Since a single, disturbed system has not been studied in detail, the previously discussed characteristics have been taken from widely separated studies of various aspects of systems influenced by petrochemical wastes. The following discussion will be an attempt to surm3arize and construct an emerging picture of petrochemical dominated systems. One of the reasons a de- scriptive analysis can not be obtained for petrochemical waste dominated systems is that refineries and related industries are usually located with other industries, thus creating multiply stressed systems from a varying and complex megalopolis waste. k petrochemical waste dominated system can be viewed as an adaptive self-organizing system; one in which the energetic costs for adapting against physiological shocks from various toxic materials and from widely fluctuating pH and oxygen leaves little energy for diversification. Thus, the energy input is exceeded by energy demands for maintenance and complexity. This phenomenon is verified by the low species diversity found in petrochemical waste systems, especially near the point of input. These'systems are dominated by heterotrophic bacteria, anaerobic forms and blue-green algae. Indeed, the freshwater systems described by Wnter (1964) contained blue-green algae as the only phytoplankton during winter when the stresses of cold and low light were added to the stress of pollution. The low species diversity in petrochemical waste systems provides fewer pathways for biogeochemical cycling and energy flows. Thus, the system processes material at an ine@ficient rate, leaving mach organic material unused (Odum, 1967b). The strange chemicals contained in petrochemical wastes not only produce toxicity to most organisms, but cause anomalous organismal metabolism. 370 The physiological stress, as indicated by anomalous metabolic rates, suggests that the organism is unable to successfully exploit its ecological niche. Thus, the productivity of useful products is decreased with the same amount of energy being expended. For example, if the metabolic rate is elevated due to increased maintenance requirements, then this represents a higher energetic cost to the system for the organism to maintain its normal growth and repro- duction rates. In other words, without some mechanism for increasing the cycling rates of energy, efficiency and productivity of the system is reduced, especially at the higher trophic levels harvested by man. Total respiration of the system generally exceeds photosynthetic pro- ductivity of the system because of the steady inflow of organic materials in the petrochemical wastes. Respiration is not only a result of the producer- consu r community, but of the large heterotrophic bacterial component. Both photosynthesis and respiration of the system are extremely high, sometimes several times greater than found in most coastal systems. Even though the cycling rate indicated by the high community metabolism is large, the trans- lation through subsequent trophic levels is not large because of the tre- mendous cost of maintaining the physiological status of the consil rs. Hints For Management The critical aspects of systems dominated by petrochemical wastes is the consideration of toxic chemicals and the subsequent metabolic anomaly. It is apparent that photosynthetic productivity is enhanced by the addition of petro- chemical wastes, but the utilization of the high productivity is limited by the inability of organisms to either survive or maintain physiological equilibrium in the system. Thus any management of systems receiving petrochemical wastes will involve some mechanism for removal or d6pression'of the influences of physiological stress. The removal of the toxic compounds can be done chemically at great expense to management. Activated charcoal filters or some other mechanism would, at great engineering costs,!a,ffect the removal of toxic components before the waste enters the coastal system. A more economical and perhaps more ecologically feasible method would be the use of holding (or'"oxidation") ponds for impounding the wastes for a period of time to allow bacterial decomposition of the waste materials. Not only would the.toxic components be removed, but the effluents re- leased would stimulate community metabolism in'the receiving system (see Dorris et al. 1961; Copeland and Dorris,1964; Copeland,19'66b, for discussion of holding Tonds). If holding ponds axe not feasible, perhaps localized areas in natural systems that have already been altered by petrochemical waste disposal could be impounded to serve as holding ponds. Petrochemical industries could be located closely together to avoid threat to extensive areas and allow the common usage of impounded areas. The use of organisms (such as mullet) that are capable of adapting to physiological stresses without great loss of maintenance energies and processing food directly from the producer level for farming the area, would be one way of taking advantage of the high productivity. 371 Chapter E-16 ECOSYSTEM STRESSED BY ADDITIONS OF MAN-MUE RADIOACTIVITY Douglas A. Wolfe Bureau of Commercial Fisheries Radiobiological Laboratory B6aufort@ North Carolina 28516 Ecological systems stressed by high radiation and radioactive substances in the environment were created by the atomic testing at Bikini and Eniwetok in the 14arshall Islands, but the effects were in combination with blasting, heat, and the release of large quantities of pulverized rock. Although the nature of marine ecosystems under stress of high radioactivIty has been much discussed, there are no good case histories that demonstrate the development of ecological systems dominated or characterized by radiation stress. Inferen- ces on the ecological effects of radioactivity in estuaries must be drawn from laboratory studies,of biological accumulation and retention of radionuclides and of radiation effects on organisms. The major pathways through which radio- isotopes are cycled can belearned from tracer studies in experimental ponds and from case histories of disposal of low-level radioactivity into natural systems, such as the Columbia River. One indirect effect that may change the nature of an estuarine system results from the changed attitudes of people to- wards the utilization of fisheries when it is known that low level radioactiv- ity is -present. Estuaries will receive inputs of radioactive.vastes from a variety of sources as nucleax energy supplies increasing proportions of n-nls power require- ments. Low-level radiation from natural sources is a normal, perhaps even an essential, component of all estuarine,and marine ecosystems. Background radiation represents an input, however small, of energy into the system. We presently do not know the full significance of radiation in the development and maintenance of aquatic ecosystems, nor do we know precisely the sensitivity of an ecosystem to small changes in the background radiation. It is conceivable, therefore, that the intentional addition of radioactive substances to estuarine and other m*arine environments could stress the existing balance of the system and promote the development of new ecological systems. The nature and results of the potential stresses imposed by elevated radiation' in natural ecosystems are difficult to evaluate"because highly radioactive systems so far have been associated only with nuclear tests which are accompanied by blasts, disruption of sediments, and other nonradioactive stresses and because other instances of continuous elevated radiation have been regulated at doses thought to have no disruptive influence on the ecosystem receiving the radioactive materials. The disposal of radioactivity into aquatic environments is usually restricted on the basis of estimated radiation dose to ran; the effects of radiation on the estuarine ecosystem are.not considered directly. It is generally assumed from radiation studies that estuarine and marine populations will not be affected so long as man is protected from excessive radiation. No disruption or disturbance of a natural estuarine ecosystem by dis- carded radioactive wastes has yet been substantiated. Such an occurrence is not altogether implausible, however, on the basis of projected uses of nuclear energy and of current information on comparative radiation sensitivities of estuar- ine organisms. It seems appropriate, therefore, to describe a system receiving considerable quantities of radioactive materials, and to discuss man's future 372 nuclear activities in terms of how they may affect estuarine and marine eco- systems. SOURCES OF RADIOACTIVITY IN ESTUARIES Power Reactors As of June 30, 1968, 15 nuclear power plants were producing about 2,800 megawatts of electricity in the United States. Thirty-one plants with an output of 22,500 Mwatt were under construction and 56 reactors with a power output of 47,600 Watt were planned (usAEc 1968a). Output of civilian power reactors is projected to reach about i4o,ooo Mwatt by 1980 (USAEC.1968b). Most of these reactors will release into the coolant water small amounts of fission products and neutron-induced radioisotopes. The estimated annual releases from a typical pressurized water power reactor are shown in Table I. Ship Reactors Nuclear-powered ships release approximately the same kinds of radio- isotopes as land-based power reactors. Approximately 100 shipboard reactors were operational on U.S. vessels as of June 30, 1968 (uSAEC 1968c). The major source of waste radioactivity in estuaries would be the expansion volume of primary coolant which must be released whenever the reactor is started up. The expansion volume for the U.S.S. Savannah (output of 80 Mgatt, thermal) wag estimated to contain 0.68 curie, consisting main] Ly of 51cr, Oco, 55Fe, and I 2Ta. By contrast the radioactivity contained in the spent fuel elements after 1-yeax's operation of a 60 megawatt reactor would be over 1Q7 curies (NAS-NRC 1959b.); whereas routine startup of a nuclear ship in a harbor would introduce only limited amounts of radioactivity into an estuary, a nearshoreaccident involving a nuclear vessel could be serious--if the integrity of the reactor itself was ex- tensively damaged. Production Reactors Except for the precautions necessary to contain the highl oxic 239pa which is produced by neutron-bombardment of naturally-occurring W'Pu, operation of a production reactor should create no unique problems of waste disposal. The U. S. Atomic Energy Commission operates two fuel production plants - at Aiken, South Carolina, on the Savannah River, and at Richland,Washington, on the Columbia River. The Hanford Works at Richland employs a single pass of water from the Columbia River,to cool the reactor core, and the effluent contains more than 60 different radionuclides from leakage of fuel elements and from neutron activation of dissolved materials in the pri y coolant water (Tables 2 and 3 During full operation of the plant, some 25,000 curies per month actually have entered the Pacific Ocean from the mouth'of the Columbia River. The radio@- ecology of the Columbia River and the ocean waters just off the mouth of the river has received considerable attention, as reviewed in Subsequent pages, Fuel reprocessing plants also release radioisotopes in similar composition to those released by power plants, but reprocessing plants my encounter dis- posal problems of greater magnitude than those associated with the reactors them- selves, simply because of the very high levels of radioactivity in spent fuel. The AEC reprocesses fuel at Hanford, Savannah River, and at Idaho Falls, but 373 Table I Annual release of radionuclides estimated for a pressurized water power reactor of 1050 megawatts electric capacity 1 1@iquid wastes Isotope Half-life Ai /yr Isotope Half-life pCi !yr 3H 12.26 yr 4 x 1015 1311 8 d 6.61 x 103 54Mn 314 d 9.7 x 10-1 132Te 78 hr 6.99 x 102 56Mn 2.58 hr 2.64 x 10 1 132, 2.3 hr 2.8 x 102 58CO 71 d 2.95 x 10 1 133-L 21 hr 5.13 x 103 60CO 5.26 hr 3.48 1341 53 m 2.16 x 101 89Sr 50.4 d 9.1 1351 6.7 hr 2.6 x 103 90Sr 28 yr 5.76 134Cs 2.1 yr 8.69 x 102 90Y 64 hr 1.06 136CS 13 d 8.36 x 101 9lSr 9.7 hr 2.49 137CS 30 yr 4.58 x 103 91Y 59 d 2.11 x 101 140Ba 12.8 d 2.28 92y 3.5 hr 5.13 140La 40.2 hr 2.35 99MO 66 hr 1.25 x 10 4 144Ce 285 d 7.82 Gaseous wastes Isotope Half-life. Ci /yr 85Kr 10.4 yr 5.62 x 103 133Xe 5.27 d 1.58 x 103 Preliminary Facility Description and Safety Analysis Report, Salem Nuclear Generating Station, Burlington County, New Jersey, Docket No. 50-272. 374 Table 2 Major isotopes released by the Hanford Facility to the Columbia River as of 1960 1 Percent composition (from physical decay) Isotope Half-life at 4 hr at 72 hr at 2 wk 56Mn 2.58 h 27.5 64CU 12.9 h 18.8 3.34 24wa 14.97 h 13.7 4.04 5lCr 27.8 d 8.3 53.14 89.72 239NP 2.35 d 8.2 24.55 2.13 76As 26.8 h 7.3 8.68 3lSi 2.62 h 4.9 69Zn 55 m 2.4 72Ga 14 h 1.3 0.30 92Sr 2.7 h 0.8 239U 23.5 m 0.8 1331. 21 h 0.7 0.51 92y 3.53 h 0.6 97Nb 72 m 0.6 91Sr 9.7 h 0.5 0.03 65Zn 245 d 0.4 2.67 5.75 32p 14.22 d 0.3 1.76 2.29 90Y 64.4 h 0.3 0.97 0.11 1351 6.7 h 0.3 93y 10.1 h 0.3 0.02 1 Modified and expanded from Junkins et al. (1960). 375 Table 3 Relative abundance of reactor effluent radionuclides, 19641 Major, Minor) Trace,, 90% 97. 1% 24Na 32p 3H gly 143Ce 3lSi 69mZZn 14C 93y 144Ce 5lCr 72Ga 35S 95Nb 142Pr 56Mn 76As 45Ca 99MO 143Pr 64CU 92Sr 46SC 103RU 147Nd 1321 54Mn 106RU 147pm 140La 59Fe 122Sb 149pm 152mEu 60CO 124Sb 151pm 153SM 65Ni 1311 152Eu 165Dy 65Zn 1331 156Eu 239Np 87mSr 1351 153Gd 89Sr 136CS 159Gd 90Sr 137CS 160Tb 9lSr 140Ba 161Tb gGy l4lCe 166Ho 169Er l7lEr 1 Moore and Essig (1966). 376 civilian plants must be constructed soon to reprocess fuel from nuclear power reactors. The first civilian reprocessing plant began operating in 1-967 and construction of up to 15 more is expected within the next 10 years (Eisenbud,i968). Fallout Atmospheric testing of nuclear weapons has resulted in the widespread deposition of radioactive materials. Direct deposition of fallout on the Sur- face of estuaxies is supplemented by fallout radioactivity leached from the land mass by freshwater runoff. The radioisotopes of major concern in worldwide fallout are 90Sr, 1137 0 and 55Fe but other i oto ha-s als8 been 5,nby 1311 1Q, " 13.9 1 6jj@, 5 ng s Vioia 144Ce, etected, Includi Aa I �5zr_9M5 , P 4Mn, 95zn, 57o6bco'. and 185w. Since 1966-1967, the rate of fallout deposition has been decreasing, despite the continued testing on a small scale by China and France. Fallout deposition is dependent upon latitude; about 80% of total deposit has been in the northern hemisphere, and.about 6o% of that in the northern hemisphere is between latitudes 30 and 60. If nuclear devices are used for excavation, as has been proposed for a sea-level canal and certain harbors, local estuaries mayalso receive intense close-in fallout from the explosions. EXANPLES A Case History of Estuarine Radioactivity The Columbia River and Environs Hze radioactivity has been released to the Columbia River than to any other surface water in the world, because water from the Columbia River serves as the primary coolant for the multiple production reactors at the Hanford Plant near Richland, Washington. INbst of the radionuclides released are short-lived and physically decay before they reach the mouth of the rivero but during routine operation of the plant at its height during 1955 to 1965, some 900 curies per day or 25,000 curies per month actually were discharged from the mouth of the Columbia into the Pacific Ocean (Seymour and Lewis,1964, Yauchline and Templeton, 1964, Osterberg,1965)- The principal radioisotope, 51Cr, can be detected easily in the surface waters of the Pacific off the west coast of North America (Figs. I - 3). As shown by the maps of the Columbia River mouth, 51cr decreases as the river plume emerges into the Pacific, but the distribution of the isotope is markedly different during winter (Fig. 1) and summer (Figs. 2 and 3) because of seasonal differences in the prevailing currents. Other isotopes may behave quite differently from 51-Cr, however, because of physical-chemical properties or biological phenomena. For example, 65Zn is depleted in surface waters of the Pacific by bioaccumulation and absorption onto particulate matter and thus is not readily measured in the water. Radioactive zinc does appear, however, in offshore plankton and shellfish both north and south of the Columbia River mouth. Despite the relatively laxge amount of radioactivity flowing through the estuarine environment at the mouth of the river, no disruption or distur- bance of the ecosystem has been yet detected. Nor has any disturbance of the ecological balance been noted in the river proper or in the coastal waters just offshore from the Pacific Northwestern United States. The entire system, however, 377 COLUMBIA RIVER CRUISE srftAlr or JUAN DE FUCA 5'Cr SURFACE ACTIVITY PC liter) HA RAO&* - to N Nm@ Fig. 1. Dispersal of 5'Cr in surface waters off the mouth of the Columbia River, February 1966 (Frederick 1967). 378 COLUMBIA RIVER MODOC CRUISE 46* 51 Cr SURFACE ACTIVITY (pe/lIter) tp '0 YAQUINA HEAD \O coos BAY .@3 CAPE BLANCO in Fig. 2. Dispersal of 5lCr in surface waters off the mouth of the Columbia River, June 1965 (Frederick 1967)- 379 COLUMBIA RIVER WO CRUISE AGO 51 Cr SURFACE ACTIVITY (pe/lIter) Ile X YAQUINA HEAD 440 coos BAY CAPE BLANCO Fig. 3. Dispersal of 5lCr in surface waters off the mouth of the Columbia Rivdr, August 1966 (Frederick 1967). 380 has been under continuous surveillance for several years to ascertain just what the distribution, cycling, and effects of radioactivity would be in the freshwater, estuarine, and marine systems concerned. Some of the observations during those years of surveillance axe diseussed here. Introduction of Radionuclides into the Columbia River In addition to the radioactivity introduced by Hanford, the Coludbia River contains typical amounts of naturally-occurring isotopes and fallout isotopes, but these are really insigAificant relative to the reactor effluent. At the Hanford facility, the intake water-is treated with sodium dichromate to decrease corrosion within the reactor tubes and then undergoes alum floccu- lation and filtration to remove particulate matter (silker,,1964). Dissolved materials, including corrosion products from the reactor plumbing and the added dichromate, are subjected to the intense neutron flux in the reactor core as the coblant water passes through, and a wide array of radionuclides axe induced. The neutron-induced radionuclides are supplemented in the effluent water by smaller quantities of fission products, either from fuel element leakage through ruptures in the casings or from fission of the very small amounts of uranium occurring naturally in the coolant water. Four hours after release from the plant, 98-99% of the radioactivity is from about 20 radioisotopes (Tables 2 and 31, a mixture of as many as 80 constitutes the remainder (Junkins,_tt 1. 1960, Nielse4 1963). Most of the radionuclides released into the river are short-lived and decay before the released activity enters the estuary 260 miles downst'ream some 10714 days later. Although the expected composition after 2 weeks of physical decay shows 5lCr to be 89-7% of the radioactivity (Table 3), the actual composition of the I radloisotopes measured in the water at Vancouver, Washington, is: 5lCr 5%, 65Zn_ -' 2.2%, and 32p - 1.1% (wiison,1964). This a arent e ichment of 5y@_r* is probably caused by the preferential retention of 6?ZPn and 3n2rP by sediments and organisms in the river. Zinc 65 is mostly Part@culate when it enters the estuary at Vancouver, and the maximum concentration of 05Zn in the river at Vancouver occurs during late May when the river is at its peak flow and maxinnim scouring of sediments is expected (Nelson, Perkins, and Nielsen,1964). The continuous flow of 65zn, 51-Cr, and 32p into the C0IuMbi& River estuary and adjacent Pacific Ocean results in a reservoir of each isotope in the marine environment. The size of the reservoir is determined by the rate of introduction (Table 4) and the physical half-life of each isotope. The size of the reservoir will remain constant when the loss by decay equals the input from the river. If the average daily inputs for 1966 (Table 4) were sustained indef- initely, the resglt'ng reservoirs-would be about 190 ci of 32p, 17,000 ci of 51Cr, and 7,400 Ci of 5zn (Es@ig and Soldat,1967). The reduction in radioactivity released during 1966 was the result of a 1 1/2 month shutdown of all reactors due to a strike and probably also from the permanent shutdown of two production' reactors during 1965 kFig. 4). Additional decreases in the release rate would be anticipated from the permanent shutdown of two more production reactors in 1967 and 1968. At present, only three pro- duction reactors continue to operate with Columbia River water as the primary coolant (compared t6 eight during 1955-1964) (Fig. 4), and this number will likely be decreased soon. The N reactor, which is used for materials production 381 Table Daily transport of selected radionuclides from Hanford into the Pacific, averaged annually 1959 1 19602 19612 19623 19633 19644 19654 19664 -------------------------------- (21Lday) ----------------------------- 32P 15 17 29 13 12 12 11 9 5lCr 1,030 850 840 650 860 860 800 430 65Zn 21 38 44 29 28 44 49 21 2391Np 76 72 67 31 --5 --5 --5 --5 1Junkins.,et al. (1960) Averages from Appendix B-12 2Nelson (1962) Table VIII Flow rate past Vancouver, Washington 3 Wilson (1964) Table III 4Essig and Soldat (1967) Table III Flow rate over Bonneville Dam. 5No,data reported. 1.16 04 [N Reacto 0 ca I,g 0 M PID KW Reactor C+ C+ 0144 1" 0 KE Reactor Ft M M IC Reactor 0 0 0 M FJ,8 DR Reactor C+ P) CS 4 C+ P, M C+ I H Res p F, ctor 0 0 C+ 0 0 M i. I F Reactor C+. 0 cl- ir Pi C+ 0 B Reactor (QDp _ I-S Ct :yc le Test R 1.40 0 q Cf. @-h 0 C+ .4 - (D H- FTTR-2 (Thermal Test Reactor NO.2) 0 CN Ct CD P, 0 RD FPCTR (Physical Constants Test Reactor) H6 N w C+ (D (D w P. p Flianford 305 Test Reactor (Process Development) 1-4 @-3 CD C+ (0 w 11h. cc 383 and electrical power generation, is cooled by recirculating demineralized water, so that the amount of radioactive waste released during routine operation is very much lower than that from the older production reactors. The wastes released from the operation of the test reactors at Hanford are negligible. Distribution of Radioactivity in the Columbia River System Radionuclides entering the Columbia River at Hanford may remain in solution unchanged as they flow downstream and through the estuary into the Pacific; or they may be absorbed onto suspended particulate matter and sedi- ments, they my undergo changes in chemical or physical state as the river environment changes to estuarine and marine, or they may enter biological food chains at any trophic level. Whether absorbed on sediments or accumulated by organisms, radionuclides are thus retained, or concentrated, in the freshwater and estuarine portions of the river before reaching the ocean. The phenomenon results in an increased exposure to radiation for organisms inhabiting the aquatic environment and also for terrestrial organisms (including man) that rely upon the river and estuary for food, water, or recreation. The physical states of several effluent radionuclides change before the nuclides enter the estuary at Vancouver, Washington (Table 5, Perkins et al. 1966). Many of the isotopes analyzed enter the river mainly in the s le form, but are largely particulate when they reach the estuary. In addition, isotopes of some elements, such as iron and ruthenium, probab orm ins@luble @ A@ates upon entering the estuarine environment. Since 5lCr1ylOf6R_U, 12 Sb, and I axe not strongly associated with particulate matter in the river proper, the input of these nuclides is fairly constant to the estuary. The input of particulate elements, such as 65Znp howeveE fluctuates with stream flow. When the flow rate increases, the amount of @Zn, entering the estuary at Vancouver may equal or exceed the amount Eeleased at Hanford, because of the transport of resuspended sediments containing 5zn (Perkins et al. 1966, Nelson et al. 1964). The dis- tributions of 6 Zn and 51Cr absorbeY-6-n-the sediments.6_F@h-e Columbia River estuary are shown in Figave5 and 6 for periods before and after peak flow of the river (Jennings,@1966). After the Christmas week flood of 1964, the radioactivity in the sediments decreased at the upstream stations and the 65Zn-labeled sediments were washed farther downstream. The distribution of particulate radioactivity my be an important determinant of the radiation effects in the estuary, be- cause radionuclides associated with particulate matter may be filtered from suspension by filter-feeding invertebrates and fish, as will those accumulated by phytoplankton. See Figs. 7 and 8 for characteristic animals and hydrography. Freshwater phytoplankton concentrate 32P 5,000-118,000 times and 65Zn 300-19"000 times over the isotopic concentrations in the 'Ver, wi@h the highest values occurring during winter when the concentrations of P and 5zn iA the water are lowest (Cushing,)1967a). Marine phytoplankton also concentrate b5Zn and 32p, but the zooplankton are usually not separated before analysis. A number of radionuclides have been measured in a wide variety of marine and estuarine organisms near the mouth of the Columbia River. Zinc-65 is usually the dominant isotope. Although 5lCr is the most abundant radionuclide in the lower Columbia River and estuary, it appears infrequently and erratically in the ine biota (Watson et al. 1963, Seymour and Lewis 1964). Neptunium-239, also present in the watei7eR_ering the estuary (Table 4), is usually absent in organisms. 384 Table Physical state of Hanford effluent radionuclidesi Percent soluble Radionuclide In effluent At Vancouver 46SC 64 11 51Cr 97.6 92.4 54Mn 97.4 12 58CO 95.3 12 59Fe 36 20 60CO 98.2 9 65Zn 98.2 24 95Zr-95Nb 31 15 106RU 68 83 124Sb 98.9 94.1 140Ba 97.7 63 Modified from Perkins et al. (1966). WASHINGTON Cr5I PC /CM2 zft'65 PC/CM2 5 9 VCR 2 to R Cot 4*914 Zt 22 26 R1 20 OREGON 0 5 to MILES Fig, 5. Radioactivity adsorbed on sediments in the Columbia River estuary before the flood of Chrictmas week.. 1964 (Jennings.. 1966). U1 WASHINGTON Cr5I Pc /=2 Zn65 pc/cmt- 9 el* V4 26 ........ 20 ASTORI OREGON iz 0 5 10 MILES Fig. 6. Radioactivity adsorbed on sedimeUts in the Columbia River estuary after the flood of Christmas week, 1964. Note the decreased 05zn and 53-Cr at the upstream staticrw (canpare With Fig. 5) (jennings, 1966). co 387 TCUL KARNTON EMYTEN"A POINT POINT .ITREAAO CHINOOK -M POIN 20 H-1 AL SAMPLING Chinook Point Eurytcutora hirmtdoides popula- LOCATIONS tions in relation to total plankton abundance. FALL OCT. TL 1963 14.@ K? 11.4 11.6 14.8 100- \15 SNAKEBLENNY LONGFIN SMELT FLOUNDER WINTER DEC. 5- (new-Oyr.) 1963-1964 MAR.4 N SPRING MAR. 17 - 1964 APR.27 100. STURGEON PRICKLY SCULPIN FLOUNDER (juveniles) (0 -31 yr. I 5 50. SUMMER JUNE I - JULY 30 1964 OL \5 JOG. FALL SEPT. 8 - LEMON SOLE TOMCOO TOMCOD 1964 OCT.22 4.0 15.9 S.T '13.0 '15.7 15.8- 110 -jr yr.) (O-Zyr.) +yr.) 1 .5 WINTER @15_ NOV. 25 1964-1965 'G.5- MAR.4 L too 5 1 .5 STAGHORN SCULPIN STAGNORN SCULPIN SAND SOLE SPRING MAR. 4 - (1yr.) (U+yr.) (31+yr.) 1965 APR. 19 so Location of sampling stations, seasonal salini- es in 0/JJ0 (solid lines), and seasonal temperatures in 0 Admi C (dotted lines) in the Columbia River estuary. A LEV rA UN @wo Q. 0 a 0 & a wo I :@F . @ a . a, 21 Stdmach contents of various fishes in the Coluln- bia River estuary. Fig. ? and 8. Salinity, zooplankton, and bottom fishes in the mouth of the Columbia River (haertel and Osterberg, 196?) L IN, 388 Isotopes of cobalt detected in organisms at the mouth of the Columbia probably also arose from Hanford operations, but other nuclides which occur in organisms, including 95 Zr_ 95Nb, 103Rul 106 Rul 14'Cel 144Ce, 54Mn, 140Ba-14OLal and 137Crl are introduced also by fallout. Tracers in Experimental Marine Ponds The interaction of the plants, animals, and micro-organisms in processing radioactive tracers in shallow marine ecosystems,is suggested by graphs in Figs. 9 and 10 from Duke et al. (1967). They indicate that radioactive zinc, added to the water, moved@'_ini_o_ the food chains and was partitioned among the living components. Peak quantities arrived with different time lags in dif- ferent species according to their size and metabolic activities with respect to zinc. Although the highest specific activities occurred in filter-feeding @hell- fish, more than 99 percent of the isotope was found in the sediments 100 days after introduction. This result suggests that estuarine sediments will become a principal reservoir for discarded radioisotopes, and that benthic organisms, especially filter-feeders and deposit feeders, might receive greater doses of radiation than would planktonic or pelagic forms. Radioactive Waste in the Irish Sea Figures 11 and 12 show some characteristics of the dispersal of radioac- tivity in the Irish Sea where about 7,500 curies of fission products are dis- charged monthly about 2 miles offshore from the Windscale facility near Sella- field, England (Mauchline and Templeton 1964). These wastes arise from the chemical processing of nuclear fuel and consist mainl@ of longer-lived fission products (89Sr, 90Sr-90Yl 95Zr.-95Vbjl 144Ce, 137Cs, 10 Ru, 106Ru), along with 23BU and 239pu (Longley and Templeton 1965). The rate of discharge of the low-level waste to the sea is governed by the concentration of 106.Ru in sea- weeds of the genus Porphyra, which are consumed as laverbread in South Wales (Preston and Jeffries 1967). If mans' routine harvest of Porphyra from the shores of the Irish Sea is considered a normal functional component of the ecosystem, then the disposal of radioactive wastes from Windscale must be viewed as a potential stress. By continuous monitoring of the concentrations of 106Ru in Porphyra, however, it is possible to control the amount of efflu- ent released below objectionable levels. No direct effects of radioactivity on the organisms or environment in the Irish Sea have been detected. 389 Radioactivity in Seaweed Deposited on Beaches In Figs. 13 and 14 from Shelby (1963) and Angina, et al. (1965) are data demonstrating the concentrating action of large weights of Sargassum seaweed deposited over a 100 mile stretch of Texas beach. Several components of radio- active fallout, with low levels of radiation, were deposited over many square miles of the Gulf of Mexico. They were swept from the Gulf and concentrated on the Texas beaches in the Sargassum weed. The example illustrates the kind of problem of stress that mi7ght result if large quantities of radioactivity were released near shore. Estuarine Radioactivity from the Proposed Nuclear Construction of a Sea-level Canal An intensive survey of the distribution of stable elements was undertaken to evaluate the hazards to man from radioactive contamination of the marine and estuarine environments adjacent to the Isthmus of Panama if a sea-level canal were excavated with nuclear devices (Lowman 1967). Radiation effects on the ecosystems per se or on resident organisms were not considered directly in this study, since the criterion of radiation hazard was the maximum specific activity of each radioisotope allowable in man. It was estimated (Lowman 1969a) that 22 radioisotopes would be injected into the hydrosphere at specific activities greater than allowed in man. Most of these would rapidly be diluted by the seawater to tolerable s ecifi activities. The greatest hazards to man would probably arise from 3H, 32p, 541@ and 1311, but for organisms in the en- y1ronment, the external radiation dose from these and other isotopes, including 2 Na, 56Mn, and 203Pb, would probably be most significant. The potential radi- ation doses and resultant effects on aquatic populations have not been estimated, but such effects might be overshadowed by the simultaneous effects of siltation from direct close-in fallout and from runoff from freshly excavated spoils. Effects of Radioactive Contamination in Estuaries The only conclusive examples to date of effects of radioactive contamination on aquatic ecosystems are associated with test sites, such as Bikini and Eniwetok. Gorbman and James (1958) detected thyroid damage in fish whichhad accumulated high levels of 131, through a food chain. Under normal circumstances, however, the accumulation of 131, will present no problems, because the isotope has a short half-life (8 days) and there is a substantial amount of stable iodine (about 50 ;lg/1) available in typical sea water. Other instances involve the modification of human use of fishery resources because of radioactive contamina- tion. The Japanese fishing fleet had to dispose of nearly 500 tons of tuna contaminated with radioactivity after Pacific nuclear tests in 1956 (Polikarpov, 1967). Returning Bikini Islanders also were restricted in their consumption of coconut crabs 10,000 POND 1 10.000 FORD U 390 ww�W 1,000 U W Z Z 100. clams too- .1- Z M Irysm" -11aps --klImp .b. *YOM 10. emake. 10, blom erGbo wdirnom A mvd grabs. 61.0 grain "dimeld 10 20 30 410 50 60 '101 0 10 20 0 DAYS 40 30 60 01 Specific activity of components in experimental ponds. The specific activity of the water at the time zinc 65 was introduced into the pond ("0" days) was 18,100 UUc zinc 65/lig zinc in Poiid I and 14,200 in Pond 11. J'000- Lo" W--: (1 78 100 1050 t 111.2 leg.) .0.105 9.1 10 VV V4,; % 2.35 IN 3.52 Cl..; 6 -10.) 4 3 S ...... ....... 0. ....... 22 C,ab, 12.4 0.221 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 010- ......... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . o . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . : 0.2.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...... . . . . . . . o . . . . . . . . . . . 0.01-T@ I . . . ... . . . a 20 60 so ;00 DAYS Distribution of zinc 65 in Pond 11 with time. A total of 10,000 Ae is in pond or accounted for by loss from tidal exchange at any specific time. (Aniount of zinc! 65 in each component after 100 davs is shownit right margin.) Fig- 9 and 10. Fate of radioactive zinc in marine ponds (Duke. Price, and Willis,1967). -Y 7..d grab.. M, M 12 391 PIPES ON STRAND LINE BRIDGE AT MEAN HIGH OVER TIDE LEVEL REEFS OF R. EHEN RAIL- S. ALVEOLATA 'WAY FLAT AND SANDY LOW TIDE SPRINGS GA AN. D NES Section through the beach at Windscale showing the relationship of the River Ehen to beach. 0, St. sets Head. CUMBER AN IRISH SEA c IS-W 5S.N- 0 SCOtLAND WORKINGTON indscal, FNGLAND 0 r "IWIN0314SKISALt Area d4d ISLE 3.S K. AN 0, Bern Scar IRI'SH SEA ANGLES Y WALES Map of Irish Sea showing areas where Ceneral map of coastline near Wind- rays were sampled. The arrows indicate the di- scale showing the area studied (Fig. 1). rection of maximum ebb streams; direction of maximum flood streams is the opposite. Fig. 11. Release of radioactivity into the Irish Sea across an intertidal zone containing a worm tube roof (Mauchline, Taylor, and Ritson, t964). 25 4000 1. FEBRUARY JULY 392 1960 as so MARCH AUGU 30. 1960 F96rj 600 400 .Uft is SLyr@ @ Au. 200@ Rd 02S 1AY1960 OCTIWIER iq 178 251 3S3 Soo 6 9 4J PARTICLE SIZE IN MICAONS It IL ivity in the particle grades of Beta act Sabellaria reef at two distances from mean high- tide level. 2S JUNE JANUARY 270 METERS 4Q 540 METERS 196c 1962 3 NEw REEF OLD RE ac 2: IQ LF1 S 10 is 20 25 30 5 10 15 20 25 30 3S - Si 61 2iW 3;3 SOD ot 1;8 is. im soo "9 SWELL HEIGHT (*A) V-fICLE SIZE IN MICRONS Size distributions of Littorina littorea Distribution of particle grades in the on the upper beach (thLi line), middle beach sand :)f the reefs of Sabellaria alveolata, by per- (heavy line), and iower beach (broken line). centage weight. Fig. 12. Characteristics and radioactivity of a worm tube at Windscale, England. Roof builder is Sabollaria alveolata (Kauchline, Taylor,. and Ritson,1964.). Table 6. Chemical content wid radioactivity of intertidal life at Windscale, England (Mauchline, Taylor and Ritson, 19 Beta activity, juuc K equivalentIg ash Ash content and dry weight (in pe,e* weight, in Sabellaria alveolata collected from brack- theset), expressed as percentages of wet weight.. ish and seawater pooL.- Beta activity of reef sand of algae at three points on the short, at WindAcde in parentheses Meters seaward of mean Salt Brackish 'U Middle La%tv h,gh-tide level water water Species shore A'" Fn7,o;7,P_hasPp. 10-2 (21.2) 10.7 (17.6) ea (1 ..5, 300 4,460(378) Utod laclueq. 5.0 4.8 4.0 320 1,880(567) Fucus vesitzWoms 13.0 (30.7) 7.6 (18-0) 3.8(21.4) 340 4,980(713) 3,590(565) cigartina stellata 21.7 15.1 13.3 360 5,060(504) 3,000(465) pol.VhV,a umbilicalis 7.1 (19-5) 4.7 (16-2) 5.7 03.0f 380 5,560(696) Mean levels of p activity in species a; different trophic levels Beta activity, ALIAc K equivalentlg ash AAc weight, in animals at three points on the shore at Trophic level Species K wequivalentt/g Win&cale Tertiary consumer Centronotus et weigh Middle Lower Species %1:1 shore shore- trophic level gunnellus 11 Secondary consumer Blennius pholis 19 Sabellaria alveolata 4,460 4,980 5,560 trophic level Nucella lapillus 29 Balanus balanoides 260 190 275 Carcinus maenas 98 Littorina littorea .5,200 6,000 19,000 Primary consumer Patella vulgata 41 540 960 6,000 hic level Littorina littorea 32 520 600 11900 trop Mytilus edulls 34 500 490 1,010 Balanus balarwides 91 Sabellaria alveolata 88 Producer trophic Ulva lactuca 119 level Enteromorpha spp. 139 IULYI. n Fucus vesiculosus 46 Porphyra umbilicalis 126 393 SCALE W FEEr Fra-9 SCATTERED SARGASSUM 0 5 10 d-2 in CONTOU .R INTERVAL EQUIVALENT TO, .00imr/hr. 2-4 in mr/hr. Expionotion 4-8 in RAD'lAf ION CONTOUR -6- EQUIVALENT TO' @.006 mr/hr. 9 6 Ar@ f 9 C :13 12 K, -XIII-1 1;1,- M. 7@ X 9 ------- W llmwj'@ 7 Contour map of radiation values in milliroentgens per hour on a section of Sargassum covered beach 6 mi SW of Galveston, Texas; July, 1962; shaded areas indicate thickness of Sargassum. Profile at left is from the extreme left side of large section. Anow points north. Fig. 33. Radioactivity of a section of the heavy drift of Saxgassvm on Gulf beaches in 1962 (Shelby., 1963). 394 10- ENERGY SPECTRUM FROM S. fluilans S. n,714,ns 7 Ce-144, Pr-144 6- Ru-106, Rh-106 w (L :U-103 CS-137 h - 103M Zr-95, Nb-95 Mn-54 0 t 0.5 Ce-144, Pr-144 A 0.03 0.1 0.5 LO 2.0 3.0 ENERGY, MEV. Fig. 14. Gamm spectrum identifying the radioactive elements in the Gulf Saressum (Angino, Simek and Davis, 1965). 395 because of the high content of residual 9OSr(USABC 1968c). Effects of chronic exposure to law levels of radiation from radioisotopes in the environment are unknown., and it is necessary to extrapolate from results of experimental work., which has generally been with acute exposure to relatively high levels of radiation. In the estuarine ecosystem, the effects of radiation depend on environ- mental conditions. Thus., the estuarine fish, Fundulus heteroclitus, had an LD-50 (50 days) of nearly 21000 rads at temperature-salinity c @binations of 120 C, 15 O/oo and 220 C, 5 0/oo; 920 rads at'220, 25 O/oo; and only 300-350 rads at 2r C., 5-25 o/oo (Angelovic et,al* 1968). Since estuarine conditions vary over vide ranges., organisms may successfully tolerate various levels of radiation at different times. It is of interest to note that the sensitivity noted above for@Fundulus (300-350 rads) is very comparable to the radiation sensitivity of mammals, including man. Tolerance levels for most estuarine dnvertebrates, however, are considerably higher than for mammals (White and Angelovic,1966). Since the regulation of vaste disposal is based indirectly on estimates of radiation exposure to human populations, and since aquatic organisms living continuously beneath radioactive effluents will be subjected to much higher doses of radiation than will man, it is easily conceivable that estuarine populations under certain environmental conditions might experience radiation-induced genetic changes, This premise is subject to considerable argument because it inv6lves extrapolations from mammals to.- fish and invertebrates and from lethal doses of acute-radiation exposure to the subtle genetic effects of continual law-level exposure., but much research effort must be expended before the premise can be@proved valid or invalid. Radioactive contamimation of the marine environment will subject marine organisms to a continuous elevated exposure to external radiation. Thus all life stages, including the most sensitive ones., will be irradiated, and populations may be affected by somatic changes in immature forms or by genetic changes in the breeding stock. Results of experimental work to date, however, are difficult to relate to these potential effects, because most experiments have involved relatively short-term doses much higher that vill occur in the environment. Any increase in the level of background radiation might produce slow, gradual changes in the population structure of marine ecosystems and in the genetic makeup of the species involved. Such changes may be undetected and it probably will be difficult or impossible to establish a relation between increased radiation and observed changes in natural populations. EVALUATION OF POTENTIAL DISTURBANCE PATTERNS The introduction of radioactive zAaterials into estuaries could feasibly alter the natural order of the system in four vays., which vary considerably in probability of occurrence and disruptive capacity: 396 1* Somatic damage (including death) of estuaxine-biota, 2. Increase in genetic mutation rates of populations. 3. Increase in growth rate and maximum size of organisms. 4. Reorientation of human uses of estuaxies. These effects are discussed in the ensuing paxagraphsi Somatic damagd to i"Bstuarine organisms is extremely improbable under the present re@ulatory-procedure for controlling radioactive waste disposal. Although certain life stages., especially from the zygote stage through larval forms., are more susceptible.to radiation damage than are adults, radiation exposure from permissible levels of radioactive wastes in aquatic environments probably will never be substantial enough to produce somatic damage, 'Unfortunately, at this time reliablL& information on the normal incidence of somatic aberrations, such as tumors and other physical anomalies., are not at all well established for aquatic populations, and it is therefore very difficult to evaluate their sporadic occurrence in systems receiving radioactivity. For example., 15-7% of freshwater imissels Anodonta, californiensis@ sampled from the Columbia River had abnormal tumors on the foot,, mantle., or gills (Pauley,1967,, 1968). The incidence of similar tumors in different species of mussels from other rivers or lakes was lower (4.2-6.5%) but the situation could easily have arisen from species differences or environmental differences other than radiation. No such anomalies have been reported in estuarine organisms exposed to radiation in natural environments,, but continued surveillance is certainly prudent. Aquatic populations are probably much more susceptible to genetic changes than to scmatic aberrations because of the high sensitivity of genetic material to ionizing radiation. As was the case with radiation- induced somatic changes, no genetic effects have been traced to an elevated radiation exposure in the natural environment. Establishing that genetic changes have resulted from radiation exposure in estuarine ecosystems will probably be even more difficult than determining causal relationships for somatic changes. Unless the genetic change produces an organism which appears ma,rkedly different, a mutation is likely to go unnoticed in the population. Considerable time is required also before a new mutation might be established in a breeding population. If elevated radiation only increases the rate of an already established mutation, many generations may be required before any change is noted in the standing population. Since deleterious mutations are selected against and decreased life expectancy is frequently offset by increased fecundity, changes in the genetic composition of any population may be so subtle that they are undetected until the mutation is firmly established in the population. Increased growth rates and sizes of various organisms have been noted several times in controlled radiation experiments involving low-level doses (Engelpl967, Branst,1965). If certain organisms axe stimulated to faster growth rates with no concomitant decrease in life span, the dynamics of energy transfer in an estuarine ecosystem certainly would be affected, but the nature of the change would d6pend'on so many ecological factors that evaluation and prediction am impossible. 397 The final type of disruptive in:Vluence which radioactive waste disposal may exert on estuaries has received considerably more attention--not because man is,concerned about the estuarine ecosystem per se, but because of man's self-protective instincts. Man is the only estuarlEe'-dependent organism Vith the capability of avoiding excessive radistion,, and he can change his recreational and feeding behavior if the need arises. Thus., the potential radiation exposures of persons living near the Columbia River system are continuously evaluated (Foster and Soldat,1966). Thedisposal of radioactive materials into the Columbia River so fax has not necessitated any modification of human use in the river or estuary; neither has the disposal rate been modified downwards because of excessive human exposure downstream. People living and working in the area,, however, do receive radiation significantly above background from several sources, and these sources are monitored frequently to ascertain that no hazard exists. For an individual near Hanford, 32P contained in edible Columbia River fish i the greatest plausible source of radiation. Other potential S=-ce@6include 95Zn in fish and oysters, short-lived nuclides such as 4Na, As, 239Np. and 1311, in drink- ing water derived from the river.," external exposure from swimming in., or fishing from the shore of the river, and inhalation of gaseous radionuclides from the atmosphere. It has been estimated that in 1965 an individual getting the maxim= possible dose from all sources in the vicinity of Hanford would have received 14% of the individual dose limit recommended for bone., about 7% of that for the total bodyj, and about 5% of that for the gastro-intestinal tract. By contrast., the typical resident of Richland., Washington, received during 1965 about 1% of the same dose limit for total body and 2.3% of that for the GI trarat (Foster and Soldat,1966). The amount of radioactive material released annually by Hanford has decreased since 1965 (Table 5). It seems clear that our present system of regulating the release of radioactive materials to freshwater rivers and estuaries is adequate to prevent the sudden disruption of the aquatic ecosystem by radiation. Limits on the environment are now based on the expectancy that the receiving water will be used as a source of drinking water for people and/or that people will consume large quantities of fish, shellfish, or other aquatic or marine foodstuffs produced in the vicinity of the plant discharge. The calculations that lead to the specificatiou or release rates (or maximutu permissible concentrations of radionuclides in the effluent) are based on conservative estimates of the behavior of the radionuclides by aquatic and marine food organisms, and on the accumulation and retention of the nuclides in man. Many of the estimates now used are quite tentative and most are probably overly conservative because of a paucity of definitive data. However., the effects of very low levels of radiation are very subtle, and much basic information on the genetic variation in aquatic organisms is also lacking. Continued surveillance and research are therefore required. To impr ove the estimates that axe now being used, to provide greater assurance of the safety of the limits as now calculated, and to acquire the knowledge needed to cope with unplanned radioactive contamination., additional radioecological research is underway in many laboratories throughout the world. Further research is especially needed on the following: (1) the 398 fate of radioactive materials discharged into natural waters, (2) the reconcen- tration of radionuclides by important aquatic organisms, (3) the efficiency of transfer of radionuclides through food webs, (4) the flux of acute releases of radioactive wastes through aquatic communities, and (5) the effects of chronic exposure to low levels of radioactive materials on aquatic organisms, populations, and ecosystems. Continued research in these areas will ensure that we are neither too permissive nor excessively restrictive in our regulation of radioactive waste disposal into aquatic environments, and will safeguard against the inadvertent destruction of natural estuarine systems. 399 Chapter E-lT MULTIPLE SYSTEM STkESS Many harbors and estuaries adjacent to urban areas receive wastes and disturbances of more than one type causing waters to develop heterogeneous patches of chemicals, fertilized waters,, waters low in oxygen, turbidities., acids, and other conditions alien to normal life of estuarine ecosystems. The mixed pollution situation is possibly the nations most urgent estuarine problem because the condition is a mixture and the causes several. The stress of many different kinds of wastes may be more difficult for an ecosystem to develop adaptations than separate types of wastes acting alone. The continual fluctuations require more kinds of adaptation than there may be food energies to support. Some bays receiving mixed wastes which are primarily nutrients of non-toxic nature may develop extremely high metabolic rates and high rates of photosynthetic production. Such bays are almost micro-organism cultures,, but have active larger animal populations too. Potentially such fertile waters are a food producing resource, although we know relatively little about the conditions for management of these mixtures which will channel energies into products of use to man., effectively mineralize the wastes., and stabilize the ecosystem. EXAMPLES Houston Ship Channel Situated at the upper end of Galveston Bay,, Texas is the Houston Ship channel along which are located dozens of major industries that release wastes. Refineries, petrochemicals, sanitary wastes, and many others go into waters that pass out into Galveston Bay. The dredged channel is 40 feet deep, floored with waste sludge and generally black, and sometimes stratified with more saline waters on the bottom. Conditions are patchy, often low in oxygen, and often with high concentrations of oxidants and reducing compounds. Con- ditions on one sunmer day are giveft in Fig. 1 (Odum, Cuzon, Beyers, and Allbaugh, 1963)- Chambers and Sparks (1959) found considerable variety of fishes in these waters particularly in zones which were being mixed with San Jacinto River waters. Such concentrations of wastes in small restricted volumes really make these zones oxidation ponds. Decision making about the service such arrangements provide for or against coastal systems of man and nature requires data about the effect of such waters on the broader areas as this stuff is dispersed and mixes over broad areas. See Chap. C-10. Corpus Christi Harbor., Texas Corpus Christi, Texas (Fig. 2) receives wastes of two dozen industries. Waters from the harbor are pumped north through cooling systems (see Chap. A-5) into Nueces Bay. The bottom waters and little circulating innermost harbors develop very low oxygen conditions (Fig. 3a). At timer. photosynthesis is high (Fig. 3b). Houston Ship Channel July-17-18, 1961 10 . 1 40 400 0, 02 sum Son Jacinto S 2x2m 3@1 Monument (1) 4x4m 30 @Mg/l rnglff? 21 NX 79 mm .5- 20 I Son Jocinio Monument 9m to- 2 Baytown Refiftery /7M 3 Baytown Tunnel A- I i i i 0 0, Baytown Refinery (Z) 7.9- Surface pH MO/I S 5- 7.0- 4rn ........ ...... oc 33- Surface T in ---- - - 0- 2' 02 Baytown Tunnel (3) 29 5,000- fc S rng/l 0 4m 00 06 lz Is 00 HOU.RS /Im 0 3 Depth 9M M 2 _00 06 12 to 00 4 Jetlaft #1"" hallow -small bay* connecting Houston ',3 'k So Gel 'Ift u 9- Houston 0 5 10 25 30 35 Ship channel Re inery %* OC Win so town Tu *11 Galveston Bay '1' Diurnal oxygen, pH, and temperature patterns at 3 stations in the Ifouston Ship Channel July 17-18, 1961. Four levels are given at each station and a rough calculation of the total oxygen in Sullo4e IH S vertical column is made for the diurnal period. Fig. 1. Characteristics of a multiple stressed ship harbor in Texas (Odum, Cuzon, Boyers, and Allbaugh, 1963). 401 (D .... .. ... NUECES BAY Ar Afaeces River 4 (D 27*50 97*20' 38., ... ... CORPUS CHRISTI SHIP HARBOR CORPUS CHRISTI 5 BAY Fig. 2. Corpus Christi Ship Harbor. Corpus Christi Ship Harbor Sept. 28-'29, 1960 37%. 10 10 02 Bay (1) 0, Twe Turning Basin n,g/: mg/l 5- 5- - - s 4m ------ Im- '9 rn 0 02 Corpus Christi Turning Basin (2) 02 Viola Basin (5) Mg Much ShIp Traffic mg S +50 s ........... AM 4m 9! m /7m 0 0 02 Avery Turning Basin (3) Foot Candles S 4m 10,000- mg/1 7 % % * 71n 0 0 OC Surface T 00 06 12 is 00 HOURS _@4 28 - k, ........ ....... ;7, Z41 I 00 06 12 Is 00 HOURS Diurnal record of variables for 4 depths and 5 stations in we Corpus Christi Ship Harbor, Sept. @1@29. 1960. Ohle corrections are given (+ 1.2, +0.5) for stations 4 and 5. Fig. 3a. Oxygen conditions in Corpus Christi Harbor (Odum, Onzon,,.Beyers, and Allbaugh, 1963). 402 5- CORPUS CHRISTI 0 JULY 13,1959 4- TURNING BASIN 0 3- 2.7 M .0 02 33-5 1/6 2- 0 my 1 0 0 L 0 0 0 r 66 6 12 00 so- 02 50- 2.0- RATE RATE OF CHANGE K I G M/M2/H R. AT 0 % SAT. 02 1.0- CORRECTED FOR GM + AERATION 0- /W.2 DAY 1.0- --C" PR3IGM/M2/DAY 2.0- R=51 Gm/mg DAY 3.0- Fig. 3b. Oxnen curves for Corpus Christi Ship Harbor (odum, ig6oe.). H AN 137E K=I AT C A 403 Tampa Bay One of the most fertile estuaries in America is Tampa Bay, Florida (Fig. 4) which receives raw municipal wastes., food processing wastes., the. outflows from phosphate district of Florida,, and many other wastes. Shallow and with little tidal exchange., the bay seems like one giant bloom. There. are high concentrations of cells,, nutrients, and other organisms (Figs. 5-8). High fertility persists from low salinities in small headwaters to the full salinities at the mouth under the Skrimy bridge (Fig- 5). There are many papers on this bay due to the studies of several laboratories. The Florida red tide is a recurring pbytoplankton bloom of a dinoflagellate Gymno@dinium bre that is poisonous to fish (Fig. 6). this red waters develop's fish- killing blooms in high salinity waters off the west coast of Florida and sometimes within the lower bay. The.rel6tionship of the fertile bay culture waters to the red tide outside is still uncertain and under study. The high fertility has not destroyed the general middle salinity characteristics of the ecosystem of the main bay where oysters, cppepods, pinfish and young shrimp are abundant to mention some shown in Figs. 9-11. Much of the area has been disturbed in dredging and filling although there are still large areas of shallow ecosystems that serve as fertile nurseries (Fig. 4, 12). The pulse of phytoplankton follows the pulse of light energy to which the release of animal larvae are correlated. Although the concentrations of nutrients coming into the bay now is much greater than before urban development, the bay was already receiving high nutrients from the phosphate districts,, 'springs and swamp runoff. Tampa bay has small areas of heavy waste stress, but the open question is whether the overall consequent of this eutrophication should be regarded as good or bad for the general ecosystem. See also Chap. E-9. Boston Harbor An example of a temperate estuary multiple stressed,by man's activity is Boston Harbor (Figs. 14-17) which receives mixed wastes of shipping, municipal wastes, and industrial outputs. San Francisco Bay The lowerp near-ocean parts of San Francisco Bay are sometimes cited as a pertinent example of multiple waste heterogeneity. See maps in Chapters c-8 and C-9. Fig. 13 from Bain and McCarty (1965) shows the sag in productivity as compared with diluted waters of the Pacific or the zones at the head of the estuary where freshwaters rich in nutrients are infloving. DISCUSSIOK Whereas some of the ship channels with multiple wastes are so low in diversity and indices of life that there is no question that stress on ecosystems mainly exceeds the capabilities of living systems,, some of the other bays showing more eutrophication than toxicity may be producing more life and yields than before man began-introducing wastes., Unfortunately data before are few and technical personnel are divided in their speculation on this, 404 NA2600 OLD CLIARWAYER TAMPA TAMPA % "-3 A Y Ik", $%a ;r % G U L F 5. $7. P E 19 it S a U It G 0 F T A M P A L.CTLI M E X I C 0 S.Vg- B A Y PIRC1.1.01 Of Pt..' C0@14 0-21% 9 35' ---------- 16 - I*.% AUTICA& -tes 1400.1 - ----------- - a 3 3 __j Via a. 92 so, -Location and abundance of submerged vegetation in Tampa Bay. Fig. 4. Nursery zones in Tampa Bay, Florida (C.M. Fuss in Sykes, 1967a). PERCENT 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 so to too It i-bPtRAtim (e) JUN 3-4 .5 SUBARE LOCATION 2-CENTRAL TAMPA SAY to 3-4-MOUTH OF TAMPA BAY 3-4 JUL W. OF EGMONT KEY 3 MILES F ::10-40 MILES W. OF EGMONT KEY AUGUST 1059 A UG 3'42 .30 42 9 SEP3@ IT Z '20,x MOVEMEER t659 2 7- OCT 3- :or. NOV 10 DECEMBER It" r or DEC 3-4 5 ? ry JAN 3-5 FEBRUARY 1960 6 FEB 3- 2 MAR'- APAIL I.. 0 0 a z APR 20W 1 40 GL : z 310, 1103". --4 TAMPA BAY OFFSHORC 30p MAY Means for certaLn -rnonLth-9 of tzrnpia;-.31ure, 4 Gymnodinium salljtItir, and tol[.aI phosphorus for Tan pa F)zy md adjaceat z:erif`Lc waters. breve (Dragovich 2nd Fig. 5. High phosphorus levels in Tampa Bay Kelley in Percentage of samples Sykes, 1967a) containing G. breve. (Dragovich, 1960). Ln Fig. 6. Red tide orNanism at the mouth of Tampa Bay, Fla. Qymodinium breve (Finucane,,196o). 406 X 71 AM Sep. OCT Nov DEC -Average seasonal changes to phytoplankton proauction in Tampa Bay, 1966-67. To convert pounds per acre per month to kilograms per hectare per month, multiply pounds per acre per month by 0.921. Fig. 7. Photosynthetic production of plankton (McNaty, 1968). POUNDS41CARBON " .1. ACRE 11. DAY 30 to 3 2 I J A ON i F MA. SUMMER FALL WINTER SPRING --Estimated production of organic carbon in Tampa Bay, June-November 1965 and January-May 1966. (Station 1, Egmont Key; Station 2, Central Tampa FF771 Bay; Station 3, Hillsborougb Bay; Station 4, Old Tampa Bay.) Fig. 8. Photosynthetic productivity of plankton (Kelly and Johnson s 1967)- 407 010 - 76-100mm. 0-75mm. JULY TO NOVEMBER 764150mm. 0.08 - 0.06 NOVEMBER 0 - 150mm. DIATOMS 0.04 0-75nm VASCULAR PLANTS FILAMENTOUS ALGAE HM ANIMALS 0 SAND Q02 0-00 Differences in the foods from Stomachs of JULY AUG. SEPT. OCT NOV. 1,2001arge and small pinfish from July to November 1965 and from over 100 pinfish caught in November. Mean volume (milliliters) of material in 1,300 stomachs from large and small pinfish in the summer and fall, 1965. Fig. 9. Herbivorous role of young pinfish in nursery grounds (Hansen, 1967a) STATIONil ANEA-2 STATION-IV STAY IANrV L L", A , .... .11 PA. NAT SEC. Dates of oyster spatfall (horizontal bars) and periods of peak spatfall (9-haded portions of bars) at six stations in Tampa Bay. Fig. 10. Pulse of oyster larval release &%d set in seasons of phytoplankton productivity in Tampa Bav (Fiiixtcate, 1967)- 70 - 60 - INS Porcellasid larval 50 grachrefat lariat 40- -Zooplankton taxa from Tampa Bay and the 30 - adjacent Gulf of Mexico that accounted for 5 percent or more of the organisms found during the periods 20 - shown, September 1961 througb August 1962. IN m to valan INS FALL WINTER SPRING SUMMER 12 MONTHS sim 1261 - hot. list Fig. 11. Larger zooplankton (Velly and Dragovich, 1967). 408, DAIT INNIMPM6 AREAS L 0 0 TAMPA' sle ISLAND -Sw G) ST. PETERSBURG. 0 M LOWER cl) . 0 TAMPA & NAUTICAL MILES BAY 0 1 2 4 5 3d 4w --Baft shrimping areas in Tampa Bay, @Fig. 12. Bait shrimp (Penaeus duorarm)--Pink shrimp in Tampa Bay, Fla (Saloman, 1965) 409 350 10 0 10 20 30 40 .50 300- 6 POPULATION-------, 250 5 z 0 N 0 0 :E 200 4- N, z 9 0 t 0 150 30. z 0 0 z w a6 CL 100 - 2 /PRODUCTIVITY CL 50 - - I Ol a Al L 10 20 to 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 OCEAN UPSTREAM MILES FROM GOLDEN GATE fig. 13. Photosynthesis rates in San Francisco Bay (Bain and McCarty,1965). 410 NORTH MYSTIC R. z W 0 .j MASSACHUSETTS SAY t141 > 5000 E3 1000-5000 200-1000 VL ED < 200 Mv VEYMOUTH R. NUMBER OF POLYCHAETE WORMS PER SQUARE FOOT,BOSTON HARBOR AND TRIBUTARIES, JULY-AUGUSTt 1967. Fig. 14. High concentrations of red worms in multiple waste area, (steward, 1968). 411 WITH MYSTIC R. z W C) MASSACHUSETTS f's BAY CIO cr 1000 to 1500/mi. > 1500/rnl. Outer boundary of harbor study IL WEYMOUTH R. AVERAGE NUMBER OF PHYTOPLANKTON (number/ml-),IN BOSTON HARBOR,AUGUST, 1967. Fig. 15. High concentrations of phytoplankton algae in multiple waste areas (Ste-ward, 1968). 412 E R TT NMI CHELSEA Charlestown East C, Boston WINTHROP SC. Lown r International %P Airport BOST ON IN R HARBOR Deer Island Soon Boston p,,,,dW ........ OUIER ------------------ ovell 1. 1? HARBOR Rcowy Old kbW Gallop Geo s 1. Roo I 4P on Island HUL Dorchititer MULL BAY 41 C &4 j, ut Island Vk QUINCY 1@ st SHELLFISH AREA id" CLASSIFICATIONS BOSTON HARBOR APRIL, 1967 WEYMOUTH HINGHAM Approved Restricted Prohibited 0 1 Scale In Miles Fig. 16. Areas of Boston Harbor with shellfish containing intestinal bacteria of possible risk to health if eaten (Steward, 1968). 12 tx C- too *00 4b* z %#41p* too W 60% x 0 6- in W STATION H-11 0 HINGHAM BAY 0 * 5' foot depth U) 49 32' foot depth 37 0 12 14 16 is 20 22 24 26@ 28 30 1 3 5 7 9 11 13 1'5 17 JULY AUGUST DISSOLVED OXYGE ,I PATTFRNS BOSTON HAR OR, 196 W Fig. 17. Modera-l-e oXygen levels in daytime in mu tiple waste receiving areas (Federal Water Pollution Control Administration, 1968h). 414 Chapter E-18 ARTIFICIAL REEFS An artificial reef is an elevated structure of rocks, old cars, pilings, or other rigid materials placed in shallow seas and estuaries. Upon them develop rapid gvowths of attached organisms because of the fast current renewal that is usually found where a structure protrudes into a water mass well above the main friction layers of the bottom. These structures develop high current ecosystems as already described in Chapter A-3- If they are within the lighted zones, algae are an important part of the system; if deeper, growths are mainly ani 1. Artificial reefs are being placed into waters because of the good fishing that may result from the attraction of carnivores that then become part of the reef ecosystem. In clear tropical waters, these reefs may become covered with coral. There seem to be few aspects of the artificial reefs that differ from the natural ones except when the material is temporary, such as old car bodies that corrode and collapse. EXANPLES Oil Drilling Platform Supports in the Gulf of Maxico Gunter and Geyer (1955) described the fouling communities on oil plat- forms off Louisiana and Texas. Growing in shelf waters, these communities experienced less hydroclinatic stress than is found in many estuaries, and diversities were relatively large. Fig. I indicates zonation of two sets of pilings. Artificial Fishing Reefs and Oil Platforms of California Carlisle, Turner and Ebert (1964) studied reefs made of streetcar and car bodies and oil drilling platforms along the California coast. Kelp bass and sand bass reached population sizes attractive to fishermen within a year as fouling communities of algae, barnacles, and other invertebrates increased serving as food chains to larger fishes. Kelp becs established on some reefs, heavy beds of mussels on others. Representative data are given in Figs. 2-4 An Artificial Reef in Tropical Shallows Randall (1963a)studied the associations of organisms on a pile of con- crete blocks piled in turtle grass in the Virgin Islands. A population of reef carnivores developed and grazed the grass nearby, making a clear area around the reef (Table 1). Growth on a Sewer Outfall In Fig. 5 Turner, Ebert and Given (1966) show the ecosystem associated with a large sewer outfall pipe on the coast of California. Growths of attached consumers were abundant close to the end of the pipe where they were exposed to considerable eddying of sewage waters. 415 DISCUSSION These and other cases demonstrate that the artificial reef is a means for concentrating fish for fishing. The basis for the observed concentration of life may be the moving waters wbich provide some of the life function of food concentrating and bring in nutrients for algae. Theoretically, the number,of such reefs that may be developed is restricted by the availability of moving waters not previously stripped of food and nutrient. When the number of reefs becomeslarge enough to drag the water and reduce current, further reef additions may not be productive. The costs of these reefs has been high because the heavy winter waves disperse and destroy many of the structures that have been arranged. Some car-body reefs placed off Texas could not be located after two seasons. The development of concentrated marine life on reefs, shores, and beaches is a means for coupling the physical energies of the sea to the service of man. The means for doing this inexpensively needs systematic study. Surface cd E E M 93 cc 10 cc -Is < tr Bottom A schernatized distribution of the fouling organisms along the two Louisiana oil-well plat- forms described in the text. The greatest depth was fifty feet. Surface E i 72 r A generalized graphic distribution of the common fouling organisms along the two Texas oil-well platforms described in the text. The greatest depth was sixty feet. Except for the alga, organisms were not found right at tiva surface or right at the mudline. Relative abundance at depths are shown very roughly by thicknes@, of the lines. Fig. 1. Zonation on oil platforms off 'Texas (Gunter and Geyer, 1955). DEPTH cc@ DEPTH IN IN FEET FEET lp LEGEND LEGEND JD_ 10 7:7 DENSITY OF DENSITY OF 1: THE ORGANISM THE ORGANISM 20 20 HEAVY- LIGHT HEAVY - LIGHT ENCLOSED NUMBER ENCLOSED NUMBER _a INDICATES DENSITY INDICATES DENSITY PER SQ.FT AT PER SO FT AT 40 'N THE INDICATED THE INDICATED '@N LEVEL LEVEL *-INDIVIDUAL 6=INDMDUAL SPECIES 15 SPECIES @-PLUMOSE AND COLONIAL ANEMONES IS G-GREEN ANEMONES 80 LJ 80 0 90 B LOW 90 FEET ALL ANIMALS SHARPLY REDUCED IN NUMBERS 100 E DUE TO'DRILL CUTTINGS. 110 110 The vertical distribution of the moior biomass on Hazel, July 1959, approxi- The vertical distribution of the major biomass on Hazel, July 1961, approxi- mately 12 months after installation. mately 36 months after installation. 41 16@ fig. 2. Vertical distribution of attached animals on a California oil platform at two CTS 11111IN1111 times after construction (Carlisle, Turner, and Ebert, 1964) 1200 TEST BLOCK ORGANISMS (TOTAL NUMBER) 417 KELP AND SAND BASS POPULATION 1100 (MONTHLY AVERAGE) SURFPERCH POPULATION (MONTHLY AVERAGE) '000 ......... No DATA 900 800 - > 700 - LL 600 - 0 W 500 z 400 300 200 100 0 JUNE JULY AUG SEPT OCT NOV DEC JAN FES MAR APR MAY JUNE ALY 1959 1960 MONTH OF OBSERVATION The total number of test block organisms, seaperch, and boss recorded on the Redondo Beach streetcar reef from June 1959 to July 19W Fig. 3. Record[ of animls on a California artificial reef (Carlisle, Turner, and Ebert, 1964). 000 1z ,400 200 F goo goo 400 Soo 100 1 900 Days Roof in E.Iltonc* Increase of kelp bass population with time on car body reef (1,500 fish at 522nd day omitted). Wool - 750- .500- C z 250 11 'a 200 300 400 Wo 60 709 goo 90 @0 Days Reef in ExIstencoo Increase of sand bass population with time on Paradise Cove car body reef (2,000 fish at 525th day omitted). Fig. 4. Rapid establishment of carnivorous fish stocks on an artificial reef in California (Carlisle, Turner, and Ebert, 1964). 418 Table 1. Summary of analysis of fishes collected from an artificial reef in'St. John, Virgin Islands (column "A") and from a natural reef area of comparable size (column 'IN,,) (From Randall 1963a). Family of Species Total Weight A N A Pomadasidae 4 3 3T T Serranidae 5 3 16 5 Holocentridae 4 T 6 Acanthuridae 3 2 ,;5 2 Scaridae T T 4 Balistidae 1 - 5 Muraenidae 2 5 4 1.5 Mullidae 2 - 2 -- LutJanidae 1 2 1 '5 Diodontidae 1 - 1 Scorpaenidae 2 2 1 0.1 Chaetodontidae 3 4 o.2 1.3 Labrida,e 5 5 0.2 0.5 Pomacentridae 2 T 0.2 4.5 Moringuidae 1 1 0.05 0.1 Tetraodontidae 2 1 0.02 -- Clinidae 1 9 0.01 03 Gobiidae 1 T 0.01 O-OT Ophidiidae 1 1 0.01 0.01 Xenocondridae 1 2 0.01 Emmelichthyidae 1 - -- Monacenthidae 1 o.d8 Antennariidae 1 0.02 Grammidae 0.01 C irrhitidae 0.01 Syngnathidae 1 --- Microdesmidae 1 Gobiesocidae 3 0.1 Priacanthidae 1 0.1 Apononidae 3 0.1 Aulostomidae 1 0.5 Gramistidae 2 0.5 Blennidae 3 O-T Totals -7T 419 LEGEND to .Ionics of phoronid worms MCorynactis cilifornica Ui W 0 0 0 @Ai OD J2 - - - - - - 000decaceria fewkesi. A scattered barnacles 2 sp) D z 11 rock scallops A 0 colonies of stony coral W v . .,p.I.rbi clu.migcrus W CL CL 0 *,pisaster sigantaus A -tf�. 0 Patiria miniata Ir 0 gorgonian C 2 SPA W in 0 core z Polychahte sample 0 Foraminifera Sample 4F0 %%% % 0 % 'J. %% 15 M2 SAMPLE AREAS A pictorial representation of the major founistic assemblages along the last 100 feet of the outfoll pipe. No "macroscopic" animals or plants were recorded in the 2 sample areas (each encompassing approximately 135 square feet of bottom area) at the pipe,termin4s. ' Fig. 5. Attached organisms on the aquaduct of a California sewage outfall offshore(Turrier, Ebert, and Given. 1966). 420 The wide diversity of food utilized by the top carnivores of the reef communities is illustrated in Fig 6 for red snappers in the Gulf of Mexico and Table Z for grouper in the Caribbean. W 100 D 0 > so 0,0 X U 0 F- U0 40- eo LL 'o 0 0 @0- 20 W < it 40 1 1 66 so 100 120 140 so lio 200 22' 0 24'0 STANDARD LENGTH (mm) Ontogenetic Food Progression of Red Snappers. A FREEPORT PORT MANSFIELD LUMP 33 LUMP 97 SEBREE C X FES - MARCH 1964 OCT 1964 PORT ARANSAS FREEPORT Oct. Food Habits of Red Snappers by Volume. A. Louisiana Adult Red Snappers. (46. Stomachs) B. Texas Adult Red Snappers. (68 Stomachs) : C. Louisiana Juvenile Red Snappers. (28 Stomachs) 0 0 '0 'D. Texas Juvenile Red Snappers. (45 Stomachs). Fig. 6. Food of the reef-dwelling red snapper off Texas (Moseley, 1966). 421 Table 2 Analysis of the Fishes Found' in the Stomachs of Nassau Groupers. (P,arxiall, 1965s) Fami ly Number of Times Identification of Fishes Found in Stomachs Parrotfishes (Scaridoe) 13 Sparisom curofrenatu Scaru vetula Scaru sp. Wrasses (Labridoe) 6 Clepticu Parra (3) Halichoeres bivittatus (2) Halichoeres saMd Damselfishes (Por.iocentridae) 5 Chromi multilineot Chromis cXanea Pomacentru fgjaZ Microspathodon ch!ysuru Squirrelfishes (Holocentridae) 4 Holocentrus rufus (2) Holocentrus sp. Myripristi jacobu Snappers (Lutianidae) 4 Ocyuru chrysurus (3) Lutianu sp. Grunts (Pomadasydoe) 3 Hoemulon aurolineatum (2) Haernulon flavolineatu Morays (Muroenidoe) 3 Gymnothorox mortnq Muraen milioris Round herrings (Dussumieridoe) 2 Jenkinsia laml2rotoeni (2) Lizardfishes (Synodontidoe) 2 Synodu intermediu Seo'basses (Serranidoe) I Hypoplectrus 2@t@ Goatfishes (Mu I I ido e) I Pseudupeneus maculatu Bigeyes, (Priacanthidae) I Priacanthu cruentatus Surgeonfishes (Acanthuridoe) I Acanthurus sp. Trunkfishes (Ostraciidoe) I Lactophry sp. Silversides (Atherinidoe) I Anchovies (Engroulidae) I 422 Chapter F MIGRATING SUBSYSTEMS B. J. Copeland H. T. Odum Frank N. Moseley The University of Texas University of North University of Corpus Port Aransas 78373 Carolina at Chapel Christi Hill 27514 Corpus Christi, Texas 78411 INTRODUCTION Characteristic adaptations to the seasonal regime existing in temperate coastal systems that permit the rapid rise of animal populations with energy avail- .ability are the migrations of populations of larger animals into the bays from the rivers and the sea at the time uf seasonal food pulses. Animals, such as the shrimp, salmon, and shad, make their famous migrations and the population's new young experience their period of most rapid growth rate in the bays at the time of food pulses in that system. This fast growth of young, rather than the actual reproduction, gives rise to the concept of the estuary as a "nursery". Egg production and hatching usually takes place in an area of relative stability far up streams in the case of the salmon or in the stable temperatures and salinity of the sea as in the case of the shrimp . These hatchery areas are connected in such a way as to allow the young to drift into the highly productive and highly pulsing coastal systems. The migrating stocks are transported from one kind of system (usually the inland stream or the continental shelf of the seas) to couple with the energies of the coastal system. Thus, the migrating stock plugs into the energy cycle of a coastal system, becomes part of the cycle, then unplugs and emigrates to yet another system. In this way, the systems along coasts are inter-connected through the migrating energy couplings. In addition to examples cited here many of the other chapters show graphs documenting season- al pulses of food and movements of stocks of larger animals into position to use the yields. Fig. 1 is a typical pulse of plankton food availability due to increased energy availability from runoff. Hemisphere Patterns Fig. 2 is an overall summary of migrating spbsystems for the United States coast from Arctic to Tropics. There is migration northward, landward, and into estuaries with rising pulses of food production in Spring and south and sea- ward as productive pulse declines in Fall. Foods change as migrating stocks utilize the different kinds of seasonal food accumulations as they pass into different areas. Seals from Alaska, for example, migrating.south to waters off California (North Pacific Fur Seal Commission Report of Investigatiop 1958-1961, 1962) change food in each zone. 423 1L39 EAM FLOW .1 rn vo 0 rn z 0 -4 r" J z V1 I 1@ J"> 'To -4 -4 L1604 1 0 PENETRA TWH 4AIL RL WIAW I APR. 1 SAY JW I JUL. Aft OCT am 06 Fig. 1: Seasonal variations in the Patuxent River of streqm flow, salinity, light penetration, and preciritation in the upper diag-ram, and of surface and bottom phytoplankton (From Nash,1947; Figs. 43 and 44). Table 2. Salmon catch in 1,1achias River salmon run (Bond, 1967), MACHIAS RIVE'll SALMON RUNS Dme of Capture o f Rod Totals Year 10th 100th Catch Machias Whitneyville Remarks 1949 jitne 21 Jody 16 862 1950 )une IW Aug. 2 134 1951-52 No rccords available - - 19511 Jolly 100 30 4 258 - 19511 julle M. Jim., 23 9 544 65 Start of tra@oping at Whitneyville 1955 Not av:d1able 22 3 16 1956 Not availfd)l 2S 396 T36 195 7 Ma%, 31 Jilm 1.3 232 451 86 1958 jilne 10 junc 101 6J-7 3'36 Ist fish May 2.3--carliest to date 1959 fulle 8 July 7 1 48 813 637 1960 IIInC .111ne 22 4.1 .307 182 19(ii Julie 20* June 3 0 130 605 397 Ledge removal in gorge 102 May 28 .1111N. 1 76 3-1-13 297, Ist IiSIL-May 19th 19613 .11111C 9 Illue 1 6"1 347 -936 1964 May 27 June 25 78 373 243 New Dcilil fishway at Whitneyville I Ist fish-May 14th 1965 fuh, 10* July 28 58 299 199 Incomplete Machias count jull 9 - 'rraj discontinued -,it Machias 1966 5 2 503** Ist May 13th 'A"i Initial count d-clayed-trap not in operation at Machi%i Not finA count 424 0 it % 3 C-414-41DA 6 so "ITE0 PACIFIC S TA reS ATLANTIC OCEAN OCEAN ME)(ICO GULF OF 011 1 % 0 MEXICO do 10 60 'A' SOIJ 110 100 90 so Fig. 21 Summaxizing diagram of seasonally shifting stocks of the North Americari coastal zones. 1, Pandalid Shrimp; 2, Salmon; 3p King Crabi 4, Large Claw Lobster; 5# Sea Mammals; 6, Sea Birds; 7, Herring, Menhadeng alewives, etco; 8, Shad; 9, Striped Bass; 10, Penaeid Shrimp; llp Blue Crabs; 12, Mullet; Circles indicate offshore species shift* Inset shows the general patternt northward, landward to inshore nuri4ry inspring; southward, outward to coastal and offshore wintering areas. 425 EXAMPLES Some migrating animals spawn in the sea and the larvae drift into the highly pulsating coastal systems while others spawn far up streams and the Jar- vaeare transported downstream to the estuary and still others 'spawn in the coasta.L systems which are utilized for nursery areas. A significant percent- age of the marine organisms that compose the commercial catch in this country spend at least a portion of their life-history in the coastal systems (Deiner, 1964). Since many of the major migrating forces are of commercial importance, they have received considerable research attention and will, therefore, serve as examples for the following discussion. Commercial Shrimp Penaeid Shrimp According to Guest (1958), the penaeid shrimp off Texas (Figs.3, 4) lay their eggs on the continental shelf in 10 to 40 fathoms of water. The eggs hatch, in a very short time, and become a part of the driftfng plankton of the sea (Fig. 5). After passing through several larval stages while drifting generally toward shore, the post-larvae enter coastal systems through passes or bay-sea interfaces. They experience very fast growth rates (Loesch,1965) in coastal bays and subsequently emigrate from the system as juveniles,back to the sea (Figs.6, 7). Few of the adults migrate back to the bay systems, but many are consumed in the sea where they constitute a very substantial part of natural food chains and of the commercial fishery. A diagrammatic summary of the penaeid shrimp life-history in Texas is shown in Figure 3. Shrimp production in Texas waters is closely correlated with the total annual availability of river input and spring photosynthesis. A plot of shrimp catch and average rainfall for Texas is shown in Figure 8. An increase or decrease in rainfall was followed by similar fluctuations in shrimp catch, generally after a two-year period. Correlation coefficients were significant to the 1% level when rainfall of the two previous years was correlated with an annual shrimp catch (Gunter and Hildebrand,1954). Measurements of immigration and emigration have been reported for Aransas Pass Inlet (Figs.9 and 10) and Cedar Bayou (Figs.11 and 12). See map in Fig. 4. The migration of postlarval penaeid shrimp through the Aransas Pass Inlet, Texas is shown in Fig. 9 and in other areas (Fig. 13). Brown shrimp (Penaeus aztecus) migrate through,the pass into Texas bays during spring and the pink shrimp postlarvae (Penaeus duorarum) migrate into Texas bays during autumn, both during times o-f higher river input into the bays. Pinks and browns migrate out at end of spring and whites (Penaeus setiferus) go out at end of summer. See Chapter B-3 for more on pink shrimp. 426 .......... ............. ::::::::@;::!::!:::-i:;:!::....!:::::: ..... ..... ............. ... ....... Mlil ........... . ........... ........ ... .. ............. .. .. .......... ................... . . . . . .......... _M::: M::M ....... ..... ..................... ................. .. ................. .. ............. A BA Y .......... .. ........... ............ ...................... ........... .......... . . ............... ............. .................... ..... ..... ............... . .......... .......... ........... .......... ..... .......... ......................... ....... ... ne ................. ....... i- lit. ......... ... ............ ......... .... .. ...................... ,P:=:::: ............ .......... OULF OF MEx1cO Vb ............ .. Fig. 3: DiaFram of the shrimp life history. a) shrimp, a[,rs; b) nauplius larva; c) protozoeq; d) q,sis; e) postmysis; f) juvenile shrimp; g) adolescent shrimp; h) mature adult shrimp. (From Guest,1058; Fig. 427 E U;' SQ RA@ COPANO 10-40 8"A ARAHsAs MUD BOTTOM BAYS DAY E-4 04 5-740 'ARA PAN ENTHIC ALGAE AND TURTLE GRASS -4 Nuffoafts zq RE016" DAY 0.8 M r4 @j sas Pift SS =AJ let .c NBTfTUTE OF MARINE $CIE#= CORPIA CORPUS CHRISTI 19MAy CHRISTI PORT ARANSAS 30- 36 FINE GRASS UPPER LAOU14A MADRE I M NANNOPLANKTON-CLAY SAFFIN DAY 2 M 30- Fijz. 4. Central Texas Coast showing Aransas Pass Inlet and Cedar Bayou (inlet) (Odum and Hoskin, 1958). C. U a rEXAS 0"A. C7 Ira, IK . . ....... CUVULATIdj@ @1-! CATCO r1fiR STV40A0.D toW CA?CH COWPOSiTl@%# W VOL WS &I Welit C PRO NVOCA X'S's. 'Osr"'M. 01EKENT W Z!rtribudon d planktcnic stages of Pensv.% spp. in the unrthwenern Guif of Mexico, JWy- ,:,4;@ CT spp,erabtr 1964. Statlons o art- sbown as open circles. Fig. 5. Shrimp larvae off the Texas coast (Fischer in Lindner, 1967)- 428 V 777 0" x I C 0 Fig.6. Outward migration of tagged brown shrimp from Galveston Bay (Inglis, 1960). se oil so* 2e AN 1@ 0 N )/ 4 GULF OF MEXICO 4" 9. Lo,go SOrMON S*%"d 2 5,!- ----------------- Tayw.ior K. DRY TCRVX1"S%j MAR-2L.S., K V KU 20 0 PC @ kC4 ps' 24* @AUTICfL MILES Fig. T. Migration of tagged pink shrimp from shallow coastal nurseries to shelf waters where they were taken in the Tortugas fishery (Costello and Allen, 1960). 429 30- 40 -j t L<1 20 DE 30 Ae z 0 .j .0 W 10 C- D 20 ir W 0 19@5 1430 1435 19040 1945 19k 455 19630 1%5 Fig. Anmial shrimp catch and average rainfall for Texas, 1927-1964. A and C': Average rainfall for all recording gauges in state of 'Texas. B and:D: Annual catch of white shrimp from Texas waters, Xt Annual catch of brown shrimp from Texas -waters (From Copeland 01966 a; Fig, 2). aztecus duorarum -P tetiterus 8 30. 25 0 A i A F S 0 N D Fig. 9. Number of postlarval shrimp entering the Arans5s Pass Inlet, Texas during 1963 and 196L in number per 100 m . Each point Yepresents the mean of 30 samples (From Copeland and Truitt, 1966. Fig. 3). .1 430 10. Trichiurus lepturus 10- Lagodon rhomboides 10. Cynosclon orenarius 10. AMONVA. Micropogon undulatus 10. Sairdiello chrysuro 10, Membras mortinica Eels Goleichthys felis 10. Anchoo spp. 10, Orevoortia patronus 10. HarenQulo pensocolce 10. Lolligunculo brevis 10. Penceus cluorarum 10. Penaeus cztecus 10. Callinectes spp 10- Doctylometro. quinquecirrho 100- Stomolophus moleogris 1WDWO Total Catch J F M' A M J J A S 0 IN D Fig. 10. Biomass in gm/m3 wet weight of animals moving through Aransas Pass Inlet, Texas., from the bay to the Gulf, 1963 and 196h. The vertical scale is logarithmic (From Copelanc.3,1965b.Fig. 2). so To 40 so @IWQ GUL 10 A M 4 J A 2 0 N 0 J F tA A M J 4 A 8 0 N 0 YEAR 1950 YEAR 1951 Fig* 11. Number of fish moving through Ceder Bayou, Texas from bay to Gulf and from Gulf to bay (From Simmons and Hoese.1959; Fig. 12). 1 431 6, r. iv " v. A @j C.". Ap":, Al", MY . J-7. Graph 1. C6111419 sooldes population of the love"124"61161 area by months. Esprossed at per cost, of porc sample'., I OtA, 194?- 48 1948-49 10% 1949-50 .,10%, Fig. 12. Blue crab migrations through Cedar Bayou, Texas (From Daugherty,1952; Fig. 1). @- '0 6 11 jrIA\ I 0 0 11 _j Vb 'B Z: 4 V W 0 > 0 21 *-j 4_@ 0- a. 260. Ip 4A 40- 0 z W 2:20- < _j W 0 -49 Fig. 13. RelaUvet number of postlarvol. shrimp entering bays and river flows. A. Guadalupe River, Texas, 1953-19-04t BS Neuse River, N.C., 1955-1964; C. Brown shrimp (Penaeus aztecus) entering Aransas Pass lnlet, Texas; D. Peneid shrimp post-larvae entering Brunswick-Onslow Bay, N.C. (Copeland, 1966a)o 432 Pandalid Shrimp Passing northward on both coasts pandalid shrimps replace penaeid shrimps as principal commercial fishery. In Alaska, Harry (1963) summarizes the patterns of population of Pandalus which develop stored resources during summer food growth periods, develop eggs by fall, and carry them all winter ready for release into the rising bloom of plankton in the Spring. In both Maine and Alaska, these shrimps move to the estuaries to release larvae. Herring-like Fishes Some schooling herring-like fish species (herring, alewives, anchovies, sardines, and menhaden) are found as principal members of the plankton-based marine ecosystems from the Arctic to the tropics, inshore and offshore. Although the location of spawningNaxies with species.data seem to fit the theory that whether spawning is inshore or sometimes offshore, the young ride the pulse of phytoplanktonand zDoplankton in the spring wherever net gains develop food concentrations. The migrations of the herring-like fishes tie the bays to the open shelf watArn where they I- turn on outgoing passage are a major food pulse in autumn, for the southward moving stocks of larger carnivores, and the peak activity of the trawling of commercial fisheries. The Gulf menhaden, Brevoortia patronus, exhibit a life-history very similar to that of the penaeid shrimp (Suttkus,1956). The larvae enter coastal systems on flood tides and grow rapidly to the juvenile stage in the bay before emigrating back to the sea. The adult population constitutes a substantial commercial fishery in the Gulf of Mexico continental shelf. Seasonality of menhaden spawning in the Gulf of Mexico, is shown by Suttkus 1 and Sundararaj (196 ) with the volume of the menhaden gonads (Fig. 14). The largest mean volume of gonads occurred during January, which would account for the abundance of young menhaden in San Antonio Bay during March and April (Fig.16) at time of spring food pulse (from light or rivers). The Atlantic menhaden, Brevoortia tyrannus, on the other hand, may return to tne bay during their adult stage (McHugh et al. 1959). In this way, they constitute a commercial fishery effort in_&@e_sapeake Bay as well as offshore (Fig. 15)- In a study concerning the quantitative populations of organisms in San Antonio Bay, Texas (unpublished), F. N. Moseley and B. J. Copeland, The University of Texas at Port Aransas, reported the seasonal abundance of Gulf menhaden in the upper estuary (oligohaline zone). A summary of one year's data is shown in Figure 16. They reported a large increase in the menhaden biomass (in gm/m2) during the spring of both 1966 and 1967, with almost negligible amounts during the remainder of the year. It appears, then, that menhaden migrate from the Gulf of Mexico as larvae or postlarvae and utilize the seasonal flux in productivity and food availability during spring before emigration to the Gulf later in the season (summer). This relationship 433 (44) 10.0 0 - OVARY 9.0 - TESTIS 8.0 1.0 (411 z 0 a 6.0 05.0 4,0 0 > 3.0 2.0 1.0 JOS) (3) (2) (4). (1) (2) (T) - APR 'MAY 'JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC JAN 'FEB MAR 14. 7,rean volume of @@Or@t DajXDn -onads for various nionthsp using data collected during 1951 through 1958 in Louisinna (From Suttkus and Sundararaj#1961; Fig. 1). /00 80 60 40 20 0 A.4- Afay -/I/- J4111 A&T. Oct AW. Seasonal variation in relative numbers of age-group I menhaden from Chesapeake Bay bearing narrow marginal growth increments at the edge of th@ scale, 1954 and 1955. Fig* 15. Pulse of juvenile menhaden in Chesapeake Bay at the time of spring production pulse from phytoplankton to zooplankton (Mcllugh, Oglesby, and Pacheco, 1959). ver, r/v puA 4:34 C F5 aa If M-e,-.] h -aJ ed 4-0- .;-0 d i S (0 19 e-7 Fig. 16. Seasonal abundance of the Gulf menhaden (Brevoortia patronus) iri gm/W (lower curve) and freshwater input from the Guadalup@ River in CFS (upper curve) for San Antonio Bay, Texas (From Moseley and Copeland', The University of Texas; unpublished data). 0 IQ D J 435 Corresponds to the findings of Copeland (1965b) concerning measurements of emigrating juveniles through the Aransas Pass Inlet (see Fig. 10). Gunter and Christmas (1960) reported similar results for other bay systems along the Gulf coast. The peak populations (as high as 80 gm/m2 in Fig. 16) are composed almost entirely of very small fish (about 20 mm standard length), indicating that a tremendous migrating wave iof small menhaden enter Gulf coast estuaries each spring. In New England in Fall southward movement of young Menhaden along the shore (Fig* 17) wasi.shown by Allen et al. (1960). The heavy pulse of spring herring reproduction inshore (S@:Udj 195-97 In' Pacific waters is shown in Fig. 18. Skud (1961) shows the dominaut year class phenomenon exists in herring at Juneau, Alaska, showing a system stabilizing role for herring in Alaska as in Europe. In Maine there is an offshore gyralto bring offshore larval release into the estuaries for spring growth (Graham and Venno, 1968). American Shad The American shad (Alosa sapidissim) is anadromous, spending most of its life in the sea and ascending coastal rivers to spawn (Stevensor@1899; Talbot and Sykes,.1958.; Sykes and Talbot,1958; Walburg and Nichols,1967). The young remain in the natal stream until autumn and then enter the ocean, where they may migrate north during summer and south during winter (Walburg and Nichols,1967). Apparently, the shad will travel great distances up rivers for their spawning activity (Table 1). @1 Talbot and Sykes (1958) reported studies 'of the migrations of American shad carried out over a period of 19 years by tagging experiments. Their analysis revealeda consistent migration pattern, which can be summarized as follows: "After spawning, adult shad in streams from Chesapeake Bay to the Connecticut River migrate northward and spend the summer and fall in the Gulf of Maine. Canadian shad migrate southward to the Gulf of Maine and also spend the summer and fall there. There is little evidence as to where shad spend the winter months; but it appears that they are scattered along the Middle Atlantic area, for beginning in January or February as the spawning season approaches, they move inshore and are taken in the commercial fisheries from North Carolina to Long Island. They then migrate either north or south to their native streams and spawn, repeating this cycle each year that they escape natural and fishing mortalities. The young shad leave their native streams in the fall, probably spend the winters in the Middle Atlantic area, migrate to the Gulf of Maine each summer with the adults, and when mature return to their native streams to spawn. Those that spawn in streams south of Chesapeake Bay, and particularly south of North Carolina, die after spawning." 436 SILVERSIDES o-----o FLOUNDER --------- x PIPEFISH MENHADEN x 2,000. 200 C9 :3 1,500 -150 < 1,000 100, W Im 500- a-50 z JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV APk @A@ jU@ TIME IN BIWEEKLY PERIODS Fig. 17. Fish caught in shallows along the estuarine shore at New Haven, Conne by Warfel and Hertiam, 1944. (Allen, Delacy , and Gotshall, 1960). o" C+ 00 NUMBEROF EGGS PER CENTIMETER OF GRASS :3 (1) SD ro fA UQ 11 (a 0 al 0 a rL C+ > iT cp III P* 03 M 4 a 0 0 cn LA to 0 t-i Eo F-J HATCHING DATE .pr, Vj ID \0 %,A a > \0 .9 1 C+ > C+ 0 I t to ro @:r 0 CUBIC CENTIMETERS OF EGGS PER METER OF EEL GRASIS c+' 1+ 40 0 ::r ock 0 1+ 0 C+. 0 tl 438 Table 1: The orginal, 1896)and 1060 lirriits of shad ranEe in 23 -najor rivers of th2 Atlantic coast (Walburg Fnd Jichols,1067; Table 1). Original limit of shad rum- 13" limit of shad run 1"0 limit of shad run an f . liver Dlmtcull 0 Distance Distance Distance above Locall" from Locality fX00 Locality from coastline coastline coastline coastline Miles Miles Miles Miles St. Johns . . . . 375 Sources . . . . . . 375 Sources. 375 Lake Washington . . . 250 Xita&ha . . . . 450 Macau . . . . . . . 310 Hawkinsville 300 Hawkinsville . . . . 300 09sechee . . . . 350 Ogee chee Shoals, 200 Millen . . . . . 100 MLdville . . . . . . 123 Savannah . . . . 425 Tallulah Falls 384 Augusta Dam . . . 209 Savannah Lock and Dan . . . . . . ISO Rdisto . . . . . 300 Sources . . . . . . 300 Jones Bridge 281 Norway . . . . . . . 120 mantes: Wateree . . . . 350 Great Falls . . . . 272 Great Falls . . . 272 Santee Dam . . . . . 65 Congaree 410 Green River . . . . 374 Columbia . . . . 233 Santee Dam . . . . . 65 Fee Dee . . . . . 497 Wilkesboro . . . . 451 Grassy Island. 242 Blewett Falls Dan. . 242 Cape Fear . . . . 290 Haywood . . . . . . 210 Smiley Falls 181 Lock No. I . . . . . 65 Reuse . . . . . .340 Sourcea . . . . . . 340 Fish Dam . . . . 300 Milburnie . . . . . . 163 Pamlico-Tar . . . 252 Rocky Mount . . . . 157 Rocky Mount . . . 157 Rocky Mount . . . . . 157 Roanoke . . . . . 457 Weldon . . . . . . 249 Weldon . . . . . 249 Spring Hill . . . . . 215 James . . . . . .420 . . . . . . . . . 370 Bashere Dam. 140 Boshere Dam. 140 Rappahannock 248 Falmouth . . . . . 155 Falmouth Falls 155 Falmouth Falls . . . 155 Potomac . . . . . 400 Great Falls . . . . 190 Great Falls. . . 190 Little Falls Dan 180 Susquehanna . . . 617 Binghamton . . . . 513 Clatka Ferry 279 Conowingo Dam . . . . 205 Delaware . . . . 457 Deposit . . . . . . 256 Burrows Dam. 196 Deposit, N. Y . . . . 260 Hudson . . . . . 314 GLens Falls . . . . 209 Troy . . . . . . 164 Coxsackie . . . . . . 130 Housatonic . . . 202 Falls Village . . . ISO Birmingham . . . 92 . . . . . . . . . . No shad Connecticut . . . 409 b@Llcws Falls . . . 204 Windsor Lock*. . 89 Turners Falls . . . . 130 Merrimac . . . . 140 Winnepesaukee . . . 125 Lawrence . . . . 20 Lawrence . . . . . . 20 Kennebec . . . . 155 Carritunk Falls. . 108 Augusta . . . . . 44 . . . . . . . . . . No shad Penobscot . . . . 255 . . . . . . . . . 90 Verona . . . . . 35 . . . . . . . . . . No shad 439 It appears, then, that there is a strong spring spawning run which brings the shad into coastal systems along the Atlantic coast. The general decline in shad catch is shown in Fig. 19. Crabs and Lobsters The blue crab (Callinectes A!Ipidus) maUes spawning runs from the estuaries of the Gulf and Atlantic coasts during spring to spawn in the near- shore waters (Churchill,1919; Daugherty,1952). The blue crab, however, spends most of its life in the bay systems, with occasional migrations to the lower parts of rivers. Crabs constitute a substantial commercial fishery in some bay systems along the Atlantic and Gulf coasts. Daugherty (1952) reported the migrations of the blue crab (Callinectes sapidus) through Cedar Bayou, Texas. The results of his study are shown in Figure 12. The adult blue crab migrates from the bay to the nearshore Gulf to spawn during spring, as indicated by the migration data reported by Daugherty. The megalops larvae of the crab then migrate into the bay systems within a short time, thus arriving during the time of maximum availability of food and optimal environmental conditions. A top carnivore niche in northern waters is occupied by the big clawed lobster (Homarus) on the east coast and by the king crab (Paralithodes) in Alaska. These large animals when not under fishing pressure that ke'jTs the stocks young develop large animals 10 or more years of age. Their diets switch with availability and both shift to deeper waters offshore in winter and inward into estuaries in summer releasing larvae into the pulse of food productivity in the estuarine nursery. Bright et al.(1960), for examplel, show release of king crab larvae into the Cook inlet gyral at the time of the main spring plankton blooms. After inshore release of larvae they return to deeper water by summer (Reynolds and Powell, 1964). Sakuda (1966a)and Powell and Nickerson (1965) find maximum content of the adults during the winter suggesting storage role prior to spring spawning and molting cycles. Powell (1967) documents the long seven year growth cycle and the history of some fisheries being depleted in 7 years in small bays on Kodiak Island. The Maine Lobster fishery is summarized by Scattergood (196M)o Sherman and Lewis (1967) show lobster pulse in summer with plankton pulse. Activity of adults and their liklihood of capture is temperature programmed (Dow, 1967). Striped Bass The striped bass, Roccus lineatus, spawn in rivers upstream from the bay during spring (Merriman,1937). The larvae are transported downstream into the estuary where they undergo rapid growth rates during the summer. Migrations out of the bay occur during the fall, with the population migration south on the Atlantic continental shelf (Fig. 20). There is a return trip to the north in the spring and the adults may again enter bays. During the migration south in the fall, the migrating population decreases in number as various individuals enter bays along the way. On the other hand, the migration north during spring increases in numbers as outward migrating adults join the northward migrating group. 440 rp-0 I -NT O7F 1 RELEASE ISA.... POPULATION AT NIANTIC REMAINED STATIONARY DURING THE SUMMER MONTHS aw Vaal OWLAULMIA SPRING MIGRATION TO THE N. E. wAvanalian FALL MIGRATION TO THE S. W. NGRATION ROUTES OF TAGGED STRIPED BASS 1936 Fig. 20. Chart of the Atlantic coast showing the miCrations of striped bass as determin--@-d from tar.-ging returns (From Merriman,1937; Fi[-,. 6). z 40- 35 30- 0 00 25 z 20 2 YEARS Fig. 19 . Shad catch on the Atlantic coast of the United States (Walburg and Nichols, 1967). 44.1 There is a strong seasonal migration of striped bass, with the maximum movement through bay systems during spring and autumn (Merriman, 1937 and others). Az shown in Figure 21, catches of striped bass in coastal systems are highly seasonal, indicating a relationship between migrations and food availability. Salmon Salmon.including the Pacific species of Oncorhynchus and the Atlantic Salmo are anadromous'spending adult life at sea,returning to rivers to spawn (Ricker, 1966, and Neave 1966a,.1966b). (See Figure 22). Each species is different in timing and location of its nursery stage. It.now seems possible to relate these programs of behavior to the pulse of producti- vity in the environments that the salmon use for food. Consider the sharp pulse of productivity and migrations in Alaska. The migration of p=k) cono, king, sockeye, chum salmon and migrating rainbow trout, and dol-1,Y vaften char (Revet# 1962) are principle patterns of sharp seasons of Alaska. History of one main salmon system and its disturbance by man is given-by Pennoyer, Middleton, and Morris (1965). Bailey (1968) documents young salmon consumption of estuarine zooplankton of the outbound migration. A general summary of the Salmon of Alaska-North Pacific system of migratory exchange is given in a popular pamphlet from Department of Fisheries, 1155 Robson St Vancouver. Generalities about the separation of the main nursery food niches of the species are : Pinks,intertidal spawning and with estuarine nursery; king- chinooks in rivers; silver-coho in creeks; sockeye-reds in lakeg; chums spawn in freshwater but with nursery growth in sea. Meehan (1966) showed importance of food chains of post larval period to growth of salmon moving seaward. See. also Thorsteinson (19@9)* Sheridan (1966) summarizes workshop wiih recent studies on Pink salmon in estuaries. One of the included dontribution� by.J. W. Martin indicates timing and growth productivity of fry that enter estuaiies in May remaining during maximum period of estuarine productivity among.the islands. Then becoming juveniles and after rapid growth they 9chool in August and move out into the open sea. The pinks in their migration place their growth drain on the estuary at the time of its great energy pulse (Tyler, Davis and Bevan, Fig. 24 and 25). They eat herring on their return (Reid, 1961)., What happens in alternate years at low pink migration? Who gets,the herring ihat year? See also Gilhausen (1962) and Mainzer and Shepard (1962). Foerster (1968) summarized the life history, migrations and factors affecting the abundance of the sockeyesalmon. Spawning occurs in late summer and autumn, usually in streams that originAte.as lakes. There Are runs of adult salmon through the coastal systems during autumn, to enable the adult to reach spawning areas far upstream. The fry, which hatch.in April and May, spend about.two, years in the lakes at the origin of the streams. The young fry start their seaward migration in April to June, at the beginning of their second or third year. Thug, sizeable salmon enter the coastal systems during spring. They remain in the sea feeding areas for.about one to four years and, with the onset of maturity, turn back again' to coastal waters and to their native streams. Salmon in estuary are in Fig. 23. Lagler and Wright (1962) characterize the fishes in the food chain of outbound salmon especially dolly varden. Though restocking and other steps the salmon migration in Maine still runs in small numbers (Table 2, See page 353)- 442 POUND NET CATCHES AT FORT POND SAY, L. L, N.Y. 11000 BY FIVE-YEAR PERIOD$ 1884-1928 4000 3000 2400 1000 1000 1899-1093 XOOO JOOO 1#94- 1896 SOOT 169g.-1903 31 z 100.1 1904-1909 19,09-1913 I I 600 1914-1918 MM 2000 1919-1923 APRIL "IV ^09 JMV AIMUST "FT. OC T. MV. Fig. 21. Number of striped bass caught each 5 days , by 5-year periods in Fort Pond Bay, N. Y. (From Merriman,1937; Fig. 2). 443 A A 0& J@o R San %'no CA@MDA UNITED STATES OLYMPIC PENINSULA '1"iE- 22, Schematic presentation of migration routes follored bY Pink salmon in southern British Columbia and Washington waters (From Vernon et al. 1964; Fig. 1). 35' 30 Bellingham 4% -4 A .4 South BeIllinghom Bay Hingham -Silve Chinook 0 0 Distribution of marked salmon in Bellingham Bay. Fig.23. Salmon in estuaries of Washington (Miller,Wetherall, Zebold Lenarz, Stauffer, I bujioka, Halstead, Salo, and English, 1908). 0, 0 E fU r .01 't WESTERN WASHINGTON STATE 0 EVERETT BAY 10 44 141-1 b'1314 0 EVERETT BAY w". Q-1 U PL -Pink salmon fryAistrib Aco, UA I 1A April 9-14. Western Washington with inset of Everett Bay. Fig. 24.. Passage of outbound pink salmon through estuaries at time of spring-pulse of pr (Tyler, Davis, and Bevan, 19629- Tyler and -Bevan, 1965a). 445 41, q .... AN 0 0 0 r A 00 a A 0 411 0 0 0 1 0 0 a 0 0 3 1 0 0 0 0 a 0 0 0 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 W 0 1 0 0 a 0 7 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 Pink salmon fry distribution in Bellingham Bay, -Chum salmon fry distribution in Bellingham Bay, April 16-23, 1964. April 16-23, 1964. Fig..25 Y -n salmon outbound in Washington e t i t time of plankton and 'L ,g W es a riv@; 0 food pulse(Tyler and Bevan, 065 a). impo PRINCE RUPERT S- M PHI.. J Y 0 PAINC S&L A ww RUP It AT. OIGBY MORSE -ISLAND JUIS'S IS L A N 01 1-, WAINWmamr 54 ATS ON ISL-NO (PULP MILL) S 0 U A, 0 PORPOISr SMI T"'.. SO I S I. A 4 0 130-20- Chart of the Prince Rupert area showing location of stations occupied during September 1961 (No. 1-18), and during April 1962 (No. 1-30). Fig. :26. Location of low oxygen conditions due to sulfito waste in wostorn Canada (Waldichuk, 1966). 446 DISCUSSION The Aransas Pass System Aransas Pass Inlet in Texas is a tidal pass connecting 500,000 acres of Texas bay systems to the Gulf of Mexico (Fig. 4).which illustrates the magnitude and variability of migrating animals (Copelanc;, 1965b). The total catch and the catch of 17 more abundant species are shown in Fig. 10. Total average catch was less than one gm/m3 during Januarv. February, July, August and September; between 1 and 10 gm/m3 during March, November and December; and between 10 and 100 gm/m3 during April, May, early June and October. The times of peak migrations correspond with maximum energy flux in the coastal systems of Texas (Odum and Hoskin,1958; Odum and Wilso'q,1962). As illustrated in Fig. 11, Simmons and Hoese (1959) reported similar results for Cedar Bayou (see position of Cedar Bayou shown in Fig. 4). The amount of biomass leaving the shallow, highly productive bays of Texas into the Gulf of Mexico is large (Copeland,1965b). Copeland made calculations to illustrate the magnitude of migrating subsystems from the bays to the Gulf. Using one of the larger catches (duringoctober 94.6 gm/m3) and multiplying by the vertical area of the pass times the speed of the current, it was estimated that 352 kg/sec were passing through the Aransas Pass to the Gulf. To obtain a more realistic value for annual migrations, average biomass movements and current structure were used. From the 150 times during the year that migration movements were sampled, the average ebb tide current speed was 0.65m/sec and the average biomass was 7.2 gm/m3. Application of the figures to the vertical area of the pass yielded a value of 22.15 kg/sec migratory movement for about four hours each day, the migration biomassbeconing 318,960 kg/day for an annual average. Totaling this value, one obtains the annual movement from the bays to the Gulf as 11.65 x 107 kg/year. Since all the bay area south of San Antonio Bay and north of the Laguna Madre Land Cut are considered to be dependent upon the Aransas Pass Inlet for their connection to the Gulf, one half million acres of bay are involved. Extending the above figures, the net productivity of these bays was computed to be 233 kg/acre (576 kg/hectare) per year (Copeland 1965 b). The migrating animals coming into the bay systems do not constitute a substantial biomass (Copeland,1965b), Plankton samples have revealed that almost all species collected in the outgoing biomass are represented by their larvae in the incoming plankton from the sea (Hoese,1965; personal observation). Although the total biomass of these planktonic organisms is relatively small because of their small size (usually a few mm), the number of them is extremely great. The number of shrimp postlarvae migrating through the Aransas Pass Inlet, Texas into the bay system (Fig. 4) is relatively large. Simmons and Hoese (1959) reported a very small number of large organisms migrating through Cedar Bayou into the bay system. 447 Seasonal Aspects There is a definite relationship between migration of most organisms and the time of maximum production in the bay systems. Two major sources of foods in bay systems, especially the plankton based temperate systems, are the process of photosynthetic productivity and river-borne input (Nash,1947; Copeland,1966alOdum and Wilson,1962; unpublished data for Texas Bays). Indeed, the major migration runs occur during spring and/or autumn for most migrating organisms (see Hoese,1965 for discussion concerning Texas fishes), correspond- ing to the season(s) of maximum food availability. As shown in Figures 4, 9-13, the migrations of organisms from and into Texas bay systems occur during spring and autumn. Pearcy and Richards (1962) reported a similar relationship for the Mystic River estuary in Connecticut. The entrance of postlarval penaeid shrimp into bay systems through the Aransas Pass Inlet, Texas and the Brunswick-Onslow bay area, N. C. corresponds to high flow of the rivers of the area during spring and autumn (Fig. 13). Undoubtedly, this coupling of peak migration and increased river flow (accomplished through centuries of natural selection) is essential for the propagation of penaeid shrimp (Copeland,1966a). important fluxes occur in bay systems during the high river flows of spring and autumn. These include vitamins and other dissolved organic compounds (Birke,1968), nutrients (Nash,1947), lowered salinit (Odum and Wilson,1962), and flushing and mixing activities (Pritchard,1967b@ In addition to important foods and vitamins transported by rivers into bay systems, the indirect stimulus of the incoming nutrients enhances photosynthetic productivity (Nash,1947; Odum and Wilson, 1962). The relationship between river input and phytoplankton production in the Patuxent ii illustrated in Figure 15. Hoese and Jones (1963) reported populations of fish and invertebrates in Redfish Bay, Texas during spring and autumn, corresponding to periods of maximum productivity and food availability (Chap. B-3). DISTURBANCES The popular impression that a general decline in the populations of migrating organisms has occurred over the past several years is by and large correct (Clarl@ 1966a). Many articles have been written in which much has been said about the effects of civilization upon the abundance or organisms required to enter coastal waters during their life-time. Walburg and Nichols (1967), however, in discussing the decline of the American shad (Fig. 16) over the past several decades, cited multiple causes. Undoubtedly this is true since most coastal systems are the receptors of multiple activities of modern man. We will attempt to discuss several disturbances in coastal systems as they may affect various migrating organisms. Impoundments The construction of dams on coastal streams has limited the distance that migrating forms may traverse upstream for spawning or other activities. As a matter of fact, the decline observed in Figure 19 for the American shad was mostly attributed to the fact that available rivers for spawning have decreased (Walburg and Nichols,1967). In Table I are listed several major rivers of the Atlantic coast and the number of miles upstream that are utilized by shad for spawning runs; the number of miles available have decreased markedly over the past century. 448 As pointed out by Copeland (1966a),the increasing number of dams on rivers has decreased the amount of freshwater and its valuable food materials to coastal systems. Not only have the total amounts of freshwater formerly flowing to coastal systems been decreased, but the present flow is augmented to even the flow rate over an annual cycle thereby decreasing the spring and autumn "floods" that have been shown to be valuable for migrating subsystems. Smith (1966) and Chapman (1966) have reported similar findings. An open question is: How much compensating photosynthetic increase develops in clearer waters when rivers are cut off? Andrew and Geen (1960) and French and Wohle (1966) discuss the effects of dams on streams used for salmon migrations. The Rock Island Dam on the Columbia River is a notable example and its construction essentially stopped the upstream migration of salmon until fish ladders were installed (which proved to be unsatisfactory). Hurricane diversion dykes serve as barriers for migrating organisms. Saila (1962) demonstrated the effects of the hurricane diversion structure in Narragansett Bay, R. I. on the migration patterns of the winter flounder. Smith (1966) discussed the hurricane diversion structure on1ake Ponchartrain, La. Talbot (1966) discussed the eftects of damming rivers, construction of irrigation diversion canals and salinity control barriers on west coast populations of striped bass. Dredeing The dredging of canals has upset the current and circulation structure in many coastal systems, which alters the transport route of many larvae of river and sea spawned organisms relying upon certain current patterns to arrive in coastal systems. As pointed out by Smith (1966), the construction of the Mississippi River-Gulf Outlet in south Louisiana altered the current and exchange characteristics in Lake Ponchartrain, increasing its salinity. Filling The practice of bulkheading and filling shallow coastal areas to create valuable real estate has resulted in the loss of thousands of acres in some states of valuable nursery area utilized by migrating organisms. Smith (1966) demonstrated the loss of much of the nursery flats in Boca Ciega Bay, Florida. Diener (1964) discussed the loss of nursery area to dredging and filling in Texas estuaries. Talbot (1966) stated that over one-third of the surface area of San Francisco Bay has been filled since 1849, thus partially accounting for the decline in migrating organisms there. Wastes Various kinds of pollutants, many of which enter coastal systems, have been shown to either be toxic to migrating organisms or in some way alter their metabolism so that they no longer will inhabit the affected area. If 449 A pollutant harmful to the organism should be localized at the upper end of an .. estuary, for example, it would serve as a barrier to organisms migrating upstream or to the larvae drifting downstream to the estuarine nursery area. Some pollutants cause indirect effects that serve as barriers, such as high oxygen demand. (See Figs. 26 and 27.) Pesticides Pesticides may differentially affect different life-cycle stages of migrating_organisms, thus either preventing spawning or killing larvae that come in contact with it. Chin and Allen (1957) showed the effects of insecticides on two species of shrimp found in Texas coastal systems. They reported that very small concentrations of insecticides would cause the shrimp not to inhabit waters containing these concentrations. Love (1965) reported that blue crabs were rendered sterile and physiologically upset in sublethal concentrations of DDT. Organic Loading Large concentrations of organic materials from pollution souides usually bxert a high oxygen demand upon the system, thus competing, with organisms, for the available oxygen. Concentkations of these oxygen-demanding wastes in certain areas of coastal systems could cause the oxygen level to drop below critical levels, thus acting ag.a barrier to migrating forms. Waldichuk (1960a,b) discussed the oxygen demand of paper mill wastes and demonstrated its effect as a barrier to migrating salmon in Bellingham Bay, Washington and in a Canadian estuary (Fig. 8). Bishai (1962) reported the results of tests to show the effects,of.,low, oxygen concentrations on salmonid larvae and smolts. He noted that the salmonid young required relatively high oxygen concentrations for normal behavior, thus leading to the conclusion that waters with low oxygen concentrations would act as a barrier to salmon migrations. Heiman et al..(1962) have shown that coho salmon may grow little or not at ill, @_n_d even lose weight in the presence of an abundant supply of food at low oxygen levels that could be tolerated for long periods of time. Complementary and Coordinating Behavior Programs As described with illustrations in Part I, the total food utilization is made pp of many species each one of which.may have a pulse of activity in the system at a different time. Particularly as one considers estuaries further s6uth with more species, sequential timing is observed. Theoretical reasoning suggests that a well adapted system of species is one which as a group is using its food energy availabilities as they develop without irregular accumiilations or cutting into necessary capital for starting the next year@s energy pulse. 450 CHATHAM SOUND PORPOISE PORPOISE WAINWRIGHT CHANNEL HARBOUR BASIN $TN.6 I a 9 10 If 12 IS 14 151617 18 10.0 9.0 SEPT. 1961 APRIL 1962 8.C - T.0 OUTFALL 4.0- > 2.0 - LO - OL DISTANCE FROM ouTFALL (K.1) -Variation of average DO concent ration for the total water column to 20 m depth, with distance from the pulp-mill outfall, for September 1961 and April 1962. CHATHAM SOUND PORPOISE PORPOISE WAINWRIGHT CHANNEL HARBOUR BASIN T 8 9 10 11 13 @4 15 Ir6 11 8 7 T r T _F ITZO r r r r T.. SEPT. 1961 T 250- APRIL 1962 ZOC - .j 150. A 10C 11 OUTFALL W So- 191817r.1514131211109876543210123 DISTANCE FROM OUTFALL (KM) -Variation of average spent sulfite liquor concentration forthe total water column to 20 m depth, with distance from the pulp- mill outfall, for September 1961 and April 1962. Fig. 27. oxygen barrier in tidal inlet of Western Canada due to paper mill waste (Waldichuk, j966). See Fig. 26 for location. 451 Among the migrants which arrive in the far north to nest in May when there is the brief period of high arctic productivity are the birds such as ducks and sandpipers. These birds start to move out as the energy balance declines after the'days start to shorten June 22 moving southward with the same role as the marine fishes and swimming mammals. Recher (1966) shows the relationship of sandpiper migration to stored food availability on the beaches and flats at the end of summer. Habitat utilization and differentia- tion of niches is suggested by Figs. 28 and 29. In the migrations flocking and schooling is the rule. In analogy with power transmission in pipelines and electrical power lines, the concentration of potential energy increases the efficiency of long distance tranmission, because the ratio of energies for transmission to energy losses from the channel are less. Distribution of Fisheries A very useful document for oir attempts to generalize about dominant populations in relation to seasonal programs of energy is the recent set of maps and explanations by Heald (1968) prepared for E. I. DuPont de Nemours Co. For each zone of the Atlantic Coast commercial @isheries are located approximately with shading. The zones of the marine shelf are shown as well as those of the estuaries inshore coastal systems indicating areas where the stocks are located during their seasonal migrations that join the estuarine systems to the economy of the shelf. 5 1.0 Is 20 24 CHINOOK SALMON POINT WHERE STE@LHEAD TROUT LAGOON BREACHES 10- ...... ... SILVER SALM(N 15 4 5- V 19 .... 5 @ I MILE i SMELT (OSMERID) PACIFIC 24 DEPTHS AT STATION C: 500- ANCHOVY THIS MAP - 24.0' X 400- OCEAN LAGOON BREACHES 2 AT - 33.5' 4 300- 17 0 8 1z 200- U) 9 7 18 U.S. 101 100- -01 0 A@ft STATION x HERRING W COTTIDS C 07 4. INt% OT I 5- 10 "% 1 5 10 is 20 2+ SEINING H.S.C. STUDY (JUNE 9) SET -NUMBER (DEC 19) JUL 22 3 AREA 58 6 WORKMAN S DOCK MAPLE CREEK Catch of seven apecies of fish in 24 gillnet sets, Big Lagoon, Humboldt County, California, June 19 - December 19, 1958 (from Salo, Hayes, and McGie, 1959). Ln 0 ST E AA Map of Big Lagoon, Humboldt County, California, showing location of 24 gillnet sets, June-December, 1958. Fig. 28. 1ligratory fish in a California estuary (Allen, Delacy, and Gotsha"Ll, 196o). 453 100 T SANDPIPER PALMATED SANDPIPER - WESTERN SANDPIPER - KNOT MInutifla DUSIIIUS Ereunate M&WEL Cd1dris canuttie so M-389 N-268 - N- 1421 - N-208 60 CALIFORNIA NEW JERSEY NIA NEW JERSEY 40 20 A B 1 G 1 D 1 E' C D TIEP A ' 8 1 G I D I E 100- RED-BACKED SANDPIPER RED-BACKED SA140PIPER DOWITCHER ODWITCHER Eralla alpino Umnodromus Ia. I-Imnadromas gr4maus so- N- 215 N-210 M-224 N-386 607' CALIFORNIA NEW JERSEY CALIFORNIA NEW JERSEY 40- 20- A B G D E A I B I C I D I E A ' 8 ' C [)I- E P A 1 8 1 C 1 0 1 E I 100' OREATER YELLOWLEOS - MARBLED GODWIT - WILLET - AVOCET Tolanu melanoletIcus Limoso ledoo Cotopfropharus semipalmatus Recurvirostra americana so- M-36 - N-103 - N-S65 - N-147 60- - - - NEW JERSEY CALIFORNIA CALIFORNIA CALIFORNIA 40- - - 20- L - - A B C D E Al B1 C' I)' El A 1 B 1 C 1 A' Ell C1 D' El SEMIPALMATED PLOVER SEMIPALMATED PLO@V PLOVER @-BLACK-BELLIED PLOVER BLACK-BELLIED ChGrQdr1U 9*MiDQIMQtU3 Charc&iuf 3&MiVt[q Souctarola 3quatarola Squatargig sQuaigraic 100 N-236 - N-32 N-260 N-80 so 60 CALIFORNIA NEW JERSEY CALIFORNIA SEY 40 20 8 1 C 1 D C D E A B 1 C E A 8 C D E Distribution (176 occurrence) of migrant shorebird species on the Palo Alto census area and the New Jersey shore within a series of imaginary zones roughly parallel to the water's edge at low tide. The N N@ a 'PER SEMI Freupetee @CAL,rORIIA CALIFO 'A 8 C D E A B CALIFORNIA :W @JERSEY L DOE NE NEW JER r A @A B water's edge is represented by C Above the water's edge, zone A areas lacking a surface film of water; and zone B = areas retaining a surface film of water on the substrate. Beyond the water's edge, zone D = the area between the water's edge and a contour line I ft beyond and parallel to the water's edge; and zone E the area beyond the 1-ft contour line. Fig. 29. Ha bitat 'utilization by migratory sandpiper birds feeding on beaches(Racher, 1966). COASTAL ZONE INFORMATION CEM COASTAL IM INFORNIIIATIoN CENTER - 366680000,