Louisiana wetlands prospectus conclusions, recommendations, and proposals of the Louisiana Advisory Commission on Coastal and Marine Resources

[From the U.S. Government Printing Office, www.gpo.gov]

Coastal Zone
Information COAS7
Center ZONEI 6, -3
INFORATION, CENTER

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--LOUISIANA WETLAN DS PROSPECTUS
GB Conclusions, Recommendations and
459.25
L68 Proposals ofthe 'Louisiana Advisory
1973
Com* mission on Coastal and Marine
Resources September, 1973
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17-

The financial assistance of the Louisiana Office of State Planning and
the Louisiana State University Center for Wetland Resources in the print-
ing'of this document is gratefully acknowledged.

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PrOPert
y Of CSC Library

LOUISIANA WETLANDS PROSPECTUS

Conclusions, Recommendations and
Proposals of the Louisiana Advisory
Commission on Coastal and Marine
Resources

September, 1973

Commissioners

Lyle S. St. Amant, Chairman, State Government
L. K. Benson, Vice Chairman, Landowners
Donald M. Bradburn, Conservation Groups
Alva H. Harris, Marine Scientist
Charles Janvier, Oil and Gas
Davy P. Laborde, Sr., Labor
Oliver G. Salinovich, Fisheries
Manson Saltzman, Agriculture
Jack R. Van Lopik, Marine Scientist
McVey F. Ward, Water Transportation

Staff

Marc J. Hershman, Executive Director
Paul H. Templet, Assistant Director
J. Arthur Smith, III, Legal Associate
Bobbie H. Holmes, Secretary
Nita Laverdet., Public Information
Edgar Bohner, Technical Writer
Marilyn Miller, Typist

U S DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE NOAA
COASTAL SERVICES CENTER
22@d @OUTH HOBSON AVENUE
Va
N SC 29405-2413
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@LOUISIANA SORY COMMI@Sto?@
\COASTAL and RESOURCES
Law Ce LSU
Telephone 504 -2254
L
Baton Rouge, a.

COMMISSIONERS Marc 1. !Iershman
Lyle S. :St. Amant l"Ixecutive Director
Chairman September 14, 1973
Statt@ Government
1, im r rwe K. 13 ens em To the Governor and Legislators of Louisiana;
Vicc Chairman
Land-owners
0onalel .41. Bradb urn We are pleased to submit the, final report of the Louisiana
Conservation Groups Advisory Commission on Coastal and Marine Resources,
Alr,a H t1arris entitled Louisiana Wetlands Prospectus.
Marine @cientist
Charles Janvier Though the Commission ends with the submission of this
Oil and Gas report, the job of building an effective coastal zone
0avy P. Laborde, Sr. management program for Louisiana just begins. Many citizens,
Labor
community leaders, businessmen and government officials
Oliver G, Salinovicb have been awaiting our recommendations. They believe,that
Fisheries
the sound management of our unique and valuable coastal
,Man-von Saltzman resources will allow Louisiana to prosper economically
Agriculture
Jack R. Ilan Loplk while our wetlands and coastal water are protected for
Marine'Scientist present and future generations. We believe our work-product
reflects this basic theme'and will lead,to a better Louisiana.
McVey F. Ward
Water Transp.rtation Serving on the Commission has been thoroughly stimulatin .g
STAFF and provocative. We hope this 'report contributes to a
Pall, , @/. Templet better understanding of coastal. resource needs and problems,
Scientific Associate and leads to meaningful discu ion of 'alternative courses,
o action.

y e S. St. Amant L. K. Benson Donald M, Vadbur-n
(state government (attorney--land (private conservation
resource administrator owner ifitere s) organizations

C
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a_L_@?j _)j_a_1AA-4
Alva H. Harris Charles J@&ier Davy/P. Laborde, Sr.
(marine scientist-- (oil and@g_ s industry) (labor unions and
Nicholls State U.) workers)
/7./1 IMIL
Saltzffikn Ol'iv= G. @a`linov@icht_ ck R_. Van Lo@`ik I
(agriculture) (commercial fisheries) rMarine scientist--LSU
00,

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52-60
Tele ho e 504
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a on Rouge , L ak7

@o,meaningful 3 1 @sc U. 'i o n

McVey t. Ward Marc J. Hdshman
(transportation) (executive director)

PREFACE

This report answers two questions posed by Louisiana's
legislators in 1971: What are the needs and problems
Louisiana faces in the use of its coastal and marine resources
now and in the future? What actions should state government'.
take to insure the orderly, long-range conservation and
development of Louisiana's coastal and marine resourc-es?

In a two-year study, ten commissioners and a small
research staff addressed these questions. Chapter One of
this report sets the context in which the' Commission worked
and presen ts.the general recommendations of the Commission.
It can be viewed as a summary statement of the Commission's
work. Chapters Two, Three and Four present an inventory of
Louisiana's coastal resources., trends,in the use of those
resources and a series of specific recommendations for
planning and managing growth and conservation in a wetlands
environment. Chapter Five constitutes the Commission's
recommended legal and administrative framework for a state-
level Coastal Zone Program including a recommended draft
statute. Chapter Six deals with critical questions surrounding
ocean engineering,and development, research and education,
recreation, culture and tourism, and new technologic develop-
ment as these problems affect the use of coastal and marine
resources in Louisiana.

The Comr@ission issued two Annual Reports which provide
additional materials not contained in this report. The first,
Louisiana Government and the Coastal Zone - 1972, analyzes
the work of 23 state agencies which affect coastal and marine
resource uses in the state. The second, Wetlands "73: Toward
Coastal Zone Management in Louisiana assesses the need for
coastal zone management in Louisiana in light of numerous
project proposals currently being advanced, and analyzes the
new federal Coastal Zone Management Act of 1972. Copies of
thesereports are.still available.

Throughout its study the Commission maintained an Official
Journal. The Journal contains over 100 items, consisting of
minutes of meetings, technical presentations, official

communications and the transcripts of five public hearings.
An,index of Journal items is included as part of Appendix
Four. The Official Journal will be placed in key libraries
in Louisiana. Copies of the transcripts of public hearings,
separate from the other items of the Journal, are available.

The Commission relied on research and.studies already
available in analyzing many issues. Time and mone .y constraints
prohibited any "field" or "primary" research. Appendix
One is a description of some of the comprehensive studies
reviewed by the Commission.. References to other studies are
included within chapters. Many additional references, too
numerous to list, were used.over the two-year period.

The Commission expended approximately $120,000 of state
funds during its two-year existence. No federal funds were
used in carrying out the study. The.assistance and support
received from many persons in industry, government and
universities, computed as part of the Commissions budget,'
would significantly raise the figure. Commissioners served
without receiving any compensation., Approximately 400 man-
days of Commissio,ners''time has been spent on Commission
business.

Thanks must go to many people for their hard work over
the two-year period. Special acknowledgment to the commi'ssion
staff: Paul H. Templet, Assistant Director and Scientific
Associate; J.Arthur Smith, III, Attorney and Legal Associate;.
Bobbie H..Holmes, Secretary and Office Manager; Edgar Bohner
and Nita Laverdet, Technical Writers and Editors; and,
Marilyn Miller.,, Typist and Production Specialist.

Our gratitude also to the following people who
contributed to the report: Dr. Robert Pope, for his economic
analysis; Joel Lindsey, for his census data analysis;
Dr. James J. Hebrard, for his section on Louisiana birds;
Mrs. Bobbie Young, for her technical drawings;, and
student research assistants Miles Davidson, William Pozzi,
Charles Ramsey, and Elizabeth Williams.

Thanks also to Dean Paul M. Hebert for the use of offices
and facilities at the L.S.U. Law Center; the Louisiana Sea
Grant Program for technical and administ'rative assistance;
Dr. Ted B. Ford., Professor of Marine Sciences, for invaluable
advice and assistance; and to the many other Technical Advisors
and Friends to the Commissionwho helped out on many -occasions.

Marc J. Hershman
Executive Director

September, 1973

SUMMARY TABLE OF CONTENTS

Chapter One - Louisiana's Coastal Zone Program

Chapter Two - An Inventory of Louisiana's Coastal Zone

Chapter Three Trends in Louisiana's Coastal Zone

Chapter Four Planning and Managing Growth and Conservation
in the Wetlands,

Chapter Five - Governing Louisiana's Coastal Zone

Chapter Six - Special Programs for Louisiana's Coastal Zone

1. Louisiana's Marine Related Industries, A Report
of the Ocean Engineering and Development Committee

2. Coastal Zone Research and Education.

3. Recreation, Culture, and Tourism in Louisiana's
Coastal Zone

4. New Developments of Significance to Louisiana's
Coastal Zone

Appendices

I. Comprehensive Studies Affecting Louisiana's Coastal Zone

1. Report on Louisiana Coastal Area Study, U.S. Army
Corps of Engineers New Orleans District

2. Report on Cooperative Gulf of Mexico Estuarine
Inventory Study, Louisiana

3. Proposed Multiuse Management Plan for the
Louisiana Coastal-Zone

Ii. A Listing of Projects in the Coastal Zone by Construction
Agency

III. Marine Science Education in Louisiana

IV. Commission Activities

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Letter of Transmittal
Preface
Summary Table of Contents
Table of Contents
Table of Recommendations and Proposals
Chapter One: Louisiana's Coastal Zone Prozram -
Economic, Governmental and Environmentai.uontext 1
Defining the Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
General Recommendations . . . . . ... . . . 7
Louisiana's Coastal Zone Program--A Five Year
and Five-Step Perspective . . ... . . . . . . . . . 14

Chapter Two: An Inventory Of Louisiana's Coastal Zone.19
I. @Introduction . . . . 19
II. Renewable Resources . . . . . . .19
A. Living Resources . . . . . . ... .19
1. Commercial Uses . * * ' *.* * ' * . . . . 19
a. Menhaden . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . 20
b. Crab . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
C. Crawfish . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
d. Shrimp . . . . . . . . . . ... . . . . 21
e. Oysters . * * ' * * ' * * * * ' * * ' '22
f. Fur and Hide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
1. Alligators . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
2. Sport Uses * * ' * * * * ' * * * * * . . . 24
a. Hunting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ;24
1. Deer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
2. Squirrel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
3. Rabbit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
4. Waterfowl . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . 26
5. Fishing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
3. Other Living Resources . . . . . . . ; . .26
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
B. Agriculture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .32
1. General Characteristics . . . . . . . . .32
2. Rice . . . . I * * * * * * ' * - * * . .32
,Soybeans . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
3.
4. Sugar Cane . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . 36
5. Beef Cattle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
6. General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1. .4,2
References . . . . . . . . . 44
III. Non-Renewable R;so.urc;s . .. . .. .. .. . . . . . .46
A. Oil and Gas . . . . . ... . . . . . . . . . . 46
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
B. Minerals (excluding oil and gas).@ . . . . . . 52
1. Sulfur . . ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
2. Salt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
3. Shell Dredging . . . . . . . . . . : . . .55
4. Sand . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57

IV. 'Activities
A. Refining and Manufacturing . . . . . . . . . . . 58
1. Employment and Wages . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
2'* -Industry Description . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
3. Why Industry Locates in Louisiana . . . . . . 61
4. Control of Industrial-Pollution . . . . . . 62
References . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . 63
er r*ri*p*r*a*i'n
B. Ports and Wat T a s o t t o . . . . . . . . . 64
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
C. Urban Settlement in Louisiana's Coastal Zone. -71
1. Historical . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
2. Major Cities in the Coastal Zone . . . . . . 71
a. New Orleans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
b. Baton Rouge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
C. Lafayette . ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
d. Lake Charles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
3. Urban Patterns . . .. . . . . ... . . . . . 74
D. Transportation . . ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
1. Highways . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
12. Railroads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
3. Air Service . . . . . . . . . . . ... . . . o .82
4. Mass Transit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
References. 85
E. Proposed Developments in the Coa;tal*Zon; . . . 86
1. Superport . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
2. Centroport . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
3. Navigation Projects . . . . . . . . . .88
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91,
4. Flood Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92@
a. Lake Pontchartrain and Vicinity Protection 92
1. Lake Pontchartrain Barrier Plan. . - .92
2. Citrus and New Orleans East . . . . . . 92.
3. Chalmette Area . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
4. New Orleans, Jefferson and St.'
Charles Parish Area. 95
b. Grand Isle and Vicinity Hurricane,
Protection Plan . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
c. New Orleans to Venice Hurricane Protection
Plan. . * * . 96
d. Morgan City* and* Vicin*it*y*Hu*r@ican*e*
Protection Plan . . . .. . * * * * * * ' *()S.
e. Atchafalaya Basin Flood Protection Plan .
References . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101

Chapter Three: Trends in Loui sianals Coastal Zone . . . . 107
I. Living Resource Trends . . . . . . . ... . . . . . 107
A. Population characteristics . . . . . . . . . . 107
B. Recreation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
C. Agriculture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
D. Fisheries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
1. Fish and Shellfish . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
2. Oysters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
3. Shrimp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125

II. Economic Trends in the Coastal Zone . . . . . . . 12 9
@A. Per Capita Income . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . 129
B. Petroleum . ... . . . . . I . . . . . . . . . . . 131
C. Commerce and Industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
1. Investment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
2. Wages . . . . . e . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
3. Waterborne Commerce . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
III. The Changing Coastal Zone . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
A. Construction . . . ... . . . . . . . . . . . . 14o
B. Saltwater Intrusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
CI Land Loss . . . . : . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
IV. Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143

Chapter Four: Planning and Managino Growth and
Conservation in the Wetlands 149
A. Growth and Conservation in Wetland Areas 151
1. Building in Wetlands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
a. River Flood Protection . . . . . . . . . . . 151
b. Storm Surge Protection . . . . . . . . . . . 154
c. Wetlands Drainage and Filling 155
2. Groundwater . . '. * * * ' ' * * . . . . . . . . 1 58
a. Saltwater Intrusion into Aquifers . . . . . . 158
b. Subsidence and Industrial Withdrawals. - . - 159
3. Surface Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... . 160
a. Water Control Projects . . . . . . . . . . . 160
b. Watershed Projects . . . . . . . .. 162
4. Water Quality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
a. 'Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 163
b. Urban Pollution . . ... . . . . . . . . . . . 165
c. Ocean Dumping . . . . . . I. . . . . . . . . . 165
d. Oil Spills . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . 165
5. The Fishing Industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
a. Fish, Shrimp, Oysters, and Petroleum . . . . 167
b. The Fishing Industry and Habitat . . . . . . 168
6. Pesticides--the Chlorinated Hydrocarbons . . . 168
7. Transportation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
a. Water Transportation and Pipelines 170
b. Highways and Other Roadways . . . . . . . . . 173
C. Air Transportation . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
8.. Future Industrial Growth . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
a. Industrial and Power Plant Siting. . . . . . 176
b. Diversification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
B. Coastal Zone Management. 178
1 . 'Long-Range Planning and Research. 1.78
a . Intrinsic Suitability. 178
b. Cumulative Effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
C. Transportation Planning . . . . . . . . . . . 180
d. Key Facility Land Use Planning . . . . . . . 181
e. Open-Space Planning . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
f. Lake Pontchartrain . . . . . . ... . . . . 183
g. Basic and Long-Term Research . . . . . . . . 184
2.' Day-to-Day Management of the Coastal Zone . . . 185
a. Permitting, Surveillance and Enforcement . 185
b. Applied Planning and.Short-Term Research . 186

viii,

c. Value of Wetlands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
d. Positive Programs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188
1. Mariculture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
2. Water Resource Programs 191
a. Freshwater introduction.. 191
b. Delta Building . . . . . I. . . . . . . 191
References for Chapter Four . . . .. . . . . . . . 193
Chapter Five: Governing Louisiana's Coastal Zone . . . . . 199
The need f6_r a New Coastal 7rogram ... . . . . . . . . 199
A Recommended Institutional Arrangement . . . . . . . .. 201
Coastal Resources Commission . . . . . . . . ... .. . . 205
'Management-The Office of Coastal Zone Management - 207
Alternative Agency Assignments for Management . . . . .. 208
Long Range Planning. .,, . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
Research ... . . . . . . . . . ... . . 211
The Roles of State and Local Government.' 212
The Management of Public and Private Land and Waters
Louisiana Coastal.Zone Statute . . . . . . 215
Part A: Purposes and Definitions . . . . . . 215
Part B: Establishment of the Louisiana Coastal
Zone Program . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . 217
Part, C: Permit Program and Procedures . . . . . . . 223
Part D:- Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
Part'E: Enforcement and Penalties . . . 227
Part F: Miscellaneous . . . . . . . . . ... . . . . 2129

Chapter Six: Special Programs for Louisiana's Coastal
Zone . ... . . ... . . . . . . . . . . .. . . 231
Section One: Louisiana's Marine Related Industries,-
A. Report, of the,Ocean Engineering and
Development Committee . . . . .. . . . . 231
References . . . . . . . . . I. . . . . . . . . . . . 237
Section Two: Coastal Zone Research and Education 239
I. @Research. . . . . . . . . . . . 239
A. University-state agency cooperation . . . . 239
B. Sea Grant Program Support . . . . . * i i * 241,
C The Role of Local Government and Special 243
Interests.
D.@ Research Priorities, Response's and Overview 244
II. Education,
A. Secondary Schools . . . . . . . . . . . ...
B. Vocational Training . . . . . . . . . ... 245
C. Universities .. . . .. . . . . . . . . . . 246
III. Facilities. 247
References . . . . . . i . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249
Section Three: Recreation, Culture and Tourism
In Louisiana's Coastal Zone . . . . . 251
I. Overview . . . . ... . . . . . . . . . . . . 2'51
II. Recreation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 251
A., Physical Facilities . . . . . . . . . . . . 251
1. Lack of Recreational Facilities . . . . 252
a. Swimming . . . ... . . . . . . . . . 254
b. Bicycling (Pedal:Propelled) . . . 254
C. Sightseeing and Driving for Pleasure 255,
d. Outdoor-Game Playfields 255

e Water-Based Recreational
Activities . . . . . . . ... . . . . . 255
Hunting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255
g. Camping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256
h. Horseback Riding . . . . . . . . . . 256
i. Hiking Trails . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256
J., Golf . . . . . . ... ... . . . . . . . 257
k. Bird-watching . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257
1. Historical Sites . . . . . . . . . . . 257
@m. Wildlife Management and Refuge.Areas . .257
2. Degradation of Scenic and Aesthetic,Resources
a. Pollution . . . . . . . . . ... . . . .. 261
b.- Erosion o 261
C. Alternation of Streams . . . . . . . . 261
d. Lack of Public Access . . . . . . . . 262
B. Untapped Recreation Potential in the'
Coastal Zone . . o * ' ' * * ' *@ * * ** . 263
1. Multiple Use of Levees and Batture 263
2. Lake Pontchartrain . . . . . . . . . . . . 263
3 The Old Mississippi River Road . . . . . . 263
4. Atchafalaya Basin . . . .. . . . .. . . .. . 264
5. Swamp Tourist Attractions 264
6. Pearl River Basin . . . . . . . . . . . . 264
7. Great River National Park * . . . . . . . . 265
8. Multiple Use of Private Lands . . . . ... 265
9. Plantation Homes and Other Historic
Buildings . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . .
10. Scenic Highway System 265
C. Policy Problems . ... . . . .. . . . . . . . 266
1. Lack of Adequate Funding . . . .. . . . . . 266
2. Lack of Recreational Policy . . . . . . . 266
3. Lack of Systems Approach to Recreation 266
D. Economics cf Recreation . . . . . . . . . . 267
E. Possible Adverse Effects of Recreation 268
F. Conclusions and Re 6ommendat ions . . . . . . . 268
III. Culture . . . . . . . . . . . . I . . . . . . . 271
A. Architecture . . . . . . . . . . 4. . . . . . 271
B. Festivals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272
C. Music . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272
D. Cuisine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... . 272
E. Conclusions and Recommendations . . . . . . . 273
IV. Tourism .. . . . . . . . . . . . ... . . . . . 273
A. Possible Adverse Effects of Tourism . . . . . 274
B. Conclusions and Recommendations 274
References .. . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . 277

Section Four: New Developments of Significance to
Louisiana's Coastal Zone . . . . . . . 279
Use of Marsh for Waste Treatment . . . . . . . . 28o
Controlled Depo'siti-.on of Sediment . . . . . . . . . . 281
Alternate Uses of Offshore,Platforms . . . . . . . . . 282
Major Water'Resourae-Projects... 283
Mariculture. . . Ii' ..... I @ .284
. . . . . ... . . . . .

Hovercraft . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... . . . . . 285
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287

Appendix One: Comprehensive Studies Affecting Louisiana's
Coastal Zone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289
Section One: Report on Louisiana Coastal Area Study
U.S. Army Corps of Engineers
New Orleans District 289
-Section Two: Report on Cooperative Gul'f-*of* Mexico
Estuarine Inventory and Study,
Louisiana . . . . . . I. . .. . . . . . . 293
Section Three: Proposed Multiuse Management
Plan for the Louisiana Coastal Zone 297

I. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 298
II. Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300
III@ The Plan . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . 302
A. Barrier Island., Reef and Gulf Shore . . . 302.
B. Estuarine Nursery Areas . . . . . . . . 3o4
C. Fresh-Brackish Marsh Areas . . . . . . . 305
D. Freshwater Basins .. . . . . . . . . . . 305
E. Areas Suitable for Development 306
F. Development Corridors . . . . . . . . . 306
G. Geometry for Development . . . . . . . . 307
IV. Environmental Engineering . . . . . . . . . 310
V. Implementation . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
315

Appendix Two: A Listing of Projects in-the Coastal
Zone by Construction Agency . . . . . . . 323
Appendix Three: Marine Science Education in Louisiana. 335
Appendix Four: Commission Activities . . .. . . . . . 339

TABLE OF RECOMMENDATIONS AND PROPOSALS

2hapter One

"Coastal zone management" defined 5
"'Wetlands" should be given priority attention
by state . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Louisiana's "coastal zone" defined '. . 8 1
Trends affecting coastal marsh and estuary
productivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Fundamental policies for use of coastal
resources . . . . .. . .
Institutional structure for Louisiana's
coastal zone program 12
Public participation in Louisiana's coastal
zone program . . . . . . . . ... . . . . . . . 14

Chapter Four

Commission Recommendations Concerning:
Building in wetlands . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
Groundwater . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
Water control projects . . . . . . . . . . . 162
Watershed projects . . . .. ... . . . . . . . 163
Water quality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166'
Pesticides . . . . . . . . . . ... . . . . 170
Water transportation and pipelines . . . . . 171
Highways . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
Airports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
Power Plants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
New industries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
Cumulative impact of projects . . . . . . . 179
Transportation planning . . . . . . . . . . 180
Key facilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
Open space 182
Lake Pontchartrain and other Louisiana
lakes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
Long-term research . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
Short-term research . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
Value of wetlands . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 188
Mariculture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189

xii

Chapter Five

Findings and declarations of policy . . . . . . . 20'l
Criteria for decision-making . . ... . . . . . . 203
Agency assignment for the Office of Coastal
Zone Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208
Agency assignment for long-range planning . . - - 210
Agency assignment for long-term research . . . . 211
"Louisiana Coastal Zone Statute" . . . . . . . . 215

Chapter Six

Marine and ocean industries . . . . . . . . . . 236
Research
Support for the Louisiana Sea Grant
Program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243
Role of Local Government and special
interestS . . . . . . . . * , * , " * , 243
Coordinating research priorities . . . . . . . 244
Education
Vocational training in marine technology 246
University marine science curricula. 247
Marine science research and teaching
facilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
Recreation in the coastal zone . . . . . . . . . 269
Cultural values of the coastal zone . . . . . . . 273
Tourism industry in the coastal zone . . . . . . 274

xiii

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CHAPTER ONE

LOUISIANA'S COASTAL ZONE PROGRAM

In 1971, Louisiana initiated a study effort involving
ten commissioners* and a small professional staff to identify
the important environmental and natural resource issues
affecting the coastal zone of the state and to recommend to state
government officials and interested persons what should be
done about these issues. The Commission was designed as a
forum for interest groups actively using coastal resources, in
recognition of the fact that diverse interests (fisheries, oil
and gas, landowners, state officials, agriculture, labor,
conservation and navigation) have the most to gain by resolving
conflicts over how Louisiana's coastal zone should be used.
This chapter sets forth the economic, governmental and environ-
mental context in which the Commission fulfilled its statutory
responsibilities and presents the Commission's general recom-
mendations, which can be viewed as a summary of the entire
report. In addition, a five-year perspective for Louisiana's
coastal zone program is presented.

Economicj Governmental and Environmental Context

The Commission's work has proceeded in the context of
change--economic, governmental and environmental change.
Since World War II., Louisiana's population has grown rapidly.
The greatest growth has occurred in the coastal zone, primarily
in urban areas. Much of the population movement to the
coastal zone was spurred by the industrial and commercial
growth of the area. Currently, most economic indicators
point to an increase. Oil and gas, water transportation,
construction, fisheries and many other industries have
been key factors in this growth. Many of Louisiana's citizens
receive substantial benefits from this growth as per capita
income of coastal zone residents continues to rise faster than
the national average.

However., the relatively rapid expansion has created
increased competition for space and resources. The coastal
zone now has sprawling urban areas, intensified demands for
land, greater demands for water and utilit y services,,

*Originally nine with a tenth added in 1972

heightened need for recreational areas, increased need for
transportation services, increased sources of pollutants and
waste products, and a generally higher demand for almost
all natural resources. These increases are complicated
further by three factors: Fdrst,'they are occurring in a
relatively small geographical region of the state where
there are natural constraints, such as large expanses of
coastal bays and marshes. Second,, Louisiana's coastal bays
and marshes,'in their natural condition are necessary
to support fish and wildlife resources thus creating
pressures to inhibit growth in these areas. Third, Louisiana's
coastal zone is susceptible to floods,and hurricanes every
year, thereby adding another constraint on expansi.on in the
coastal zone.

Thus, fast development within the context of coastal
Louisiana's geography has led to increased competition for
space and resources. This increased competition,frequently
results in conflict. State government, through services,
regulatory programs and the judicial process, normally.carries
the burden of resolving these conflicts.

The Commission was created because key state officials
recognized that conflicts were increasing but that state
government did not have the tools to resolve the conflicts.
Hence, the Commission was established for a dual purpose--
to identify the needs and conflicts in use of coastal and
marine resources, if any, and to appraise the role of
government in resolving them. In the Commission's enabling
statute (Act 35 of 1971), this dual role is stated in these
terms: First, the Commission must provide for the orderly,
long-range conservation and development of coastal and marine
resources and,- second,- the Commission must recommend a
coastal zone management plan to include implementing proce-
dures.

While pursuing its statutory responsibilities, the
Commission's eye was affixed firmly on four parallel
trends: reforms in Louisiana state government, environmental
and resource management trends at the state level, federal
statutory and administrative trends, and the increasing
scientific and technical evidence regarding the value and
use of wetlands and coastal waters.

Although the Commission was appointed in the last few
months of the.McKeithen administration, most of its work
has been done during the Edwards administration. The Edwards
administration has been instituting changes and administrative
reforms to establish governmental policies necessary for a
fast-growing state. A Constitutional Revision Convention is
currently working to revise the state's long and cumbersome
constitution. Studies are in progress to reorganize levee

boards, tra nsportation agencies, environmental agencies and
others. Key equipment and facilities are being, pooled to
save state resources. Budgeting and accounting procedures
are being tightened for greater state efficiency.

In addition., the Edwards administration has put greater
emphasis on planning. A growth and conservation policy is
being developed for the state by the Office of State Planning.
Regional planning commissions have been supported and encour--
aged. Long-term studies are in progress for regional airports
and deep water port facilities. Throughout its work, the
Commission has been cognizant of these governmental reforms.

Changes in state and federal environmental programs also
have influenced the Commission's work * Prior to 1970., the
environmental impact of projects in the coastal zone was
reviewed at the state level by the Wild Life and Fisheries
Commission or the Louisiana State health Department for
impact, upon air' water and wildlife resources. The
Wild Life and Fisheries Commission, although primarily
responsible for managing and protecting the fish and wild-
life resources of the state, assumed responsibility for
general environmental review of projects when required under
federal law. After 1970., with more stringent federal legal
requirements and more environmental awareness by citizens
and the news media,- changes started occurring in Louisiana's
environmental protection program.

The Joint Legislative Committee on Environmental Quality*
has initiated most of these changes. Among the Committee's
legislative accomplishments have been the creation of three
new environmental agencies and the strengthening of existing
pollution control statutes. The Louisiana Advisory Commission
on Coastal and Marine Resources (Act 35 of 1971). the Gover-
nor's Council on Environmental Quality (Act 460 of 1972)3
and the Citizen's Advisory Board to the Governor's Council
on Environmental Quality (Act 460 of 1972) were all measures
proposed by the Joint Legislative Committee.

Other national trends in environmental matters have
influenced the Commission's work. Starting in the mid71g6os,
Congress made substantial changes in air and water pollution
control programs, culminating in the Clean Air Act of 1970
and the Federal Water Pollution Control Act of 1972. These
landmark measures provide significant powers in the federal
government to control air and water pollution. During this
period, controls over land uses at the federal level were
limited to comprehensive planning under Housing and Urban

*Chaired by Senator Samuel B. Nunez Jr. and originally
established under Senate Concurrent Resolution No. 8 (1970).

Development (HUD) planning assistance programs and River,
Basin funding programs, numerous recreation and conservation
laws, and the Fish and Wildlife Coordination Act.

In 1970 the National Environmental Policy Act became
effective. It requires that environmental impact statements
shall be prepared for all major federal actions significantly
affecting the quality ofthe human environment. This Act
has had a significant influence on many development projects
throughout the nation.

Recently, federal coastal zone and land use management
programs designed to-encourage states to exercise greater
authority over land use decision-making have received much
attention. Many federal bills have been introduced to meet
specific needs and purposes, such as the energy crisis,
deep water ports, power plant siting, and routing pipelines
through Alaska. Since Louisiana must live within the
framework of federal law, the Commission followed these
developments closely.

In recent years, there has been an increasing awareness
of the value of wetlands as producers of much of the nation's
fish and wildlife resources. The Commission paid close
attention to this matter because of the extensive wetlands
within Louisiana's coastal zone. The National Estuary
Study and the National Estuarine Pollution Study, both in
the late 1960's began to document, on a national scale, the
value of wetlands. Recent scientific studies have indicated
that Louisiana's extensive,coastal marshes produce more fish
and wildlife resources than any otl@er marsh area in the
United States.

Thus, the backdrop for the Commission's work was based
upon an awareness that: (1) governmental procedures had to
be reformed to resolve conflicts from increased competition
for space and resources in the coastal zone, (2) the Edwards
administration was instituting reforms in the administration
of state government, (3) state and federal environmental laws
were changing regularly and rapidly, and (4) wetlands and
coastal waters., those@llwastelands" of years past, were now
being touted by many as one of our richest assets.

Defining the Study

Eleven subjects of coastal and marine resources manage-
ment were to be considered under Act 35 (1971):

Population growth and urbanization
Land use
Recreation.

Waste management, water quality and pollution control
Water and power development
Transportation and trade
Engineering and technology
Marine,science research and education
Monitoring of weather, climate and oceanographic conditions,
Socio-economic and legal matters
Federal plans for coastal zone management

These subjects were studied with a view toward meeting
five objectives:

--Orderly and responsible use and development
of coastal and marine resources,

--Protection of the natural environment by
minimizing the destructive aspects of develop-
mental uses,

--Advancement of knowledge, education and
research in marine and coastal sciences,

--Effective use of scientific and engineering
resources of public or private agencies of
the state, and

--Cooperation of Louisiana with other govern-
ment.al bodies, or public or private organizations.

Results of the two-year study were to be in two forms:
(1) policies for adoption by administrative or legislative
action, and (2) implementation mechanisms for the "Louisiana
coastal zone management plan." (The methodology used
by the Commission in meeting these tasks and objectives
is.set forth fully in the two annual reports of the
Commission and in Appendix Four of this report.)

Since the objectives of Act 35 relate directly to
developing a coastal zone management plan, a definition for
11coastal zone management" was adopted:

Coastal zone manage .ment relates to the
decision-making process employed in using the
natural resources and the environment of the
state in a manner which affects the coastal
zone, a unique region of land-sea-air inter-
action, where a positive program can lead to
the optimum uses of the resources and environ-
ment while.protecting them for the benefit of
future generations.

In simpler terms, what does "coastal zone management"
mean? When the Louisiana Wild Life and Fisheries Commission
sets the opening date for the shrimping season, or a
landowner leases his tract for hunting and fishing, or the
Mississippi River-Gulf Outlet is dredged, or fresh water
from Bayou Lafourche is pumped to Terrebonne Parish because
of salt water intrusion, we are witnessing,decisions about
uses of the coastal zone. They occur everyday and with more
frequency as society becomes more complex.

Coastal zone management deals with the human resources
of the coastal zone--the people and their economy, culture
and quality of life. It deals with the living and nonliving
resources of the coastal zone--the shrimp harvest, mineral
production, wildfowl habitats and shell dredging. It relates
to water,, land and wetland resources--the Mississippi- River
and delta, vast marshlands, countless streams,, natural and
man-made levees.

Coastal zone management applies to unique land-sea-air
interactions. The juncture of land and sea is a. haven for
commercial and recreational enterprises. 'It is-home for
trade centers, a retreat for vacationers, the site of
major population centers, and a mecca for sportsmen and
fishermen. The coastal zone is where the influence of the
tide is evident, where saltwater and freshwater mix, where
there are beaches, bays and barrier islands.

Coastal zone management, a positive statewide program,
is not a series of restraints or long list of prohibitions.
Coastal zone management identifies long-term and-short-term
objectives and sets forth a positive program to achieve
those objectives. Coastal zone management can motivate and
guide the private and public sectors, spur the design of
new processes and technologies, stimulate new,human
uses and experiences, engineer partnership efforts,,sponsor
new facilities, create mechanisms for accommodating conflict,
spur new education for the young and a change of consciousness
for all.

Coastal zone management can enhance the value of
great natural assets. Coastal Louisiana has tremendous
assets--land, water and people. Louisiana is the only state
with French-based culture, the Mississippi River and delta,
the vast and rich coastal marshlands and the mineral
productivity. A coastal zone management program in Louisiana
would work to sustain those assets and increase their value.
It would watch, treat and nourish those assets. It would
insure that the assets are working for the people twenty
or fifty years from now and preserve the options necessary
to meet the future demands and needs of the people of Louisiana.

General Recommendations

The Commission addressed all subjects set forth
Act 35 but special emphasis was placed on the extensive
wetlands and coastal waters of Louisiana and the impact"
development activities have had on them. Other states of
the United States, in pursuing similar broad studies have
taken different approaches. Some,have emphasized marine
(deep-water) ocean activity in their reports. Others have
pressed for programs of social, economic and recreational
development in their coastal zones. Since the-vast .
wetlands and coastal waters are@the primary physical feature
of our coastal zone and provide economic and recreational
benefits to so many, they were chosen as a centralizing
theme for the Commission's report.

Reasons for this emphasis abound. Louisiana has exten-
sive coastal marshes. These marshes have proved to be
great natural producers of food. These vast marshlands
and coastal waters sustain renewable resources which serve
many commercial and recreational industries year after
year. Almost all other coastal resourceuses ' of Louisiana
have an impact upon the marshland environment. Finally,
land loss problems, proposed large dredge and fill projects,
salt water intrusion into estuaries and other impacts may
have adverse effects upon recreational and fisheries
resources.

The Commission believes that the coastal
resources program of Louisiana should give
priority to the orderly use, protection and
enhancement of the vast wetlands and coastal*
waters of the state in order to maintain their
productivity and essential role in sustaining
the state's fisheries and wildlife resources
and recreational uses. This priority does not
lessen in any way the importance of other
aspects of coastal resource use, such as
economic development or deep-ocean utilization
but expresses the view that'a first step in the
program should be to focus on the most exten-
sive physiographic feature of our coastal
zone--the wetlands and coastal waters.

Defining the coastal zone of Louisiana has been one of
the C'ommission's more difficult tasks. Act 35 defines the
coastal zone as landward to the extent of marine influences,
but this is begging the question of definition rather than
answering it. When the Commission first started its work,
U.S. Highway 190 and the area south of it was chosen as a
working definition. When the Commission's inventory work
was in progress, a 26-parishlarea was designated the coastal

zone for ease in gathering statistics and data. Finally,
when discussing the regulatory scheme necessary for coastal
zone management, the Commission realized that a more functional
and precise definition would be needed. The following was
decided upon:

The Commission recogni.zes that the resources
of the coastal zone are complex, interdependent
and unique necessitating planning and management
for the coastal zone on a regional basis, with
full coordination between coastal and noncoastai,
planning and management programs. Accordingly,
for this report, "coastal zone" shall mean the
coastal waters and the shorelands, strongly
influenced by the coastal waters and in proximity
to the shoreline, including transitional and
intertidal areas, marshes, swamps, natural levees
and beaches within the following parishes:
Acadia, Ascension, Assumption, Calcasieu,
Cameron, East Baton Rouge, Iberia, Iberville,
Jefferson, Jefferson Davis, Lafourche, Lafayette,
Livingston, Orleans, Plaquemines, St. Bernard,
St. Charles, St. James, 'St. John, St. Martin
St. Mary, St. Tammany, Tangi.pahoa, Terrebonne,
Vermilion, and West Baton Rouge. The coastal
zone extends seaward to the territorial limits
of the state of Louisiana. For planning
purposes, all the territory within the above
named 26 parishes shall be included. "Coastal
waters" means bays, coves, lagoons, lakes,
inlets, soundsl estuaries, rivers, streams,
bayous, or other bodies of water (including the
beds and bottoms thereof), in direct connection
with or which drain into the open sea or which
are affected by the ebb and flow of the tide.
(Fig. 1.1)

The Commission believes that many activities outside
the coastal zone, but within the terri.torial limits o.f
the state,, have an impact upon coastal resouraes and should
be regulated under a coastal zone management program.
For example, water management projects along the, Mississippi
River or Sabine River, though occurring many miles north of
the coas-tal zone> have had an impact upon water flow into
the coastal zone, which, in turn, has measurably altered
or adversely affected c oastal resource use. Although most
regulatory activities would, occur in the. 26-parish area, the
jurisdiction of the Coastal Resources Commission recommended
in Chapter Five is statewide-. Thoseuses of lands and waters
outside the coastal zone, which may measurably alter-
or adversely affect the coastal zone, are,subject to the
Commission's jurisdiction. Construction on land which does
not affect water flow and water quality, however, is not
subject to the Commission's jurisdiction.

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An inventory of Louisiana's coastal zone resources
and an analysis of trends and projections of uses of the
coastal zone have shown that the coastal zone of this state
is its richest and fastest growing sector. As stated
earlier, population growth and.economic indicators (e.g.
per capita income, total wages paid and total industrial
investments) are increasing, and.increasing faster'in the
coastal zone than in the rest of the state. As mentioned
earlier, the Commission focused much of its attention
on the state's wetlands and coastal waters. Since fisheries
production is one of the measures of the health of the
coastal ecosystem, special attention was paid to trends
in production of fish and shellfish and to certain other
key indicators of marsh and estuary viability--saltwater
intrusion, pollution of estuaries, and land loss.

The Commission notes that total fisheries
production is on the increase in the coastal
zone and that this has occurred while there
has been intensive multiple use of the wetlands
and coastal waters. However, there are certain
trends which, if not studied carefully, monito red
closely and perhaps checked, could result in
damage, in the long run, to coastal marsh and
estuary productivity. These trends are:

(1) Increasing acreages are being closed
by pollution to oyster harvesting.

(2) Oyster yields per acre have decreased
tenfold in the last 30 years.

(3) Shrimp catch per boat has decreased
ninefold in the past 30 years.

(4) Saltwater continues to intrude farther
inland.

(5) Wetlands are being lost at a net rate
of 16.5 square miles per year.

The Commission does not and cannot point to any one
coastal user group as primarily responsible, or even
significantly responsible, for these trends. It is
the combination of many diverse uses of the coastal.
environment,, working in an era of fast growth, and a
geographic region of low-lying, flood and hurricane prone
wetlands, which has brought about the conditions now being
studied and analyzed so carefully. It is clear.5 however.,
that insufficient attention has been given to planning
and managing conservation and growth in the Louisiana

coastal zone region. Growth and development has been-foremost.
Conservation and environmental impact considerations have not
been adequate.
The Commission recommends that Louisiana's
fundamental policy be to encourage full use
of coastal resources by as many citizens as.
possible subject to five additional policies.:

(1) Water flow, water circulation,.5 water
quantity and quality are the single most
important factors of wetlands systems, and the
impact of uses on these factors needs careful
review prior to their authorization.

(2) Impact of uses on coastal.marshes and
estuaries must be measured on a regional or
ecosystems basis so that the cumulative impact
of many small uses can be assessed in terms of
the:viability and productivity of the region
or system.

(3) Proposed land uses in the coastal z 'one
must be assessed in terms of the intrinsic
suitability of the site for the proposed use.

(4) Transportation and utility systems
must he designed to encourage urban and
industrial growth in corridors where it is best
suited, and discourage such growth in wetland
areas which are substantially undisturbed.

(5) Multiple use and economically diversi-
fied uses.must be preferred over single-purpose
uses of the coastal zone.

To be implemented, these policies need a revitalized
state government program with technical expertise and
sensitivity to interest group and citizen needs. Louisiana's
current coastal zone management effort has been assumed
by the Louisiana Wild Life and Fisheries Commission as a
peripheral responsibility to their primary duties as managers
of the fish and wildlife resources of the state. They
have not been organized properly, nor budgeted adequately,
to do the job.. The effectiveness of any program,to plan
and manage the resources of the coastal zone is determined
by the organizational structure of the agency, the powers
designated to it, the professionalism of its staff and the
budgetary resources provided.

The Commission believes the Louisiana
Coastal Zone Program should be directed by a
new Coastal Resources Commission) consisting
primarily of qualified representatives of
coastal user groups, and including state and
local government representatives. Its
planning and regulatory powers should be'
suffic1ent to implement the policies enumer-
ated in the previous recommendation. The
Commission should direct three distinct subun its,:
4 management unit (recommended to be as'signed
to the Louisiana Wild Life and Fisheries
Commission), a planning unit (recommended to
be a responsibility of the State Planning
Office), and.a research unit (recommended to
be a responsibility of the Louisiana Sea Grant
program). Full advantage .should be taken of
existing personnel, equipment and funding
sources hence assignment of subunits to existing
agencies is recommended over creation of new
subunits. Procedures should be established
whereby all significant uses of lands and,waters
which measurably alter or adversely affect
the coastal zone would require a permit. The
Coastal Resources Commission should establish
rules, regulations,, criteria and standards to
implement the permit program. Procedural safe-,
guards, including the right of appellate review,
should be provided.

A fully developed coastal zone program for Louisiana,
however, would go beyond the planning and management functions
outlined above. The Commission recognizes that without an
effective coastal and marine education and research program,
the people of the state may not appreciate the need for the
planning and management program. Similarly, Louisiana's
stake in deep-ocean resources and the economic benefits
they have brought to the state merits the attention of a
special ocean engineering and development effort. Further,
the Commission fully recognizes the need for a well-
developed recreation, culture and tourism effort in the
state, if the unique traits and customs of the people of
south Louisiana are to be appreciated by our own citizens
and those of the region and nation. Finally, new techno-
logies and concepts may yield greater benefits to the state,
and solve some of our current problems. The'Commission
encourages current research and development efforts in*
mariculture, erosion control, controlled deposition of
sedimentl hovercraft., waste disposal, and superports.

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Louisiana's Coastal Zone Program--A Five-Year and Five-Step
Perspective

Louisiana's coastal zone program should involve five
steps over the next fiveyears (Fig. 1.2). Step One ends
with the submission of this report. Step two should begin
immediately upon release.of this report. The Commission
did as much as.it could, con'sidering time and money constraints,
to involve the public in its deliberations. However, now
that a specific proposal.for a coastal zone*program for
Louisiana is set forth,, the state should launch an intensive
public education and review effort.

Th e Louisiana coastal zone program should
foster full and open participation by local
governments, interest groups and citizens at
all levels of planning, policy formulation and
decision-making. More specifically, the
Commission recommends that the period from
September 15, 1973, until the legislature
deals with the recommendations@of the Commission,
be designated by the Governor as a period of
discussion and review of the coastal zone
program recommendations to include public hearings
and a public education program. This intensive
review should be designed to receive comment
and review by interest groups, state and local
officials and citizens. The results of the
review should be made available to the public.

Step three would consist of legislative action to enact
the Coastal Zone Program into law and provide funds for its
operation. The Commission has recommended a statute for consider-
.ation by the legislature. The legislature must decide whether
this is the approach it wishes to take. It is hoped that the
legislature will benefit from the intensive public education
and review effort envisioned by step two.

Step four would begin when the Coastal Zone Program
actually begins its operations. Personnel must be hired and
their jobs defined. Rules and regulations implementing the
statute must be promulgated.

An essential function of the Coastal Resources Commission
would be to enable the state to acquire an approved coastal
management program under the federal Coastal Zone Management
Act of 1972. Step five., estimated to occur two years after the

establishment of the Coastal Resources@Commission, would
occur when the state prepares and submits its management
program to be approved by the U.S. Secretary of Commerce.
Under the federal Act., considerable planning must be
achieved before a coastal management program is submitted
for approval: the boundaries of the coastal zone must be
delimited specifically; permissible land and water uses
must be identified; geographic areas of particular concern
must be listed; the means for exerting state control over
land and water uses must be set forth; priority uses within
specific geographic areas throughout the coastal zone must
be identified; and, an organization structure to implement
the management program must be set forth. If adopted, the
recommendations of this Commission would provide the legal
framework necessary for@a coastal management program but
would not meet some of the specific technical requirements
such as a listing of permissible land and water uses, an
identification of geographic areas of particular concern
and a designation of priority uses within specific geographic
areas. These tasks must be accomplished to the satisfaction
of the state and the federal agency prior to receiving a
federally approved management program and federal funding.
Once the management program is approved, the state will be
in a much stronger position when dealing with federal agencies
which issue permits and promote programs in Louisiana's
coastal zone and will become eligible for significant grants
to implement the management program.

The development of a coastal zone program as set forth
in this Chapter and the remainder of this report will provide
the state a mechanism for the orderly, long-range conservation
and development of coastal and marine resources and an improved
procedure for making decisions on coastal resource uses.
Decisions made in light of long-term objectives and after a
thorough scientific and technical evaluation should help the
state improve the quality of life for its citizens now and in
the future.

- @AlllkAk@

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CHAPTE R TWO

AN INVENTORY OF LOUISIANA'S COASTAL ZONE

I. Introduction
II. Renewable Resources
A. Living Resources
1. Commercial Uses
2. Sport Uses
3. Other Living Resources
B. Agriculture
1. General Characteristics
2. Rice
3. Soybeans
4. Sugar Cane
5. Beef Cattle
6. General
III. Non--Renewable Resources
A. Oil and Gas
B. Minerals (excluding oil and gas)
IV. Activities
A. Refining and,Manufacturing
1. Employment and Wages
2. Industry Description
3. Why Industry Locates in Louisiana
4. Control of Industrial Pollution
B. Ports and Water Transportation
C. Urban Settlement in Louisiana's Coastal Zone
D. Transportation
1. Highways
2. Railroads
3. Air Service
4. Mass Transit
E. Proposed Developments in Louisiana's Coastal Zone
1. Superport
2. Centroport
3. Navigation Projects
4. Flood Control

CHAPTER TWO

AN INVENTORY OF LOUISIANA'S COASTAL ZONE

I. Introduction

According to the National Estuarine Pollution Study.,
"America's coastlines are fringed by a maze of wetlands,
commonly identified as bays, sloughs, inlets, sounds,
salt marshes,. and lagoons. These sprawling and complex
aquatic areas, where the fresh water of the rivers meets
the salt water of the seas, are estuaries.

The 26 coastal States and territories of this Nation
have more than 30 million acres of estuarine waters and
wetlands. -About one-third of the Nation's iDopulation lives
and works in the 258 counties that border these regions,
and about one-third of the Nation's industry is concen-
trated there."

of the 30 million.acres of estuarine waters and wet-
lands nationally, Louisiana has over seven million acres--
more than any other state. In,these wetlands and in the
remainder of the coastal zone., lies the vast Ljority of
Louisiana's people and industry. The activities of the
people, their work and play, are closely tied to the uses
of the resour.ces of the coastal zone. The remainder of this
chapter will explore the major uses of coastal zone resources.

r1enewable Resources

A. Living Resources

1. Commercial Uses

In 1970, the commercial fish catch in Louisiana was
valued*at $62,516,831. This take was distributed among
five primary species of fishes and shell fish as follows:

1.5% Crawfish
2.6% Misc. 30@-3% Menhaden
5.8% Oysters
2.6% Catfish
1.7% Crabs
50.5% Shrimp

The latest biennia 1 report of the Louisiana Wild Life
and Fisheries Commission lists 37 different fish and shell-
fish taken commercially. Of these, 6 varieties account for
97 per cent of the total value of the commercial fishing.(l)
With the exception of catfish operations, commercial activity
with respect to the other species of fish and shell fish is
directly and almost exclusively related to the coastal zone
area of the state. This subsection briefly outlines those
relationships.

a. Menhaden (Pogie)

Menhaden is the principal industrial fish sDecies
taken in Louisiana. Although its flesh is too oily for
human consumption, the oil is commercially valuable. Once
the oil is removed, the remainder of the fish is used'to make
a cake which serves as a high protein livestock food
supplement. In 1970, the menhaden catch was valued at.
$18.9 million.(2)

Menhaden spawn offshore between October and February.
Tidal currents carry the fingerlings, or small fish into
the shallow estuarine, or marsh, areas of the coast. Here,
the fish develop'and mature during the summer and migrate
in the fall to the offshore spawning areas.(3)

Menhaden are taken with a purse seine by means of a.
highly mechanized procedure. Basically, a school is trapped
in the purse seine-and pumped aboard a larger fishing boat.
Studies by the Louisiana Wild Life and Fisheries Commission
indicate that few game fish are taken by this method and
heavy fishing pressure appears to improve infant survival
rate. Experience in Florida indicates that pollution of
marsh areas where fingerlings develop can decimate schools,
thereby destroying menhaden based inaustries.(4)

b. Crab

The blue Crab takea in Louisiana has an extremely wide
natural range--from Nova Scotia as far south as Uruguay.
In addition., it has been introduced to many European
coastal areas.(5)

Female crabs with egg masses are found in the Gulf
from December to October but they are more plentiful during
March and April. The eggs hatch in offshore waters and
once young crabs develop they return to the marsh area,,, where
after 18 to 20 molts they reach maturity. Females mate , .
once during their last molt. Males mate during the period

between their last three molts. To be successful, females
must then move to-the offshore,area:s while the males remain
in the less saline onshore wat.ers.

Crabs are cannibalistic. A molting crab is just a
good meal for another of his@species which happens along.
Therefore, to survive, crabs need areas where cover is --
available. They are also especially sensitive to excessive
concentrations of silt during the premolting, or buster,,
stage. Soft-shell crab fishermen who maintain cages have,.
to be especially careful that the water supply is clean.(6)

In 1970, the Louisiana crab catch was valued at
$928,046-for hard-shell and $79,462 for soft-shell crabs.(7)

C. Crawfish

Some '@0.0 species of crawfish are known worldwide. Over.
100 species are in the United States and 29:species have
been identified in Louisiana.(8)

Female crawfish carry from 15-to 700 eggs, which.hatch
underground in September and October. They are then,
activated by warming water in spring. Crawfish prefer
water temperature of 70OF to 85OF; when conditions are
favorab2e..-they mature in 60 to 90,days-. The crawfish
harvest occurs south of!a line drawn from Lake Charles,
northeast to Alexandria, southeast to Marksville, and
east to Baton Rouge. This line almost describes the
coastal zone area as defined foi- this report.(9) The Atchafa-'
laya Basin area is the primary source of wild commercial
crawfish.(10)

Crawfish will eat dead or living plants and animals
but they prefer'fr@esh meat,. About 20 per cent of the
crawfish diet consists of worm larvae and,other relatively:
immobile animals.* Growthis hampered when superfluous
decaying material in water.reduces the oxygen content.(11)

In 1971, about 24,000 acres ,,%,ere devoted to crawfish
culture. The acreage has shown a steady increase in the
past and the trend is expected to continue. Rice farming
and crawfish culture have been found especially compatible.
The 1970 crawfish catch was valued at $945,463.(12)

d. Shrimp
The 1970 Louisiana shrimp catch Was valued at $24.6!
million. Louisiana landings constituted 27 per cent of total
shrimp landings-in the United States. (13) The Wild Life

and Fisheries Commission issued more than 8,000 commercial.
trawler licenses that. year. (14)

White and brown shrimp are the two comtercially
important species in Louisiana. Young brown shrimp move
into the coastal-waters between February and March. They
mature in several months and are ready for harvest sometime
in May. The Wild Life and Fisheries Commission sets the-
season based on the maturity of the shrimp population.
Typically, the season will run from May 15 to July 15,
and then reopen the third Monday in August and run until
December 21. The short closing is intended to protect
young white shrimp coming ashoreduring that time. ' They
then also mature in the coastal waters and are ready for
harvest in August. (15)

Shrimp fishermen use both trawls and wing nets.
Generally, trawls are used in daylight operations and wing
nets are used at night. (16)

Wide variations in shrimp catches occur from year to
year. The Wild Life and Fisheries Commission is involved
with the federal government in a shared cost research program
to determine the cause of these fluctuations. To date,, the
studies have shown Louisiana estuarine waters contain by
far the largest white and brown shrimp concenteations along
the east and gulf coasts., It appears@that fertile, low
salinity estuaries provide a most favorable habitat. Elevated
water temperature has also been observed to be a favorabl'e
factor. (17)

e. Oysters

The 1970 oyster harvest was valued at $3.63 million.
This represented a value decrease in excess of 25 per cent as
cent as of 1968. At least part of the loss can be blamed I
on destruction by Hurricane Camille.(18) There has also been
a general decline in production caused by expanding industry,
and changes in drainage resulting from flood control projects.(19)

In Louisiana, there are about 1,100. oyster fishermen
operating an estimated 140,000 acres of oyster leases under
the administration of the Wild Life and Fisheries Commis-
sion.(20)

Female oysters are stimulated by an increase in water-
temperature or presence of male sperm and release millions
of microscopic eggs which hatch within a few hours. The

larvae develop for abbu@t two -to four weeks...during which
time they float free.@' Only a very small percentage'survive.-
Once the oyster reaches spat-stage, it attaches to a clean,
hard surface and begins to feed by pumping about three
gallons of water per hour through its shell, straining out
microscopic plants and animals. Currently state-owned seed
grounds east of the Mississippi. River supply 80 per cent
of seed oysters used in primary oyster-fishing areas between
the Mississippi and Atchafalaya rivers. Once the oysters
are set, only 1 Der cent survive to maturity. The extremely
high mortality rate is blamed largely on predators, such
as the conch, or oyster drill, the salt water drum and
disease, such as'dermocystidium marinum, called D'marinum
for short. Previously oysters had been bedded and allowed
to grow two years. Today, most oysters are bedded between
September and November and are harvested before June.(21)

f. Fur and Hide

The primary commercial fur-bearing animals in the
coastal z1one area are nutria, muskrat and mink.(22) The total
statewide fur catch was valued at about $9.63 million for the
1972-73 season.(23) Of this total, 85 Der cent was realized
from muskrat.and nutria trapping conducted almost exclusively
in the-coa,stal zone area. In addition to selling-pelts,
Louisi-ina. trappers sell nutria'and muskrat meat to the
screww.or'm stabilization program.(24)

Not native to Louisiana, the nutria. was brought to
Avery Island in 1930 for t.esting. Few escaped during the
normal course of experiments but in 1940, a hurricane
destroyed the pens and the whole colony of about 300 got out.
By 1957 the nutria was so plentiful that the Louisiana
Legislature offered a bounty, which was not cancelled until
1968. Nutria range over the whole coastal zone area and are
well adapted to survive in marsh and swamp environment-1.(25.)
Their outlaw status has.been forgotten quickly :because the
value of the nutria catch during the 1972-73 season
exceeded $7.5 million.(26)

The muskrat is found prim'ari ly in marsh areas and has
a sDecial nreference for three-cornered grass marsh.
Conditions which develop this type of marsh seem to be ideal
for muskrat habitat,, e.g., relatively low salinity and
stable water levels. Also, muskrats need a well develoiPed
peat root system for constructing runs and tunnels. Often,
it is good management, from the muskrat trapper's point of
Viewl to burn off and flood large marsh areas, thereby
creating conditions favorable to three-.cornered grass
growth. Most productive marsh areas are between salt and

fresh water regimes. Extremely vulnerable to@changes in
water distributions, these marshes are limited in that they
can feed only a certain number of muskrat. When population
exceeds carrying capacity, muskrat literally eat up the,
marsh and destroy the habitat. This,-of course., also
decimates the muskrat populations.(27)

1. Alligators

The alligator population's steady decline since the
1930's is attributable to man's influence. An extensive
network of canals was dredged making almost any area. of the
marsh easily accessible to hunters and trappers. These
canals also increased circulation and caused changes in T)Iant
life. During the latter 1950s and throughout the 1960s,
the Louisiana Wild Life and Fisheries Commission engaged
in a major alligator management effort.(28) In 1972, an
exDerimental open season was conducted in Cameron Parish
from September 5 through 17 and 1,347 alligators were taken.
The hides were sold at public auction and the gross value
was $74.,614., Average value of hide per linear foot was
$8 and prime hides brought as much as $11 per foot.(29)

Rules of the experimental season were set up to
facilitate taking only male alligators. Inspection by Wild
Life and Fisheries personnel indicated that about 90 'per
cent of the catch was male. Females use open water only
during courtship and breeding periods and otherwise spend
the great bulk of their time in isolated dens. Males can
truly be classified as "play boys after (la-l-k." More active
males have been known to travel four to five miles in a
single night. They prefer relatively open water.(30)

2. Sport Uses

a. Hunting

During the 1970-71. Louisiana season, 338,953 resident
hunting licenses were bought, about 43 per cent ir t1hc
coastal 2@one parishes.(31) Primary game animals -in the
cc.astal zone area. include waterfowl, rabbits, squi -r r e
sn.pe, rail ,and deer. 'here is some dove hunting but the
more productive dove areas are north of the coastal zone.
This subsection briefly discusses each of the more important
species and its relationship to the coastal zone.

1 Deer

Deer generally range over the whole coastal zone area.
Deer populations are relatively small. compared with upland
areas to the north.(32) Kills were"reported in each of the
coastal zone parishes but accounted for only 11 per cent
of the deer killed in Louisiana during the.1970-71 hunting
season.(33)

Re&earch has shown that the quality of deer herds,-*Ls
factors: dity of the animals and
dependent on two here
quality .of' the range. High quality ranges provide sufficient
browsing matter and cover.(34)

2. Squirrel

Squirrel season runs generally from early October to
early January. The early season allows hunting while
squirrels are still feeding. About 80 per cent of the
kills are made then.(35)

Two primary species of squirrels,are found in Louisiana:
the grey and the fox squirrel. Grey squirrels are, as
their name suggests., grey in color and usually smaller than
the rust-colored fox squirrel. 'Coastal zone swamps
provide excellent habitat for both species. The primary
threat to the squirrel population is forest-clearing rather
than hunting pressure.' Hunters take only about 30 per cent
of the annual.squirrel crop.

3. Rabbit

Louisiana has two primary.species of rabbit: cotton-
tail, indigenous to uplandareas, and swamp rabbits, usually
found in low-lying swamp or marsh areas. Cottontails thrive
on uncut fence rows and places with adequate cover.(36)

Generally, the rabbit's reputation for reproductive
ability is well deserved. They are the basic link in the
food chain for most.predators;,tlierefore, nature has provided
for'continuation of the species by giving them exceptional
powers of reproduction. It can be that "as long as. housing
shortages do not interfere, mother nature will supply the
rabbits." The observed decrease in rabbit population is
caused by destruction of their habitat rather than by
hunting.(37)

4. Waterfowl

A great variety of waterfowl winter each year in the
coas,tal zone, which serves as the southern end of-the
Mississippi Fly-Way. During the 1972-73 winter, the
coastal zone provided a home for about 4.5 million ducks
and geese. (38)

There are about 1201000 duck hunters in Louisiana.
Typically, the season open on or about*November 4 and lasts
about 50 days.

The waterfowl resource is dependent on the condition
of the nesting grounds in the prairie provinces of Canada
and on maintenance of a suitable winter habitat in
Louisiana.('@9) Considerable research is in progress., with a
view to determining the best management methods to maintain
the wintering areas.-(40)

5. Fishing

Fishing is the fifth most popular form of recreation
in Louisiana. In fact, the average Louisianan went fishing
3.13 times during the summer.(41)

Louisiana's freshwater game fish include large mouth
bass, bream, white perch, or sac-a-lait, blue gill and
red eared sunfish. Sport fishermen also actively seek
catfish. As a group, these fish are distinguished by their
preference for relatively warm water. Each of the species
is distributed widely throughout the coastal zone.(42)

It has been observed generally that game fish can
endure less variations in water quality than can rough fish.
Game fish are the first species to die when oxygen content
is reduced.(43)

The primary and most actively sought salt water game
fish ih,the Louisiana coastal area are speckled trout
,(spotted weakfish) and the cahnnel bass, or red fish. Both
mature and spend the greater part of their lives in the
marshes and estuarine areas of the coastal zone .(44)

3. Other Living-Resources

In addition to the species already discussed, there
are others that provide benefits to man. Those benefits
may be little recognized if man uses them only indirectly
or their niche in the --cological cycles or food chains is
obscure.

Birds provide much pleasureto the growing numbers,of
people who delight in watching.them., Louisiana's coastal
zone is famous for its birds,.

The Gulf waters,.beaches@, marshes, and cheniers of
Louisiana's coastal zone provide.habitat at some time of
year to a large proportion.o,f,,the noncommercial bird..
species breeding in the Eastern Unit-ed.States and to an
appreciable number of more western species.

Two place names that come up repeatedly when birds
are discussed are Grand Isle and Cameron Parish.(45) These
are the two most accessible areas on the Louisiana -coast
and probably receive more attention from ornithologists
than any other section of the state. Accessibility is.not,
of course, the only reason these areas are so attractive
to people interested In birds.

One of the more spectacular occurrences in the coastal
region is the annual migration of hundreds of thousands
of songbirds to an from their wintering grounds in the
tropical. countries to the south of the Gulf of Mexico.
Detailed accounts of this migration can be found.(46, 47, 48,
49). Over 70 species of songbirds regularly cross the
Gulf in spring almost every day beginning around the first
of April and continuing until the middle of May. The great
majority of these species usually begins migration shortly
after sunset, fly all night and alight at dawn. Because of
the length of the trans-Gulf flight, birds that leave
Mexico and points soiith at sunset are over water at dawn
and must continue flying until they reach land. Each day
during the spring migration period, birds arrive over the
Louisiana coast in tremendous numbers in the late morning
and all afternoon. Most continue flying to inland forests,
but during bad weather many land in chenier woods. When ,
such a "fallout" occurs the cheniers are literally full of
vireos, warblers., thrushes,, tanagers, grosbeaks and buntings.
Nowhere except on the northern coast of the Gulf of Mexico
can such concentrations of songbirds be seen. This unique
situation provides what might be called a "natural labora-
tory" for studies of bird migration. "Preservation of
these chenier ridges and the surrounding marshland are of
great concern as the number of people who get pleasure from
observing and studying birds continues to increaoe.

It is thought that man's effect on the birds of the
coastal areas was quite noticeable even before the turn of
the century. The Eskimo curley, once an abundant migrant
through the state, was last reported here in 1889. Whooping
cranes, once fairly common winter residents, were last seen
in the state in 1918. Greater prairie chickens, an

unusual me mber of the grouse-family, bred in southwestern
Louisiana at one time but disappeared by 1919. To think
that this process of elimination has ended would be fool-
hardy. One need only mention the brown pelican, a. bird that
In a relatively short time (20 years) has gone from one of
the more common sights over the waters of the (;,ulf to an
extreme rarity until recently reintroduced from stock
imported from, out of the state..

REFERENCES

1. 14th Biennial Report, 1970-71, Louisiana Wild Life and
Fisheries Commission, hereinafter cited as 14th Biennial
Report.

2. Ibid.

3. Kathleen Blakeney. The Louisiana Schmoo., Louisiana
Conservationist, May-June 1971, p. 4.

4. Ibid.

5. Nilson G. Guidry. Riches From the Sea, Louisiana
Conservationist, July-August 1971, P. 5.

6. Ibid.

7. 1-4th Biennial Report, op.cit.

8. Frank Davis. April Picnic--Louisiana Style, Louisiana
Conservationist, March-April.1972, p. 20.

9. Ibid.

10. Cecil LaCaze. Moreabout Crawfish, Louisiana Wild Life
and Fisheries Bulletin 95.

11. Ibid.

12. 14th Biennial Report, op.cit.

13. Ibid.

14. Frank Davis.' More Shrimp for Louisiana, Louisiana
Conservationist July-August'1972, p.,12.

15. Ibid.

16. Ibid.

17. 14th Biennial Report'. op.cit.

18. Ibid.

19. Grits Gresham. Wildlife Resources of Louisiana, Wild
Life and Fisheries Bulletin 92, hereinafter cited as
Wildlife Resources.

20. 14th Biennial Report, op-cit.

Lamar B. Jones and Randolph G. Rice. An Economic
Base study of Coastal L "ouisiana, Center for Wetland
Resources., Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge,
hereinafter cited as An Economic Base'Study.

21. Lionel W. Treadway. Louisiana Oyster, Louisiana
Conservationist, May-June 1971, p. 4, hereinafter
cited as Louisiana Oyster.

22. An Economic 'Base Study, op.cit.
23. Louisiana Oyster', op.cit.

24. 14th Biennial Report, op.cit.

25. Frank Davis. Outlaw Is Back in Style, Louisiana
Conservationist,, January-Febuary 1973, n. 20.

26. Comp arative Takes of Fur Animals, Louisiana Wild
Life and Fisheries Commission, Fur Division, 1972-73
Season.

27. 13th Biennial Report, 1968-69, Louisiana Wild Life and
Fisheries Corr-mission.

28. Ted Joanen and Larry McNease. Electronic Alligators,
Louisiana Conservationist, July-August 1971.

29. News release by Wild Life and Fisheries Commission,
September 25, 1972.

30. Ibid.

31. 14th Biennial Report. op.cit.

32. Fra nk Davis. Antlers in Louisiana, Louisiana Conser-
vationist, November-Decerriber 1972, p. 27.

33. 14th Biennial Report, op.cit.

34. Frank Davis. Racks, Rations and Heredity., Louisiana
Conservationist, May-June 1973, P. 10. - 1

35. J. B. Kidd. Of Small Game are Hunters Made., Louisiana
Conservationist, September-October 1969, p. 1 1.

36. Ibid.

37. Frank Davis. Legacy of Brer Rabbitl Louisiana
Conservationist, January-February 1973, P. 5,

38. McFadden Duffy. 1972-1973 Water Fowl Outlook,,
Louisiana Conservationist, November-December 1971, p. 5.

39. McFadden Duffy. Down Where the Fly Way Ends, Louisiana
Conservationist, November-December 1971, P. 5.

40. 14th Biennial Rep.ort, op.cit.

-41. Comprehensive Outdoor Recreation Plan 1970-75
Louisiana State Parks and Recreation Commission, June
1971, pp. 5-13'.

42. Wildlife Resources, op.cit.

43. Biological Factors of Pollution as Affecting Receiving
Waters, Americ'an Petroleum Institute Manual on Disposal
of Refining Wastes, American Petroleum Institute
Supp., 1963..

44. Frank Davis. Those Freckled Favorites, Louisiana
Conservationist, May-June 1972, p. 5.

45. G..H. Lowery Jr. Louisiana Birds, 1960.

46. G. H. Lowery Jr. Trans-Gulf Spring Migration of Birds
and,the Coastal Hiatus, 1945, Wilson Bulletin, 57:92-121.

47. J. J. Hebrard. The Nightly Initiation of Passerine
Migration in Spring: A Direct Visual Study'@ 1971,
This 113:8-18.

48. S. A. Gauthreaux Jr. A Radar and Direct Visual Study
of Passerine Mi ration in Southern Louisiana, 1971,,
Auk 88(2):343-395.

49. K. P. Able. ' Fall Migration in Coastal Louisiana and
the Evolution of Migration Patterns in the Gulf Region,
1972, Wilson Bulletin, 84(3):231-242.

3 l'

B. Agri culture

1. General Characteristics

Parishes of the Louisiana coastal zone have generally
been divided into three groups with respect to agriculture.
Fig. 2.1 illustrates this division. First, parishes on the
coast are characterized by large salt marsh area. About
2.3 million of the 5.3 million acres that make up these
parishes are claasified as saltwater marshland. The soils
are brackish-marsh-peaty-muck. This marsh land is usually
submerged throughout the-year and subject to tidal overflow.

The second group of parishes, located just north of the
coastal parishes, forms a band extending from the western
end of Lake Pontchartrain to the Texas border. These
parishes contain about four million acres., of. which about
50 per cent is devoted to some type of farming. Soils in
the western area are classified as coastal prairies and
alluvium in the eastern section. The variable nature of these
soils makes them easily adaptable for many agricultural uses.

The third group of parishes, described as Florida
Parishes, is located on the northern shore of Lake Pontchar-
train. These parishes comprise a total land area of about
1.5 million acres. About 20 per cent of the land is devoted
to farm use. Generally, it can.be said that the area
suitable for farming is limited; soils are poorly drained,
shallow and silty.

Agricultural activity in the c oastal zone is dominated
by a few major crops. Each crop is generally raised in a
snecific area. Following is a discussion of each of the major
c-rops.

2. Ri c e

Per capita consumption of rice in the United States is
about seven pounds per person. in some parts of Asia,
consumption exceeds 300 pounds per person. Since World War
ii, the United States has joined Thailand and Burma as a
major rice exporting nation. Today, most of the United States
crop is grown in Louisiana, Arkansas, Texas and California
and about half the crop is exported. (1)

The rice growing area of the Louisiana coastal zone
(Fig. 2.2) includes most of southwestern Louisaina. In
most general terms, rice is planted in April and May.,
cultivated in May, June and July and harvested from

94 93 92 9i 9C 3?

CADDO BOSSIER MOREHOUSE
FISTER CLAIBORNE UNION

W T
ARR LL
EAST,
LINCOLN ARRO

BIENVILLE OUACHITA LOUISIANA
JACKSON RICHLAND MAO11 IN 0 10 20 30 40

miles
CALDWELL
O.SOTO RED RIVER FRANKLIN TENSAS
WINN 32
32

SABINE NATCHITOCHES LISALLE CATAIIOULA Source: Floyd 'L. Cor y .
GRANT Agriculture in the Co stal Zone
of Louioiana Departm nt of
p
CO CORO.A al c omic
Agricul ur E onomic and Agri-
om c
si
bus-ine Louisiana S ate
VERNON RAPIDES Univer: ty Agr@icultur 1 and
iVOYELLES Mechani al College, A ricultural
ExDerim nt Station.
W 31
W WEST FELICIANA EAST SAINT WASHINGTON
FELICIANA HELENA

ALLEN EVANGELINE POINTE
BLAUREGARD SAINT LANDRY COUPEE
I

I Y
Florida Parishes

..X=....
Second Group
HIN
30
.0

Coastal Parishes L

100'

29
29
he
Cor y
Co st a 1 one
'D 6 p a rt m nt 0 f
,co nomic and Agr i-
s i ana S at e
Ii c u 1 tu 1 r
r a _d
l
g r
e e A c ul t ur al
t
or

94 93 92 Longitude West of Greenwich 91 90 69

Fig. 2.1 Grouping of Agricultural Parishes Within the Coastal Zone
L

95 94 113 92 9 i 1

CADDO BOSSIER W BSTER CLAIBORNE UNION NOR HOUSE

WEST
CARROLL
EAST
LINCOLN ARROL
BlEhVILLE OUACHITA RICHLAND MADISON LOUISIANA
0 10 20 30 40

Miles

CALDWELL
RED RIVER FRANKLIN
D,SOTO TE.S-S
WIN" 32
32

LASALLE
SABINE NATCHITOCHES CATAHOULA Source: Lo isiana Agricu tural
GRANT I
Extension S@rvice Project,Giant Step
CONCORDIA Report for 10,72.

RAPIDES I
VERNON

AVOYELLES

31
31 WEST FELICIANA LAST SAINT WASHINGTON
FELICIANA HELEN

ALLEN EVANGELINE POINTE
REGARD SAINT LANDRY COUPLE
ANGIPAHOA
CAST
ATON ROUGE LIVINGSTON SAINT TAMMANY
'EST

ISERVILLE ASCENSION -4

F SAINT J HN
THE LIA TIST
30 SAINT JAME S ORLEANS
SSUMPTION SAINT
CHARLES JEF ER
ILSFOURCHE SON SAINT
BERNARD

PLAQUE-INES

TERREBONNE
@Lo@isianapAgricu tur a,1
rv@
ic e roi ect Gian Step

94 92 to ngitude West of Greenwich 91 90 89

Fig. 2.2 Rice Production in Louisiana

RICE PRODUCTION
Table 2.1

Parish Acreage Gross Sales

Acadia 93,26o $21,o4.6,451

Calcasieu 662880 13,56o,856
Cameron J2,550 23480,194
'Iberia 5,913 1,347,572

Jefferson Davis 983,040 221232,700
Lavayette 10,097 2.,237,74o
St. Martin 3,993 $49,454

St. Mary 3,456 509,032
Vermilion 114,5o8 25,764,300

TOTAL 4o8,697 $90,028,299

July through October.(2) Rice storage and milling industries
have developed in conjunction with rice production. The
general trend has been to increase operational efficiency
by combining drying and milling facilities.(3)

About 429,147 acres were devoted to rice production in
1972. The gross value of the crop was estimated to be in
excess of $91 million.(4) A tabulation of production from
each parish (table 2.1) adjoins Fig. 2.2.

3. Soybeans

Soybean production is'not limited to a specific area
as are the other predominant crops of the Louisiana coastal
zone. (Fig. 2.3, Table 2.2). Soybeans have proven a
good rotation crop with cotton., rice or sugar cane;
they are inexpensive to grow, are salable and are an
alternative to other crops which are susceptible to allot-
ment quotas. Soybeans have proved especially compatible
with rice farming operations because rice combines can be
used to harvest soybeans. Consequently, the crop has gained
wide acceptance in a relatively short time.(6)

Soybean, a leguminous crop, has the ability to draw
nitrogen from the air and, with the presence of proper
bacteria, restore the soil nitrogen content. Soybeans are
planted during the late fall or early winter. As days
lengthen and soil temperature begins to rise in the spring,
the seeds germinate. The crop grows through the summer and
is harvested in October and November.(7)

Primary soybean products are oil and meal. One bushel
of soybeans produce about 11 pounds of crude soybean oil and
about 47 pounds of meal.(8)

Estimated gross value of the 1972 crop in the Louisiana
coastal zone was 30.8 million dollars. The Louisiana
Agricultural Extension Service also reported that 310,450
acres were devoted to soybean production. (9) It is further
anticipated that the current trend of increasing soybean
-production will continue for some time. A study conducted
by the Louisiana State University Agricultural Experimental
Station indicated that a substantial number of farmers
intend to grow soybeans in the future.(10)

4. Sugar Cane

Sugar cane production is limited generally to that
part of the Louisiana coastal zone along the Mississippi

95 94 93 92- 9i 39

CADDO BOSSIER V@ OSTER CLAIBOR NE UNION M?REHOUSE

WEST
CARROLL CAST
LINCOLN ARROL

BIENVILLE OUACHITA LOUISIANA
RICHLAND MADISON
JACKSON 0 10 20 30 40

Miles
O.SOTO RED RIVER CALDWELL FRANKLI N TE145AS
WINN
32
32

L&SALLE
1ASINE NATCHITOCHES GRANT CATAHOULA Source: Louisiana Agr cultural
Extensio Service, Pro ect Giant
CONCORDIA Step Rep rt for 1972.

RAPIDES
VERNON

AVOYELLES

31
WEST FELICjANA EAST SAIENT WASHINGTON
FELICIANA MEL NA
ALLEN EVANGELINE P INTE
BEAUREGARD SAINT LANDRY CUPEE

LIVINGSTON

"N
iST 30
30

9
29
-- @n r @a
e sia a A
0 1 vic P gr cu@ltu
ur c L
@en sio Ser e ro ect G ant
_p rt for 1 9 1
ReD@ 7 2@

94 93 92 LOngitude West of GmenwiCh 91 90 89

FiLz. 2.3 Soybean Production in Louisiana Coastal Zone

SOYBEAN PRODUCTION
Table 2.2

Parish Acreage Gross Sales

Acadia 8o.,000 $7,936,ooo

Ascension 3,500 307,125

Assumption 1,000 110.%000

Calcasieu 40.%000 3,957,000

Cameron 2.1600 198,575

East Baton Rouge 15,000 1,710,000

Iberia 23800 236.$600

Iberville 123000 1,373,400

Jefferson Davis 90310,00 8,910,000

Lafayette 12.1200 1,366,4oo

Lafourche 1$000 99,000

St. James 3,000 2943-300

St. John 3,900 442.4oo

St. Martin 12.1000 13-1773200

Tangiboha 3,700 3752069

St. Tammany 750 66.1200

Vermilion 25,000 2.90252000

West Baton Rouge- 2.1000 228,900

TOTAL 3103@450 $30.@813,169

and Atchafalaya rivers. (Fig. 2.4) Historically, it, is no t
known where sugar cane was first domesticated. However,
there are many wild varieties in India, and that sugar cane
was cultivated there in prehistoric times. The great
oyages of Vasco De Gama and Christopher Columbus were
motivated by the desire of Europeans to discover a safe
v

trade route to India. Sugar was one of the primary articles
of trade. The first sugar cane was introduced into
Louisiana in 1751 by the Jesuit Fathers with no success.-
It was not until 1794 that enough was learned about
growing sugar cane in Louisi7ana to produce a commercial crop.

Stalks of the cane containing a series of joints are
planted during September-and October. Growth begins when
the, soil temperature is raised by spring sun. The crop
grows throughout the summer and is harvested in November and
December. Usually two or three crops are grown from a
sin*gle planting. Sugar is produced from juice squeezed from
the,stalks, evaporated and refined. There are 44 active
sugar mills and refineries in the Louisiana coastal zone.(11)

The' Louisiana Agricultural Extension Service'reported
that 2901102 acres of sugar cane were planted in the
Louisiana coastal zone in 1972.. The gross sales value of
that crop was in excess .of $83.*5-million.(12) Production
of sugar cane by parish (Table 2-3) adjoins Fig. 2.4.

5. Beef Cattle

The greatest concentration of beef cattle industry in
the Louisiana coastal zone occurs in the rice growing
parishes. It should be noted that there is a substantial
beef cattle industry in most of the other coastal zone
parishes. In fact, Louisiana beef, cattle industry is among the
top ten in the nation.

Because of soil conditions, it is necessary to plant
rice crops in rotation. It has also been found that
rotation serves to control undesirable weeds on rice land.(13).
The net result is that a large portion of land used to
produce rice is fallow each year. It has long been the
practice to use this land for grazing cattle. Many rice
farmers.also use part of their land as permanent pasture.
This provides supplemental feed when the fallow rice fields
do not supply sufficient quality and/or quantity forage
and makes it possible to have better quality animals for
sale.(14)

95 94 93 92 9

CADDO BOSSIER OSTER CLAIBORNE MOREHOUSE
UNION

WEST
CARROLL
CAST
LIN ARROLL
COLN

BILNVILLE LOUISIANA
OUACHITA RICHLAND MADISO
JACKSON 0 10 20 30 AID

Miles
RED RIVER CALDWELL FRANKLIN
O.SOT0 TENSAS
WINN 32
32

NATCHITOCHES LASALLE C@TAHQULA Source: ouisiana A ltural
SABINE GRANT Extension Service., Proj ct Giant
Step Reno t for 1972.
CONCORO.A

VERNON RAPIOES

AVOYELLES

31
31
0 WEST FELICIANA EAST SAINT WASHINGTON
FELICIANA HELENA
SLAUREGARD ALLEN EVANGELINE POINTE
SAINT LANDRY COUPEE
ANGIPAHOA
EAST
ATON R ... E LIVIN GSTON SAINT TANRAANY

JEFFERSON DAVIS
CALCASIEU

HN
IST
30 CA.ERON ORLEANS
EF E
SON AINT
BERNARD

PLAQVIEWNES

29
gri ;u

90 89
-7-4 91, 92 Lo@ gitude Wesj of Gr*enWiCh 91

Fig. 2.4 Sugar Cane Production in Louisiana coastal Zone

SUGAR CANE PRODUCTION
Table 2.3

Ascension 13,500 4,860,000

Assumption 35,000 10,010,000

Iberia 37,167 9,628,917

Iberville 22,025 7,025,925

Lafayette 8,045 1,543,313

Lafourche 38,000 11,172,000

St. Charles 2,703 587,355

St. James 23,691 6,679,665

St. John the Baptist 9,189 2,196,830

St. Martin 20,010 6,051,024

St. Mary 44,000 12,474,000

Terrebonne 21,000 7,056,000
Vermilion 3,487 721,809

West Baton Rouge 12,285 3,611,790

TOTAL 290,102 83,618,628

Basically the Louisiana beef cattle industry raises
cattle to the feeder stage; then, they are sold to large
feeder lots in western states. This procedure is necessary
because it is more economical to ship cattle to the West
for fattening than to ship the grain required to fatten
the cattle in Louisiana. The state does have a small feeder
industry; however, its value is only a small fraction of
the overall beef cattle industry.(15)

The Louisiana Agricultural Extension Service reported
that 1972 Beef Cattle sales from the Louisiana coastal zone
realized about $35 million (Table 2.4)(16)

6. General

Louisiana has shown a tendency to increase acreage
devoted to agriculture. This has been caused primarily'
by clearing wetlands,for soybeans.(17) It has been predicted
that, assuming gradual 'easing of government controls and
relatively stable cost-price ratios, about 2 to 2.5 million
acres would be used as farm land through about 1980. The
coastal zone of Louisiana contains about 10.8 million acres.
Of these,, about 3.6 million acres are usable for farming.(18)

Beef Cattle Production

Parish Gross Sales($)
Acadia . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . ... . . 0 2,640,000
Ascension . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,4649000
Assumption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,60,000
Calcasieu . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3,418,8oo
Cameron . . .. . . . . ... . . . . 759,375
East Baton Rouge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3,675,000
Iberia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 971,250
Iberville . . . . ... . . . . . . . . 2,100,000
Jefferson . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157,500
Jefferson Davis . . . . 2,360,000
Lafayette . . . . . . . . ... . . . . . . 2,826,250
Lafourche . . . . . . . 2,24o,ooo
Livingston . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2341000
Plaquemine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50,61o
St. Bernard 60,000
St. Charles . . . . . . . . . . . . 4@o,'QOO
St. James . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204300 0
St..John the Bapti st . . . . . . . . ... . . . . 112 000
St. Martin . . . . . . 2 4oo'000
St. Mary . . . . . . . . . 94,000
Tangipahoa . . . . . . . . . . . .. . 575,190
Terreborne . . . . . . . . . .. I. . . . . . . . . 1,344.,ooo
St. Tammany . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . ? 5803000
Vermilion . . . . . . . . ... . . . 5 751,000
3
West Baton Rouge . . . . . . . . . . . . 224,ooo

Total 341820,975

Source: Louisiana Agricultural Extension Service, Project Giant
Step Report for 1972

Table

4.3

REFERENCES

1. Marshal R. Goodwin and Lonnie L. Jones. The Southern
Rice Industry--An Overview Examination, Southern
Cooperative Series Bulletin 137, hereinafter cited as
The Southern Rice Industry.

2. D. C. Doyal Jr. Rural Manpower Service, Louisiana
Department of Security, Louisiana Annual Rural Manpower
Report ES-225, 1972,-hereinafter cited as Rural
Manpower Service.

3. The Southern Rice Industry, op.cit.

4. Louisiana Cooperative Extension Service, 1972 Project
Giant Step Report, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge,
hereinafter cited as Extension Service Project.

5. Quentin A. L. Jenkins, George E. Dickinson, and
William D. Hefferman. Social Factors Related to.the
Rapid Adoption of Soybeans by Louisiana Farmers,
Louisiana State University,- Baton Rouge, Agricultural
Experiment Station Bulletin 646, 1970, hereinafter cited
as.Social Factors.

6. Ibid...

7. A. G. Killgore and T. A. Burch. Soy-beans, A Good Cash
Crop, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge,
Agricultural Extension Division, 1962.

8. Ibid.

9. Extension Service Project, op.cit.

10. Social Factors, op.cit.

11. Rural Manpower Servi ce, op.cit.

12. Extension Service Project, op.cit.

13. Tip Smith. Louisiana Prefers Traditional Rice-Cattle
Rotation, Rice Journal 72(l), pp. 15-16.

Thomas F. Foster and Donald C. Huffman. Beef
Production Opportunities in the Rice Area of South-
western Louisiana, Louisiana Rural Economist 29(2), May
1967, P. 5, hereinafter cited as Beef Production
Opportunities.

14. Beef Production Opportunities, op.cit.

15. Gene E. Murra. Louisiana's Beef Cattle Industry,
Louisiana Rural Economist 27(3), August 1965, P. 12..

16. Extension Service Project, op.cit.

17. Floyd L. Corty. Agriculture in the Coastal Zone of
Louisiana, Department of Agricultural Economics and
Agribusiness, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge,
Agricultural Experiment Station, A.E.A. Information
Series No. 25, May 1972.

18. Ibid.

III. Non-Renewable Resources

A. Oil and Gas

The discovery of oil in Louisiana was near Jennings in
1901. By the mid-1930s, drilling barges were being
floated into position for drilling on the bottoms of
inland waterways-. In 1938, drag lines- were being mounted
on barges to dredge access canals so that submersible
drilling bar es could be moved into previously inaccessible
marsh areas-Fl.)

Soon afterwards., waterborne pipelaying equipment was
used to connect newly drilled wells to ports and processing
plants throughout the state. The final step in these
developments was completion of the first open-water oil
well out of sight of land in the Gulf of Mexico in 1947.(2)

About 19 per cent of the state's total revenue in
fiscal 1971-72 was derived directly from oil and gas
production in the coastal zone parishes. Almost $380 million
came from severance taxes collected on all oil and gas
production and from royalties from production on state-
owned land in these parishes.(3) An indication of the involve-
ment of the oil and gas industry in the coastal zone
parishes is shown from the following:

-90 per cent of the crude and condensate
production in the state came from the
coastal zone parishes in 1971.(4)

__93 per cent of the natural and casinghead
gas produced in the state came from the
-coastal zone parishes in 1971.(5)

-89 per cent of oil and gas severence
taxes collected in fiscal year 1971-72 was
on production in the coastal zone parishes.(6)

-Offshore production of crude and condensate
was 47 per cent of the state's total in
1970*.(7)

--Offshore production of natural gas and
casinghead gas was 38 per cent of the
state's total in 1970*.(8)

*Offshore production figure for 1970 includes zones I through
IV.

-@South Louisiana 'accounted for 56 per cent
of the wells drilled and 80 per cent of the
footage drilled in 1971".

The Louisiana Employment Security Act covers about
500,000-employes in the coastal zone [email protected]. In
1971 under this act, mining e lov es, in these narishes
mD ' (about 40 000) of the
were considered to be 7.1 per cent .9
covered work force and were reported to be earning 10.3
per cent of the wages paid to covered employes. On a
statewide basis, 93 per cent of the mining employes work
with oil and gas production. Omitted from coverage by
the Employment Security Act are domestics, governmental
employes, workers for nonprofit organizations, self-.employed
persons, and those working for an employer hiring less than
four laborers. (10)

Exploration for oil and gas involves many techniques.
Formerly seismic blasting was used almost exclusively to
derive records for determining underground structures.
Today, other techniques using air guns, vibroseis and sparkers
are prevalent. Certain conditions in South Louisiana, e.F.
overburden, necessitate that blasting still be used for some
exploration, but use.of this technique is decreasing.
Blasting activities are supervised by the Division of
Seafood,, Oysters, and Waterbottoms of the Louisaina Wild
Life and Fisheries Commission. The effect of controlled
seismic blasting has been studied by the Louisiana Wild Life
and Fisheries Commission. The conclusion of these studies
is that blasting carried out with the Proper safeguard has
a minimal effect on oysters and other water life. Tests
have shown that fish kills do not occur beyond 150 to 200
feet from the blast site.

The majority of oil and gas wells in the coastal zone
parishes are in swamp and marsh areas. Canals must be
dredged into these areas to float drilling rigs into Position.
These canals are from 65 to 70 feet wide and 8 feet deen.
Access to the rig is necessary during drillin@-,. Later, if
the well is a producer, access to the well site is necessary.
Thus, these canals usually are not filled or dammed after
drilling is completed.

Drilling operations are dontrolled by permits from the
Department of Conservation. These Permits control the depth
to which casing must be set and the procedures for cementing

**South Louisiana refers to the Department of Conservation
zones; thus, 13 parishes not considered by this study to
be in the coastal zone are included in these figures.

the well below the casing to protect against blowouts-
and contamination of nonproducing strata.

To facilitate drilling through mud containing petroleum
derivatives'are circulated@to the drilling bit from the
surface. The mud helps to prevent gas blowouts during
drilling by maintaining pressure in the well. Use of oil-
based drilling muds increases penetration rates as much as
50 per cent but offshore operators generally do not use
this oil-based mud because the U.S. Geological Survey - I
prohibits disposal of the mud in the Gulf. The cost of
returning the mud to shore for disposal usually would-be
prohibitive.

Once a well is Droducing, field develoument progresses
in an almost random manner with respect to surface features.
Usually, development of an oil field is influenced strongly
by property lines and by information about subsurface features
.which is obtained as the field is developed. The random
drilling pattern with respect to surface features results
because@property lines and subsurface features usually are
not related to surface features.

Natural gas is transported from wells by pipeline. oil
can be extracted from the well and then transported by a
liquid carrier, e.g., barge, tank truck, tank car. Loca-
tion of pipelines for gathering oil and gas and for canals
to gather oil by barge usually is influenced by property
lines because passage provided by the servitude in most
mineral leases may provide the cheapest route to market.

Pipelines can be installed by either the push (or shove)
method or the flotation method. For the push method, a
narrow ditch about 5,feet wide and 9 feet deep -is made by
drag line. Marsh buggies are used to support the drag line
and to handle the pipe as it is laid. At the beginning
of the ditch, the pipeline links are joined together.
Then, floats,are attached to the pipe and it is floated,
or Itpushed," down the length of the ditch. When the pipe
is in position, it is filled with water and sunk but the
ditch is left open or backfilled. Upon completion of back-
filling, the spoil that remains from digging the ditch
usually has subsided or shrunk so that enough material is
not available to fill the ditch. The push method cannot
be used unless the marsh is firm enough to support operation
of marsh buggies.

Nor c an the push method be used for laying large-
diameter pipe. In'these instances, the flotation method of
laying pipe must be used. The flotation methodrequires
dredging a canal 40 to 50 feet wide and 6 to 7 feet, de'ep.
A barge is floated down the canal, laying-the pipeline
behind it. Typically a trench will be dredged in the
canal so that the top of the completed pipeline has a
clearance 10 to 12 feet below the surface of the marsh.

Generally, spoil from dredging is piled back some
distance from the canal. The spoil material which is quite
fluid, settles and spreads, sometimes to an area as wide
as 85 feet and a depth of three feet. Enough material
to refill the canal is never available because of the
spreading of the spoil bank and of the irreversible shrinkage
of the marsh soil. In. some cases., where landowners have
requiredthe marsh surface to be restored, dredging material
from other sites is necessary to obtain the needed fill.

Operators of pipelines must obtain the consent of
landowners whose property the pipeline transverses. These
landowners set the conditions for restoration of the marsh
-surface after the pipeline has been laid. The U.S. Army@
Corps of Engineers grants permits for all pipeline activity
in navigable waterways of the United States. Before
granting these permits, the Corps requires a letter of
11no objection" from the Louisiana Wild Life and Fisheries
Commission, which grants such letters for pipeline activities
involving state-owned lands also. The State Mineral Board
requires that all its lessees comply with the Louisiana.
Wild Life and Fisheries Commission regulations and requests.
These regulations provide that normal drainage patterns
through the marsh areas be maintained. Methods of maintaining
these drainage patterns include dams in pipeline canals,
cutting continuous spoil banks, and installation of siphons.

The chart below shows the miles of oil pipeline in the
state at the beginnings of 1968 and 1971. This chart does
not include natural gas pipelines.

Miles of Oil Pipeline*
Type l/l/68 1/1/71

Product 2069 2259
Gathering 2493 2330
Crude 3011 3367

Total 7573 795F_

*Mineral Industry Survey, Crude Oil and Refined Products Pipe-
line, U.S. Dept. of the Interior, Bureau of Mines, Fossil
Fuel Division, 1971.

Push-type pipeline installation causes a loss of
about one acre per mile of pipeline construction. The
flotation method.causes an estimated six-acre loss per
mile, and dredging access canals for drilling rigs results
in an approximate eight-acre loss of marsh per mile. The
spoil bank that results from dredging these canals usually
is set back from dredging sites because dredge material
spreads over a wide base. Thus, it has been estimated that
dredging a canal causes area changes 5@to 6 times as wide
as the canal itself.(11)

Disposal of waste from oil and gas drilling is controlled
by the Department of Conservation. Operators are required
to construct dikes around certain installations. In water,
swamp, and marsh areas where construction of dikes is
problematic, regulations provide that a metal gutter be
installed around all permanent tanks to catch all oil or
other waste which may be a fire hazard or cause pollution.
A sump must be available to catch run-off into the gutter.
Regulations of the Department of Conservation also require
permission for the disposal of saltwater produced during the
production of oil and gas. The preferred method of disposal
is considered to be injection into subsurface formations
not productive of hydrocarbons. Other outlets for disposal
of saltwater include pits and tidally affected waters not
fit for agriculture or human consumption.(12)

Before an oil well can be abandoned, permission from
the commissioner of conservation must be obtained. A plan
of abandonment requires that substantial cement plugs be
placed in the well to prevent commingling of oil, gas,
saltwater and freshwater.(13)

Production of oil and gas from offshore regions. is
centered around oil and gas platforms, which are constructed
onshore and floated into place. The platforms are submerged
onto pilings that have been driven into the ocean floor.
An estimated 4,000 miles of pipelines service offshore wells
in state and federal zones. (14)

REFERENCES

1. Petroleum Industry Dredging in the Louisiana Coastal
Zone., Coastal Studies Institute,.1971.

2. The Petroleum Industry in Louisiana., Mid Continent Oil@
and Gas Association.

3. Compilation of Data from State Land Office and Department
of Revenue.

4. Department of Conservation, information prepared for
1971 Annual Oil and Gas Report.

5. Ibid.

6. 32nd Annual Report, Louisiana Department of Revenue.

7. Annual.Oil and Gas.Report, Department of Conservation, 1970.

8. Ibid.

9. Louis.iana;Department of Conservation.

10. Employment Wages 1971, Louisiana Department of Employ-.
ment Security.

11. Aspects of Gas ' Pipeline Operations in the Louisiana
Coastal Marshes, Battelle, December 1972.

12. Rules and Regulations of Louisiana Department of
Commerce, R.W. Byran and Company.

13. Aspects of Gas Pipeline Operations in the Louisiana
Coastal Marshes, Battelle, December 1972.

14. Departme nt of Conservation, information prepared for,
1971 Annual Oil and Gas Report.

B. Minerals (Excluding Oil and Gas)

Production of sulfur, salt, salt brine, sand and shell
are considered in this section. Except for 43 per cent
of the sand Output, their production in Louisiana comes
from the coastal zone parishes. Table 2.5 shows production
information of these minerals and state revenue from
severance taxes on this production.

In addition to the severance taxes collected by the
Department of Revenue, the Louisiana-Wild Life and Fisheries
Commission collects royalties on dredging of shell from
state waters. These royalties amounted to about $1.9 million
in fiscal 1971-72.(l) Total royalties and severance taxes
amount to 2.7 per cent of the state's total revenue.(2)

Available labor statistics are not broken down by each
of these industries, but a general:picture can be obtained
from statewide figures. Because employes in these industries
are classified by the Employment Security Act as working
in nonmetallic quarrying, they are grouped with the 7 per
cent of the mining employes not working in oil and gas
production. In 1971, the average weekly wage of these non-
metallic.quarrying employes was 14 per cent l.ess than that
of oil and gas production workers.

1. Sulfur

The Frasch process for producing sulfur was perfected
in the early 1900s. Its success inaugurated the commercial
sulfur industry in Louisiana. In 1969, sulfur production
reached a peak in Louisiana. Since then, production has
decreased and sulfur prices have dropped as much as one third.
In fiscal 1971-72, sulfur was produced in four parishes-
Calcasieu, Lafourche, Plaquemines and Terrebonne.

In most cases., sulfur is stored in liquid form by
producers and their industrial consumers. Usually, it is
transported as molten liquid by rail and barge. Initially,
about 90 per cent of all sulfur is converted into sulfuric
acid. Ultimately, about 50 per cent of it is used in
fertilizer manufacture, and 20 per cent in the chemical
process industry.(3)

In Louisiana, commercial quantities of sulfur are
found under the cap rock of about 10 per cent of the state's
salt domes. All the sulfur produced in the state is

..MINERAL FACTS*

Severancetax Production
1970 Value of 1970 Quantity 1971-72 Basis of
Mineral Production of Production Collection Severance Tax

Sulfur $80.4 3.6 long tons** $2.46 2.4 long tons"

Salt (total) 64.8 13.6 short tons .43 14.9 short tons

--Brine 24.5 7.7 short tons o4 8.4 short tons

--Evap. 2.9 0.3 short tons

--Rock 32.4 5.6 short tons .39 6.5 short tons

Shell (total) (5) 18.o 10.4 cu. yds. .38 9.4 short tons
(11. cu. yds.
--Oyster 5.8 cu. yds.

--clam 4@6 cu. yds.

Sand 8.2 7.5 short tons, .28 9.3 short tons

*(Statewide figures, all figures are in millions)

**Discrepancy due to setting offshore state boundaries. Sulfur production remained almost
constant during this period.

Table 2.5 Source:- Louisiana Denartment of Revenue
and U.S. DeDartment of the Interior

recovered by the Fra sch process. Recovering sulfur by the
Frasch process requires injecting large quantities of
suDer-heated water in the sulfur strata to melt the sulfur.
The molten sulfur is forced part of the way to the surface
by pressure within the strata. Compressed air is used to
lift the sulfur the rest of the way to the surface.

The quantity of sulfur removed is much smaller than the
quantity of hot water that must be injected to melt the
sulfur. Because the sulfur-bearing strata are sandwiched
between two 'strata, through which water cannot pass,
continued water injection can cause a built up in pressure
in the sulfur, making further water injection impossible.
Preventing this pressure buildup requires removing bleed
water through a well drilled into a low point in the sulfur
strata. At some Frasch process mines, bleed water amounts
to as much as five million gallons of water a day.(4)

Except for a large content of hydrogen sulfide and the
absence of dissolved oxygen, bleed water is chemically
similar to sea water. Hydrogen sulfide can be removed from
bleed water by allowing the hydrogen sulfide to diffuse
into the atmosphere, or by mixing the bleed water with sea
water containing dissolved oxygen, which converts hydrogen
sulfide into elemental sulfur. Usually, a combination of
these processes is used to remove the hydrogen sulfide.
'Then, the water is allowed to flow through a retention pond
where part of the remaining hydrogen sulfide diffuses into
the atmosphere. (Sulfur bacteria in this pond aid the
conversion to elemental sulfur). Finally, the bleed water
is mixed with a sea of brackish water into which the bleed,
water is exhausted. This final step converts any remaining
hydrogen sulfide into elemental sulfur. In some offshore
installations, hydrogen sulfide is removed from bleed water
by direct mixing with sea water. It is reported that, at
these installations, routine samplings at points 500 feet.
from the well discharge show either trace or zero quantities
of hydrogen sulfide remaining in the water.(5)

Salt

In Louisiana, salt is produced as a solid and as a
brine solution. The solid is produced from inside salt
domes by room and pillar mining operation, and the salt
brine is produced similarly to the Frasch process for recovery
of sulfur. In fiscal 1971-72 about 56 per cent of the salt
was produced in the form of a brine solution. In that period,
salt was produced as a solid in three parishes and as a
brine solution in eight parishes. Most of the salt produced
in Louisiana is used as chemical feed stock.

3. Shell-Dredging-

The shell dredging industry in Louisiana was started
under the auspices of the Conservation Commission in 1913.
Today, these activities are controlled by the Louisiana
Wild Life and Fisheries Commission, which grants leases for
shell dredging rights. Annual production of oyster shells
and clam shells is approximately the same.(6) Shells are
used In road construction, lime and cement manufacture,
chemical production and poultry feed. Shell dredging near
beds of actively cultivated oysters is prohibited by the
Louisiana Wild Life and Fisheries Commission.

4. Sand

Within the state, sand is produced from dredging and
stationary mining operations. The largest part of the sand
is recovered from water bottoms of active or bypassed
water courses. About 45 per cent of the sand produced in
the coastal zone parishes comes from five parishes bordering
on Lake Pontchartrain. The major consumption of sand is
in the urban and suburban areas of the suburban areas of the
state-M

REFERENCES

1. 32nd Annual Report, Louisiana Department of Revenue,
1971-72.

2. Mineral Yearbook, Bureau of Mines, U.S. Department 'of
the Interior, and Communications with Louisiana Wild
Life and Fisheries Commission.

3. Mineral Yearbook,,Bureau of Mines, U.S. Department of
the Interior.

4. Freeport Sulphur Company's Po llution Control Program,
Chemical Engineering Progress Sumposium Series, Vol. 65,
No. 97,,1969.

5. Ibid.

6. The Shell Dredging Industry in Louisiana, extrapolation
from figures for previous years, prepared by the Division
of Research,, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge',
College of Business Administration for Louisiana Wild
Life and Fisheries Commission.

7. Draft Environmental Statement Crude Oil and Natural Gas
Production and Other Mining Operations, prepared by the
U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, New Orleans District,
February 1962.

IV. ACTIVITIES

A. Refining and Manufacturing

Manufacturing industries are discussed in this section.
Classification of these industries includes such dissirrjila.r
operations as oil refining, sugarcane refining, shipbuilding,
apparel manufacturing and seafood packing. Statistics on
these industries are not generally available on a Parish
basis because such information would divulge the activities.
of individual companies. Accordingly, this discussion
largely contains statewide figures. However, it can be said
that these industries are based largely in the coastal zone
parishes because:

--The largest single manufacturing employer
in the state, a shipyard, is located in the
coastal zone.(l)

--Food proces,sing, the manufacturing industry
with the largest-number of employes, is
predominately based in the coastal zone
parishes. Food processing includes seafood
packing, rice milling, and sugar processing.

-From 1946 to 1971, 78.7 per.cent of new invest-
men,t-in manufacturing facilities in Louisiana
was in the coastal zone parishes.(2) 1 1. @,. I
--In 1971, 65 per cent of the state's manufac-
turing jobs in the coastal zone parishes.(3)

Following is Table 2.6, which indicates facts about
the most.important manufacturing industries in the state.
One of the terms in this chart, "value added by manufacturer,,"
expressed the material's value increase (a result of the
process) and is considered a good indication for use in
comparing manufacturing industries.(4)

1. Employment and Wages

In 1971, 65 per cent of the state's manufacturing
employes worked in the coastal zone parishes. They-earned
70 per cent of the wages paid to manufacturing emnloyes,
and their average weekly salary was $172.00. That same year,
the nine parishes with the highest average weekly manufac-
turing wages were in the coastal zone. The total number

M on M I", M M "'M M M I'M' M M MOMIM M

STATISTICAL COMPARISON OF MANUFACTURING INDUSTRIES IN 1971

Industry Total No. Production Total Value Capital
Of Employes Employes Payroll Added Expenditure
(Thousands) (Thousands) (Millions) (Millions)- (Millions)

Chemical 22.2 15.6 249.0 1,011.1 207-'3;

Food 29.8 19.3 190.6 573.4 35.3
Paper 15.0 12.4 341.5 24.4
Petroleum 10.0 6.2 125.6 .413.9 2o6.3

Transportation 17.6 15.4 150.2 198.1 5.1
All Other 66.4. 50.5 489.8 966-5 536.5

Table.2.6 Source: U.S. Department of Commerce,
Bureau of Census County Business Patterns

of employes working in manufacturing in the state decreased
by 1,300 from 1970 to 1971 but the decrease was less than
100 employes in the coastal zone parishes.

2. Industry Description

The following description of the more important
industries in the coastal zone parishes by the Louisiana
Department of Commerce and Industry was presented in a report
to the Commission in February 1972:(5)
"Industry in the coastal region is dominatedby
petroleum refining' petrochemical production, ship and boat
building, food processing and primary metals. Apparel
making, metal fabrication and pulp and papermaking are also
important industries."

I'Petroleum refining and petrochemicals are by far the
largest. More than $5 billion has been invested in these
industr,ies in the coastal region since World War I'I and
most of the 32,000 plus workers employed in these industries
work in the coastal parishes."

"There are approximately 100 major petroleum and
petrochemical plants in Louisiana making the state one of
the Drincinal producers in t'@e United States. A
number of the facilities are among the largest of their kind
in the world. Over.the last 10 years Louisiana has attracted
about 10 per cent of all new investment in chemical and
petroleum refining expenditures in this country."

"Ship and boat building continue to be a mainstay in
the state's industrial economy. A shipyard is the single
largest employer in Louisiana, with a work force ranging
upward to 10,000 at times." The Avondale yards and other
smaller yards specialize in suPplying the needs of the off-
shore industry--drilling platforms, tugs, barges, crewboats,
and other specialized vessels are constructed in Louisiana.
Boats for commercial fishing and pleasure use are built in
small yards scattered across the coastal region.(6)

"Food processing, including seafood processing, is a
major industry in the coastal parishes. An estimated
21,000-workers are employed in processing and packaging of
shellfish, sugarcane products, sweet potatoes, special
condiments,, candies and general agricultural products.
And of course, the existence of such plants plays an impor-
tant role in the area's farm economy inasmuch as they provide
ready markets for farm produce."

Two of the largest apparel manufacturing operations
of their kind in the world are located in the New Orleans
area of the coastal region. And, indeed, until recently,
New Orleans was the center of apparel manufacturing in the
state. In recent years, however, the industry has spread
to south central Louisiana and a plant scheduled to hire a
thousand workers will open in St. Martin parish shortly."

"The second largest primary aluminum production plant
in the U.S. is located in the coastal region below New Orleans.
Another such plant is located near Lake Charles. Louisiana
is also the largest producer of alumina, the fine white
powder from which aluminum-is made, and we are the largest
importer of bauxite for the U.S."

3. Why Industry Locates in Louisiana

An examination of the manufacturing industry in Louisiana
would be incomplete without an indication of the reasons
for industrial growth in Louisiana. The Public Affairs
Research Council conducted surveys in 1962 and 1969 to
determine industry's reasons for locating in Louisiana.(7)
According to these surveys, industry gave the following
ranking of what is considered Louisiana's most important
attractions:

1962 1969

1. Proximity to raw materials 1. Proximity to raw materials
2. Water for industrial use 2. Proximity to markets
3. Water transportation 3. Supply of labor
4. Industrial tax exemption 4. Availability of sites
5. Cost of fuel 5. Industrial tax exemption
6. Cost of transportation 6. Cost of labor
7. Cost of power 7. Water transportation
8.'Proximity to markets 8. Water for industrial use
9. Availability of sites 9. Cost of raw materials
10. Supply of labor 10. Cost of fuel

Many of the factors industry considers to be most
important such as availability of natural gas (fuel), avail-
ability of crude petroleum (raw materials) and water for I
transportation and industrial use are abundant in the coastal
parishes.

According to statistics of the DeDartment of Commerce
and Industry(8) in 1972, $716 million were spent on new
facilities in the coastal zone narishes, creating an

estimated 2,,631 new jobs. This was only 39 per cent of the
investment for industrial facilities in the state that year.
However., if investments for atomic power plants were
excluded (such power facilities are not considered manu-
facturing industries), then 86 per cent of the manufacturing
investment in the state would have been in the coastal ..
parishes in 1972. Of note is the fact that 33 per cent of
the total industrial investment in 1972 was in the parishes
bordering on the.Mississippi River.

4. Control of Industrial Pollution

Discharge of industrial waste to streams or to the
atmosphere is subject to control by the Louisiana' Stream
Control Commission and the Louisiana Air Control Commission
respectively. Both agencies have the power to issue ce.ase
and desist orders and to enter industrial property for
inspection.(g) The general practice of these agencies is
to require permits for all discharges from industrial sources.

REFERENCES

1. Gene Cretini. Review of Manufactu ring in 25 Coastal
Parishes., in a report by the Louisiana Department of
Commerce and Industry, to the Commission, hereinafter
cited as Review.

2. Ibid.

3. Employment,Wages 1972, Louisiana Department of Employ-
ment Security Research and Statistical Unit, Augus't
1972.

4. U.S. Department of Commerce,, Bureau of Census County
Business Patterns.

5. Review, op.cit.

6. Lamar B. Jones and C. Randolph Rice. An Economic Base
Study of Coastal Louisiana, p. 119, 1972, Center for Wetland
Resources, LSU-BR.

7. Factors Affecting Louisiana's Industrial Dev@-lopment
Public Affairs Research Council Baton Rouge, 1972.
8.- A Report of 1972 Tax Exemption, Department of Commerce
and Industry.

9. La. R.S. 56:1439 and R.s. 4o:22o4.

B. Ports and Water Transportation

Louisiana always has derived.consid.erable income
from water transportation. Since the early days of national
history, the port of New Orleans has served as a link
between the central interior of the nation and the sea.
New Orleans is now, as it has been in the past, one of the
great ports of the world. Among United States ports,
New Orleans is second only to New York in.tonnage handled
and is the largest port on the Gulf of Mexico.(l) In,1972,
crude petroleum was the largest single item moved through
the Poft of New Orleans. Grain and grain mill products
accounted for more than one-third of the port's shipments
in 1972. Corn leads all the commodities in export figures;
while sugar was the largest import item.

Upstream from New Orleans on the Mississippi River is
the port.of Baton Rouge, third among the Gulf ports in
tonnage handled and sixth-ranked nationally in this
categ'*ory.(2) Bulk cargoes, petroleum and petroleum
products, grains, and ores give Baton Rouge its high ranking
among the United States ports, but considerable general cargo
flows through the port.

Lake Charles, the state's third deep water port is
ranked ninth in tonnage among the Gulf ports and nineteenth
in the nation.(3) In total shipping, Louisiana ports
accounted for more than 12 Der cent of the United States
total in 1971. Table 2.7 shows tonnage passed through the
state's major ports in 1971 and 1970.

Gasoline, at 5.5 million short tons (2,000 lbs.),
was the largest item in 1971 Baton Rouge port data. Other
tonnages in 1971 were: basic chemicals, 4.6 million tons;
aluminum ore and concentrates, 4.3 million tons; crude
petroleum, 4.2 million tons; corn, 2.3 million tons; and
soybeans, 2.1 million tons. In 1972 the largest commodity
moved through the Port of Baton Rouge was basic cnemicals.
Crude petroleum was the largest single item moved through
the port of Lake Charles in 1971-0)(5) Lake Charles has
large bulk cargo operations consisting primarily of
petroleum and its derivatives in addition to mo.derate
amounts of general cargo.(6)

Aside from deep-draft ocean shipping, Louisiana is a
key focal point for inland waterway traffic. Inland barge
traffic not only links the deep water ports to the interior
of the nation but also provides important support for the
industrial structure of coastal Louisiana.(7) The major

614

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navigable waterways in the state (Fig. 2-5) are the Gulf
Intracoastal Waterway (GIWW) and the Mississippi River.
Shipments over the GIWW between the Mississippi and Sabine
rivers are.almost four-times as great as shipments over the
GIWW between Mobile Bay and New Orleans. A major spur of
the GIWW, the Morgan,City-Port Allen Route is entirely
within the Coastal Zone and carries tonnage about as great
as that on the Mobile Bay-New Orleans section of the GIWW.
The Amount of freight transported on the Mississippi-
between Baton Rouge and New Orleans is almost twice as
great as the amount transported on the GIWW between the
Mississippi and Sabine rivers.(8) Traffic from.New Orleans
to Mouth of Passes is 18.5 per cent larger than traffic
between Baton Rouge and New Orleans.

Barge traffic is especially important to the petroleum
and chemical industries in Louisiana because it not only
supplements pipelines to a considerable extent but also
provides low-cost movement of refined petroleum and chemicals
to the interior of the nation and to the deep-water ports
for trans-shipment. Barge service as a stimulus for
industrial locations along waterway routes is evidenced by
the concentration of petrochemical facilities adjacent to
water sites in Louisiana.(9)

According to data of the Louisiana Department of
Employment Security, the average weekly wage of employes of
the water transportation industry in Louisiana was $160.00
in 1971. Table 2.9 shows employment in taxable payrolls,
for several facets of the water transportation industry in
Louisiana in 1969 and .1971.

MAJOR NAVIGABLE
10
WATERWAYS

BATON
Lake 6 ROUGE,
Charles
7 Abbeville V,

8
9
11" @ Or ea is
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M c" I w "V
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Houma WaterWOY
tfff
04", le
2

Fig. 2.5 See Table 2.8 for tonnage data.
OP MEVtCo

KEY TO TONNAGE TRANSPORTED OVER MAJOR NAVIGABLE WATERWAYS

(All figures in short tons)

1. Mississippi River,Gulf Outlet 3,982,015

2. Barataria Bay Waterway 5,432,54o

3. Houma Navigation Canal 3,262,6o4
4. Atchafalaya River - Morgan City to Gulf 4',093,883

5. Atchafalaya River - Old River Lake to 7,934,624
Morgan City

6. Gulf Intercoastal Waterway - Morgan City 14,368,939
to Port Allen'

7. Lake Charles Deepwater Canal to Sabine River 41,38o,133

8. Calcasieu River to Gulf 19,218,439

9. Gulf Intercoastal Waterway - Mississippi 70,563,298
River to Sabine River

10. Mississippi River - Mouth of Ohio River to 90,323,619
Baton Rouge

ll.. Mississippi River - Baton Rouge to New Orleans 136,685,284

12. Mississippi River - New Orleans to Mouth 162,168,551
of Basser

13. Gulf Intercoastal Waterway Mobile Bay 18,66o,228
to New Orleans

Port of New Orleans 120,o66,944

Port of Baton Rouge 47,016,527

Port of Lake-Charles 19,218,439

Table 2.8 Source: Waterborne. Commerce of the
U.S. Army Corps of Engineers
1971-72.

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REFERENCES

1. An Economic Base Study of Coastal Louisiana by
Lamar B. Jones, and'G. Randolph Rice, for LSU's Sea
Grant Program 1972, hereinafter cited as Base Study.

2. Waterborne Commerce of the United States, U.S. Army
Corps of Engineers for 1971.

3. Ibid.

4'. Waterborne Commerce of the U.S., National-Summaries,
@,U.S. Army Corps of Engineers for 1970 and 1971.

5. Ibid.

6. Base Study, op.cit.*

7. Ibid., P. 119.

8. Ibid., P. 119.

9. Ibid.

C. Urban Settlement in Louis ianals,Coastal Zone

1 Historical

Early settlers in south Louisiana were much influenced
in their choice of sites to inhabit by the surface features
of the area. They built upon the higher natural levees of
rivers and bayous, because the natural leveeslw6re fertile,
relatively free fro.m,floods, and the waterway provided,
transportation access. The pattern of linear settlement...
along waterways can be seen throughout south. Louisiana today.

Until the 1850s, there was no large city, other than
New Orleans, in Louisiana; the remaining 700,00.0 inhab'itan.ts
of-t@e* state lived in the rural areas or small towns.
Settlement patterns began to change with the advent of
railroads, which provided access to Louisiana's western
grassy pra'ries for immigrants from the midwestern,plains of,
the United States. Until the introduction of modern highway
ay S
provided.access to market, the plantation.system boomed in-
the rich lands of the south, while the northern.portion of,,
the-state maintained small subsistence farms. Afterwards.,
these were replaced by large agricultural operations.

"During the past hundred yea rs the face of Louisiana
has been transformed by technical and economic developments
and by growth and shifts of.population; of chief,geographical
importance" are the emergence of means of transportation,
control of the Mississippi, settlement of the praries,
petroleum production, shifts in agricu ,ltural emphasis,
industrialization, and the growth of cities."(1)

Currently, Louisiana contains about '3.8 million people,
miilion of them in the coastal zone.(2) Projections
(Fig. 2.6) indica'te-that over the next 15 years the popu-
lation of the coastal zone will increase 24 per cent, compared
to a 3 per cent decline in population for the remainder of
the state.

2. Major Cities in the Coastal Zone

a. New Orleans

"New.Orlean's is Lduisianals largest city (1970 standard
Metropolitan StatisticalArea population as defined by the
U.S. Census: l,o45,809) and is located on the banks of the
Mississippi River and Lake *Pontchartrain. Its first settler.,
Bienville, chose the site in 1717 because it was the
highest ground i 'n the vicinity and offered a.s.trategic,
location for control of the entire Mississippi River

drainage basin. At that time, Bienville's engineer advised
against the location, because the city would be continually
flooded by the river."(3) Bienville overruled his'engineer
and New Orleans was constructed on the natural levee of the
Mississippi River.
New Orleans is the leading port of the Gulf coa' ' st.
,Because the city is flanked by Lake'Pontchartrain on one
side and the Mississippi River on the other, the growth
patterns of New Orleans have assumed a linear contour
.extending primarily east and west.(4)
Most of the heavy industry of New Orleans involves
shipping, chemical industries in Chalmette and food proces-,
sing plants. "The tourist industry is the second largest
employer in the area and is vital to the economy of
New Orleans, (5) because of the cultural atmosphere of the.
city. "Most significantly, the New Orleans metropolitan
area@cbntains nearly 29 per cent of the State's total
population. This distribution has not changed radically
since the 1930 census, even though a major' rural/urban shift
has occ u'rred. (6)

b. Baton Roug

Baton Rouge' was settled as the first high ground up
the Mississippi River from the Gulf of Mexico. "Today,
Baton Rouge is an education and industrial center, with-
Louisiana State University and the refinement of oil and
gas as its principal activities. It is also the location
.of the state government, another major employer in the city.
In addition, the city is the third ranking port on the .
Gulf Coast, surpassed only by New Orleans and Houston. The
location of these activities has led to an unusual growth
pattern. 'Location of industry along the river formed a
linear pattern from north to south."(7)

C. Lafayette

"Lafayette was established ar ound.a large Roman Catholic
church at the head of the navigable Vermilion Bayou and the
intersection of a road linking Texas and Florida. Its early
economy was based on trade, for which it was well sited.
About 1880, a railroad was linked to thetown and it
became the established center for trade of cotton.,'sugar,
rice, and other commodities. In the past 25 years, however,
Lafayette has boomed because of the. discovery of oil in
the vicinity, and many oil companies have established offices
in the city."

POPULATION OF MAJOR METROPOLITAN

AREAS, 1940-70

THOUSAND

1000

750
500 New Orleans

300

240
180 hreveport__

240,

@166
80 Baton Rouge

150

100
Lake Charles'

100

75
50 Monroe

120

8.0
40 Lafayette
1940 1950 1960 1970

LOUISIANA STATE POPULATION GROWTH PROJECTIONS

CATEGORY 1950 1960 1970 1980 2000 2020

Urban .1,851,268 2,357,320 2,618,778 3j 52,027 4,215,0 159 5,565,873

SMSA 1,3109,406 1,750,456 1,996,197 2,456,587 3,387,049 4,560,863

Non-SMSA 54.1,8A 2 606,864 662,581 695,440 828,010 1,005,010
Rural -- Non-SMSA 832.,248 899 70 1,022,528
1., 1 @3 3,992 113319,431 1,621,110

State Total 2,683,516 3,257,022 3,641,306 4,286,019 5,554,490 7,186,983

Percent Change 13.5 21.4- 7.7 29.5 22.7
Wwmw@Shrev
00000@ Baton
@@Lake
0000000@Monro
OoOOO @-Laf ay

Annual Change 1.4,50 2.130 1.170 1.770 1.475 1.135

Fig. 2.6
Source: Gulf South Research Inst;t.t.- Comprehensive Water and Related Land Resource Study --Economic Appendix 1970-2020,
May 1972. 73

d. Lake Charles

"Lake Charles, Lafayette's older neighbor to the west,
also started as a commerce center, with an emphasi's on
timber and export. The discovery of oil, gas, and sulfur
hit Lake Charles about the. -turn of the century. The city
is located on relatively high ground on a wide lake in the
Calcasieu River. Access to the Gulf is readily available
through Calcasieu Pass, which facilitates shrimping and
access to offshore oil facilities."(8)

3. Urban Patterns

"Major metropolitan areas contain 55 per cent of the
state's population . . . in 1940 the parishes that now
compose the six largest metropolitan areas accounted for
only 43 per cent of the Dopulation. By-1960, more than
half of the population was living in the six largest
cities . . . . The New Orleans metropolitan area accounts
for nearly 30 per cent of the state total."(9)

Growth rates of the four major cities are shown below:

New Orleans . . . increased 15 per cent during the
1960s
Baton Rouge increased 24 per cent
Lake Charles no growth
Lafayette . . . increased 30 per cent, the fastest
growth

These figures express percentage increase only.
Existing physical space, size of population, and the location
of the city with respect to the surrounding environment
must be considered to evaluate properly the impact of growth.
A 15 per cent increase in a very large city like New Orleans
may seem significant in contrast to a 45 per cent increase
in the case of a smaller urban area, but the increase in
the number of people may be greater.

"In addition to population growth, the State has also
experienced a shift in population from rural to more urban
environments, the results of technological change in agri-
cultural productivity. A proportion of the rural population
also left the State entirely. Most of this migration, inter-
and intra-state, occurred between 1920 and 1950. While the
rural population continues to decline as a per cent of the
total State population, the actual number of Deople living
in rural places has increased in the last decade."(10)

Generally, growth in populAtion has continued an old
trend of expansion in the southern and, in particular, the
southeastern portion of.the State.(11)

REFERENCES

1. Fred B. Kniffen. Louisiana, Its Land and People, p. 141.

2. St.ate'of Louisiana Growth and Conservation Policy
Alternatives., for publication by the Louisiana Office-
6f State'Planning, hereinafter cited as Policy
Alternatives.

3. Ibid.

4. A review of Transportation Planning in New Orleans, a
report to the Stern'Family Fund, April 1967.

5. Comprehensive River Area Study., La. Office of State Planning.
6. Policy'Altern'atives, op.cit

7. Ibid.

8. Ibid.

9- Robert Newton, director,.Louisiana State University,
New Orleans, Division of Business and Economic
.Research. Louisiana, the Stat.e of the State.

10. Policy Alternatives, Qp.cit,.

11. Ibid.

D. Transportation

1 Highways

The principal through highways in Louisiana are shown
in Fig. 2.7,_and the primary traffic''rout es th rough the
Louisiana coastal zone are shown in Fig. 2.8. Trav6l.in
the western and central sections of the coastal.zone is
almost exclusively in an east-west direction, but there is
substantial north-south traffic from the New Orleans
area, where Interstate 55 and 59 are available. A tabu.-
lation of typical daily use (cars per day) is included in
Table 2.10. Generally, the traffic load on major routes
exceeds 6,000 cars per day and in some of the'-more heavily
traveled legs of th,e,.route, e.g., between Opelousas and
Baton Rouge,, or between Baton Rouge and New Orleans,
traffic exceeds 13,000 cars per day.(l) (Tab 1e 2.10).

In the coastal zone, Louisiana maintains more than
6,000 miles of nonrural roadway, comprising four types
of road.(2) Table 2.11 shows each of the road types, its
percentage of the total mileage in the coastal zone., and
the percentage which the coastal zone figure represents . I
statewide. For example, asphalt roads constitute 80 per cent
of the total miles of roadway in the coastal zone, and that
amount is 43 per cent of the total miles of asphalt'roads
in the state. In other words, 43 per cent of the asphalt
roads in Louisiana are in the coastal zone and 57 per cent
are outside it.

Thecoastal zone of Louisiana also has more than
7,000 miles of local rural roads. This mileage does not
include city streets or city extensions of local roads
which, if included, would increase the,mileage consider-
ably.(3)

The area along the coast generally has suffered from
a lack of feeder roads. This is traceable to the fact that
soil conditions-in the area make road construction costly.

2. Railroads

In 1970, there we re more than 4,300 miles of main
line, Class I, track in Louisiana.(4) Fig. 2.9 presents
an outline of this system.(5)

The primary east-west line In the coastal parishes is
Southern Pacific, which runs from New Orleans westward to

LOUISIANA
PRINCIPAL THROUGH HIGHWAYS
Monroe AND THE. INTERSTATE SYSTEM
Shreveport 0 110 20 30 -do
Miles

Principal Through Highway
Interstate System

A exandria

Baton
Rouge

Lafayette
Lake Charles

New Orleans

10
P
Fig. 2.7 Source: Louisiana I'Denartment
of Commerce and'Industrv

.PRIMARY TRAFFIC ROUTES IN

THE LOUISIANA COASTAL ZONE

0 10 20 30 40

Miles

B ton
Opelousase us 1 0 Rouge iommond
1 1-12 us 190
US 167 1-59
I-10
I-10 Lafayette
Lake Charles %
Thibodaux NewT-
Orleans
M rgan Houma Jot',
City
Source: 1972 Traffic Man
Louisiana Department of Highwavs
Fig. 2.8 Traffic Planning Section. See %.,. C=P
Table 2.10 for tyuical daily traffic
load.

LOUISIANA

RAIL-COMMON CARRIERS

0 10 20 30 40
Monroe Miles
Shreve art

Alexandria

Baton Rouge ...

Lafayette
...........
..............
..............
Lake
Charles New
Orleans

Fig. 2.9 Source: Louisiana Denartmen,
of Commerce and Industry

TYPICAL DAILY TRAFFIC LOAD

I-10,Lake Charles to Lafayette 9,000 cars

US,90 Lafayette to Morgan City 6 000

us 167 Lafayette to.Opelousas 161000

us 190 Op elousas to Baton Rouge 13,000

us 61 Baton Rouge to New Orleans 13,000

1-12 Baton Rouge to Hammond 7,000

1-55 North from Hammond 5,500

US 90 Morgan City to Houma 9,500

US 90 Houma to New Orleans 11,5oo

Table 2 .10 Source: 1972 Traffic Map
Louisiana Department of Highways
-- Traffic Planning Section.

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Morgan City, Lafayette, Lake Charles and ultimately to
California. The main line roughly parallels the coast
but is located well inland. Four spurs serve Avery Island,
Weeks Island, Houma and Valentine. Generally, it has been
difficult to establish service to the coast because soil
conditions are so unstable.

The Missouri Pacific traverses an east-west route
roughly parallel to U.S. 190. It serves Baton Rouge
westward to Opelousas and Eunice, with spur lines serving
Crowley and St. Martinville.(6)

Texas Pacific serves the western bank of the:MississilDpi
River as far south as Venice, and the Illinois Central
serves the eastern bank as far south as New Orleans. The
Illinois Central also provides a north-south line from
New Orleans through Hammond on the western end of.
Lake Pontchartrain on the way to Illinois.@ Southern
Railway System and the Gulf, Mobile and Ohio Railroad
Company provide north-south service around the eastern end
of Lake Pontchartrain. The Louisville and Nashville
Railroad provides service from New Orleans eastward along
the Mississippi Gulf Coast.(7)

3. Air Service

The coastal zone of Louisiana is served by four com-
mercial airports. These include:(8)

City Airport Airlines

Baton Rouge Ryan Field Delta
Royale
S. Cent. Air Transport
Southern
Texas International

Lafayette Lafayette Municipal Royale.
Airport Texas International

Lake Charles Lake Charles Texas International
Municipal Airport

Citv Airport Airlines

New Orleans. Molsant,(New Orleans Aviateca
International). Brani f f
@Continen,tal
'Delta
Eastern
National
Pan American
Royale
Sahas.
Southern
TACA
Texas International
Unit-ed
S_ Cent.. Air. TranspoIrt

A number of smaller cities with hard-surfaced and;lighted
airports are not served by commercial airlines.

Length of Runway Length of Runway
City in feet City in feet

Abbeville 3,000 Mamou 3,000
Crowley 4,300 New Iberia 8YO00
Eunice 3,000 Opelousas 4,550
Hammond 5,000 Patterson 4.1000
Houma 5,000 Slidell 3,000
Jennings 3,000

Although Manou and Opelousas are on the outer fringe of
the general area utilized "in compiling coasta zone data, they
are on air routes serving cities within the fringe area and,
as such, are pertiment to the table.

Numerous other cities and towns, have unlighted, hard
surface, or turf airports. However, most of the air
facilities are located at least 10 miles inland. A number of
heliports and seaplane facilities have been constructed on
the coast. They are generally concentrated around Morgan
City, Grand Isle and Venice and serve the petroleum industry
as refueling stops for aircraft transporting workmen to
offshore oil rigs from other airports in the more populated
area.(9)

4. Mass Transit

In Louisiana, mass transit systems have proven
unprofitable but this has been the general result through-
out the nation. The'major cities of the coastal zone
provide some mass transit through a conglomeration of
private and publicly owned companies.

New Orleans Public Service, Inc., operates the largest
mass transit system in the state. Fares have been kept low
because costs of the transit division are offset by profit
realized from gas and electricity divisions. The company's
transDortation routes traverse 352 miles., 13 of which are
overlain with streetcar track still in use;,otherwise buses
are utilized. NOPSI maintains a fleet of 35 streetcars and
458 buses. Combined, they have traveled 14.4 million
vehicle miles and transported 72.5 million fare-paying
passengers.(10)'

REFERENCES

1. Local Rural Mileage Report., Louisiana Department of
Highways, Traffic Planning Section., December 31, 1972.

2. Mileage Maintained as of December 31., 1972, Louisiana
Department of Highways, Maintenance and Construction
Section, hereinafter.cited as Mileage Maintained.

3. 1bid.

4. Louisiana's Big Six Industrial"Advantages, Department
of Commerce and Industry., hereinafter' cited as Big Six.

5. Transportation in Louisiana, Department of Commerce and
Industry, September, 1967, hereinafter cited.as
Transportation.

6. Mileage Maintained, op.,cit.

7. Transportation, op.cit.

8. Big SiX3 op.cit.

9. Mileage Maintained, op.cit.

10. The-State of the State in 1973, An Economic and Social'
Report to the Governor, Louisiana Office of State
Planning, prepared by,the Division of Business and
Economic-Research.

E. ProposedDevelopments in the Coastal Zone

1. Superport

Based on declining domestic.production of crude oil
and rapidly rising demand for crude oil energy derivatives,
the principal justification for constructing a superport
is the economy of scale that results from transporting
petroleum by supertanker. An example of the economics of
supertanker use is shown in the following table. Costs
quoted include construction and operation considerations.

Transportat,ion Cost per Ton of Crude Oil
Persian Gulf--U.S.'North Atlantic
By Size of Ship--l970(l)-

Cost Per Ton Vessel Size
(dead weight tonnage)

$17.9 25,000
12.6 47,000
10.5 80,000
5.7 250,000
5.2 500,000

Supertankers of 210,000 DWT (dead weight tonnage)
require'a channel depth of 60 feet and a channel width of
about 70 feet. Ves'sels of 450,,000 DWT require a channel
depth of about 100 feet.(2) A projection based on@ships
under construction and on order in 1971 indicates that
.nearly 500 ships greater than 200,000 DWT and 1,000 ships of
100.1000 DWT or larger will be in service by the end of 1976.

Because of channel depth constraints, there are no port
facilities on the East or Gulf Coasts of the United States
capable of handling supertankers. The Southwest Pass of
the Mississippi River, for example, has a depth of
approximately 40 feet. The obvious advantages of locating
a superport in deep water off the coast of Louisiana include
its proximity to a large refinery and pipeline transportation
complex, and the Mississippi River's interconnection with
the inland water system of the central United States.

Recognizing these advantages, and the economic growth
potential inherent in superport related activity, the Louisiana
Legislature created the Louisiana Deep Draft Harbor and
Terminal Authority to promote and regulate superport develop-
ment. Concurrent with this action, a corporation was formed,

with 14 major oil and pipeline companies as shareholders., to
design, finance, construct.land operate a common carrier.
deep draft crude oil tanker unloading terminal.

This corp oration, LOOP Inc., (Louisiana Offshore Oil
Port), has submitted its plan to the State Authority, and
its basic concept is outlined below.

The offshore unloading terminal will consist of five
or more single-point morrings clustered around a central.,
pumping station, located in 100 to 120 feet of water
approximately 19 miles offshore. The five moorings will be
a mile apart. The single point mooring; of which there are
more than 100 in operation worldwide, is the heart of this
.system, allowing tankers to move in response to wind 'and
tide by "weathervaning" 3601 around the:mooring. The off-
loading connection is made by means of flexible hoses. The
LOOP Inc. plan indicates this concept is the most feasible
for operating conditions like those expected in the Gulf,of
Mexico.

From the offshore terminal, oil willbe pumpred*to an
onshore tank farm which eventually may reach a capacity of
50 million barrels The proposed site of the LOOP tank
farm is at Port Fou*rchon at the mouth of Bayou Lafourche.
The site for the central pumping station of the LOOP port
is in the vicinity of Grand Isle.

Approximately 50 superports are in some stage of
construction or planning throughout the world, but none are
under construction in the United States. The final decision
to locate a superport off the coast of Louisiana necessitates
consideration of a number of factors, including:

1. What effect will the superport have on the environ-
ment of the location chosen?

2. What are the long-range water transportation
needs of the Gulf Coast area?

3. What type of onshore support facilities will be
built?

4. Should provisions be made for solids@carriers (for
grains and ore) in superport design? What methods
will be most effective for unloading super vessels
in a multiuse port--barges, pipeline or combination?

87'

The,dec,ision to built and where t,o build a suDerport
depends on answers to these questions. Compromises between
the positive and negative effects of superport development
will lead to the best solutions. Alternatives will have to
be scrutinized carefully.

2. Centroport

Centroport is the name of a pl an devised for developing
the Port of New Orleans into a port for the central United,
States(3). The basic philosophy underlying this plan for
30 years of development is the integration of land and water.
modes of transportation by use of a high efficiency, a high
through put and a highly concentrated port installation.(4)
Part of the plan for this development includes moving.the
port away from the existing, congested city waterfront to the,
junction of the Industrial Canal and the Mississippi River
Gulf Outlet.(5) The new site will have four barge-carrier
terminals (utilizing barges loaded aboard shiDs), four break
bulk terminals, two special steel handling terminals, an
expanded public bulk terminal and a container terrninal.(6),
This development should provide an impetus for new industrial
growth in the area. Another hoped for benefit of the, " I
development of Centroport is that the barge. terminal will
provide a constant supply of work for longshore labor, since
barges will almost always be loading or unloading.

3. Navigation Projects

The following section contains a listing of some of the
larger navigation projects under consideration at present.
(See Appendix Two for a more inclusive list.)

a. Barataria Bay Waterway--A proposal has been made to
enlarge the existing channel. At present this 12-foot-deep
by 125-foot-wide channel is 37 miles long. It extends from
the Gulf Intracoastal Waterway near Crown Point in Jefferson
Parish to the point of intersection of Bayou Lafourche and
the Gulf of Mexico. The proposed enlargement is.to
provide a shortened navigation distance and to provide a
reduction of traffic on the GIWW north of the project. The
point at which.this waterway intersects the Gulf is near one
of the proposed superport sites.

b. Bayou Lafourche Auxilliary Channel-Jum-p Waterway--
This proposal consists of two parts. The auxilliary channel
is a 12-foot-deep by 125-foot-wide channel from the GIWW
at LaRose to a point intersecting Bayou Lafourche at
Leeville. The channel parallels Bayou Lafourche. The purpose
of the proposed channel is to alleviate a congested area
on Bayou Lafourche. The project would pass through portions
of Bayou Blue, Grand Bayou Canal, and Grand Bayou Blue.

The second part of the project,is a proposal for a
12-foot-deep by 125-foot-wide channel from Bayou Lafourche at
Leeville via the Southwestern Louisiana Canal to a point
north of Grand Isle. This project would facilitate the
movement of oilfield equipment, sulfur, shell, shrimp and
oysters.

C. Mississippi River Gulf Outlet--As the channel exists,
it has dimensions 36 Peet deep by 500 feet wide. The channel
extends In a southeasterly directio"n for 76 miles from the
Inner Harbor Navigation Canal in-the Port of New Orleans to
the Gulf of Mexico. The proposal under consideration is to
enlarge the channel to 50 feet deep by 750 feet wide so
some of the traffic that uses the Mississippi River will
find this waterway attractive.

d. Caleasieu'River Ship Channel--This is a relatively
small project. The proposal is to enlarge an existing channel
of 301feet deep by 100 feet wide to 400 feet deep by 200.feet
wide. Included in the project is a proposal to enlarge the
existing turning basin from 30 feet by 500 feet by 750 feet to
40 feet by 750 feet by 1,000 feet. The purpose of the
enlargement is to accomodate larger vessels for industrial...
users of the channel.

e. Atchafalaya River and Bayous Chene, Boeuf, and Black--
This proposal calls for a 20-foot-deep by 400-foot-wide
channel except at certain points where,existing industries on
both sides of the Bay.ous will allow a channel only 300 ' feet
wide. The channel would extend from Highway 90 at Bayou Boeuf
to the GIWW and from there to the 20-foot contour in the
Gulf of Mexico. The channel would be approximately' 45
miles long, 20 miles of which would be in the Gulf of Mexico.

REFERENCES

1. Maritime Administration' quote in Louisiana Superport
Studies Report 1, Preliminary Recommendation and Data
-Analysis.

2. Louisiana Sup'erport Studies, Report l,'pp. 176-177.
Coastal Studies Institute and Center for Wetland-Resources.

3. Short summary statement of the position of the Bo,ard
of Commissioners of the Port of New Orleans on the
Proposed ship lock.

4. Masterplan New Orleans--Centro-port USA.-

5. Louisiana Horizons., Centroport, Louisi ana DeDartment of
Commerce and Industry, Summer 1970.

6. Ibid.

4. Flood Control

a. Lake Pontchartrain and Vicinity Hurricane
Protection

The Lake Pontchartrain and Vic inity Hurricane Protection
system is a combination of levees and drainage structures.
built on the south and east shores of Lake Pontchartrain
and the western end of Lake'-Borgne to protect the developed
areas of St. Charles, Jefferson and Orleans parishes from
hurricane tides. Fig. 2.10, entitled Lake Pontchartrain
and Vicinity Hurricane Protection, Illustrates the system.

To facilitate discussion of the construction, the
Lake Pontchartrain and Vicinity Hurricane Protection system
can be broken up into a number of primary.construction
areas.(l)

1. Lake Pontchartrain Barrier Plan

This plan will provide a barrier across the east end of
Lake Pontchartrain. Fig. 2.11, entitled Lake Pontchartrain
Barrier Plan, shows perspective views of contemplated
construction at.the eastern end of the lake. At the Rigolets,
construction will include a gated control structure, a
navigational lock and channels, a closure dam and adjoining
barrier levees. In Chef Menteur Pass, construction will
consist of a gated control structure and attendant channels.,
a navigable flood gate and channels, relocation of the
Gulf Intracoastal Waterway, a closure dam and adjoining
.barrier levees. In addition, the barrier plan calls for
installation of a navigational lock and gated control structure
at the lakeward terminus of the Inner Harbor Navigational
canal in the vicinity of Seabrook.

2. Citrus and New Orleans East

The Lake Pontchartrain and Vicifiity Hurricane Protection
system will provide new levees along the lakeshore of Citrus
and New Orleans East to South Point. The existing levee
will be enlarged from South Point southwest to the Gulf
Intracoastal Waterway. The levee along the north side of
the waterway will also be enlarged as far west as the Inner
Harbor Navigational Canal. Flood walls have been constructed
in the Citrus area back levee along the west bank of the
Michoud Canal and the east bank of the Inner Harbor Navi-
gational Canal.

LEGEND
Mandeville EXISTING IMPROVEMENTS AUTHORIZED IN
Ne. @evee
Levee
Le@ee Enlo,gern
Seo@oll
Portion of U.S. Hwy.
90 to s rve o3 par
a' Barrier Embankment
Dro,nage St,uc

-."As
Lock

-s,

so@th Point

L
A K E F 0 N T C H R T R A N

11 /1131
1'-6
NEW
N" RLEANS
" ?,r ".,. @
E A SST

L
a
)k
's
lo c

+
T F S
CHARL:
J E F F E Ra N FEW
pAi(ISH
ORLEANS
PARI
/-7

pre

OF
SCALE MILES
L

LAKE PONTCHARTRAIN AND VICINITY HURRICANE PROTECTI

Fig. 2.10 Source: U.S. Army Corps of Engineers

LAKE PONTCHARTRAIN'

0
G
F?

THE RIGOLETS COMPLEX

L A KE PONTCHARTRAIN

P4,,;S

L A KE BORGNE

CHEF MENTEUR COMPLEX
Fig. 2.11 Lake Pontchartrain Barrier Plan Source: U.S.
94 Army Corps of
Engineers

3. Chalmette Area

The Lake Pontchart-rain and Vicinity Hurricane Protection
system provides for enlargementlevees along the@south
side of the Gulf Intracoastal @Waterway and the Mississippi
River-Gulf OLitlet, with drainage structures to be located,.
on Bayou Bienvenue and Bayou Dupre. The levee will extend
to the area of Bayou Dupree along-the Mississippi River-Gulf
Outlet. Then,, a levee will be con.structed southwest:to the
area..of the town of Verret, crossing Louisiana.Highway 46.
Construction will continue.in a westerly direction.to the
vicinity of Caernavon where it will intersect.with the
Mississippi River Levee. The levee and seawall al 'ong the
east bank of the Inner Harbor Canal. to the Gulf Intracoastal
Waterway will be improved and stren'gthened. No improvements
are planned for the.Mississippi River levee which will
constitute the southeastern boundary,of the protected area.

4. New Orleans, Jefferson and St.- Charles Parish Area

The Lake Pontchartrain and Vicinity Hurricane Pro'tection
system includes construction of a new levee from the east
side of the Bonnet Carre Spillway to the St.' Charles-
Jefferson Parish line along the southern shore of Lake
Pontchartrain. The new levee will connect with an existing
levee.along the Jefferson Parish lakeshore. This levee will
,:be en'alrged from the Orleans Parish-Jefferson Parish line,
to the Inner Harbor Navigational Canal. The levee along
the-eastern side of the Inner Harbor Navigational Canal has.
been 'enlarged along the full length of the canal with the
excepti,on of section just north of the navigational lock at
the Mississippi River end of the Inner Harbor Navigational
Canal . The plan does not include improvements t 'o the
Bonnet Carre Spillway or the Mississippi River levees on the
south and west side of the area.; respectively.

Estimated cost of the overall project is $216 million.
Approximately $67.16.mil-lion must be supplied by nonfederal
interests. Construction was initiated in 1967.

b. Grand Isle and Vicinity Hurricane Protection Plan
The Gr.and Isle and IVicinity Hurric.ane Protection Proj'ect
was authorized by the Flood Control Act of 1965. It is
intende-d to protect the'highly developed area along Bayou
Lafourche between Larose and Golden Meadow from high water
causedby st orms.(3)

@95

.Fig. 2.12, entitled Grand Isle., La., and Vicinity
Hurricane.Protection, provides an overall diagram of the,
project.(4) The system includes a loop levee about 36,,
miles long on either side of Bayou Lafourche from Golden
Meadow to Larose. Three miles of existing levee near Golden
Meadow will be enlarged; the remainder will be new levee.
Flood gates will be provided in Bayou Lafourche at both the'
north and south ends of the protected area. A new channel
will be dredged in conjunction with construction of the
floodgate in the Golden Meadow.area. Seven drainage
structures will be placed in the protective loon levee.
Generally speaking, these structures will be multibarreled
culverts with flap gates to control the direction of the
water flow. These drainage structures on the east side of
Bayou Lafourche will be located at Yankee Canal near Golden
Meadow, Breton Canal, Scully Canal and in the Cut Off vicinity.
On the west side of Bayou Lafourche, drainage structures
will be located at Canal Blue near Larose, south of Cut Off
and north of Golden Meadow. About eight miles of interior
levees are also planned to intercept and regulate drainage.
These will be on either side of Bayou Lafourche north of
Golden Meadow, south of Cut Off and on the east side of
Bayou Lafourche south of Breton Canal.

At' this time, the project is still in planning stage's;
construction will commence as soon as funds are made available.
Nonfederal interests are required to bear 30 per cent of the
total cost. 'In other words, nonfederal participation will
be $4.02 million and federal participation will be $9.39
million. Total cost of the project will be $13.41 million.(5)

c. New Orleans to Venice Hurricane Protection Plan

New Orleans to Venice Hurricane Protection Project was
under the
authorized by the River and Harbor Act of 19,621
title I'Mississippi River Delta at and Below New Orlean.s."
The project was intended to protect the area along the
Mississippi River south of New Orleans, which has proved
particularly vulnerable to hurricane flooding.(6)

The project is described by the schematic diagram,
Fig. 2.13, entitled New Orleans to Venice, Louisiana.
(Hurricane Protection).(7) Primarily, the project will
include enlargement of existing back levees, constructing
new back levees, modifying existing drainage facilities, a
barrier levee on the east side of the Mississippi River to
block hurricane surges from the east. A flood gate is to be
installed at Empire in the Empire to Gulf Waterway. The
project is divided into four independent reaches:(8)

CORPS OF ENGINEERS U. S. ARMY

AIII Afl-@
LAROSE INDI X

r- - - - - - - I I

1`4A
0. Canal

IIH
2 CUT CLOVELLY
OFF
"Can., FARMS I

0
u AMI
o 'PROJECT
LOCATION

No.2

L E G E N D

improvements completed
Improvements authorized
or under construction
Q) FL F1 Floodgate
No. 6

nol
greton C Drainage Structure

-C=:]- Channel

Levee
T --- T
7\ Low Inte,rior Levee
ALIANO
CE@3 Pumping Station (Existing)
N\\,"o, No.1,5 EAST GOLDEN MEADOW
RECREATION PROPERTY

No.
L A 0 U R C H: P: P A FR I S H
TURNING
BAS IN
No.4
gee
ycrl ---
carlal
OL
ME
04 T,-ISH

LA KE dean Plaisance
Canal

SCALE OF MILES
0 1 2 3

Fig. 2.12 LOWER MISSISSIPPI VALLEY DIVISION WORK
FLOOD CONTROL GENERAL
GRAND ISLE, LA. AND VICINITY
HURRICANE PROTECTION
SCALES AS SHOWN
OFFICE OF THE DISTRICT ENGINEER, NEW ORLEANS,LA.
Revised 30 June 1971
97 .

Reach Description Length Estimated,Co'st

A City Price to Tropical Bend 13 mi. $11.85 million
B-l' TroDical Bend to Fort Jackson 12 mi. 20-38 milli-on
B-2 Fort Jackson to Venice 8 mi. 6.97 million
C Phoenix to Bohemia 16 mi. 10-71 million

The first lift of the levee in Reach C was.constructed
by local interests in lieu of a cash contribution. It will
be necessary t.o raise the levee further to design height.
Credit will be given for the 30 per cent nonfederal partici-
Pation required.(9) About 9,800 feet of the first lift levee
.embankment within Reach B-1 was completed in May 1969. The
second lift in that reach is now under contract. An additional
27,300 feet of the first lift of the levee between the Empire
floodgate and a point below Buras was completed in November
1971.(10)

d. Morgan City and Vicinity Hurricane Protection Plan

The purpose of the Morgan City and Vicinity Hurricane
Protection project is to provide protection from hurricane
floods for the developed area extending from Morgan City to
the Charenton Drainage and Navigational Canal.(11) The
project is located in St. Mary Parish in south central
Louisiana about eighteen miles from the Gulf of Mexico.(12)

The project is described in fig. 2.14, entitled Morgan
City and Vicinity Louisiana Hurricane Protection. Construction
.will be divided into two general areas. The first is in
the Morgan City vicinity. A new levee will be built along
the* southwest side of Lake Palourde and the west side of
Bayou Ramos. Also a short stretch of new levee will be built
in the vicinity of the Bayou Boeuf lock. Three drainage
structures are to be included in the levees. The second
general area is the Franklin vic@'.:iity. Here, construction
will be primarily enlargement of an existing levee system
running along the north side of the Gulf Intracoastal Water-
way, the east side of Thorgeson Canal, then west to Hanson
Canal, Franklin Canal and the Charenton Drainage and
Navigational Canal.

New levees will be built in the vicinity of Bayou Sale
connecting the existing levees on the north bank of the Gulf
Intracoastal Waterway and the east side of Thorgeson Canal
and along the east bank of the Charenton Drainage and
Navigational Canal connecting the existing levee with the
area of the U.S. 90 Highway. Six pumping stations will be
enlarged and seven flap-gated drainage structures will be

CORPS OF ENGINEERS

LA KC SORGIVE

Violet

4o,
90 HARVEY 23 Shell
LOCK Bench
6-o. N T

LAKE 39
SA LVADOR

P
oenix
04STAL
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In Hac
Fi

City Pr,ce BRErON SOUND

E.pi, F@t k,on

B....

Venice

G U L F

OF Ai E- x c o

LOWE

F
NEW ORL
SCALE OF MILES
5 0 5 -10 HUR

OFFICE OF TH

LEGEND INDEX

Improvements oulbori7ed
Levees
J m, s s, ss, r F
Levees not in this project

Drainage structure
Floodgate
Pumping station (Existing)

Bold Win C)

PROJECT
NEW LEVEE
LOCATION
so

Franklin
S R R I T S I H N

r'Ch
-1- RT-u
Centerville
FLAT
CA 1, K
FIAN"'N HANSON CANAL Verdunviiie LAKE

4 4
YELLOW BA@
D I'Le, CANAL t
LAKE
PALOURDE
u-. .A
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CA Cry ,I A
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Ho
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/Y Ber.ic
Bend so ft-

NEW LEVEE

Loll

LOWER MISSISSIPPI VALLEY DIVISION WORK
SCALE OF MILES FLOOD CONTROL GENERAL
2 3 4 5 MORGAN CITY AND VICINITY, LA.
HURRICANE PROTECTION
SCALES AS SHOWN
OFFICE OF THE DISTRICT ENGINEER. NEW ORLEANS, LA.
Revised 30 June 1972

installed in@the levee. A floodgate structure will be built
where the enlarged levee crosses the Franklin Canal.

Detailed plann ing of the project is now in progress.
Estimated cost of the project is $7.21 million, of which
$2.25 million will be borne by federal interests.(13)

e. Atchafalaya Basin Flood Protection Plan

One flood control proposal for the Atchafalaya Basin is
a channel 57.7 miles long with a cross sectional area of
100,000 square feet. This channel would run from a point on
the northern part of the boundary between Iberville and
St. Martin parishes to Morgan City.

The cross sectional area of this proposed channel is
slightly greater than the surface area of two football fields.
The existing channel in the upper 41.7 miles of the route has
a cross sectional area of 601000 square feet. This channel
would have to be enlarged by 5/6 the area of a football field.
In this lower 16.0 miles, the existing channel has an area
of 4o.,000 square feet so the enlargement would be 1 1/4
of this area of a football field.

The purpose of the channelization is to prevent some of
the flooding that occurs in the Atchafalaya Basin. Opponents
of the plan say that the channel would.drain the Atchafalaya
Swamp and destroy its wildlife resources.*

*Oliver Houck, Good News from the Old Atchafalay a, Field and
Stream, July, 1973.

ini

.REFERENCES

1. U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Project Maps New Orleans
District, Flood Control Projects, Volume 2, June 30,
1972, pp. 2-37, hereinafter cited as Project Maps.

2. U.S. Army Corns of Engineers, Water Resources Develop-
ment, Louisiana, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Lower
Mississippi Valley Division, Vicksburg, Mississippi,
hereinafter cited as Water Resources Development.

3. Ibid, p. 97.

4. Project Maps, op.cit., pp. 2-34.@

5. Water Resources Development, op.cit. p. 98.

6. Ibid., P. 103.

7. Project Maps, op.cit., pp. 2-32.

8. Water Resources Development, op.cit., p. 103.

9. Ibid.

10. Project Maps, op.cit., pp. 2-32A.

11. Water Resources Development, op.cit., p. 107.

12. Project Maps, op.cit., pp. 2-36Ai

13. Water Resources Development, op.cit., p. 107.

103

as'*

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CHAPTER THREE

TRENDS IN LOUISIANA'S COASTAL ZONE

I. Living Resource Trends

A. PoPulation

1. Characteristics

2. Composition

B. Recreation

C., Agriculture

D. Fisheries

1 Fish and Shellfish

2. Oysters

3. Shirmp

II. Economic Trends in the Coastal Zone

A. Per Capita Income

B. Petroleum

C. Commerce and Industry

1. Investment

2. Wages

3. Waterborne Commerce

III. The Changing Coastal Zone

A. Construction

B. Saltwater Intrus ion

C. Land Loss

IV. Conclusion

105

CHAPTER THREE

TRENDSIIN LOUISIANA'S COASTAL ZONE

The preceding chapter, an inventory of coastal zone
resources and past and present:uses of these res.Qurc,es,
provides a picture of the coastal--zone as it-is now.
However., in order to manage wisely,-,we-must have some
conception of what the future holds-for the Louisiana.
coastal region.

-We can look into the future--at least a little way--
by examining significant past and present.trends of''
resource uses. Inthis chapter, efforts are made to open
a small window to the-future by reviewing these trends.

I. Living Resource Trends

A. Population Characteristics

Projected population-trends for Louisiana indicate that
the number of inhabitants will continue to increase at a
relatively high rate. From 1950 'to 1960, the increase was
21.4 per cent and, from :1960,to-1970, it was 11.8 per.cent.
Prqj@ectiohs','for 1970 to 1985 indicate a 32 per cent increase
from 3,641,3o6 to 4,146,327 inhabitant.s. (Fig. 3-1).

The coastal zone and the noncoastal area of Louisiana
have shown divergent growth rates. While the coastal zone
has maintained a steady growth rate, the noncoastal area has
shown only a slightly increasing trend from 195Q to 1970.
The change of population in the coastal zone from 1950 to
1970 was 51 per cent. In the noncoastal area, it was 15
per cent. The high growth parishes in the coastal zone
between 1950 and 1970 were East Baton Rouge,-Jefferson,
Plaquemines'-St. Bernard, St.- Charles, St.-Tammany and
Terrebo'nne,.

Projections from 1970 to 1985 indicate that the number
of inhabitants in the coastal zone will increase but the
noncoastal area will level off, with a slight decline between
1975 and 1985. The projected growth from 1970 to 1985 for
the cba@sltal'zon6@is 24 per-cent'but a .3 per cent decline
seems proba@b;le in' the'non',qoas@tal area (Fig. 3.1).

107

POPULATION TRENDS
For Louisiana, Coastal Zone and Noncoastal Area
From 1950-1985
4,200,000 ISS104,146,327

3,500,000

... . ... .... ..
. ..........
.............
.............
e......
. ............ .......
.. . ... .. ....
. .. ... . ....
. . .... ... .... .... ...
.. ............... ....
.. ... .... .
.. ........ ....
4*2
. . .... .886,061
.. ......... .. ......
2,800,rOOO .. .....-
. ............. ......I...............
........... ...... -- ............ .....
.- .. ............ ...
......... .....-......... ........... .... ...
.......... ........
. ............ . .
. ..........................
.............
................. ........ sts
..... ......
.. ... ............... .Sass**
.. ..... ........
.................
.............. ....... .. ................
............. ............ .. .....-
......... ..
A
.............
........... ..............
................. -- .........
.......................... ...
............... .
......................
................
. .........
............... ........
.............
21100,000 ......
.. ... . .. ......... .. ......... ....
. .. ........ ...........
..... .. .. .........

............I......
................... ........
.................
... .. . ... ..
........ ..... .. .....
....... .. ...... - -- - -.......... ..........
........ .... ....... .........................
.......... ...... ... . . ........
........ .. ........
.......... ........
..... ..... ..................... .. ..........
.............. ...................................
........ .. ... .................. . ..

.........................
. ..................
............
0 a S
1 1 4 0 01 0 0 01
IN
...............
.. ................... .... ..
1-11-1 .. .....I...............
..................... ...... 1,,260,266
... .. ..... .......
.......................
... ..... ..... .........I.... ... ........
..... --- ..................................
.. ......................... ........ --' ......I........
............. ................ .. ............... ..
..........................
............ .......I..........
.. ............... .... ......... I....., ..........
..............-..... ......... ................
..........-.......
.. ....................... .............-...........
... .............-.. ... .. ....... .. -- .....
.................... ............ ............ .. .....
..............
.. ............... .... ..
. .................... ..........-
.. .... 1-1 ............ -.1-1 .....I....... ..... .....
............ ........... .. ---' ....-......
.... ....... .............. ...........
.. .. ..... .......... ..... .....................
700,,000--:@:.
... ...... ....... ... .. ......
.. ... .......... .. .. ..... .......
............ ......... ... .... ... ........
................... ....-... .....-..........
......... .....
...........-...... .. .. ..... ......... .......
............... ...... .. ... ....
. . . ........ ......... ......... ...... ..... ... . ..

. ........ ........ ... ... ...
............
.. .. ..... . .... .... ..
.... ........ .......I............ .
. .. ............ .... .......
...........
... ..... .. .. .........
.... ... . ........ .. ... .. .. .
.. ........ ..

.... .. .. .. .
. .. ............... ........ .. .. .
01
1950 1960 1970 19-80 1990

Year

Fig. 3.1 ..Source: Population Projections By Age, Race, and
Sex For Louisiana and Its Parishes
1970-1985 by Roger L. Burford and
Sylvia G. Murzyn.

108-

2. Composition

Over the years, Louisiana's population has become more
urban. In 1970, two thirds (66.1 per cent) of the people
of the state lived in places defined by the United States
Census as urban. All persons living in places of 2,500 or
more inhabitants are considered residents of an urban area.
The number and distribution of urban and rural inhabitants
in Louisiana for 1970 can be seen in Fig. 3.2 In '1970,
twelve parishes in the coastal zone were classified as more
than 50 per cent urban. This dramatic shift from rural to
urban in the coastal zone is indicated in Figs. 3.3 and
3.4. Although the total population in the coastal zone has
increased, the rate of urbanization has been much greater.
From 1950 to 1970, the noncoastal area also became more urban
but at a.much slower rate than the coastal zone.,

In summation, the coastal zone of Louisiana,is,a n area
of rapid growth in comparison to-the noncoastal area and is
increasingly more urban than the r6mainder'of the state. This
trend should continue through 1985.

Population projections for 1985 indicate that both the
coastal and noncoastal areas will experience a notable drop
in the male and female groups from 10 to 19 years old. This
can be'attributed either to a low birth.rate in,1975 or a
high out-migratibn rate. The large number of-males and
females in the 20 to 34 age cate'gory may reflect a large
in-migration..

B. Recreation
The climate and abundanc@e of fresh water ana saltwater
areas in-Louisiana have provided the.residents many opportun-
ities for recreational uses.' Activities include fishing,
boating, camping, huntin'g, and swimming, which are a few of
the more popular forms,of.recreation.

As the state's population increases over the next 15
years, greater demand will be placed on present facilities and
a,need will arise for new ones. If we examine projections
for water activities which include motor boating, water
skiing, canoeing and sailing (Fig. 3-5) we see a dramatic
increase for the coastal-zone in terms of user days from
1970 to 1985 while the,noncoastal area will experience a
decline after 1980. These figure's reflect.primarily a
change in the population for each area but this determines
the need for facilities in a given area. Fig. 3.6 is a
projection of hunting, fishing, crabbing and crawfishing in

log

POPULATION OF LOUISIANA
BY RESIDENCE, 1910

-------- ------------------ 600,000

----------- -

------ ---------- 150,000

-- --------------- 50,000
-- - - -------------- ----- 10,000
ANN,

RESIDENCE
eUrban

Rural

Fig. 3.2 Source: Paterson, Karen W.- and Alvin 11.
Bertrand. Denartment of Rural
Sociology, LSU-BR, 1972-
Louisiana's Human Resources)
Bulletin No. 661, AT)ril,.

110

Lo'UISIANA P'OPULATION BY URBAN-RURAL COMPONENTS
FOR THE COASTAL AND NONCOASTAL AREAS. 1950, 1960, and 1970

Coostal-Urban'

11200,000 -

Non Coastal'Urban
-rig-!.(/ N o n Coastal-Rural
60010,00- Its,
'Coastal-Rural

01
1950 1960 1970

Years

Fig. 3.3 Source: Table 9, U.S. Bureau of the Census
U.S. Census of Population: 1970,
Number of Inhabitants,- Final
Report PC(l) A 20 La.

Table 5, U.S. Bureau of the Census,
U.S. Census of Populations: 1950
Vol. III, Characteristics of the
Population, Part 18, Louisiana.

NUMBER OF URBAN AND RURAL RESIDENTS
IN THE COASTAL ZONE OF LOUISIANA
...''194o, 1930, 196o, and 1970
217001000

1,8001000 Urban

9001000-
Rural

01
1940 1950 1960 1970

Years

Fig. 3.4 Source: Table 5, U.S. Bureau of the
,Census., U.S. Census of PoDulation:
195010 Vol II, Characteristics of
the Population, Part 18, Louisiana.
000@

112

RECREATION PROJECTIONS FOR 1980) 1985

Water Activities
Motor,Boatingi Water Skiing, Canoeing and Sailing
For the Coastal and Noncoastal Areas of Louisiana

8,000,000

%'Coastal
6,0001000-*

41000,000

wo 00 00 Non Coastal
21000,000-

0.
80
Year

Fig--3-5 Source: Table II., Comprehensive Outdoor
Recreati-on Plan 1970-1975,
Prepared by State Parks and
Recreation Commission 1971.

113

LOUISIANA RESOURCE BASED RECREATION PROJECTIONS
Hunting, Fishing, Crabing and Crawfishing
1980 to 1985

18,rOOO,000
0oss Coasta I

>I. 12,.0001000

.wows so 10'"wou Non Coastal
6.,000,000

01-
1970 80
Year

Fig. 3.6 Source: Table II, Comprehensive Outdoor
Recreation Plan 1970-1975,
Prepared by State Park and
Recreation Commission 1971.

114-

terms.of user days from 1970 to 1985. Again, the coastal
zone shows an upward trend but indications are that the
noncoastal area will decline in terms of user days. Camping
(Fig. 3.7), both tent and trailer, should increase in
terms of user days in the coastal zone and-level off after
1980 in the noncoastal area. Swimming in pools and on beaches
(Fig. 3.8) shows a steady increase in number of user days
in the coastal zone but the,,noncoastal area declines sharply
after 1980. This may be the result of a decline in population
and an increasingly older population less-interested in such
an active form of recreation as swimming."

These projections of user days for the various forms of.
recreation point to a need for programs ensuring that the
natural beauty and environmental quality are maintained
while, at the same time, new facilities and areas are created
to meet increasing demand.

In summation, because of the high growth rate in the
coastal zone and increased urbanization, a need willarise
for additional recreational facilities in this area.@ The
impact of this growing population on the natural resources
in the 'coastal zone will become'increasingly@evident after
198o.

c. AEriculture

Agriculture in Louisiana is big business, amounting to
more than $512 million in-1971. Farming accounted for
3.5 per cent of the gross state product of Louisiana in 1971
(Table 1, The Louisiana Economy, Vol. VI, No. 4). The
amount of land devoted to farming in Louisiana has declined
steadily to the present figure of about 11.8 million acres
while the size of the average farm has increased to 246 acres
(The Louisiana Economy, Vol. VI, No. 4, May, 1973).

In the coastal zone, the amount of land utilized in
farming has declined slowly,from more than 3.9 million
acres in.1954 to 3.,4 million acres in 1969 but the noncoastal
area has declined from slightly more than 7.5 million acres
in 1954 to 6.3 million acres in 1969. This is an 11 per
cent drop in the coastal zone and a 16 per cent decline in
the noncoastal area from 1954 to 1969 '(Fig. 3-9).

Like many other states., Louisiana has shown a downward
trend in the number of farms'(Fig. 3.10)., but an increase
in the average size of the farms. From 1959 to 1973,

115

RECREATION PROJECTIONS
FOR THE COASTAL AND NONCOASTAL AREAS OF LOUISIANA
Camping - Tent and Trailer
1980 and 1985

41500,000

Coastal
3 , 0 0 0., 0 0 0

....060mmuNon Coastal
11500,,QOO -

01
1970 80'

Year

Fig. 3.7 Source: Table II Comprehensive Outdoor
Recreation Plan 19,70-1975
PreDared by State Parks and
Recreation Commission 1971.

116

RECREATION-PROJECTTONS
FOR NUMBER OF USER DAYS OF SWIMMING (POOL AND BEACH)
IN THE COASTAL AND NONCOASTAL AREAS OF LOUISIANA
198o to 1985

30,0001000

22,5001000

w, Coasta I

0
15,000,000

7..5001-000 **Non Coast,al

0
1970 80,
Year

Fig. 3.8 Source: Table II, Comurehensive Outdoor
.Recreation Plan@1970-1975
Prepared by State-.Parks.and
Recreation Commission 1971.

117

LAND IN FARMS FOR LOUISIANA
COASTAL ZONE AND THE NONCOASTAL AREA
1954, 1959, 1964 and 1969,
12,000,000

State (9,788,662)
91000,000-

6,000,000 - mm,,Non Coastal (6,3 0 4,7 9 8)

Coastal (3,483,864)
co
31000,000-

0-
1954 1959 1964 .1969
Yeat

Fig. 3.9 Source: Table I., U.S. Bureau of the Census of Agriculture
1969, Volume 1, Area Reports Part 35, Louisiana
Section 21, County Data.

NUMBER OF FARMS IN LOUISIANA
THE COASTAL ZONE AND THE NONCOASTAL AREA
1954, 1959, 1964, and 1969
I I 127

831343- +

55,,562-

ftw State (42,2-69)
271781- **Non Coastal (28,,,678)

C o,a s t a I(13, 5 9 1
Of
1954 1959 19,64 1969
Years

'Fig. 3.10 Source: Table 3, U.S. Biireau of the Census," Centus..bf
Agriculture, 1969 Vol,ume..l, Area R6iDorts
Part 35,'La. Section 2, County Data.,.

th'e number of farms in the state decreased by 42 per cent
while'the average size of the farms increased by 111 acres,
an 82 per-cent increase (The Louisiana Economy, Vol. VI,
No. 4, May, 1973). Farm size in the coastal zone as shown
in Fig 3 11 has increased from 126 acres in 1954 to 256
acres in i969, an increase of more than 100 per cent. This
drastic change in size of farms has occurred also in the
noncoastalarea, whereas in 1954 the average farm was 94
acres,it increased to 220 in 1969. This change.in size
of farms may be attributable to the fact that farming today
demands more mechanization and technology and the less
efficient small farm is no longer economically feasible.

In summation., agriculture in the coastal zone is slowly
declining in terms of numbers of@acres, but the size of the
farm is rapidly increasing.

D. Fisheries

1. Fish and Shellfish

Tot .al production of fish and shellfish is increasing in
Louisiana (Figs. 3.12 and 3.13). Currently, Louisiana is
producing slightly more than a billion pounds of fisheries
products annually, with menhaden contributing the bulk of
the poundage. Menhaden is an industrial fish processed for
oil and meal, which is used as protein supplements in animal
food. 'Menhaden, a relatively recent addition to our
fisheries.harvest, accounts for most of the increased
production'.

The production of shellfish (primarily oysters and shrimp)
has remained relatively constant over the past 30 years
(Fig. 3.12), averaging about 100 million pounds annually.
During this time, however, changes have occurred so,that
sustained production now requires greater harvesting effort,
,time and space.

2. Oysters

Oyster production varies from year to year but.,
for 30 years, the annual yield of oyster meat has been about
8 million or 9 million pounds. -,However, the acreagelused
for this production has increased from 19,767 acres in 1945
to 161,162 acres in 1973. This eightfold increase in acres
of oy'ster leases to produce the same crop that 19,767 acres
produced in 1945 is reflected in Fig. 3.14.

120

AVERAGE SIZE OF FARM
IN LOUISIANA'S COASTAL ZONE AND NONCOASTAL AREA
1954, 1959, 1964 and 1969 IN ACRES

-300-

*,-Coastal (256 Acres)
0
,*Non, Coastal (220 Acres)

00
1040
00

7 5

0
1954 1959 1964 1969
Year

Fig. 3.11 Source* Table 3, U.S. Bureau of the Census, Census of
Agriculture, 1969, Volume 1, Area Reuorts
Part 35, La. Section 2 County Data.

Fish and shellfish in pounds (x 100,000)

Gq 00 10
0 0 0 0, 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

%0
r\j

0
th CA
CA)

-n

0
CL
c
01

0
00

4ft
LVI
4.0

0%
Olt
.1 **

0.-
00

01-
%0
00

aft

CATCH AND VALUE OF ALL FISHERY PRODUCTS
LOUISIANA COASTAL ZONE

1100-

1000-1

900-
.70

800- ... :60
V1

on ... 0500
700-
C
0
0

... :1.40
600- 0

500- :30

400 .... 20

3001
1955 60 65 70

YeaIrs

Fig. 3.13 Note: Read catch fig ures on left
scale, value figures on right.

.Source: Fisheries Statistics of the U.S.,
1972; National Marine Fisheries
Service.

123

600-
LOUISIANA OYSTER MEAT
PRODUCTION PER ACRE OF
500 LEASE BY YEARS

400-

300-

200-

100-

01
45 50 55 60 65 70 75
Years

Fig. 3.14 Source: La 'Wild Life and'Fisheries
Com*mission.

124

Referring to the figure, we see that oyster production
per acre leased has been decreasing for at least 28 years.
In 1945, almost 500 pounds of oyster meats were produced per
acre but in 1973 only about 50 pounds per acre are being
produced. This is a tenfold reduction in production per
acre. The causes of the drop in prouduction are difficult
to pinpoint but probably are the results of: (1) changes in
types of production, from intensive to extensive, (2) compe-.
tition for space with activities of the mineral extraction
agencies, (3) saltwater intrusion, which brings the oyster
drill, a predator, and (4) increasing urbanization and its
sewage and solid waste.
Increasing acreages of-potential oyste'r-pro'ducing water-
bottoms are being closed each year by the Louisiana Heaith
Department because of excessive bacterial concentrations in'
the waters. These bacteria, commonly called fecal coliform.,
indicate the extent of (domestic) pollution and result in
prohibitions against the taking of oysters if the number of
coliform per unit volume of water exceeds a certain standard.

As urbanization and its sewage increase in wetland
areas we can expect more bacterial pollution and th-e con-
tamination of previously unpolluted acreages. This trend is
shown on Fig. 3.15. Data were provided by the Louisiana
Health Department.

Louisiana Wild Life and Fisheries Commission data
indicate that of 160,000 acres of state waterbottoms leased
for oyster production, 41,710 acres, or 26 per cent, are now
closed to harvesting because of sewage pollution.

In summation, the oyster industry is literally being
squeezed out between urban pollution on the landward side
and the conch line (saltwater line) on the seaward side.

3. Shrimp

Shrimp production, though variable, has averaged about
80 million to 90 million pounds annually since the late
'30s. In Fig. 3.16, trends are presented for recent Louisiana
shrimp catches, the value of the catch, and the percentage of
the total national catch of shrimp represented by the,
state's catch. Pounds and value are showing healthy growth,
and it is anticipated that with 'careful management., such
growth can continue for at least several years. Although
production of shrimp has been.increasing lately, fishing
effort, as measured by the number of licensed trawls,, has
increased sevenfold since 1945. This relatively constant
total shrimp product 'ion and increasing catch effort result in
a lower catch per boat (Fig. 3.17).

125

.700,000-

Acreage permanently closed to oyster harvesting 4f
4f
due to high fecal coliform pollution as determined by J*
600,000- J*
the La. Health Dept. 4f
4f
Note: Of the acreage closed not all are under, lease or ore
suitable for oyster production
500,000-

400,000-
0

N)
V 300,000

200,000-

100,000-

0
1959 61 63 65 67 69 71 73 75
Years

Fig. 3.15 ACREAGES PERMANENTLY CLOSED TO OYSTER HARVESTING DUE TO
FECAL COLIFORM POLLUTION AS DETERMINED BY THE
LOUISIANA HEALTH DEPARTMENT.

LOUISIANA SHRIMP CATCH , 1966-70
-C Pounds, Value and Per Cent
U of Total u.s. Catch

U
65- so%
4000
10 0000 To of Totcy,

'55--

90-

80-

C
0
70-

60 J.

35-

0
30-

.0
4A ,,,Iue .-'
C
.2 25 -@11k6@1325 losses

201- 1 t
1966 67 68 69 70

Years

Fig. 3.16 Source: U.S *Denartment of Commerce
and Louisiana Wild Life
and Fisheries Commission,
1966-1970, Louisiana Landings

127

ANNUAL SHRIMP PRODUCTION (CATCH)
PER LOUISIANA BOAT BY YEARS
0 Source: La. Wildlife & Fisheries Comm.
-0 45,000-

CL 40,000-

a 35,000-

30,000-

25,000-

@0,000

E 15,000-

10,000-

0
5000-

0 1
0
CL 1945 1950 1955 1960 1965 1970 1975
Years

Fig. 3.17 Source*: Louisia na Vild' Li f e and
Fisheries commission

128

In 1945, each shrimp boat had an annual haul of about
44,000 pounds of shrimp but by 1972 the catch per boat had
been reduced to an annual haul of about 5,750 pounds, an
eightfold reduction. The value of the shrimp catch has
increased over the @ that the shrimp fishing can now
years so
support a greater number of boats.

II. Economic Trends in the Coastal Zone

Though it is risky to generalize to a great extent
from trend data, frequently such data can indicate the
areas of strengths and weaknesses in an economy. While
exercising due caution in interpreting the results of the
following trends, one can note a generally healthy competitive
tendency in the Coastal Zone of.Louisiana.

A. Per CaDita Income

Fig. 3.18 depicts the growth in real per capita income
for the coastal zone, the state and the nation. The term
??real" in this context-means-that the dollar figures have
been adjusted for inflation to-reflect per capita income in
terms of dollars of constant purchasing power.

It may be noted that the coas,ta.1 zone enjoys not only
a higher level of real per capita income than does the rest
of the state, but that the rate of in.crease is higher as
well. If these trends hold true, the coastal zone will,
continue to widen the gap and dominate the statelsieconomy.

While the coastal zone parishes do not enjoy a level of
real per capita income as high as the national average
the rate of increase is greater than the nation,al rateof
increase. If these trends remain relatively constant, it
is apparent that the coastal zone real per caDita income will
surpass the national average in tlye vicinity of the year
1980.*

It is difficu lt to isolate sufficient data t o compute
real per capita income for a group of parishes not bound
into a seperate political entity, such as a planning district.
The data upon which the coastal zone trend is based were
drawn largely drawn from,the LSU-BR Busine,ss,Department..

*Scott., Beard, and Duggar, LSU-BR,Business Pepartment.

129

REAL PER CAPITA INCOME TRENDS: COASTAL ZONE, STATE, NATION

3300-

3100-

2900- 4# .0

10 *#
2700-

0 C3-

2500-

< 2300-
CO
P-4 0

2100
PLq

1900 -
17001 .1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
1959 61 63 65 67 69 71

Years

Fig. 3.18 Sources:. "U.S. Statistica 1 Abstract" (1972)
U.S. Census
Economic Profile and Dersonal income
.data for LSPP's, SMSA's, and non
SMSA's Parishes in Louisiana.
Scott, Beard and Duggar.

i30

B. Petroleum

Much attention is being given today to the energy
crisis which faces this nation and.others. Fig. 3.19,-
indicates that the nat ion Is known oil reserves are dwindling
at an alarming rate, which is not only steep, but increasing.

In this area of study, trends may tend to give a sense
of false complacency. For the decade of the 1960s, the known
oil reserves for the southern portion of Louisiana
(primarily the coastal zone) increased at a fairly constant
rate. However, one cannot project this reate of increase
into the future because it is.a,recognized fact,that''guc'h
reserves are finite'and the'discovery _of .new.reserves cannot
forever outstrip the Iincreasing rates of usage of kno 'wn
reserves. Nevertheless,, according to 1969 data, coastal
Louisiana's known reserves have not been dwindling as have
those of the rest ofthe nation. The indication is that
greater demands will,be put on Louisiana's crude as a
result of the oncoming national shortage, and depletion of
the state's reserves will be accelerated.

Data for natural gas and natural gas liquids are
presented in Fig. 3.20. -In both cases,, trends for southern
Louisiana appear'to be favorable in relation..to the national
trends, but again caution is urged when interpreting them
because of the increased drain on Louisiana reserves,as.a.
result of the national shortage.

An indicator of what the future holds for petroleum
mining in southern Louisiana may be found in Fig. 3.21. Well
completions in southern Louisiana are depicted for the 1960s.
The trend is fewer completed wells yielding oil each year,.
and a slightly higher number of dry wells each year. Wells
yielding gas appear to-be fairly constant in number'but, after
an upsurge in the late 1960s, a l.eveling off is evident and
consumption is still increasing at a rapid rate.

Fig. 3.2 2 indi-cates-the extent' to which the prosperity
of the coastal zone of Louisiana is related.to the health of
the petroleum industry. The number of jobs in petroleum-
related industries has been Increasing constantly. A leveling-
off of oil production, and the attendant decline in jobs,
would result in the.reversal of this strong upward trend,
with ill effects for the economy of the coastal zone. To
date, it appears likely that the oil industry will be bolstered
by the construction of a superport in the Gulf and that such
bolstering will be economically advantageousto the coastal
zone.

131

CRUDE OIL RESERVES., U.S. AND SOUTH LOUISIANA

32-
Nation NOTE: Read National
Reserves on left scale;
31- S. La. Reserves on
right.

-0
30-

0
44 Wit%
C s$S*-ss%$S "iss
0 lists
29- s .5
list0""
x
CA sssesso"Oss
'Itless"lls

0
28-

C
0

271 3
1960 62 @64 66 68 70

Years
1960 1965 1966 1967 1968 1969

U.S. 31.6- 31.4 31.5 31.4 30.7 29.6

S.La. 4.4 4.8 4.9 5.1 5.2 5.4

(Figures Rounded) Full data P. 883
Jones-Rice.

Fig. 3.19 Source: Amer. Pet. Inst.2 19703 Reserves
of Crude Oil, Natural Gas Liquids,
and Natural Gas in the U.S. and
Canada and U.S Productive Capacity
S
r.
000@\

as of Dec. 31, 1969. Vol. 24.

132

GAS RESERVES., U.S. AND.SOUTH LOUISIANA

28011...

0
U.S. 'Nat. Gas

0
270'.1111

260*-

iCl S ,S. La. Not. Gas
Gos
@,%cku
8 0%. lite

6 ....1.7,0

0
-0

0 0
4 60

co
2=
S. L.a. Not. Gas,.Liquids

Of -
1960 6T. 64 66 .68 .70

Years

NOTE: Read solid lines on solid axis, dashed lines on
dashed axis.

Fig. 3.20 Source: Amer. Pet. Inst. (1970). "Reserves
of Crude Oil, Nat. Gas Liquids, and.
at. Gas,in the U.S. and Canada and
@.U
S. Production Capacity as of Dec.
I - 1969 :Vol. 24.
13 3

SOUTH LOUISIANA WELL COMPLETIONS, 1960-69

1500-

1400-

1300- 0

1200-,

1100-

1000-

900-

8 0 0

700

600-

500-
go go go Fm am
400- Go .s
3" 00 &.b 0 0

200

1960 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73

Years

SOUTH LOUISIANA WELL COMPLETIONS,'1960-69

1960 1965 1966 1967 1968 1969.
Oil lo45 '1418 1370 1302 1289 1007!
Gas 364 312 329 431 462 449
Dry 778 992 992 966 961 974
Abandoned 277 270
L

.Fig. 3.21 Source:- Ira Rinehart's Oil and Gas Yearbook,
Drilling.Summaries, 19M, 1967, 1961.
Rinehart Oil News ComDany". Dallas.
134

PETROLEUM-RELATEDI*EMPLOYMENT IN THE'COASTAL ZONE PARISHES

70-

.65

a4
0-
.14 60-
P-1

FX4
0

V)
0 55-

45-

140
65 -66' 67 _68, 69.

Years

'ones -a
Fig 3.22 Source: -Lamar,B' J nd G. Randoloh Rice,-
An. Ec:on-
Qmi c' Base Study'rof Coastal
Louisiana, Center-for@Wet1and*Resources,
LSU-BR, 1972.

135

In summation, the economy of the coastal zone@appears
.to be -in good health currently and to offer viable opportuni-
ties for increased economic vigor.

C. Commerce and Industry

1. Investment

Industrial investments in Louisiana's coastal zone are
on the rise. After a rapid.decrease from 1956 to 1959,
annual investments increased steadily to their 1972 level of
$730 million. This increase is evident In Fig. 3.23. Over
the past decade, the increase in industrial investment in
the coastal zone parishes has been more than fivefold. For
comparison, industrial investment in the noncoast'al zone
parishes has-been included. Industrial investment in the
coastal zone is considerably higher than the remainder of
the state and i's on the increase while decreasing or
becoming static elpsewhere in the state.

2. Wages
Perhaps a better"indication of more direct effects of
commerce and industry on the coastal zone can be obtained
by observing wages. Fig. 3.24 'Shows the total wages of
coastal zone employes covered by the Employment Security
Law, contrasted with wages paid to noncoastal zone embloye.s,
also covered. As is expected, total wages in the coastal zone
are higher and are increasing. The remainder of the state is
increasing also, but more slowly and'with@a_much lower wage
total.

3. Waterborne Commerce

Waterborne commerce in coastal Louisiana Is increasing
at a rapid rate, too. The coastal.zone is the setting for
the majority of Louisiana's water transportation activities
and is the crossroads of the most heavily used waterways.
The Mississippi River.and..the,Gulf.Intracoastal'Waterway
(GIWW) are major waterways for'the nation's waterborne
commerce. They traverse the coastal zone of Louisiana and
intersect near New,Orleans.

Fig. 3.25 shows the ton-miles of cargo carried by each
of these waterways yearly from 1954 through 1971. During
this period, traffic on the lower Mississippi River and
GIWW has increased threefold. The data represent traffic

136

700 INDUSTRIAL INVESTMENT BY YEAR

650- source- The La. Dept. of Commerce & Industry

600

550-

0
500-

0
450

400
-Coastal Zone
350

300 -
E
250-

E 200-

0 150- N,on-Coastal Zone.

100-
% ** on %%
50-%
4e

0 1
1956 58 60 62 , 64 66 68. 70 72
Years

Fig. 3.23 Source: The Louisiana Department of Commerce and Industry

WAGES (MILLIONS OF DOLLARS)
OIQ

0
w 0 0 0 0 0 ,
,oo 0 0 0 C> .0 0 0 0

0 OD

r" tj

CA
w,4
ON

.9b. CL
C.

> C)

0
co 0
a 40
CA -q-
ct -0. Q
cn 0

(D
ct

6ET

Tons Miles (Short Tons) in Billions
GQ
K3
1.0 -01@ 0% 00 0 0% 00
ch 11 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 @j

t7l
t3l
0%
0 FIJ
C:

PO (D P),
1-1 0 ct TO
(D 9) (D
@3 1--j Fj 0% 0 @A
ct cr@ 0 c
@I WO- m
1-3
z 0 <
F-4 ct (D Z@
(D -*% 0
P) 0: C)
@-j 0
0
'@t3 (PD 0
(D @-s C. 0 0
0
(D
0%
Pl 0 0 M
1-1,
ct to :E:
0 @v CD @C-
(D 0
v) c:I 0% % 0

0 F-
ct
con
0
>
Oq (A co
F- ct 0
@:s P) 00
,(D ct L-1
(D (D
Fj CA
<

Flo
P3 . %4

'14

on that port ion of the river from Baton Rouge to Mouth of
Passes and the portion of GIWW from its intersection with
the Mississippi river, west to the Texas-Louisiana border.

III. The Changing Coastal Zone

Louisiana's coastal zone is a dynamic, everchanging
system. In the past, the changes were evolutionary and
driven by forces of nature. Increasingly, in the past
century, changes in the coastal zone have been wrought by
man's dctivities. Some indicat 'ion of the magnitude of these
changes can be obtained by examining flood control and
navigation expenditures, salinity changes and land loss.

A. Construction

By their very nature, flood control and nav@g ation
construction cause changes in the coastal zone.- Construction
activity is designed to change the natural system-so that
man can make use of it. Although man derives benefit
from the changes in the ecosystem, and although the effect
of construction activity on the natural system varies from.
project to project, few will deny that changes.do occur.

It.is difficult to determine the magnitude of,,change
resulting from construction in the coastal zone without
exhaustive studies on each project. In-Igeneral,'these
studies do not exist; thus other indicators of change
must be used. One of these indicators,,is expenditures
(or approp riations) for constructionlactivities in'the
coastal zone. Fig. 3.26 shows congressional appropriations
over the-past 10 years for flood control and navigation in
the coastal zone. The appropriations were made to@,,the U.S.
Army Corps of Engi neers, whose-job it is to carry out, the
construction. The graph indicates that construction
activity was relatively constant, or slightly decreasing
from 1964 through 1970,and has.increased threefold from
1970 to 1973.. q

B. Saltwater Intrusion,

Saltwater intrusion occurs when saline ocean waters
intrude into previously fresh 'water areas. When this happens,
the vegetation and wildlife-,; which have adapted to fresh-
water conditions, die or escape. This. causes an,impactin
the biological system and productivity is adversely affected'.

14o

M as Iwo M is= '4*

CONGRESSIONAL APPROPRIATIONS FOR CONSTRUCTION
BY THE U.S. ARMY CORPS OF ENGINEERS IN LOUISIANA'S COASTAL ZONE
FOR FLOOD CONTROL AND NAVIGATION
(Excludes Maintenance Costs in the Coastal Zone and the Mississippi River and Tributaries)
28-

24-

20-

0 16-

12-

8 -

41
1964 65 66 67 68 69, 70 71 72 73
Years

Fig. 3-@6 Source: Annual Report of Chief of Engineers. U.S. Army On Civil
Works Activities, Extract Renorts Upon Imurovements in
New Orleans Louisiana District.

The reasons for increasing saltwater intrusion are
many: fresh water shortage resulting from extensive flood
control works (levees, for example), increased canalization
and channelization (which serves as a conduit for seawater),
erosion,and loss of barrier islands or beaches. The pattern.
of saltwater intrusion is fingerlike in that seawater
intrudes up channels, natural or manmade, where'the flow of
freshwater from the landward side is low.

The data concerning increasing salinities are incomplete
in most areas of the state but some existing data clearly
indicate a trend of increasing saltwater intrusion into
selected areas. To be complete, salinity data must be
collected frequently over many years, because-salinity
variations within a single year can easily exceed variations
from year@to year.

Obs.,ervations.of dying cypress trees in Lake Pontchartrain
in St. John theEaptist Parish and along the Houma Navigation
,@Canal andadjoining Falgout Canal have been attributed to
increasing salinities. Cypress trees are good biological
indicators of changing salinities because they begin to die
in salinities of 6ne-to-two parts per thousand (ppt).

'Another good biological indicator of salinity concen-
and patterns is the "conch" (oyster drill), a deadly
predator of oysters. The conch prefers saltier waters and
generally is not found in waters which have less than
15 ppt (parts per thousand) salt. The "conch line" (the
line which seperates fresh and salt water into fresher than
15 ppt or saltier than 15 ppt) can then be drawn by
determining salt concentrations in a waterbody. Generally
this results,in a lateral line drawn across a waterbody
which shows the limit of the conch's intrusion into fresher
areas. Toward the fresher or landward side of the line,,
there wili be no conchs; toward the seaward side of the
line, there are conchs present and oysters cannot be raised
year-round in this area.

Data collected on the conch line in Barataria Bay in
1937 indicates that the line was about four miles north
of Grand Isle and roughly parallel to it. Recent data
(1972) shows the conch line (15 ppt salin 'ity line) to
have moved northward toward land some four miles all
across Barataria Bay. This represents a significant loss
of over 2 million acres of,potential oyster producing
water bottoms.

Saltwater intrusion-has also been observed in the
freshwater areas which Houma uses as a source of,drinking
water, and in the Vermilion.river when%flow is'low and
pumpage from the river is high, as in late summer.

142

Louisiana Wild Life and Fisheries Commission data
Indicate t.hat mean sallnities in Lake,Pontchartrain have
increased from yearly a'verages.of.,l-to-3 pPt i.n the early
160s to the current yearly'averages of 4-to-9 ppt.
Figs. 3.27 and 3.28 show the trends'of increasing
average salinities at three points in Orleans and St.
Bernard Parish near the Mississippi River Gulf Outlet.
These are the only_points along the coast where,reliable,
long-term data.are available.

C . Land Loss
In the past, new land built by deposition of river
sediments more than offset landl.lost,,thr.ough erosion;
however, this is no longer the case. Recent studies at
LSIT BR havedemonstrated that, in fact, a yearly net loss
of 16-5@square miles of land (Fig. 3.29) occurs through
shoreline erosion, marsh deterioration, canal construction
and other factors. The studies show that the diminution
has occurred at 'least since 1940 for a total loss..of about
500 square miles, This-represents about one half the.total
area of the state of Rhode Island.

IV. Conclusion

The coastal zone is the scene of intense and ever-
expanding human activity. Population is rapidly increasing,
becoming more urban and affluent. 'Activities all across
the economic sector are accelerating as evidenced by
trends of wages, investments and general commerce.
Increased population and higher incomes will increase
demands for recreation and products of fisheries, agriculture
and industry. In short., all.resources of the coastal zone,
renewable and nonrenewable, will be utilized even more
intensively than they are now.

However, indications are that, even at.the present level
of resource use, some undesirable effects are occurring.
Saltwater intrusion, land and habitat loss, pollution of
recreation. and shellfish producing waters, and probable
reduction of p.otential.shellfish production are all signs
of highly stressed resources. Undoubtedly the stresses
will increase unless a management system is devised to
minimize stresses and impacts resulting from use of resources.

143,

SALINITIES FROM THREE STATIONS IN THE
GENERAL VICINITY OF THE BAYOU BIENVENUE-
BAYOU MERCIER STUDY AREA.

20- ANNUAL MEAN SALINITY

Hopedale
Paris Road Bridge
15 - .......... Little Woods

a- 10-
CL

..........
5

01
1945. 1950 1955 1960 1965 .1970

Years

Fig- 3.27 Source: Published and unnublished
records of the New.Orleans
District. U.S. Army Corns
of Engineers. Salinities
in ppt.

144

MONTHLY SALINITY RANGE
Paris Road Bridge

20 -ppt

15- 1962-19,67

1948-1961

0
Jan. Mar. May July Sept. N ov.

Fig. 3.28 Source: Salinities from Paris Road Bridge Station,
Lake Po,ht'ch'', artrain. Data from Dublished
and unpublished records of the New Orleans
District., U.S. Army Corns of Engineers.

145

Square miles lost

Oq
0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0

LA t--I C)
0 W 0

P) -
@I
pa- C/)
ct

(D
CJ 0 (D
0 @-j cn
@-s 0
Ct A H a
" @I -9
4k: ca 0
i-J ct 0'.
@-4 0
ct

ct
Q) (D
(D
0 w

0 @j

C) (D

co "'N

(D0
cn FS

0 :4
(D
ct K)
C)H N
0 P)

F@ (D
cn
0

(D
cn co

In addition to stresses on the ecosystem, conflicts are
developing over competing uses of resources and can be
expected to intensify in the future. Use of water is but
one example. Municipalities and industries use water for
waste disposal, while oystermen and other fishermen use it
to grow seafood. Conflicts occur when polluted waters
prevent the growth or harvesting of seafood.

In summation, this study of trends indicates a clear
need for rational coastal zone resource management, if,we
are to continue to reap benefits from coastal zone resources.

147

0 N ,-t:76.-

Y%-m @A ... . . ...

@AA

0@ 'V

Eli

Ice",

roll" -4

04
47

11 T$

CHAPTER FOUR-

PLANNING AND MANAGING GROWTH
AND CONSERVATION IN THE WETLANDS

A. Growth and Conservation in Wetland Areas
1, Building in Wetlands
a. River Flood Protection
b. Storm Surge Protectlion
C. Wetlands Drainage and Filling
2. Groundwater
a. Saltwater Intrusion Into Aquifers
b. Subsidence and Industrial Withdrawals
3. Surface Water
a. Water Control Projects
b. Watershed Projects
4.' Water Quality
a. Overview
b. Urban Pollution
C. Ocean Dumping
d. oil Spills
5. The Fishing Industrv
a. Fish., Shrimp, Oysters and Petroleum
b. The Fishing Industry and Habitat
6. Pesticides - The Chlorinated Hydrocarbons
7. Transportation ,
a. Water Transportation and Pipeline Canals
b. Highways
C. Air Transportation
8. Future Industrial Growth
a. Industrial and Power Plant Siting
b. Diversification

B. Coastal Zone Management Concepts
1. Long Range Planning and Research
a. Intrinsic Suitability
b. Cumulative Effects
C. Transportation Planning
Key Facility Land Use Planning
e. Open Space Planning
f. Lake Pontchartrain Planning
9. Basic and Long Term Research
2. Managing the Coastal Zone Day-*to-Day
a. Permitting, Surveillance and Enforcement
b. Applied Planning and Short-Term Research
c. Value of Wetlands
d. Positive Programs
1. Mariculture
2. Wetland Resources
a. Freshwater Introduction
b. Delta Building

149

A. Growth and Conservation inVetland Areas

Wetlands are lands in close,proximity to bodies of
water characterized by near-sur-face water tables'and/or
inundated at least.part of the year. Swamps, marshes, flood
plains and river basins are examples. Soils, excluding sand
bodies, associated with wetlands are generally waterlogged,
mucky, unconsolidated and contain highly organic matter.such
,as undecomposed plants.. In general, wetlands yield-wildlife
and vegetation rivaling the most intensive land-based agricul-
ture in terms of organic matter,produced. This combination of
wetness, unstable soi 'ls and high productivity leads to'special
conditions which constrain growth and development in wet.land
areas. Some of the more important constraints are discussed
below.

1. Building in Wetlands

Urban and.industrial development in wetland areas must be
preceded by: (1) flood protection from river overbank .
flooding and excessive storm tides, and, (2) draining and '
filling of the area to reduce susceptibility to floods@.. improve
foundation conditions and reduce subsidence (sinking).. These
problems, inherent in wetlands areas., are present in addition
to the normal site preparation problems of erecting structures.
These special building problems in wetlands are addressed in
detail later.

a. River Flood Protection
Amer'icals greatest river' the Mississippi, courses down
eastern Louisiana on its journeyto Louisiana's Gulf Coast
*ts bird-foot delta is located. Having the fourth
where 1
largest drainage basin in the world, the river drains 41 per cent
of the 48 conterminous states of the U.n.ited,States. The basin
covers more than 1.25 million square miles, includes all or
parts of 31 states and two Canadian provinces.and roughly
@resembles a funnel with its spout at the Gulf of Mexico. The
lower valley, underlain by Mississippi River sediments, is a
relatively flat plain that would,be flooded during times of
high water if it.were not for man-made levees.

In the past, the Mississippi River overflowed'annually
onto its flood plains.

151

Prior to 1879, flood control consisted of levees
erected by local interests, with individual landowners
bearing all costs. However, these levees were.inadequate
and-massive floods occurred in 1847, 1850, 1858 and 1859
badly damaging,them. During the War Between the,States,
flood control work came to a standstill and the-remaining
levees.were destroyed by.floods or the contending armies.

By 1879, the,necessity for coordination of any
engineering operation through a centralized organization
was.apparent. That year, Congress established the Mississippi
River Commission which, among other things, was charged with
theprevention of destructive floods. Levee construction
was begun by the commission in 1882, but flood control benefits
were only incidental. The primary thrust of'the work was to
improve the river for navigation purposes. Floods in 1912,
1913, 1916 and 1927 pointed to the need for more extensive
flood control structures. The flood of 1927 was the most
disastrous in the history of the lower Mississippi valley.
Cities, towns and farms were flooded; crops,were destroyed
and industry was paralyzed. Property damage amounted to about
$1 billion measured in today's values. In addition, 214 lives.
were lost and 637,000 people were displaced.

This disaster awakened the national-conscience to the
.dire needfor flood control in the lower valley. Out of it.
grew,,the.Flood Control Act of 1928 which committed the federal
government,to a definite program of flood.control. Present
.projects date from that act,

Subsequently, the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, charged with
flood control responsibility, has evolved a plan which allows
the lower Mississippi in combination with the Atchafalaya River
to carry-a maximum combined capaci'ty of 3 million cubic feet of
water per second. The principal structural components of this
plan are: (1) the Atchafalaya Basin Floodway via the Old River
control structure 80 miles above Baton Rouge, (2) the Atchafalaya
Basin via the Morganza Floodway, 50 miles upriver from Baton
Rouge, and (3) the Bonnet Carre Spillway. The Old River
Control Structure and the Morganza Control Structure can each
remove approgimately one fourth of the flood fl-ow. so that about
one half the overflow is confined to the Atchafalaya Basin.
The remaining flow would pass Baton Rouge safely and another
,quarter of a million cubic feet per second would be taken from
the river above New Orleans through the Bonnet Carre Spillway to
Lake Pontchartrain.(l)

152

Of the three flood control'structures, the Bonnet Carr'e
Spillway and the Morganza Spillway have been used. The floods
of 1937, 1945, 1950 and 1973 required the use of the Bonnet
Carre Spillway to lower river levels at New Orleans. .the
Morganza Spillway was opened in 1973 only.

In addition to-the levees which confine the rivers to
channel, levees often are required to keep tidal and storm
waters away from development in low-lying'wetlands. Such levees
generally are smaller than river levees and usually ring develop-
.ments with a protective barrier.

The people of South Louisiana have benefited greatly from
.flood control structures devised to hold back river, storm or
tidal floods. However, some attendant costs, other than
monetary, must be examined objectively.

Although realizing the legitimate need to protect populated
areas from inundation, one should recognize that additional
levees in unpopulated wetlands represent an irreversible commit-
ment of a natural resource, thereby precluding other specific
uses, such as fish and wildlife production.

The leveeing of the Mississippi to its mouth to prevent
flood damage to inhabitants of the flood plain has ca used loss
of freshwater nutrients to the estuaries and loss of sediment to
build new land. Attendant problems include erosion and salt-
water intrusion.(2.)

In thle past', the annual-overbank flooding of the river
caused a recharge of the ecosystem (all living and non-living
things considered as a unit). The flooding generated a new eco-
system and allowed subdominant species, which are faster growing
and denser, to dominate.for a time. After levees were built,
annual overbank flooding ceased.

With the cessation of the annual flooding cycle in the
life of the estuary, some changes in biological productivity of
the estuaries can be expected. It is unclear what direction
these changes will take; however, some insight into the situation
can be achieved by examining some current problems with fisheries
production.

Evidence indicates saltwater intrusion is affecting the
oyster and shrimp crops. Oyster production has remained
relatively static over the years@but fishing effort'and the
acres of oyster grounds being cultivated have increased manifold.

153

Thus, th e production of oyster meats per acre has decreased
drastically over the years. Freshwater, which-in the past
protected young oysters from the conch (an oyster predator
which prefers saltier waters), is now retained within the
levee system and supplementary freshwater is being intro-
duced into the oyster grounds by syphons installed and operated
by the fishermen. This indicates that the need for freshwater in
the estuaries is a most pressing problem.

Any system that affects water flow will have effects
downstream and changes in these flows can have dramatic
effects on the ecosystem. Upstream watershed projects, water
diversion and flood control projects have removed the flood
cycles fromthe river and changed the seasonal.flow. SI-asonal
high and low wate 'r stages have been smoothed out. The ,
Mississippi River usually does not have spring flood peaks as
it did previously nor does it carry the year-round flow as
before. The flood conditions:of 1973 are unusual and do not
indicate the true nature of the, river's flow.

In addition to affecting living resources, levees on the
Mississippi River have restricted suspended river sediments
to the river bed and prevented sediment. from building new deltaic
land masses. The 260 million tons per year of sediment carried
by the river are now deposited at its mouth in the oceanic
deep off the continental shelf.. The net result is an annual
loss of .16.5 square miles of marshland as the continual erosion
and subsidence is no longer offset by sedimentation and
accretion.(3)

Atchafalaya Basin and Bay are the exception to the erosion
rule. Silt deposits are causing the basin to fill in and
evolve from a freshwater swamp to a hardwood bottomland.
However, when viewed as a whole, the Louisiana coastal zone is
erodi'ng rapidly, with net losses of 500 square miles over the
past 30 years.

The levees are probably a permanent feature of the coastal
zone landscape but some of the land loss may be offset by the
delta building management proposals being set forth.(4)
Perhaps the effects of erosion can be alleviated somewhat by
man-made barrier islands. These would also enhance the
recreational potential of the coastal zone.

b. Storm_Surge Protection

Flood protection from storm tides is.the second major
type.of protectio'n needed if-growth and development are to
proceed in wetlands. The- wetlands do much to absorb storm-
driven waters; however, when wetlands are used for residential

154

or commercial development, their flood-absorbing characteristics
become a liability.

"Flood control policy should encourage rational
decisions about the location of private invest-,
ment in flood lands, through flood plain zoning,
insurance techniques and other devices,@so that
the federal goverment is%not called upon toi
protect from damage investments that should not
have been made in the first place."(5)

"The most ridiculous aspect of much of the building
occurring in wetland zones is that millions of
dollars have to be invested in building,flood
protection levees before any building-can begin.."(6)

''The environmentally harmful effect*s of levees on wetlands
include disruption of hydrology (waterflow), salinity (salt
content), and nutrient cycles with subsequent loss of -vegetation,
habitat andproductivity.

C. Wetlands Drain age and Filling

Louisiana coastal marshes are subsiding at,measurable
rates of 4.0 ft./100 years.,(7) Other places have reported
comparable rates of subsidence.(8) This may be a natural
phenomenon but it should, at least, be noted by planners.
Preventive action may be impossible but some remedial action
could be considered.

Once leveed and drained, a wetland environment undergoes
additional irreversible subsidence resulting from drying,
compaction and oxidation, which may lower.the elevation as much
as a foot per year during the first few years. Initial sub"-
sidence is estimated to be about one third of the difference
between the soil surface elevation before drainage and the water
table after drainage.(9) After initial subsidence, a slower but
continual subsidence-is evidenced as organic matter in the soil
decomposes. This subsidence:creates many foundation problems
related to building and maintenance of.housing, streets, sewers
and other services.

Adequate foundations for housing and streets-in wetlands
require pilings to prevent them from sinking with unsupported
structures such as sidewalks., driveways, and sewer and drainage
lines. It is not unusual to.find housing built on former.wet-
lands with the piling-supported concrete slab separated from

155

the ground.* The costs of maintaining public services such as
sewersi drainage, streets, sidewalks, etc., are higher than'
corresponding costs on stable soils and must be borne by the
taxpayer. The homeowner must bear the cost of subsidence
on his own property.

Subsidence creates many problems associated with'the us e
for which the area was drained initially. For instance,
draining wetlands for agricultural production will result in
subsidence, which in turn increases the chances of inundation
and pumping costs. Consequently, the land is rendered
unsuitable for agricultural uses within a few y6ars.

In the past., land fill in Louisiana wetlands generally
has been'limited to undeveloped spoil disposal areas near
dredged navigation channels.(10) However, with increased urban-
ization and industrialization spurred by population growth,(11)
this can be expected to change. Approximately five per cent of
the estuarine habitat of the U.S. Gulf Coast has been removed
by dredging and filling operations.(12) In Louisiana 3.1 per cent, orl
65,400 acres of important estuary habitat have been lost by
dredging and filling,(13) primarily for navigation channels.

Filling wetlaAds commits this natural resource to a use
whic,h precludes.some other utilization and may not be in the
best interests of the people of Louisiana.

Commission Recommendations Concerning Building in Wetlands

The Commission recommends that heavy
industrial development should not occur,in
substantially undeveloped wetlands when
alternatives exist. Feasible corridors
'for transportation, industrialization or
urbanization should be designated in already
disturbed stable areas. These corridors
should not be construed to extend into'
sensitive areas such as extreme low-lying
lands at the mouth of the river..

*'A,number,of companies.-in,New Orleans specialize in
grouting (filling in with mortar) such structural deficiencies.

156

The Commission recommends that residential
and industrial developments in low-lying areas be
discouraged by flood plain zoning,-insurance
techniques and other devices. This would not
pertain to minimal amounts of construction such as
camps recreational facilities, etc., which would
not interfere with the natural system.

The Commission further notes that flood control policies
in,particular, greatly encourage urban sprawl and continued
population growth at the expense of wetlands and agricultural
land. Flood control is treated as a non.-reimbursable cost at
the federal, state and local levels. In other words, all
people share the cost of flood control, regardless of whether,
they live on lands where an undue flood hazard exists. Many
of today's problems of urban sprawl would be halted.abruptly
by a reversal of this public.policy.

The Commission recommends that present
federal, state and local policies discourage
flood control in undeveloped wetlands, and that
public subsidies for the urbanization of wet-
lands be revised so the protected land will
incur a more equitable portion of the cost of
such facilities. In addition, the Commission
recommends that at the state level there be:
(1) subdivision requirements based on the
environmental constraints of the area to be
developed and (2) permit requirements for
urbanization and.industrialization in coastal
areas. At the regional or local level there
should be: (1) zoning of flood plain-lands
to regulate developmen@ (2) subdivision
regulations and (3) building and housing codes..
All of these should be designed to protect
the individual home owner or businessman from
the adverse effects of locating in a flood plain
but such protection need not involve public
expense.

The Commission recommends that. water
diversion structures along the Mississippi River
be built to restore some of the freshwater/salt-
water balance disrupted by man--:made leve*es'.
,These water diversion structures should be,
-designed and constructed to aid living resource
production.

157

The commission recommends that in plans
for flood protection the U.S..Army Corps of
Engineers, the Louisiana Department of Public
Works and other appropriate agencies consider
the values of undisturbed wetlands along with
the values of flood protection.

The Co mmission recommends that the U.S.
Army Corps of Engineers, the Louisiana Depart-
ment of Public Works and other.appropriate
agencies take immediate actions to protect
the wetlands from erosion caused by wave
action, hurricanes and other natural, causes.
These actions could take the form of preservation
or construction of barrier islands at.or off
the coast in areas where erosion is most severe.
However ' these flood protection works should
take into account the need for the water
exchange necessary for the life of the wetiand
areas. Future fl'ood protection designs for the
Mississippi River should incorporate water
diversion facilities for marsh or land
rejuvenation.

2. Groundwater

Groundwater refers to aquifer water (which is in strata
beneath the land surface) and supplies much of our urban and
industrial needs.

Louisiana's groundwater problems center about excessi ve
drawdown (overpumping) of aquifers, which leads to lowering
of the aquifer water table and the resultant (1) saltwater
intrusion into the aquifers and (2) subsidence of the land
surface above the aquifer. Subsidence caused by excessive
drawdown is difficult to ascertain in wetland areas because
the area is already in a condition of general subsidence.

a. Saltwater Intrusion into Aquifers
Accelerating withdrawal of ground water for agricultural
uses is causing intrusion of saltwater from saline aquifers
in some areas. This is especially true in Vermilion Parish
where high rates of withdrawal are needed for rice farming,
The Louisiana Department of Public Works has found that "larg6

158

industrial and agricultural r equirerents in areas of south
Louisiana will prese,nt-serious ground water problems in the
.future."(14)

The abundant rainfall of s,outh Louisiana provides enough
water for most,farming operations; however, rice farmers,
because of the nature of their crop, use additional-water.
They obtain this water from canal companies at a price or from
their own wells. -About one third of rice irrigation is done
from private wells.(15)

."In the recent past, the water gradient (slope) in south-
western Louisiana has been toward the Gulf. However, heavy
withdrawals for irrigation and industry have reversed the
gradient along the coast and caused saline aquifers to move
slowly northward."(16), Governmental controls over the use of
water are not apparent.. A publication of the,LSU.Department
of Agriculture Economics notes that "to prevent salt intrusion
into,the irrigation wells of,the,coastal region, some water
management practices appear desirable, particularly to relate
the amount of pumping to the.availability of freshwater
recharge (replenishment) mainly from rainfall and non-salty
river flows."(17)

b. Subsidence and Industrial Withdrawals

Subsidence of the land surfacej and other ground water
problems because of excessive drawdown have been noted in a
number of cases. Baton Rouge, is subsiding, especially in the
-industrial complex in North Baton-Rouge because of a high
water-withdrawal.ralte..(18)-

The.Louisiana Department of Public,Works has found that
"Large industrial and agricultural requirements in areas of
south Louisiana will present serious ground water problems in
the future. Heavy industrial withdrawals in Lake Charles,
Baton Rouge, and New Orleans are, presently causing large
declines of water levels and saltwater encroachment-in some
of the local aqu ife'rs."(19)

Commission Recommendations Concerning Groundwater

The Commission recommends that ground water
drawdown be regulated for conservation purposes
and. include aquifer recharge, if.feasible. The
Louisiana Department of Public.Works,has begun a
program of inventory for ground water use in the
state. In addition, the Department of Public
Works should develop a program for ground water

159

conservation and present it to the legislature
within one year. Local government should
participate in but not dominate the program.
.One aspect of ground water conservation could
be greater use of surface water for industrial
purposes. Industries located at available
surface.water sources, eg. rivers, lakes, etc
should be encouraged to'use this water rather
than aquifer ground water.

3. Surface Water

Surface waters can be managed for various uses. Louisiana
is probably the'nation's only state endowed with excess surface
waters. During floods, this can be a curse but most of the
time it is a blessing.' Various types of techniques and
structures are used to manage the excess surface water. Benefits
@are derived from management of the water but attendant costs
rarely are recognized. Some of the costs and benefits of water
control projects are discussed below.

a. Water Control Projects

When canals for pipelines, oil well access or navigation
,are dredged,across watercourses-in wetlands areas., the new
canal often.serves as a conduit or passageway for saltwater
intrusion into previously brackish or fresh marshes. This can
result in significant changes in vegetation, wildlife and marsh
as the brackish or fresh system becomes more saline. Some of
this unwanted and unnecessary change can be reduced by the use
of dams or-weirs across the man-Made waterways where they
intersect n@,tural waterways. This prevents the waters from
mixing.

'Dams are also used in upland areas to create reservoirs
of water which can then be released as the need arises. They
produce benefits of controlled water use and recreation, but
cause side effects of hydrologic interruptions.and silt
deposition behind the dam.

Canals sometimes are dug to hasten the drainage of water
from a river watershed area to its receiving basin. The canal
reduces ups.tream,river stages during periods of high flow, but
also reduces river levels in times of low flow. This reduction
can have adverse effects as the general,water table of the area

160

subsequently drops. Additionally, less flooding occurs in,-,
the downstream portion of the river's flood plain and this
causes changes in the hydrologic system. Examples of the
effect water control'structures can have on.living resources
are:

(1) Concurrent with the construction o f thedam on the
Sabine River to create the Toledo Bend Reservoir,@there
occurred a. drastic reduction in the shrimp production down-
stream in Sabine Lake a,s salinities increased.

(2) The construction of the Amite River Diversion Canal
caused faster runoff,(emptying of the drainage basin) and
reduced flooding in the Maurepas and Blind River Swamp.. A
reduction in muskrat and crawfish production resulted as the
ecosystem and vegetation changed.

The above-mentioned projects produce benefit to the state
and society but not without cost. Often these costs can be
reduced substantially if proper controls are introduced in
the planning and construction phases of the project. The
controls should suit the particular proj.ect and be designed to
preserve environmental qualities that ne-ed.not be lost as a
result of the project. This can be done only if all costs--
environmental, economic and social--are considered in the
planning stages of a project.

Another type of water control structure consists of
those to create impoundments (reservoirs) of freshwater for
agricultural use in wetlands. The Schooner Bayou and Catfish
Point Control Structures regulate the water levels in Grand
and White Lakes primarily for irrigation.(20) Although the
structures do provide water for irrigating crops and the need
for the water is recognized, it should be realized also that
halting or reducing freshwater flows into the estuaries can
have detrimental effects in some instances.

The Commi.ssion understands the need for positive water
resourceprograms which can offset some of the man-made
changes in the coastal zone.,.Some examples are freshwater
introduction into the estuaries to offset saltwater intrusion
and introduction of sediment-laden water into.areas which are
conducive to delta building. (See Chapter Six,.Section Four)

161

CommissionRecommendations Concerning Water Control Projects

The -Commission recommends that control
structures (weirs or dams) be required wherever
new waterways cross a watercourse or land-water
interface to maintain the integrity of the
hydrologic regime. In addition, there should
be a system whereby ongoing surveillance by the
Office of Coastal Zone Management and maintenance
by the landowner or-lessee of this structure is
routine.

The Commission recommends that water-level
control structures, such as those in Grand Lake
and White Lake for impounding 'freshwater, be
investigated thoroughly to determine wnether
water use patterns are being affected or salt-
water intrusion is occurring because of the
structures.

The Commiss-i'on-. recommends that the U.S.
,Army Corps of Engineers, the Louisiana Depart--
ment of Public Works and other appropriate
agencies initiate projects to divert fresh
water river flows to aid in replacing land
lost through erosion and subsidence, to add
nutrients to estuaries and to retard saltwater
intrusion. In addition, the Louisiana
congressional delegation should request that
the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers initiate a
feasibility study of major land building in
areas of serious erosion in Louisiana through
controlled diversion of, sediment.laden waters.

b.- Watershed Project

A major type of water resource project is'the watershed
project, which is intended to reduce flooding and increase
the rate of drainage on lands in the project area. Currently,
many watershed projects are planned for Louisiana--some of
them in the coastal zone. The projects usually involve grading
of watersheds and stream slopes, removal of vegetation to
reduce flow obstruction.,) and realignment of streams.

A 1964 study by two members of the North Carolina Wild-
life Resources Commission compared fi-sh populations in 23
channelized streams with populations in 36 nearly natural
streams. Their findings indicate'that channelized streams

162

had 90'per cent fewer catchable game-size fish.(21) An unpublished
study by the Mississippi Game and-Fish Commission in 1968
showed a decrease:.in pounds of.fish per acre in the Tippah
River from 250.7 before to 4.8 after channelizationi(22)
The Louisiana Wild Life and Fisheries Commission has performed
similar research with comparable results.(23)

Commission Recommendation Concerning Watershed-Projects

The Commissionr 'ecommends that the Louisiana
Department of Agriculture,-the Soil Conservation
Service and other appropriate agencies initially-
evaluating the effects of watershed projects
identify environmental values and giveothem the
same consideration afforded engineering and
economic val-ue.s.

4. Water Quality

Population pressures on the Louisiana coast to expand,
services (industry) and housing (urbani,zation) into the wetlands
can be expected to rise as the population increases at a rate
33 per cent higher than the national average. This constitutes
an increase inthe number of people per squa.re,mile from 144
in 1970 to almost 200 per square mile in the year 2000..(-24)
Such population increases intensify the problems of water
pollution.

The effects of pollution can be more severe in the coastal
zone than elsewhere because of the nutrient trap characteristics
of an estuary. Some processes in estuaries effectively trap
nutrients essential for the high biological productivity
observed in such areas. "Unfortunately, all of the factors
which enable an estuary to concentrate and recycle nutrients
also.allow the estuary to become a pollution.sink."(25)

a. Overview

In large measure, the water quality of Louisiana wetlands
is related to the quality of the.freshwater inthe many1rivers
in the coastal zone. For this reason..'high quality water in
the river basins is important.

Unfortunately, some of our rivers do not have water of high
quality. The Environmental Protection Agency threatened .
New Orleans with loss of federal funds if the citY"did not

163

provide adequate treatment of sewage.* Domestic sewage
discharged into the-Mississippi River contributes to hi:gh
bacterial concentrations downstream.(26) The high,colif'orm
count could prevent diversion of MissIssippi River water to-
the estuaries. Forty-six organic che-micals have been found
in the New Orleans drinking water.(27) @Fish caught In
the Mississippi River immediately below Baton Rouge are not
salable because of off-flavor.(28) Turbidity (murkiness)
caused by suspended particles such aa silt is increasin
g ;Ln
many of our streams as land clearing for agriculture, industry
or urbanization increases. Land denuded of trees and other
vegetation quickly loses topsoil to Pain runoff and eventually
is absorbed in a wat'erbody. Consequently, turbidity and .
siltation increase and combine to lower productivity be -cause
sunlight cannot penetrate the turbid water. 'Additional
effects are the covering of fish and other aquatic@eg'gs with
sediment and eventual silting-in of the waterbody.

The most extensive land clearing activities in Louisiana
have been for agricultural purposes, primarily for soybean
production. In one parish alone, Concordia, land
clearing took place at'a rate of about 8,500 acres per.
year. .,.",(29) for a total of about 85,000 acres cleared over
the past decade.

@A publication of the Louisiana Department of Public Works
notes that "the dissolved solids discharged to the river by
industry between St. Francisville and Luling Ferry (16 miles'
above New Orleans) have increased from about 4,000 tons per
day in 1958 to about 20,000 tons per day in 1969. Municipal
effluents@add less than 1 per cent of the waste load discharged
by industry."(30) Heavy metals dumped into the river attach to
the suspended sediments and prevent the diversion of those
sediments into the estuaries for salinity control,,nutrient
enrichment or controlled sedimentation.

The other Irivers emptying into,the Louisiana coastal zone
have fared poorly too. Food processing and other wast.es
have created problems in the Vermilion River. Lake Calcasieu
and the Calcasieu River are rather heavily laden with industrial
wastes. A commercial fishery involved in interstate shipment
.of fish from Lake Calcasieu closed when informed by the Food
and Drug Administration of mercury contamination of seafoods
from those waters. (31) The source of the mercury is believed to
be a chlor-alkali plant in the area Khibh'uses mercury c'ells
in the manufacturing process.

*I'The Morning Advocate.." Baton Rouge, La. 6/23/72 p. 10b
col. 4.

164

The Army Corps of Engineers notes: "A credible theory.
set forth by some authorities suggests that even low
concentrations of toxic materials encountered in some
industrial effluents far upstream may well be carried into
estuarine areas and concentrated there as a,result.of natural
scouring, suspension, settlement,-dredgIng, resuspensi.on,
and resettlement."(32)

b. Urban Pollution

Urban pollution in the coastal zone involves disposal
of wastes (solid wastes'and sewage) in wet-land-areas. The
natural systems can assimilate some degradable wastes. However,
if the system is overloaded,' all dissolved oxygen.in the.system
is consumed and.all aerobic (oxygen using) organisms-are
destroyed.(33) One.example of the.detrimental effects of a high
bacteria count is that oyster harvesting in Lake Borgne-was
closed temporarily by the State Board of Health several times
because of sewage p.ollution from the New Orleans area.

C. Ocean Dumping

Ocean dumping can also affect water quality. It is
estimated that over 112 million tons of waste were discarded
by dumping in the Gulf of Mexico in 1968--a,65-fold increase
over 1952.(34) -Dredging spoils were estimated to constitute
95% (by weight) of the materials dumped, and about 31% of these
spoils were considered to be polluted. The remainder of the
dumped wastes were-refinery,-petrocherhical and paper mill
effluents. "Refinery wastes include highly toxic pollutants
such as cyanides, mercaptides, chlorinated hydrocarbons, and
heavy met,als. Petrochemicals and related laboratory wastes
frequently include,arsenical.and mercuric compounds. Paper
mill wastes may contain "black liquor" and toxic organic
s*ubstances. Black liquors in concentrations as low as 0.5 grams
per liter seriously reduces photosynthesis needed@for survival .
of phytoplankton, a basic organism in the mar ine food chain."(35).

d. Oil Spills

The@effects,of oil spills still are being disputed among
researchers. Some research has indicated little or no long-
term effect, while other studies do indicate long-term effects.

Regardless of the outcome of the debate over the effects
of oil on marine organisms, no one is in favor of spills. Hence,

165

prevention seems to be the answer. The use of dispersers
and emulsifiers seems to merit some attention., as studies(35)
have concluded that "the oil spill removers were much more
toxic than the crude oils."

Commission Recommendations Concerning Water Quality

The Commission recommends maximum surveil-
lance and enforcement of all water quality standards
of the state Stream Control Commission, Depart-
ment of Health and federal Environmental Protection
'Agency (EPA). This will insure that water quality
levels vital to estuaries will be sustained.. To@
achieve maximum surveillance and enforcement, the
state's Stream Control Commission must be
strengthened. EPA, When reviewing the state's
.water quality program, recommended that the staff,
equipment requirements'and budget of the
.Stream Control Commission be tripled. 'It advised
of the need for qualified laboratories and
personnel, and,the difficulties in holding
qualified personnel because of poor pay scales
under the state's civil service system.

The Stream Control Commission should begin
public information services to heighten public
awareness of pollution control efforts. Immediate
attention should be,given-to the quality of-water
in the Mississippi River, Lake Borgne, Lake
Pontchartrain, Calcasieu River basin and the
Vermilion basin.

The-Fishing Industry

The fishing industry in Louisiana is one of the largest
users of renewable resources in the state. In recent years,
the annual catch has exceeded one billion pounds, with a dock-
side value of about $70-million. Fish and shrimp stocks
renew themselves each year with little assistance from man:@
however, oysters require more human effort because they must be
transplanted for the best yields.

In addition to the widespread problems of habitat loss
resulting from the leveeing, pollution, draining and filling,
and channelization discussed previously, specific concerns
are discussed below.'

166

a. Fish, Shrimp, Oysters, and Petroleum

Petroleum drilling platforms in waters off..the,Louisiana
coastline serve as artificial reefs by providing edge, or
interface, which can support ecological communities,
including fish. The platforms have fostered the develop-
ment of commercial and recreational fishing by concentrating
fish so they are accessib-le.t.o the fishermen..In some inshore
bays and.waters, the density of oil-structures prevents
navigation by large fishing boats. As a.result,. the area,serves
as a marine sanctuary. However, there-are areas of-conflict.

In the past, conflicts have occurred between shrimpers
and other commercial fishermen over actions of the oil and
gas industry. Complaints by fishermen usually concern sub-
merged objects such as well stems, pipelines and debris, all
of which can catch and damage nets.. Recent regulation changes
should result eventually in the-removal of all stems protruding
above,the ocean floor. At present, there are approximately
200 of them.(37) In addition, the Army Corps of Engineers notes:

"Offshore structures and appurtenant pipelines
have created considerable difficulties for.
commercial fishermen by creating both hazardous
navigation-problems and seabed obstructions..
Significant f'ishing area.s are 'Lost due to high,
concentrations of.structures and appurtenances......
Many areas.of trawling,and purse seining-grounds
can be effectively- removed from traditional
fishing grounds by reason of safe operating,
clearances from structures."(38)
Disputes between oyst ermen and the pet-roleum industry'
generally occur when oyster production is interrupted by
petroleum industry activity.

Seismographic techniques for.oil expioration involve the
creation of shock waves which penetrate the earth's surface and
are reflected or refracted by subsurface strata. By reading the
reflected or refracted waves which return to the surface,
experts can determine the location of geologic structures
suitable for oil accumulation. In the past, the shock-waves
were created by explosives detonated close to the land surface
and underwater in the offshore areas. The underwater explosions
were said to be responsible for the.loss of oysters because Of shock
and disturb ance of bottom sediments.

167

At present, the careful,laying of seismographic shot lines
to avoid oysterbeds and the use of wave generators with no
explosives appear to have resolved the problem satisfactorily.

Dredging for-pipeline canals and oil well access canals
has on occasion resulted in disputes over oyster losses caused
by siltation. Since silt can@travel some distance-from its
dredging source, oyster beds.away from the'dredging can be
affected. Careful regulation of canal routes and' additional
surveillance of silt 11plumes" would go far toward alleviating
the conflict.

:Oil spills and low-level persistent pollution present
taste problems to oyster growers because oysters can acquire
an oily taste. Prevention of spills and low-level chronic
pollution by industry control techniques, with close-monitoring
and surveillance by appropriate state agencies shoul d eliminate
the conflict.

b. The Fishing Industry and Habitat

Water quality problems affecting habitat and having the
most significant economic impact on the fishing industry include
high coliform. levels in Lake Borgne and the Mississippi River.
High coliform levels are the result of urban effluents.' . I
Elevated bacterial counts in these areas have resulted in the
closure of oyster beds to harvesting on a number of occasions.

The other serious conflict between renewable and non-
renewable resources involves competition for available
production space on the waterbottom. This is especially true
for the oyst,er industry, where pipeline canals, oil well access
canals- and well locations have,removed oyster producing areas.

6. Pesticides--the Chlbrinated_Hydrocarbons

Pesticides are used in agricultural efforts to stabilize
the agricultural ecosystem, that is, eliminate unwanted pests.
Unfortunately pesticides.*are known to migrate via air and
water long distances from where they are applied, thus creating
the potential for environmental harm. The chlorinated hydro-
carbons have come under close scrutiny, e.g., recently.DDT
was banned by EPA for most uses.

168

Chlorinated hydrocarbons are a class of pesticides known
as Ithard" or persistent, which means they remain ac.ti've in
the environment for a long time and are only slowly weakened
by weathering or chemical action. Some members of this family
are DDT., Dieldrin, Aldrin, Endrin, Mii@ex, Chlorodane, Toxaphene,
Heptachor, BHC and Lindane.

DDT and other chlorinated hydrocarbons have been shown
by a large number of studies'to cause mortality and repro-
ductive failure in fish, birds and other speci'es.(39)
Mechanisms for the mortality involve two 'critical factors:,
(1) the concentration effect and (2) the persistence of the
pesticide. Many species of organisms will concentrate and
store the chlorinated hydrocarbons in fatty tissues to levels
tens of thousands of times-greater than in the surrounding
environment.(40) Pesticides other than chlorinated hydro-
carbons do not accumulate in animals.(41) The second important
effect in the mechanism is the long-lived nature of the
pesticide, which allows it sufficient time to accumulate in
sediments and biota.

In Louisiana, the Mississippi River fish kills of the early
160s led to an investigation by the U.S., Public Health Service,
which traced the deaths of five million fish to lethal amounts
of Endrin in the fish. The-source of the pesticide was traced
eventually to a chemical company in Memphis, Tenn. The
Louisiana State bird, the brown pelican, disappeared soon
thereafter "and it is possible that the Endrin in the-fish
eaten by this species was the cause of its disappearance on
the Gulf Coast."(42) Pelicans stocked by the Louisiana Wild
Life -and Fisheries Commission on Rockefeller Refuge in the
western part of the state soon died. Tissue analysis indicated
high concentrations of DDT, Dieldrin and Endrin--all chlorinated
hydrocarbons.(43) Upstream agricultural s praying associated
with rice farming utilizes chlorinated hydrocarbons.

Oysters,(44) shrimp,(45) crabs,(46) 'and fish(47) are
all adversely affected by chlorinated hydrocarbon pesticides.
The danger to man and his environment long has'been recognized
by scientists and others. The Housing, Education and Welfare Dept.'s
Commission on Pesticides and Their Relationship to Environ-
mental Health recommends: "Restrict the usage of certain
persistent pesticides in the U.S.,to specific essential uses
which create no known hazard to human health or to the quality
the environment. ."(48)

At present, the Louisla-na.Department of Agriculture, in
conjunction with the U.S. Department of Agriculture, is comtemplating
spraying Mirex, a chlorinated hydrocarbon, on millions of acres
of land to con'trol the fire ant. In view of.the widespread

169

usage of the pesticide and its known toxicity for shrimp-,
crabs, and other crustaceans, the spraying program should
be reconsidered.,

Commission Recommendation Concerning Pesticides

The Commission recommends that all
chlorinated hydrocarbon pesticides be phased out@
and replaced by other pesticides such as the
non-persistent -carbamates or organophosphates.

7, Transportation

a. Water Transportation and Pipelines

Water transportation incorporates the extensive network
of navigation canals which form the backbone of the shipping
and towing trade and the acce'ss canals used in oil and gas
operations. In addition, pipelines will be considered in this
section since pipeline canals provide transportation access
also. Because the coastal zone is where the land meets the
sea, the majority of water.transportation facilities, such as
waterways and ports, are in the coastal zone. Economic
benefits of the water transportation industry are considerable
but there are costs. other than monetary which should be
considered also.

According to the National Estuarine Pollution Study, all
activities have impacts on the coastal zone ecosystem, "but
the activities having the most impact on water quality are
dredging and filling . . . . The greatest percentage of
deliberate modification of the estuarine zone is for the pro-
tection and maintenance of navigation."(49) Annual harbor and
dredging-and maintenance costs are highe,r.in the Gulf
of Mexico than in anylother region of the country in terms.of
cubic yards dredged annually (3.19 million yards),and annual
do.llar costs ($4.8 million).(50) Thus, while few doubt the
need'for navigation channels, it should.be recognized that
building and maintaining such channels bring about environmental
and economic costs being borne.by the public-.

Oil and gas access canals represent another Iform of water
transportation. These canals are created to transport
petroleum-exploration and production equipment'through wetlands.
It . . . In both Louisiana and Texas dredging'and filling assoc-
iated with oil and gas exploration has been the major cause for
estuarine physical modifications.(5*1) The Army Corps of
Engineers(52) estimates that 13 per cent of the annual 16.5
square miles net land loss in Louisiana results from dredging

170

associated with oil and gas operations. The environmental
effects of channelization associated with the Leeville and
West Bay fields (53) are*major@changes
in surface runoff., tidal exchange and water circulation.
These,.in turn, alter water chemistry and faunal and floral
characteristics.

Pipeline construction also involves dredging,., Either a
ditch (for pushing pipe) or a canal (for floating pipe-laying
barges) is dug to lay the pipeline.

Environmental effects of each of these transportation
activities are roughly the same; that is, they involve dredging
and the associated spoil banks. Environmental effects of water
transportation and pipelines are listed below.(54)

1. Channalization in estuaries can result in direct
destruction and loss of nursery areas from dredging, silting,
leveeing and erosion. Sessile (non-mobile) animals and bottom
organ�tms are killed or dislocated and marshes may be destroyed,
drained and significantly altered.

2. In the past, pipeline canals traversed marshlands
and embayments without regard for changes in the natural
drainage pattern. Also disregarded were resultant disruption
of currents in bays and water flow in marshlands and the direct
loss of animals and plants within the right-of-way. The long-
range effects of such canals involve accelerated erosion of
unstable marshes.

3. Indirect effects of channels (and their spoilbanks)
include: (a) changes in water cycling rates and volumes,
(b) salt and fre shwater intrusion, (c) indirect silting
considerable distances from the site of activity, resulting
from changes in the direction and velocity of currents and (d)
partial or total disruption of normal drainage patterns and
water.movements.

Commission Recommendations Cb ncerning Water Transportation and
PipelinEB

The Commission recommends that new pipelines be
laid in corridors and located along already disturbed
routes. Pipelines,must be monitored routinely to
insure that they remain at the original depth and
to insure quick detection of undesired movement.
There should be a state-level program for permitting,
inspecting, and review ing pipeline installation,

.171

construction, and removal of unburied pipelines
where feasible. A system of maintenance by the
company and removal of oil field equipment should
be instituted as part of the permitting pro-
cedure.

Multiple use of existing'pipelines and,rights-
of-way sh.ould.be en.Qouraged.@Exi-sting pipelines
should be used wherever possible and existing
canals should be used for any new pipeline
construction. In addition,, where it is feasible,
pipelines should be pushed through the marsh
in small ditches.rather than by digging big
canals for floating pipeline equipmeint.

The Commission recommends that new navigation
canals be restricted to those uses which are.
demonstrably of necessity. These canals should
be constructed so as to minimize environmental
impacts. The Office of Coastal Zone Management
must be involved in every-phase from inception
to completion of the navigation project and should.
(1) determine whether the navigation project
conforms to established rules, regulations,
criteria and standards, (2) review and pass upon
scientific and technical data of proponents and
opponents to the project with a view,toward its
objectivity and completeness, (3) issue state-
ments of technical material in terms under-
standable by the,general public and (4) provide
a regional overview to evaluate regional and
cumulative.impacts.,

The Louisiana Department of Public Works,
the Highway Department and private industry
serving the offshore.oil and gas industry in
cooperation with.state universities should
begin studies to determine the feasibility of
using surface effect vehicles (air-cushion
vehicles and hovercraft) along with helicopters
to transport oil field and other equipment and
personnel through wetlands.

The Commission r-ecommends that-ports and super-
ports be confined to areas with-water depths
already sufficient for expected ship drafts. This
will minimize dredging and associated environ-
mental changes. Pipelines from any offshore port
must be buried, be in corridors and not cause
saltwater intrusion. Pipeline construction.
associated with s,uperports must not result in open
canals extending inland from the coast. In addition,
the impact on the landscape must be minimized with

172

adequate provision for esthetics.: Any facilities
supporting offshore superport activities, or
ancillary residential or commercial development
resulting from construction of the superport must
be.in conformity with,a'state approved coastal
zone management program.

The commission recommends that the Office
of Coastal Zone Management promulgate@regulations.
requiring that prominent spoilbanks be avoided,
both above and below water, in open waters such
as streams., bays, lakes, etc... with penalties for
non-compliance.

The Commission recommends that construction
agencies initiate pilot projects for,testing the
feasibility of using dredging spoils to build new
land'in suitable areas where erosion is occurring.
Pilot projects utilizing other innovative methods.,
of handling spoils should also be initia ted.

b. HighwaSrs a,r d. Other R oadways

Availability of land for development is related closely to
the problem of accessibility. If land is readily accessible
by some means of transportation, it is available for develop-
ment. Thus, "Transportation, as a service system, is an
instrumental factor in the development of land uses."(55) Since
highways allow for the greatest movement of people, they are
extremely instrumental in dictating land use patterns. it
has become increasingly clear that where the highways go,
also go people and industry. A publication of the Department
of Housing and Urban Development notes that interstate high-
ways." . . will affect future urban growth patterns in ways
and to extents not adequately recognized by policymakers."(56)
Interstate highways are serving as.the spine on which new
development is occurring.

"Transportation is but one element in the physical system.
It is the skeleton which shapes the physical form of the .- '
region."(57) This quote from the A. D. Little study of trans-
portation planning in New Orleans brings home the relationships
between highway planning and the future growth of an area.
Thus, highways are a management tool and their placement and
design should be viewed in this light. Expansion of industry
and urbanization into wetlands can, in large measure, be traced
to highway systems which grant access to the area.

173

Placement of highways -can be an important tool in
managing growth by directing it into areas which are suitable
for additional growth. Wetlands are not as.suitable for
growth as some other areas because of the potential adverse
impacts on fish and wildlife resources., the increased costs
of building and maintaining structures and services'on
organic peaty soils and the subsidence and drainage problems.

If a highway must go into onacross a delicate ecological
area, it should be designed with the needs of the social and
natural environment in mind so that its impacts are minimized.
An example of such a design is the-section of Interstate 10
between Jefferson Parish and LaPlace, Louisiana. The highway
is elevated on pilings and interferes marginally, if at all,
with the flow of water and nutrients between Lake Pontchartrain
and the cypress swamps on the landside.

An example, of a bad design is illustrated by the following
quote from the National Estuarine Pollution Study:(58)

"The construction of a highway through the coastal
area of Louisiana and Mississippi effectively
separated theinland areas of the coastal marshes
from the outer marsh areas, completely altering
the circ-ulation patterns of the entire marsh system.
The result has been saltwater intrusion into the
outer marsh system (in the absence of the fresh-
water'inTlow from inland sources now prevented by
the highway) with the subsequent results of soil
alteration and eventual alteration of the marsh
vegetation."'

The essential difference in these two highways is one of
design. The former was elevated on pilings; the latter was
built on an artificial embankment.

Evacuation routes, on occasion, have become the center'of
controversy. Although legitimate needs exist to provide roads
for evacuation in times of danger, if should be recognized that
the routes often become access corridors for development. If
the route is planned for evacuation, it. should be designed for
that purpos.e alone.

174

Commission Recommendations Concerning Highways

The Commission'recommends that highways
follow natural highland corridbrs whenever
@ossible. Where they do not, they must@be built
in a manner to minimize environmental impact,
e.g..on pilings to minimize water flow dis-
ruption. In addition, interchanges or exits
must not beconstructed in environmentally
sensitive areas such as undisturbed,or un-
developed wetlands. In areas of scenic beauty,
.there should be facilities for "scenic -outlooks., tv
with descriptive signs explaining the pertinent
features of the landscape. These "scenic outlooks"
must be compatible with the environment.

In the past, evacuation routes have served
as access for development although they were
built primarily as escape routes from 'storm
surge. Viewed in this light, the routes increase
the danger of flood damage to people by causing
greater population movement,into areas which are
flood prone. The Commission recommends that
construction of evacuation routes be restricted
severly so as to benefit those people clearly
endangered bec ause of living in a f-lood-prone area.
New highways in the coastal zone sh@ould be high
enough to avoid early flooding which would make
them inoperative before the major portion of the
storm hits. Where necessary, existing roads should
be upgraded but kept in the same roadway for use
by residents.

c. Air Transportation.

Airport site selection potentially has the most significant
impact.on wetlands. With the,majority of the population living
close to.the coastal zone., the demand for air travel and
airports has prompted proposals.for jetports in wetland areas
e_g.@ in Lake Pontchartrain and the Florida Everglades. Because
large airports cover large acreage and the indirect, but
related, effects of-access highways to the airport can have
substantial effects on wetlands environments, airport sites
should be considered carefully. The concept of airports which
serve regions rather than a single city is gaining in acceptance.

175

Commission Recommendations Concerning Airports

Major new airports-should be excluded from
water, wetlands, swamp and marsh*sites. They
should.be built on high ground in upland areas
or on other natural high elevations.' Concurrent
with airport planning, there should be land-use
.planning for development acc,ompanying the airport.
The development should be planned to complement
the airport and blend in with-the area. Wherever
,possible, rapid transit should be part of the
airport plan so as to reduce reliance-on the auto-
mobile and provide better access. This concept
is especially applicable to the regional airport
being considered for the area between Baton Rouge
and New Orleans.

8.. Future Industrial Growth

The Commission has reviewed several aspects of'future
industrial growth and its relationship to wetlands. The
complexity of the subject prevents detailed analysis at this time.

a. 'Industrial and Power Plant Siting

The siting of power generating plants has aroused,contro-
versy across the country. Several power plants are being planned
for Louisiana, some of them in the coastal zone. At present,
Louisiana has no policy regulating the location of power plants.

As-an alternative to locating industry in the coastal zone,
it has been suggested(59) that industrial complexes be situated
on waterways in upland areas. These complexes woluld have the
corresponding necessary transportation systems, pollution
control systems..closed water cycle systems, space, area, etc.,
necessary for efficient operation. An advantage, if the density
of industry became high enough, would be centralized pollution
control systems, water recycle systems,. etc., for all the
industries to use. The other principal advantage would be that
the industrial complex could be situated on inland waterways,
where they would be more compatible with the environment. Near
the industrial complex would be "people cities," within reach
of the complex by sound transportation systems, where workers
would live.

176

Commission Recommendations Concerning Power Plants

The Commission recommends that the state,
through the appropriate agencies, establish
a state policy for siting power plants. The
Commission further recommends that: (1) new
power plants not be situated where the heat
from the plant would adversely affect estuarine
areas, e.g., on low volume streams; (2) power
plants in areas with brackish or saline waters
have condenser systems in tandem so that one
can be utilized while the other is being cleaned,
thus enabling them to operate on an on-off basis
and to eliminate the use of harsh chemicals in
condenser waters to prevent growth of marine
organisms; (3) existing and future federal and
state regulations concerning effluents from
power plants be vigorously enforced; and (4) hot
water effluents from power plants be used
innovatively as a heat source for aquaculture,
residential heating, and so forth.

b. Diversification

A current concern within Louisiana is the state's policy
regarding industrial growth, the tax base,'and employment, as
oil reserves in,Louisiana territory become depleted. Revenues
derived from petroleum production are beginning to decline with
further decreases in sight as production,moves farther off-
.shore.(60) Many knowledgeable observers have urged officials
of the state to attempt to diversify the state's industrial
base so that the effect of the decrease of any one activity will
be minimized.

Commission Recommendations Concerning, New Industries

The Commission recommends that the state make
a determined effort to diversify and expand its
industrial and economic base. To accomplish this,
the Louisiana Department of Comme'rce and Industry
or other agencies should (1) develop a program to
identify the kinds of commercial enterprises related
to Louisiana's indigenous living resources within
the coastal zone,, (2) identify manufacturing
facilities related to or dependent upon a superport
development,.and (3)-institute a program to maximize
diversification of industry to those not necessarily
dependent upon-mineral resources, insuring compatibility
with the environment to the maximum extent possible.

177

B. Coastal Zone Management

Coastal zone management has two major components, which
can be viewed separately although they are necessarily
complementary--(l) long-range planning and research and
(2) day-to-day management coupled.with applied planning.

Long-range planning and research is necessary to develop
an overview of coastal zone resources use to 'enable govern-
ment to make better policy decisions. Basic data which
provide the scientific and technical base for t,he planning
process must be rendered-by long-term research programs in
universities or research institutes. - I I

Day-to-day management is necessary so that the business
of coastal zone resource use can proceed orderly. Applied
planning can help the resource manager make wise decisions by
furnishing the decision maker the best information available.
Applied planning is, in turn, technically supported by short
term., timely, solution-oriented research conducted,by the
managing agency, not-for-profit organizatlons and others.

1. Long-Range Planning and Research

Long-range planning can produce insights into resource
allocations necessary for maximizing benefit& and minimizing
costs to the people 6f the state. Some of the components af
long-range planning are examined below.

a. Intrinsic Suitability

The coastal zone of Louisiana contains many different kinds
of landscape, e.g., swamp, marsh, open water, natural levees,
prairies and highlands. Each of these types of terrain is suited
for some kinds of uses and unsuited for other.s. Determination
of the best uses for any area results from studying the'natural
physical characteristics, e.g., soil type, elevation, rainfall
flood probability, foundation conditions, etc., of thearea.
After data relating to physical characteristics of an area are
-collected and plotted onmaps, recommendations about the most
suitable uses of an area are made. Then, color-coded maps which
reflect these recommendations can be prepared for all planners,
public or private. The process, called intrinsic suitability
mapping, is being used in many states, including Florida, Texas
and, to some extent-, Louisiana.. Decisions aided by such a process
normally results in-increased benefits and minimized costs.

b. Cumulative Effects

An important function of long-range planning is to
determine the aggregate or cumulative effects of many small,
seemingly isolated, projects or actions on ecosystems. An
individual project may have little impact on the ecosystem
while hundreds of such projects may have an overwhelming
impact. Yet the projects are permitted one at a time over a
period of years. The resource manager may have no reason for
restricting any single project since he cannot foresee the
cumulative- affect. For this reason,.long-range planning must
develop mechanisms for predicting and anticipating cumulative
effects on an ecosystem basis. Rarely does one of anything,
such as an oil well, industrial installation or housing
development, have a measurable adverse impact on the whole'
ecosystem; rather it is the cumulativeeffects of all these
actions which are hard to measure and perhaps most destructive.

As a remedy to the problem, competent and well-informed
people have requested a moratorium on selected activities inithe
coastal zone until we learn how to manage it. Other states
(e.g., Texas in the case of the sale of their state-owned
submerged lands and California in the case of dredging in their
estuaries) have imposed moratoria in their coastal zones.
Injunctive procedures (like those which caused the cancellation
of the sale of oil leases in tracts offshore from Louisiana in
1971) might result in a moratorium in Louisiana's coastal zone
if the state does not resolve the conflicts between coastal

resource users.

Commission Recommendations Concerning Cumulative Impact of
"'Projects

The Commission recommends that the appropriate
state agencies responsible for long-range planning
and coastal zone management consider the cumulative
or aggregate effect of all projects and activities
planned for the-coastal zone and determine how many
can be completed without adversely. affecting the
coastal ecosystem. When the point is reached such
that additional projects or activities will
irreversibly alter the ecosystem then projects should
be reevaluated and reasonable limits to growth in
wetland areas sould be set.

179

C. Transportation Planning

Currently, transportation investment decisionsare made
by independent single-mode agencies or special districts at
the state, regional and local levels. The State Highway .
Department has an assignment with a single purpose--highway
construction. The existence of many such single@mode agencies
hampers the effective integration of transportation planning
with other community planning.and hinders coordination of the
,various modes. Regional planning agencies, which in theory'
are responsible for developing area-wide transportation
plans as part of their comprehensive-planning process, have
been largely ineffective because of.a shortage of funds for
@planning, and a lack of authority to implement plans they
develop.

As the economic.) social, environmental, and energy
costs of automobiles mount, demands for mass transit become
more insistent, especially in urban areas. Proposals have
been made for some modes of mass transportation b,etween Baton
Rouge and New Orleans and between New Orleans and the.area
.north of Lake Pontchartrain but these are not even in the
planning stage. The State Planning Office notes: "It is
probable that New Orleans will also ultimately look to mass
transit solutions because this city has built-in restraints to
a free flowing highway system, in the form of its many water
barriers."(61)

Commission Recommendations Concerning Transportation Planning

The Commission.reco.mmends that a state
Department of Transportation Planning be created
and that this department, in coordination with
and subject to approval of the Louisiana Coastal
Resources Commission and other appropriate agencies,
develop a continuous comprehensive, state master
transportation plan for Louisiana, analyzing a 11
modes of transportation, with primary emphasis on,
development of an integrated mass transit system
for major metropolitan areas, such plans to become
a part of any and all comprehensive state or
regional planning. The*"State Planning Officel.s
current sfatewide transportation study could
provide the basis for such a plan. The,Departme.nt
.of Transportation Planning should have a section
to plan for and inve stigate the feasibility of rapid
transit in Louisiana.

1`8 0

In addition, the Departm ent of Transportation
Planning would provide state-level policy guidance
and expertise for transportation agencies and
regional planning bodies. -In turn, regional and
metropolitan planning agencies should include long-
term objectives as well as annual project plans
in their transportation programs and be specific
in justifying the projects they propose.

Further, the State Highway'Department and
other agencies involved in highway construction
and planning should plan highways on a comprehensive
(and regional) basis, using comprehensive,plans
which interrelate 'all modes of transportation.

The Department of Transportation Planning.
could be established in several ways'- (1) as a
subdivision of the Louisiana State Planning Office,
(2) as an interagency council which would include
members of,all transportation agencies in the state
and (3) as a cabinet level Department of Trans-
portation Planning.

d. Key Facility Land Use,Planning

Key facilities are large installations which serve to
generate additional growth. Examples include airp@@rts,-ports
and superports, industrial plants, electrical generating plants
and large recreational facilities. Because the installations
generate growth, they function as a nucleu's for further expansion.
If the expansion iS unplanned, it may detract from the facility.

Commission Recommendations Concerning Key Facilities

The Commission recognizes that secondary
or ancillary development which follows a key
facility, such as an airport or a superport,
can have long-term impacts greater than the
impacts from the key facility itself.

For this reason., the Commission recommends
that land-use planning for the area around the
key facility proceed simultaneously with key
facility planning.

181

e. Open-Space Planning

Open space refers to undeveloped areas such as parks,
green belts, etc., which are left relatively undisturbed,for
recreational and aesthetic purposes. In an urban setting,
they provide a respite and an alternative to the glass,
steel and concrete of the city. In a rural setting, open
space can be the basis of a state park system.

Commission Recommendations Concerning Open Space

The Commission recommends that an open-
space state-level policy be adopted and notes
that a well-designed, open-space program can be
a key to resolving major land-use conflicts.
If implemented with vigor, such a program could
preserve lands to supply resource needs, insure
maintenance of public safety by preventing
development of geologically or environmentally
hazardous areas, help meet recreational demands,
halt urban sprawl, provide direction for urban
growth, and serve to implement sound planning
principles more easily.

More specifically, the Commission recommends
that:

1. The state adopt an open-space land-use
p6licy by executive order or legislative decree.
This policywould formulate criteria to guide an
open-space program, delineate areas of responsi-
bility at different levels of government, outline
broad categories of land-use which should be
preserved,and e@stablish priorities for open-
space preservation.

2. The Office of S@tate Planning prepare, as
soon as possible, a State Open--Space Plan, which
will do the.following:

a. Classify state lands into open-
space categories,by utilizing
environmental considerations.

b. Indicate those areas which should
remain as open space.

182

C. Designate lands sufficiently
important to the state to require
direct and immediate action to
protect or preserve them.

d. Outline a program and financial
requirements necessary to implement
the plan.

Local or regional planning and governing
bodies should adopt open- ispace zoning ordinances to
include provisions such as those in No. 2 above,
and insure full enforcement of them.

f.. Lake-Pontchartrain Planning

Lake Pontchartrain, the state's largest lake, is unique in
that it is also part of an estuary and serves the recreational
needs of a large urban area on its shores. It is of added
value because of shell and sand dredging and mineral extraction.-
Many pressures prevail for use and development of the lake,
wit'h dozens of projects planned, proposed or executed. Currently,
the State Land Office,has receivedapplications to dredge and
fill parts of the lake for reclamation purposes.

Despite a 'general constitutional Provision prohibiting the
state from transferring titles to state-owned waterbottoms,
there is at least one exception, in -that some of the parishes
bordering on Lake Pontchartrain have the constitutional right
to acquire title to acreage in the lake through the reclamation
process. At present, proposals have been made to fill portions
of the lake touching Jefferson and St. Charles parishes. Each
of these,proposals must be approved ultimately by permit from
the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers before dredging and filling
can begin, and adoption of an acceptable environmental impact
.statement must prebede.issuance of such a permit.
It is conceivabl@e, of course,, that a Corps of En gineers
permit would not be issued in a given instance. Uevertheless@
the Commission feelathat legal measures which give right (:@f
reclamation to Parishes bordering on the lake may not be in the
best interest of the state and may contribute to abuses of the
lake as a natural resource.

183

Commission Recommendations Concerning Lake Pontchartrain and
Other Louisiana Lakes

The Commission recommends that the Coastal
Resources Commission be authorized to inventory
and study, on a continuing basis, all uses of the
lake by man and to set a limit, from time to time,
on the amount of dredging 'and fill-Ing which can
occur in the lake. In this way-, the enviroruiiental
viability, biological productivity, and recreational
usage of the lake can be maintained indefinitely
for the citizens of Louisiana.

The Commission further recommends that all
Louisiana lakes which have been surveyed and
meandered, are close to heavily populated areas,
are used for recreation, and have waterbottoms
owned by the state, receive similar consideration
in order that maximum benefit from use of Louisiana's
lakes can be derived with the least environmental
damage.

g. Basic and Long-Term Research

Long-range planning must be supported by research which
provides (1) a fundamental understanding of complex coastal
zone ecosystems and (2) valid techniques for predicting ,
economic and environmental impacts, singly and in concert, of
a diversity of activities and developments proposed by man.
None of these capabilities or goals can be achieved without know-
ledge obtained through research and sufficient numbers of well-
trained personnel to implement and conduct needed activities.
The Commission believes that the present level of knowledge con-
cerning Louisiana's coastal zone, and the number of trained
personnel actively engaged in well-organized or focused marine and@
coastal programs are totally inadequate to satisfy public needs.

Universities have the capacity to take a long-range-and com-
prehensivQ lock at coastal and marine problems, conduct thorough
analyses of available data and maintain.awareness of scientific
and technological advances. Although universities cannot and
should not make management decisions regarding,Louisianals
coastal zone or marine resources, they can and should document
needs and provide capabilities that will encourage state agencies
to implement and enforce programs essential for optimum develop-
mentof these areas and resources.

184

Commission Recommendations Concerning Long-Term Research

The Commission recommends that basic and
long-term research necessary for long-term
planning be provided by university-based
programs.

The Commission believes the National Sea
Grant Program provides an opportune mechanism to
aid the universities in this role and recommends
that every effort be made to maximize Louisianals,
role in this program.

2. Day-to-Day Management of the Coastal Zone

In a coastal zone such as Louisianals, with many uses
occurring daily and simultaneously, continuous.management is
essential for sustaining many resource uses.

a. Permitting, Surveillance and Enforcement

Daily management of the coastal zone involves handling permit
applications, surveillance of all coastal zone operations and
enforcement of laws and regulations.

Permit applications received by the manager will cover a
range of activities from the dredging of small ditches to the
construction of vast navigation or flood control projects and
will number in the thousands each year (at present the Louisiana
Wild Life and Fisherie@, Commission receives approximately 2,200
permit applications per year). Each of the applications will
require study, a knowledge of the area under consideration,
.possible modifications to the applicant's plans and a yes or no
decision. To make the best decision, the manager will need maps
which show the resources and physical, setting of the area. He
will also need to be able to predict the effect of the action,
if permitted, and suggest necessary changes to the proposed-
prclect. This will require, in some cases, field personnel
familiar with the area and b,oats and light airplanes to provide
access in areas where there are no roads.

Once an action or project has received a permit to proceed,
it will be necessary to monitor the progress of the project

185

to ensure that all rules and regulations are comniled with.
In addition., routine daily surveillance of the coastal zone.
will ensure that no unpermitted or unregulated acuivities
-cause unnecessary modifications. ..Surveillance will also require
field personnel and the necessary means of access to the coastal
zone, i.e., boats and airplanes.

The enforcement of laws, rules and regulations is the
third major facet of the manager's daily responsibility. This
is a necessary part of management and gives weight and meaning
to permitting and surveillance. Enforcement requires close
surveillance of permitted activities-and is essential to
good management.

The day-to-day decisions of the management authority must
be timely and based on sound technical and managerial principles.
Some of the principles and the ways in which they are developed
are discussed bt-:low.

b. Applied Planning.and Short-Term Research

Applied planning is short-range, solution-oriented and is
designed to aid the decision-maker in matters affecting daily
resources management. This type of planning often involves
creating map displays of available resources, living and non-
living, so that decision-making is facilitated and the effects
of decisions can be assessed rapidly.

Applied planning is, in turn, supported by short term,
timely, solution-oriented research which provides the technical
base for planning and ensures that management decisions are
based on sound scientific,evaluation. Applied research is
carried out best under the direction of the resources manager
because only he is aware of his informational needs This implies
that short-term research personnel should be housed in the
same working area as the manager.

Commission Recommendati-ons Concerning Short-Term Research

The Commission recommends that in matters
lacking sufficient'research, the Office of Coastal
Zone Management conduct adequate short-term research
programs to assure efficient resources management.

186

c. Value of Wetlands

Making management decisions requires that the true value
of viable wetland's be measured against the true value of a
proposed project or action. In this way, management decisions
serve the public interest.

Assessing economic values of viabl e wetlands is extremely
important since the enormous recreational.,, commerciall and
sports fisheries, and the general life support values of the
living resources of the coastal zone are related directly to
its marshes, swamps and waters., However, the difficulty of
translating the values of natural or undeveloped areas into
monetary terms has hampered severely efforts to protect the
living resources of the coastal zone. For instance, although
recreation is recognized as a legitimate land use, it is'
difficult to place a cash value on the aesthetics of an
unspoiled wooded area or natural lake.

On the other hand..cost accounting techniques' for
industrial, commercial and residential development'are well-
established. There is nearly universal acceptance of valuation
techniques which show the cash value of those @articular
management alternatives. A method must be developed for
assessing the true value of wetlands to Louisiana. For example,
a technique which-places a monetary value on societal usage
can be an important aid in land use management. Tidal marshes
or wetlands are lands where the real beneficial values accrue
some distance from the marsh itself. Scientists, for' instance,
have estimated that considerably more than half of the total
production of organic matter in a Gulf Coast estuary originates
in the surrounding marshes. These estuaries serve as a nursery
ground for most important coastal fish and shellfish., Thus.,
coastal and sport fisheries are dependent on a viable and
productive marsh as an integral part of the estuarine system.
This is not the only valuable function of an undisturbed marsh
but it is an important one. Even though the marsh may be
privately owned, the production of that marsh does not, at
present, accrue directly to the owner, but it may be necessary
for the survival of commercial fishermen many miles away.

In testimony at the Morgan City hearing of the Commission,
the Louisiana Wild Life and Fisheries Commission noted that
"sport fishing and hunting combined provide over 9 million
recreation efforts annually-with an annual value of nearly $92
million. At a 5.5 per cent interest rate, this represents a
capital investment of 1.67 billion dollars." 'They further
point out that in addition to thi's value for hunting and fishing,

187

Louisiana's coastal zone is of great value for other outdoor
recreation, such as boating, nature study-, bird-watching and
photography, but that this value-has not b'een assessed in
dollars. These figures tend to indicate thatthe recreational
value of the coastal zone is exceptionally high.

Commission Recommendations Concerning the Value of Wetlands

The Commission recommends that all federal
or state agencies or special districts of the
state, in pursuing any activity which would
alter, disturb or destroy acreages of wetlands,
include as a cost of the project (to be weighed
against benefits), the realistic value of an acre
of wetland. Environmental impact
statements should contain an accurate assessment
of costs and benefits of the project. The
evaluation should include, but not necessarily
be limited to the following:

1. All values of the wetlands, including
but not limited to, fisheries production, oyster
production, water quality improvement, life
support value and potential fisheries production,
should be included in evaluating the worth of
an acre of wetlands.

2. Dockside values.of fishery and shellfish
production should be multiplied by a factor
(generally 2.5 to 3-5) in'order to get true
estimates of the worth of the resource after the
value added for processing, canning and related
activities.

3. One procedure for evaluating wetland
acreage is to determine the annual yield in dollars
from each acre of wetlands and then determine what
quantity of money would be required to yield the
same monetary return per year at the average I I
percentage rate of return--usually 5 to 7 per cent.
Florida has found that its wetlands produce an
annual income to the state of approximately $400
per acre. Capitalized at an annual rate of 5 per
cent, this would mean each ac-re of marsh was worth
$85000. There is good reason to believe the value
of Louisiana marshes is comparable.

188

4. Another method for evaluating wetlands
involves determining the annual return in dollars
by using values like those listed in No. 1 above and
then multiplying these annual returns by the life
of the project (approximately 20 years). This
method has yielded values of wetlands ranging
from $4,000 per acre to $40,000 per acre.

The Commission furth er recommends that during
the planning stage of projects which will disturb
or destroy wetlands., research be initiated to
deterrhine the monetary value of the wetlands if
it is unknown.

d. Positive Programs

In addition to the regulato-2y and permitting aspects of
coastal zone management, the managing authority should sponsor
and encourage positive programs to benefit the state.

1. Mariculture

Mariculture holds great promise as a new, labor-intensive
industrial enterprise which could be compatible with and
supportive of Louisiana's coastal zone. However, at present,
this potential is largely untapped.

Commission Recommendations Concerning Mariculture

The Commission recommends a state policy
which encourages active pursuit of new industries,
mariculture, for example, related to Louisiana's
unique environment. Pilot projects exploring the
possibility of enhanced oyster, shrimp, crab and
fin-fish production should be started with state
or federal funding. Developing markets for
under-fished species would raise fish industry
income. For example, bluefish and crabs are in
abundance in Louisiana but are under-utilized.

The Commission recommends that the Office
of Coastal Zone Management, in conjunction with
the Louisiana Sea Grant Program and other
university programs and with the Louisiana Wild
Life and Fisheries Commission, thoroughly evaluate

189

the economic potential of mariculture and
initiate projects designed to evaluate
the feasibility of various types of mari-
culture.

The Commission recommends that mariculture
operations utilize existing waterbottoms or
regularly flooded lands (e.g., rice farms)
rather than large areas of biologically
.Productive marshlands. In this way, mari-
culture represents a net gain in production
and not merely utilization of already
productive resources. It should be noted
that cage culture at the present time is
illegal in Louisiana, but some forms of cage
culture could be legalized and regulated.

The Commission recommends that the Office
of Coastal Zone Management sponsor studies-
investigating the use of certain canals such
as pipeline canals and access canals which
could be manipulated for m@_-,ltiple uses. Many
of these canals which are closed at one or
both ends with dams or weirs are clear,.
undisturbed by boat traffic, and highly
,productive. If accessible., these canals could
function as sources of recreational fishing
or areas suitable for mariculture.

The Commission does not recommend leasing
of public water columns and/or water surface to
individuals except for raft or cage culture. Water
surface should not be fenced off from the general
public. Impounding for@mariculture areas currently
accessible to the public would result in a decrease
in access for recreation in the coastal zone.

The Commission recommends that water control
structures be utilized to in,crease biological
production. An example would be weirs at the
opening of pipeline canals where they cross water
bodies. This arrangement is highly beneficial if
it allows ingress and egress of fish and crustacean
larvae.

190

2. Water Resource Programs

Water resource management is a positive management program
areas in which the Office of Coastal Zone Management should
assume an interest. Two of these Drograms are of special
interest. (For further discussion, see Chapter Six, Section Four).

a. Freshwater Introduction

The estuaries are becoming more saline as saltwater,
aided by man-made channels, Intrudes from the Gulf. In the past,
saline water was pushed back by periodic flooding from the
Mississippi and other rivers. However, levees have reduced
substantially freshwater input into the es tuaries.

Freshwater introduction programs would allow Mississippi
River water to escape through or over the levee at various
spots to restore freshwater/saltwater balance in the estuary.
This probably would result in increased fisheries harvest.

b. Delta Building

In the past, the,Mississippi River built up new deltas at
the edge of the land mass. However, levees along the river
to its mouth are causing loss of the river's silt load off the
continental shelf.

Proposals have been advanced which call for judicious
cutting of levees at selected spots, away from all civilization,
allowing river water and sediments to flow to shallow bays and
build new deltaic land masses.

191

References for Chapter Four

1. "Louisiana Almanac," Gretna, La.: Pelican Publishing Co.,
(1973), PP. 188-189.:
2. S. M. Gagliano et al, "Geologic and Geomorphic Aspects of
Deltaic Processes, Mississippi Delta System," Part I,,Vol.
,I, (Feb.'20'.. 1970), Coastal Resources Unit Center for
Wetland Resources, LSU, Baton Rouge, La.

3. Ibid.
4. S. M. Gagliano et al, ",Controlled.Diversions in the
Mississippi Delta System: An-Approach to Environmental
Management," Report #8, (May-1971), Coastal Resources Unit.-,
Center for Wetland Rbsources, LSU, Baton Rouge, La.

5. Charles L. Schultz, "Setting National Priorities--the
1971 Budget," (1970),,pp. 165-6.

6. Gerald J. McLindon3 "National.Transportation Needs Study--
State of Louisiana," Par ;t-II3 Ch apter IV, La. State Planning
Office.

7. "Louisiana Superport Studies," Report #2, Center for
Wetland Resources, LSU-SO-72-05, P. 134.

8. At present it is debated whether the ocean is rising or
the continents subsiding; however, Dr. Steacey D. Hicks
@oP the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration has
detected a three-inch rise over the past eight years in the
ocean along the Maine-Virginia coast (3-1 ft./100 years).
"The New York Times" Sunday, July 16, 1972, P. 38., c-3,
s.l. See, also, Swanson'_, R. L. and Thurlow, C. I.
IT Recent Subsidence Rates Along the Texas and Louisiana
Coast as Determined from Tide Measurements," Journal of
Geophysical Research, Vol. 78, No. 15, at pp. 2665,2671.
7Ma-y 20, 1973).
9. "Soil Interpretations,",USDA, SCS 1969, pp. 8-14.
IfLouis,iana Gulf Coast Marsh Handbook," U.S. Department
of Agriculture SCS (Nove.mber,,1966). p. 2.12D
10.' "The Economics and Social Importance of Estuaries," EPA
and Batelle Memorial Institute (April 1971) PP. 30-31.

11. "The National Estuarine Pollution Study," Report of the
Secretary of Interior to Congress,'91st Congress, (March
25, 1970)3 pp. 201-3.

193

12. Ibid., p. 138.

13. "The Economic and Social Impo rtance of Estuaries,"
op. cit. p. E-3.

14. "Ground Water Resources and Requirements for Louisiana
1970-2000" Department of Public Works.Series II, Vol. II,
(Oct.31 1971), pp. 27-29.

15. Floyd L. Cort y, "Agriculture in the Coastal Zone of
Louisiana," Department of Agriculture Economics and
Agribusiness, #25, (June, 1972), pp. 13-14.

16. "Ground Water in Louisiana," Water Resources,Bulletin #1,
Department of Conservation, La. Geological Survey and
La. Department of Public Works, Baton Rouge, La.,
(August, 1@960), p. 44.

17. "Agriculture in the Coastal Zone of Louisiana", op. cit.

18. "The Present and Future Ground Water Supply of the B 'aton
Rouge Area" Bulletin #5 of the Louisiana Water Resources
Research Institute3 (February, 1970).

19. "Ground Water Resources and Requirements for Louisiana
1970-2000; Department of Public Works Series II, Vol. II,
(October, 1971), pp. 27-29.

20. "Water Resources Development (in Louisiana)," U.S. Army
Corps of Engineers, (1971), P. 112.

21. "The Effect of Channelization on the Environment" Hearing
before the Subcommittee on Flood Control--Rivers and
Harbors of the Committee on Public WorkS3 U-S' Senate3
(July 27, 1971).

22. Ibid.

23. "Ecological Factors Affecting Anadromous Fishes of Lake
Pontchartrain and its Tributaries," Louisiana Wild Life
and Fisheries Bulletin #9, (1970), p. 60.

24. "The National Estuarine Pollution Study," Report of the
Secretary of the Interior to Congress, 91st Congress,
.(March 25, 1970), p. 201

25. William E. OdUM3 "Insidious Alteration of the Estuarine
Environment3l' Transactions of the American Fisheries
Society, Vol. 99, No. 4, (October 1970), pp. 836-847.

lq4

26. "Hydrologic and Quality Characteristics of the Lower
Mississippi River," Technical Report, #5, U.S. Geolo gical
Survey and Department of Public Works, (197'0), p. 2.

27. "Industrial Pollution of the Lower Mississippi River in
Louisiana," U.S. EPA, Region VI, (April 1972).

28. Ibid.

29. Floyd L. Corty, "The Impact 'of Land Clearing and
Development on the Economy of a Rural Area in Louisiana,"
Department of Agriculture Economics and Agribusiness.,
LSU, D.A.E. Research Report #441.

30. "Hydrologic and Quality Characteristics of the Lower
Mississippi River.fl op. cit.

31. Letter from James K. McClellan, Food and Drug Officer,
(7/17/72). Food and Drug Ad.

32. "Draft Environmental Statement Crude Oil and Natura 1
Gas Production and Other Mining Operations in Navigable
@Waters Along the Louisiana Coast," U.S. Army Corps of
Engineers, New Orleans District, (March 31, 1972), P. 39.

33. "The National Estuarine Pollution Study," U.S. Department
of the Interior., (March 25, 1970), pp. 2420243.

34. "Draft Environmental Statement Crude Oil and Natural
Gas Production and Other Mining Operations in Navigable
Waters Along the Louisiana Coast," op. cit., pp. 47-48.

35. Ibid.

36. Mills and Culley,,"Toxicity of.Various Offshore Crude
Oils and Dispersants to Marine and Estuarine Shrimp,"
Proceedings of the 25th Annual Conference, S.E. Association
Game and Fish Commissioners, Charleston, S.C. (Oct. 17-
36. 20, 1971), pp. 642-650.

37. "Draft Environmental-Statement Crude Oil and Natural Gas
Production and Other Mining Operations in Navigable
Waters Along the Louisiana Coast" U.S. Army Engineer
District, New Orleans, (March 31, 1972), p. 28.

38. Ibid.

195

39. "Ecological Effe ct s of Pesticides on Non Target Species"
Executive Office of the President, Office of Science
and,Technology, (June, 1971), PP. 16-26.

4o. Reference 38, p. 27.

41. Hayne et al, "Pesticides in Estuaries," p. 1080.

42. Hood Donald, and Wiley, "Impingement of Man on the Oceans,,"
Interscience, (1971), p. 268.

43. "The Return of the Brown Pelican," The Louisiana Conservationist.,
(May-June 1971). La. Wild Life @Lnd Fisheries Commission.

44. "Study of Chlorinated Pesticides in Oysters and
Estuarine Environment of,the Mobile Bay Area," U.S.
Department of HEW, Public Health Service, (1969), pp. 4-5.

45. Quarterly Reports for the Bureau of Comm ercial Fisheries,
Biological Field Station, Gulf Breeze, Florida,
Unpublished, (1969)..

46.. IbiC..

47. "Notes on Estuarine Pollution with Emphasis on the
Louisiana Gulf Coast." Estuaries AAAS #83, (1967),
pp. 690-693.

48. "Report of the Secretary's Commission on Pesticides and
their Relationship to Environmental Health." Parts I
and II, U.S. Department of HEW, (December 1969), p. 9.

49. "The National Estuarine Pollution Study," U.S. De partment
of the Interior, (March 25, 1970), Pp. 136-137.

50. Ibid.

51. Reference 48, p. 138.

52. "Draft Environmental Statement Crude Oil and Natural Ga's
Production and Other Mining Operations in Navigable-
Waters Along the Louisiana Coast," U.S. 'Army Corps of
Engineers, New Orleans.District, (March 31,, 1972).

53. S. M. Gagliano, "Petroleum In dustry Dredging in the
Louisiana Coastal Zone." Coastal Studies Institute, La.
State University, (July, 1971).

196

54- Lyle-S. St. Amant, "The Petroleum Industry as It Affects
Marine Estuarine Ecblogy," Journal of Petroleum Tech-
nology, (April, 1972), pp. 288-9.

55. "The Comprehensive Plan for the State of Louisiana--
Transportation" prepared for the Louisiana Department
of Public Works, (July, 1965), p. 45a.

56. "Urban Decentralization Research.." Department of Housing
and Urban Development, (1971), p. 63.

57. Arthur D. Little, Inc., "A Review of Transportation
Planning in New Orleans," (April., 1967), P. I-1.
.0 58. "The National Estuarine Pollution Study," U.S. Department
of the Interior, (March 25, 1970)3 p. 285.

59. Gerald McLindon, Dean of the LSU School of Environmental
Design, presentation to the Advisory Commission
(May 31, 1972).

60. Robert Flaherty, Mid Continent Oil and Gas Association.,
presentation to the Advisory Commission (February 29, 1972).

61. "Comprehensive River Area Study," Louisiana Office of State
Planning, (1972), p. 12.

197

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CHAPTER FIVE

GOVERNING LOUISIANA'S COASTAL ZONE

The Need for a New Coastal Program

Because of the extensive wetlands and coastal waters
characteristic of Louisiana's coastal zone, proper manage-
ment practices are needed if Louisiana is to have an effective
program for the long-range, orderly conservation and
development of.its coastal resources. Research ' planning
and.management are neces Isary components of a new coastal zone
program.

The Commission-Is study of wetland and coastal water
problems has conc'luded that the coastal zone contains
exceedingly complex systems impacted,by a number of diff-
erent kinds of stresses--both natural and man-made. To
properly manage these areas and protect the living resources
which they support a full understanding of the nature and
effects of these stresses is needed. Research is a key to
this understanding and a critical part of an effective
coastal zone program.

Furthermore, various uses of coastal resources impact
other uses and these uses tend to be interrelated. For
example, waste from the production of mineral resources
may, under certain circumstances, Adversely affect fishing;
navigation development'may destroy animal habitats and
impede hunting opportunities; and urbanization of wetlands
may preclude recreational uses of these same wetlands. .
As a result of these interrelationships day to day decision-
making practices are needed which view coastal resource use
from the broadest possible perspective and provide a
mechanism for resolving conflicts between the uses of
coastal resources.

In the wetlands and coastal waters of Louisiana, rarely
is one of anything--whether it be an oil well, the location
of a particular industry, or a housing development-.-harmful
to the entire system. An individual project may have little
impact, while hundreds of such projects may have an over-
whelming impact. Thus, it is critical that mechanisms
and capabilities be developed to determine and assess the
aggregate or cumulative effects of many small and seemingly
isolated projects or actions on coastal zone ecosystems.
Research, coupled with long-range planning, is needed to
develop these mechanisms and capabilities.

199

Several of our coastal zone cities, particularly
metropolitan New Orleans, are currently experiencing pressures
to expand. Since in many instances these cities are ringed by
wetlands,, there is a tendency for expansion to occur into
these wetlands. Urban sprawl into wetlands is undesirable
because the soils often cannot support urban and residential
development and the wetlands cannot be protected completely
from floodwaters. Thus, in order to facilitate urban
expansion in a logical and planned fashion, there is a
great need for long-term planning and management practices
that can direct urban 'expansion and growth into land and
water areas intrinsically suited for such expansion and growth.
Long-range planning would lead to management practices
whereby heavy land uses such as for industry, commerce
and residential development can be limited insofar as
practicable, to corridors and other areas intrinsically
suited for development, instead of wetlands.

Hencel Louisiana needs a coastal zone program combining
aspects of research, management and planning.

The Commission's 1972 annual report, Louisiana Government
and the Coastal Zone--1972, found that Louisiana lacks clear
cut state policies as to how,coastal resources--air, water,
minerals, fish, wildlife, recreation, land--should be used
in future years. Consequently, the Commission found that
officials responsible for making complex decisions regarding
use of coastal resources are making those decisions in a
policy vacuum.

This "policy vacuum" exists because there is no existing
statutory authority for coastal zone or wetlands management.
Many state and federal agencies (e.g. U.S. Army Corps of
Engineers, U.S. Soil Conservation Service, Louisiana Wild
Life and Fisheries.Cbmmission,, State Land Office., Department
of Highways) make decisions regarding uses of the wetlands';
however., Louisiana has no established statutory policies,
standards, or criteria to ensure that these decisions are
made in furtherance of the long-range best interests
of the maximum number of people.

A corollary to the "policy vacuum" is the fragmentation
of traditional natural resource management activities.
Louisiana has statutes regulating most individual resources
(i.e. fish, agriculture, ground water, oil, etc.). However,
no statute regulates the interrelationships between the
uses of those various natural resources. There are no
procedures for resolving conflicts between these uses ? for
predicting or evaluating th'e social, economic, or environ-
mental impacts or cumulative impacts of major coastal
resources activities, or for integrating long-term research

200

findings and planning goals into the management process.
Consequently, agency decisions are made on an individual
and ad hoc basis with perhaps insufficient opportunity
to consider long-range values, the effect on other
beneficial uses of the coastal zone, and proper protection
of the wetlands .

With a fragmented resource agency structure operating
in a "policy vacuum" it would be difficult for the current
state agency structure to implement a comprehensive coastal
resources management policy. Each resource agency has its
own particular mission. No existing agency is equipped to
resolve conflicts between different user-groups. No one
agency has any clear responsibility for an overall coastal
zone program and hence, lines of accountability and respon-
sibiiity to the Governor, the Legislature, and the public are
obfuscated and often non-existent. Also, current research
efforts and planning activities for coastal resource
decision-making are decentralized and unorganized. What is
needed is a high-levelbody in state government with adequate
authority, funding, qualifications and information in
order to provide the basis for a systematic and well-
equipped coastal zone program.

A Recommended Institutional Arrangement (See Fig. 5-1)

The Commission,recommends a model institutional
arrangement it believes to be the most effective vehicle for
implementing its substantive recommendations. A draft
statute implementing this arrangement has been provided.

The draft statute establishes a coastal resource
policy by setting forth legislative findings and declarations,
criteria for decision making, and a permit system designed
to implement the findings, declarations and criteria. The
legislative findings and declarations, which set the theme
for the entire coastal zone program are as follows:

"The Louisiana Legislature finds:
The coastal zone of Louisiana is the most
valuable yet the most complex region of the state.
Coastal and marine resources, including living
resources., non-living resources, recreation.,
fish, wildlife, estuaries and water and land
resources., are of vital importance to the
people and economy of the State and there is
a genuine concern throughout the State for their
planned and coordinated development and protection.

Living resources of the coastal zone are
directly dependent upon viable marshes and swamps

201

LOUISIANA COASTAL ZONE PROGRAM

Coastal Resources Commission 7 - Interest Groups
(11 members) 3 - Agency Heads
1 - Local Government
(Varies with site
of CZ issues)

. . . ......... . ... . ..... ...... .
Office of Coastal
Zone Management3r- Long-Term Planning*
ILong-Term Research*

-Grant or deny -Propose goals, Assist CRC, manage-
permits priorities and ment and planning
-Monitoring and objectives to CRC components
Coordinate with other
-surveillance of
coastal zone state programs
-Enforcement -Create and use local
-Impact evaluation government advisory
of permit appli- committees
cations

*Recommended assignments (alternatives discussed in text)
Management - Louisiana Wild Life and Fisheries Commission
Planning - Office of State Planning
Research - Louisiana Sea Grant Program

Fig. 5.1

as integral parts of the estuarine systems.
Increasing uses of the coastal zone for industrial
and commercial development, water resources
development, recreation, tourism, urbanization,
and transportation are creating conflicts between
these uses. These conflicts, if not reconciled,
may diminish the natural capacities of the estuaries
to provide habitat for many species of marine
life and wildlife, produce nutrients essential
to estuarine-productivity, serve as a buffer
against flooding and erosion of highlands,
and aid in the assimilation of pollutants in the
coastal zone.

Development should not be prohibited in the
coastal zone. However, it is in the public
interest and general well-being of the people of
Louisiana and within the police power of the State
to establish the proper balance between development
and conservation.

The Legislature therefore declares:

That a planned, coordinated and concerted
program should be conducted by state government
in conjunction with local governments to prevent
the harm from uncoordinated and ill-planned
development of the state's coastal zone, both
public and private.

It is further declared that it is the policy
of the State of Louisiana to provide for the
systematic and regional management of the state's
coastal zone by planning for and encouraging all
reasonable and compatible uses and by discouraging
unreasonable and incompatible uses."

In order to implement this basic policy, the statute
establishes a permit procedure under which no person (broadly
defined as including any legal entity) shall make any use
of lands or waters within the state which may measurably alter
or adversely affect the coastal zone without first obtaining
a permit'. Before the Administrator can issue a permit, he
must conduct a thorough evaluation of the proposed use
fully considering a number of criteria, which criteria
further amplify the policies expressed by the legislative
findings and declarations. The criteria which must be
considered are as follows:

A. In evaluating applications for permits
for significant uses as defined by Section 2(H)
the Office of Coastal Zone Management and the

203

Coastal Resources Commission shall fully consider
all pertinent environmental, social, legal,
economic and othercriteria and the findings,
declarations and purposes expressed by Section 1
of this Act.

B. The following shall be discouraged:

1. Uses which would cause adverse effects on
living resources productivity, adverse ecological
effects, and other long-range adverse effects.

2. heavy industrial or commercial development
and urbanization which would cause the permanent
alteration of the natural characteristics of
estuarine systems or which would take place in
substantially undisturbed wetland areas.

3. Uses which would precipitate or induce
secondary impacts and developments which would
result in inconsistency with the criteria enum-
erated in this section or incompatible uses as
defined by Section 2(E).

4. Uses which would require additional flood
protection works-to be constructed in undisturbed
or substantially undisturbed wetlands.

5. Uses which would impose restrictions on
public access or use of recreational coastal
resources, unless the public access or recreational
use would be detrimental to the environment.

6. Uses which would unduly burden sewer and
,solid waste disposal facilities.

7. Uses which would take place on soils
intrinsically.ill-suited to adequately support
those uses.

Uses in areas where there are habitats
for rare or endangered species of wildlife, or
unique.or irreplaceable historical or archaelogical
sites., or aesthetic amenities particularly unique
to Louisiana's coastal zone.

C. The cumulative impacts of uses and proposed
uses on the estuarine systems shall be thoroughly
and specially considered. When the point is
reachedsuch that additional significant uses
will alter natural capacities of estuarine
systems, then additional significant,uses shall
be prohibited.

204

D. Economic effects ' including the number of
jobs created and the income which will be generated
by the wages and salaries of those jobs, the amount
of tax revenues potentially accruing to state
and local governments, and the need for-increased
governmental services to support the developments
shall be fully considered.

E. In addition to the statutory criteria
enumerated in subsections (A) (B) (C) and (D) of
this section, the Office of Coastal Zone Management
and the Coastal Resources Commission shall fully
consider all rules, regulations, criteria, and
standards promulgated by the Coastal Resources
Commission.

After the evaluations have been conducted and all of
the criteria have been fully considered, the Administrator
shall grant or deny the permit, impose conditions on the
granting of the permit or refer the matter to the Coastal
Resources Commission. He may deny the permit or impose
conditions upon the granting of the permit if he makes
a finding that the proposed use or the proposed use
without conditions would be inconsistent with the applicable
criteria and "incompatible." An "incompatible" use is
defined as one which either causes a major permanent
alteration of the natural characteristics of estuarine
systems or which significantly interferes with or precludes
other uses adjacent to or contiguous with the same geo-
graphical area.

The draft statute vests administrative and functional
responsibility in three different agencies (i.e. an office
of Coastal Zone Management, a long-term planning agency,
and a long term research 'agency) with ultimate authority,
responsibility, leadership, and coordinating functions
vested in'a comb 'ined inter-agency and private sector body
called the Coastal Resources Commission.

Coastal Resources Commiss*
ion

The Coastal Resources Commission would coordinate the
three functions--planning, management, research--and integrate
them into an overall Louisiana Coastal Zone Program. The
Commission would provide overall supervision, guidance,
direction, and decision making with respect to the Program.
The membership of the Commission would be represtentative of
private sector groups having interest in the coastal zone,
state agencies, and local governments. The Administrator of
the Office of Coastal Zone Management, the director of the

205

research agency, and the director of the planning agency
would beex-officio members of the Commission. In addition
the Governor would appoint, subject to Senate confirmation,
seven additional members who would be chosen, one each,
from the following interest groups: oil and gas, fisheries,
landowners, transportation, labor, agriculture and conser-
vation. The conservation member must be chosen for his
recognized leadership and interest in protecting the coastal
environment. In addition to the ten regular members of
the Commission,, with respect to each hearing the Commission
conducts on a contested permit application, the chief
officer of the local government where the proposed use
would take place would be an ad hoc member who would have
full voting rights with respect to that particular application.

In carrying out its broad mandate of supervision,
guidance,,direction, and decision-making with respect to
the Louisiana Coastal Zone Program, the Coastal Resources
Commission would have broad authority. This authority would
include:

--the promulgation of such rules, regulations,
criteria and standards as may be necessary to
properly manage the coastal zone,or appropriate
to comply with federal requirements.

--to hear and rule on contested permit applications
in an appellate-like procedure.

--the establishment of goals, priorities, and
objectives for the Louisiana Coastal Zone Program.

--budgetary.supervision of the three functional
agencies to ensure that financial allocations are
made in accordance with the goals, priorities,
and objectives of the Louisiana Coastal Zone
Program.

--acquisition or recommendation of acquisition of
interests in real property by donation, purchase.,
lease ir exchange, and utilization of the property
as beaches, sanctuaries, refuges., or other areas
necessary for coastal zone management.

--acquisition or recommendation of acquisition
of interests in real property by voluntary
means or eminent domain for the use as "coastal
and marine sanctuaries". A "coastal and marine
sanctuary" is narrowly defined as "research area
of limited acreage within the coastal zone of
Louisiana having characteristics unique in
relation to other areas or features of the

206

coastal zone of Louisiana and constituting, to
the extent feasible, a natural unit, which is set
aside for the purposes of scientific obser-
vation, research, and experimentation."

Furtherl in order to consolidate coastal resource
regulatory functions in the Coastal Resource Commission
and to achieve uniform resource policies in the coastal zone,
it is provided that no rules, regulations, criteria,,
standards, ordinances, or resolutions intended to have the
effect of law with respect to significant uses of the coastal
zone shall become effective unless approved by the Coastal
Resource.Commission.

Management--The Office of Coastal Zone Management

The Office of Coastal Zone Management would be
responsible for day-to-day management. The Office of
Coastal Zone Management would work under the supervision,
guidance, and direction of the Coastal Resources Commission
and would coordinate closely with the other two functional
agencies--the planning agency and the research agency.

The Office of Coastal Zone Management would be
.under the supervision and control of an administrator
employed under the Louisiana Civil Service Laws by the
Director of the agency to which the office is assigned
with the-advice and consent of the Coastal Resources Commission.
The administrator must have exceptional professional qualifi-
cations, expertise, and experience with regard to the
management of natural resources.

The primary responsibility of the Office of Coastal
Zone Management would be to receive, evaluate, and make
decisions regarding applications for permits for signif-
icant uses of lands or waters which measurably alter or
adversely affect the coastal zone.

In order to facilitate its work in making permit
decisions, the Office of Coastal Zone Management would be
authorized to conduct short-term planning and research;
to require modifications in proposed uses as conditions
to the granting of permits, including steps to'minimize
or mitigate adverse impacts of the proposed uses; to conduct
investigations and studies; to systematically monitor
and conduct surveillance of significant uses which have
been permitted to ensure that conditions of permits are
fully complied with; and to seek civil and criminal
enforcement measures for violations.

207

Th.e,Commission recommends that the Office
of Coastal Zone Management be attached to the
Louisiana Wild Life and Fisheries Commission.

The Wild Life and Fisheries Commission has been
Timanaging" the coastal zone for many years as an additional
responsibility beyond that of the management of specific
fish and wildlife resources. This has been done without
specific statutory authority or guidance. Considerable
experience, expertise and capabil@_ties in understanding the
functioning of estuarine systems has been developed for
fisheries management--types of gear, dates for fishing
seasons, etc. Several of the resource scientists within
the Louisiana Wild Life and Fisheries Commission are nationally
recognized experts in coastal and marine biology and ecology.
The Commission believes that this expertise should be fully
utilized in any coastal zone management program.

In addition, the Louisiana Wild Life and Fisheries
Commission has currently, a coastal.zone surveillance and
monitoring-program. The field personnel, equipment and
procedures of the fisheries management and coastal zone
management efforts should complement each other. The
Enforcement Division of the Louisiana Wild Life and
Fisheries Commission is subdivided into regional districts--
three of-which, and part of the-fourth, are within the coastal
zone. Each district contains field,personnel operating
in enforcement,, biological, administrative and supervisory
capacities.

In addition,, the Louisiana Wild Life and Fisheries
Commission has several programs, such as water pollution,
biologic research, operation of fish and game preserves,
leasing,of state-owned waterbottoms for oyster culture,
etc., which should be closely integrated with the work of
the Office of Coastal Zone Management to implement an effec-
tive coastal resources management policy.

Alternative Agency Assignments for Management

Although the Commission recommends that the Office
of Coastal Zone Management be a:ttached to the Louisiana
Wild Life and Fisheries Commission., there are Alternatives.
The State Land Office is one example. The Land Office is
concerned with maintaining records regarding public lands,
granting rights-of-way across state-owned lands, collecting
royalties from mineral production . etc. The Land Office's
lack of experience in water quality management, plus the
absence of scientific and field personnel within the
agency, would require an expensive and disruptive overhaul
of the operations of the Land Office, should management
responsibilities be given to this agency.

2o8

A secondalternative is' the Department of Public
Works'. The Department of Public 'Works is responsible for
water resources'development, navigation. improvement and,
flood control. As such,- the Department is not a regulatory
agency, but a development and engineering services agency.
Since the management component of the coastal zone program
would be essentially regulatory, there may be a conflict of
interest between the regulatory and development functions
should the Office of Coastal Zone Management be, attached to
the Department of Public Works. In addition,, the Department
of Public Works does not presently have the personnel or
equipment@to evaluate the impacts of proposed coastal zone
uses on fish, wildlife, estuarine productivity, and
environmental quality'.

Assignment of management responsibility to the Conser-
vation Department is a third alternative. The Conservation
Department's primary responsibility is to enforce rules
and regulations concerning the production of mineral
resources within the state. The management of other
coastal zone resources--estuaries, fish and wildlife, recrea-
tion, water quality etc., may conflict with their duties
in managing the conservation of oil and gas resources.

A fourth alternative is to vest management responsibility
in local governments. Under the Commission's recommended
institutional arrangement, local governments and state govern-
ment will work together in a cooperative fashion and authority
will not be totally vested exclusively at either level. How-
ever, for important legal and policy reasons that are more
fully discussed subsequently, the Commission believes that the
principal management decisions should be made at the state level.

Long-Range Planning

The second functional division of the Louisiana
Coastal Zone Program, long-range planning, would be concerned
with the broader questions of coastal zone resource policy
that transcend day-to-day regulatory decision making. The
planning function of the coastal zone program would
recommend long-range coastal zone management goals, objectives,
and priorities to the Coastal Resources Commission, to the
Office of Coastal Zone.Management, to the Legislature, and
to the Governor.. This function would recommend research needs,
ynthesize research and other data into a form usable by
the Office of Coastal Zone Management and integrate long-
s

range coastal zone goals, objectives and pr.ioritie's with
other goals, objectives and priorities of the State of
Louisiana.

209

Under the draft statute the long-range planning function
would seek the active participation of local and regional
agencies in coastal zone planning by creating local govern-
ment advisory committees composed of representatives of
regional planning commissions and/or local governments. In
addition., full public participation in coastal zone planning
would be promoted. The planning function would continually
assess the Coastal Resources Commission's program and recommend
changes where appropriate to conform with federal guidelines.
In so doing, they would develop a list of all permissible uses
of lands and waters of the coastal zone, a continuing inventory
of the resources and land and water uses of the coastal zone
and a set of broad guidelines on priority uses for specific
geographic areas within the coastal zone.

The Commission recommends that the
Office of State Planning be responsible for
long-range planning under the Louisiana
Coastal Zone Program.

The Office of State Planning is responsible for overall
state-wide planning and would be in an ideal position to
properly integrate coastal zone planning goals and
priorities with other state planning goals and priorities.
Since the Office of State Planning is a part of the Executive
Office of the Governor, executive leadership and direction
.for the state's coastal zone program-would be facilitated.
Also, the-Governor would be in a better position to receive
continuous inputs as to the progress of the state's coastal
zone program.

Although the Commission has recommended that coastal
zone planning be the responsibility of the Office of State
Planning, an alternative would be to assign the responsibility
to regional planning commissions. The Commission believes
that regional planning commissions have an extremely important
role to play in coastal zone planning, but that ultimate
responsibility for planning must reside at the state level
so that coastal zone goals and objectives can be integrated
with other state-wide goals and objectives, and the statets
coastal zone program can receive state-level and executive
leadership and'direction. Regional planning commissions,
however, have done considerable planning and have collected
much information and data. This information should be
used by the Office of State Planning. The use'of advisory
committees to receive input 'from regional planning pommis-
sions and local governments on an ongoing basis should
encourage the development of a cooperative state-regional-
local coastal. zone 11planning process".

210

Research

The third function of the Louisiana Coastal Zone
Program would be lo'ng-term research.

The Commission recommends that the long-
term research function be carried out by the
Louisiana Sea Grant Program.

The Louisiana Sea Grant Program is a university based and
federally supported (two-third federal, one-third state)
research, advisory service., and educational program concerned
with coastal and marine resources. Federally, it is adminis-
tered by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
(NOAA) of the United States Department of Commerce. On
the state level, it is administered through the Louisiana
State University (Baton Rouge) Center for Wetland Resources.
The Louisiana Sea Grant Program, however, is a statewide
program in which any university in the state can parti-
cipate, funds permitting. In the past, Nicholls State
University, the University of Southwestern Louisiana
and Northwestern State University have participated.

The Louisiana Sea Grant Program has worked very
closely with a number of agencies that have substantive
coastal zone responsibilities, including the Louisiana
Wild Life and Fisheries Commission, the Office of State
Planning, the Superport Authority, and others.

The Louisiana Sea Grant Program is an ongoing
program with many years of multi-disciplinary research
and advisory service experience. Under the Commission's
recommended institutional arrangement, the Sea Grant
Program wauld be primarily responsible for coordinating
long-term research under the general guidance of the Coastal
Resources Commission. The Commission would ensure that
the research'was compatible with and responsible to planning
and management needs and objectives. Thus, the federal
program,-and the financial support available from it could
be.utilized in 'a positive fashion as anintegral part of
the state's overall Coastal Zone Program.

The Commission believes there are no viable alter-
native assignments for the long-term research function.
With existing fiscal and manpower limitations, the Commis-
sion believes that existing capabilities and established
funding sources should be fully utilized. Other univer-
sities, and private consultants should assist in the
research, but the coordination and direction should be
vested in the Louisiana Sea Grant Program.

211

The Roles of State and Local Governments

Under the draft statute, both state and local govern-
ments have vitally important and complementary roles. The
primary regulatory and overall planning roles would be
assigned at the state level while there would be formal mecha-.
nisms for local governments to make inputs into the overall
program on an ongoing basis.

It is necessary to vest primary regulatory responsibility
at the state level for several important legal and policy rea-
sons. Under Section 306(E) of the federal Coastal Zone
Management Act of 1972 a state program, in order to qualify
for federal funds, must provide state level authority and
supervision over the coastal zone program by one of the
following methods:

(a) "state establishment of criteria and
standards for local implementation,
subject to administrative review and
enforcement of compliance;

(b) direct state land a nd water use planning
and regulation;

(c) state administrative review for
consistency with the management program
of all development plans, projects, or
land and water use regulations, including
exceptions and variances thereto, proposed
by any state or local authority or
private developer, with power to approve
.or disapprove after public notice and
an opportunity for-hearing."

In addition to the federal requirements there are impor-
tant policy reasons for vesting primary regulatory responsibi-
lity at the state level. The Commission has learned that the
uses of coastal resources and the impact of these uses on
estuarine systems transcend parish boundaries. To properly
plan and manage estuarine systems, there must be legal authority
which transcends the jurisdiction of particular individual
parishesi For example, portions of six parishes are in the
Atchafalaya Basin, and portions of ten'parishes are in the
Maurepas, Pontchartrain, Catherine, Borgne estuary.

Moreover, historically, state government in Louisiana
has had jurisdiction over use of state waterbottoms,
which are prevalent in Louisiana's coastal zone ' and
certain public lands. State agencies are responsible for
managing public resources with the interest of the entire
state in mind. Local.governments, on the other hand, would

212

tend to take more parochial viewpoints with respect to the
management of waterbottoms and public lands, since their
responsibilities e_xtend only to residents of their locality.
These views might not be in the best interest of the state's
total population.

In addition, major commercial and industrial interests
in Louisiana--such as the oil and gas industry and the water
transportation industry--operate on a regional or state-
wide basis. Consequently they must plan their operations
on this basis and need rules and regulations which are
uniform throughout the coastal zone.

Although the primary regulatory and overall planning
goals would be assigned at the state level, local-govern-
ments would have formal memberships on the Coastal Resources
Commission, would have the power to recommend rules and
regulations and would be responsible, through the vehicle
of advisory committees, for ongoing input into the state
planning and management programs.

The Management.of Public and Private Lands and Waters

The Commission has learned that the impacts of
resource uses on wetlands and coastal waters transcend
ownership boundaries and are not confined only to public
property. Thus, from a scientific standpoint, public and
private lands and waters within the coastal zone cannot be
managed sepa rately.

It is fundamental in our society that one who owns
property is entitled to use his Property in any fashion
he sees fit as long as his use does not interfere with the
rights of other persons. If the uses interfere with the
rights of other persons, states are constitutionally
empowered under the police power to make and enforce
reasonable regulations.regarding land uses. In the context
of the Louisiana coastal zone,, the uses of particular
wetlands and coastal waters, although privately owned,
may have far-reaching effects on, for example, living
resources productivity in water areas far removed from the
site where the use takes place. Thus, there is a rational
basis for reasonable regulation of the uses of private
lands and waters within the coastal zone since'the regu-
lation is directly linked to the well-being of the citizens
of the state.

It is singularly important, however, that regulations
adopted be reasonable. Coastal zone landowners have the
right to make reasonable use of their property and expect

213

reasonable economic returns. If this reasonable economic
use is so abridged in pursuing the overall public interest
such-that a landowner is essentially denied the productive
use of his property, then the landowner should be compensated
as provided under existing constitutional and statutory laws.

I In addition, coastal zon e landowners have a right to
know in advanc e the type regulations to which they must
adhere. A clearly stated coastal zone program would meet
this objective and would obviate the financial and other,
uncertainties of piecemeal regulations.

214

LOUISIANA COASTAL ZONE STATUTE

PART A:- PURPOSE2 AND DRPINITTONS

Section 1. Legislative Findings -and Declarations; Purposes

The Louisiana Legislature finds:
The coastal zone of Louisiana is the most valuable, yet
the most complex region of the state. Coastal and marine
resources, including living resources, non-living resources,
recreation, fish, wildlife, estuaries and water and land
resources, are of vital importance to the people and economy
of the State and there is a genuine concern throughout
the State for their planned and coordinated development and
protection.

Living resources of the coastal zone are directly
dependent upon viable marshes and swamps as integral parts
of the estuarine systems. Increasing uses of the coastal zone
for industrial and commercial development, water resources
development, recreation, tourism, urbanization, and trans-
portation are creating conflicts between these uses. These
conflicts, if not reconciled, may diminish the natural
capacities of the estuaries to provide habitat for many
species of marine life and wildlife, produce nutrients essential
to estuarine productivity, serve as a buffer against flooding
and erosion of highlands, and aid in the assimilation of
pollutants in the coastal zone.

Development should not be prohibited in the coastal zone.
However, it is in the public interest and general well-being
of the people of Louisiana and within the police power of
the State to establish the proper balance between development
and conservation.

The Legislature therefore declares:

That a planned, coopdinated and concerted program should
be conducted by state government in conjunction with local
governments to prevent the harm from uncoordinated and ill-
planned development of the state's coastal zone, both public
and private.

It is further declared that it is the policy of the
State of Louisiana to provide for the systematic and regional
management of the state's coastal zone by planning for and

215

encouraging all reasonable and compatible uses and by
discouraging unreasonable and incompatible uses.

Section 2. Definitions-

For purposes of this A ct:

A. "Administrator" shall mean the Administrator of the
Office of Coastal Zone Management created herein.

B. "Coastal and Marine Sanctuary 71 shall mean a.research
area of limited acreage within the coastal zone of Louisiana
having characteristics unique in relation to other areas or
features of the coastal zone of Louisiana and constituting,
to the extent feasible, a natural unit, which is set aside
for the purposes of scientific observation, research, and
experimentation.,

C. "Coastal zone" shall mean the coastal waters., and the
shorelands strongly influenced by the coastal waters and in
proximity to the shoreline, including transitional and inter-
tidal areas, marshes, swamps, natural levees and beaches
within the following parishes: Acadia, Ascension, Assumption,
Calcasieu, Cameron, East Baton Rouge, Iberia, Iberville,
Jefferson, Jefferson Davis, Lafayette., Lafourche., Livingston,
Orleans, Plaquemines, St. Bernard, St. Charles, St. James,
St. John'the Baptist, St. Mary, St. Martin., St. Tammany,
Tangipahoa, Terrebonne, Vermilion, West Baton Rouge. The
coastal zone extends seaward to the territorial limits of
the state of Louisiana.

D. "Coastal waters" shall mean bays, coves, lagoons,
lakes, inlets, sounds, estuaries, rivers, streams, bayous, or
other bodies of water (including the beds and bottoms thereof)
in direct connection with or which drain into the open sea
or which have measurable salt content (under normal weather
conditions over a period of years) or which are affected by
the ebb and flow of the tide.

E. "ComDatible use" shall mean any use which does not
cause a major permanent alteration of the natural character-
istics of estuarine systems and which does hot significantly
interfere with or preclude other uses adjacent to or contiguous
with the same geographical area. An "incompatible use" is
a use which is not "compatible.7

F. "Estuarine system" or "estuary" shall mean a
hydrologic unit having connection with the open sea, in which
the sea water is measurably diluted with fresh water derived
from land drainage.

216

G. "Person" shall mean any state agency3 federal agency,
regional agency, local governing authority, political sub-
division, special district, individual, firm, association,
partnership, corporation, trust, or any other legal entity.
Provided,, however, that federal agencies shall be subject to
the requirements of th1s Act only when any concurrence,-
authorization, assistance, or matching funding is provided
or required to be provided by any state agency, local
governing authority, political subdivision, or special district
of the State of Louisiana.

H. "Significant use" shall mean any use of lands or
waters within the state which measurably alters or adversely
affects the coastal zone. The following uses, but not by
way of limitation, shall be significant uses: all uses which
currently require a permit from the United States Army Corps
of Engineers or which would be carried out by federal agencies,
drainage and navigation projects sponsored by federal, state,
or local governments, dredging for land-fill projects,
dredging and navigation projects associated with mineral
activities, pipelines and industrial construction, sand,
gravel, and shell dredging, maintenance dredging, land fill
and reclamation projects, the alteration of surface or
ground water supplies, and water control structures. Provided,
however, that construction on land not affecting water flow
and water quality shall not be a significant use. The
Administrator shall otherwise make the determinations as
to what is and what is not a significant use.

PART B. ESTABLISHMENT OF THE LOUISIANA
COASTAL ZONE PROGRAM

Section 3: Functional Programs of,the Louisiana Coastal Zone
Program

The-Louisiana Coastal Zone Program shall consist of
three functional programs--management, long-range planning,
and long-range research. These functional prograrm shall be
under the sunervision., guidance and direction of the Coastal
Resources Commission created herein.

Section 4: -Su'pervision, Guidance, and'D irection; the Coastal
Resources Commission

A. There@is hereby created the Coastal Resources Commission
as an agency or arm of the State of Louisiana to lDrovide overall
supervision, guidance, direction, rule-making and-decision-
making with resDect to the Louisiana Coastal Zone Program.

217

B. The Coastal Resources Commission shall have
jurisdiction over all significant uses of lands and waters
with the state as defined by �2(H).

C. The Coastal Resources Commission shall be composed
of 10 regular members. The Administrator of the Office of
Coastal Zone Management, the Director of the
(research agency), and the Director of the
(planning agency) shall be ex officio and voting members of
the Commission, subject to �12(D). The Governor, subject
to confirmation by the Senate at the next session of the
Legislature, shall appoint seven (7) additional members for
three (3) year terms. These members shall be selected one
each from the following groups: oil and gas industry;.
transportation industry; organized labor; private conservation
groups; coastal landowners; coastal agriculture; and coastal
fishermen. The member chosen from private conservation groups
shall be chosen for his recognized leadership and interest
in protecting the coastal environment. Each member shall
serve in an individual capacity,and not as a representative
of his respective employer or organization. Legislators shall
not be eligible for appointment. Vacancies shall be filled
by the Governor, subject to confirmation by the Senate as
aforesaid.

D. Each member of the Coastal Resources Commission shall
be a person who as a result of his training, experience, and
attainments, is exceptionally well-qualified to analyze and
interpret environmental trends and information, to appraise
resource uses in light of the purposes of this act, and to
be responsive to the scientific, social, aesthetic, recreational,
cultural and economic needs of the State.

E. In addition to the ten (10 regular members of the
Commission with respect to each appellate or referral hearing
on an application for a permit, the chief officer of the
parish (or in the case of Orleans Parish, the Mayor of
New Orleans; or in the case of East Baton Rouge.Parish, the
Mayor President of Baton Rouge) where the proposed use would
take place shall be an ad hoc member of the Commission and
shall have all of the powers of a regular member with respect
to that particular application. Provided however, that if a
proposed use would involve more than one (1) parish, the
chief officers of the parishes involved may select one (1)
of themselves to represent the parishes as the ad hoc member.
In case of the failure of the chief officers to agree upon
a representative, each of the chief officers who wishes to
be the ad hoc member shall be permitted to participate in
the proceeding, but the involved parishes shall together
still have only one (1) vote.

218

F. No member of the Commission- shall participate, in
any proceeding, hearing, application, request for ruling or
other official determination,, judicial or otherwise, in
which.any of the following has a financial interst: the
member himself; his spouse; his child; his partner; any
organization in which he is then serving or has, within two
years prior to his appointment to the Commission, served in
the capacity of officer, director, trustee, partner, employer
or employee; any organization within which he is negotiating
for or has any arrangement,or understanding concerning prospective
partnership or employment.

G. Members of the Commission shall be compensated $50-00
per them for each and every day spent attending to business
of the Commission. In addition, all members shall be
reimbursed for all reasonable and necessary expenses incurred
.in the performance of their duties.

H. The.Coastal Resources Commission shall engage such
independent staff as may be necessary to carry out its powers
and responsibilities. The Attorney General shall be the
Attorney for the Commission.

I. The Coastal Resources Commission shall have the
following powers:

1. Promulgate, in accordance with the Louisiana Adminis-
trative Procedure Act, rules, regulations, criteria, and standards
necessary to properly manage the coastal zone. '."he
(planning agency), the Office of Coastal Zone Management,
the 11, (research agency),'local governing
authorities, and erested parties may recommend rules,
regulations, criteria, and standards-

2. Establish goals, priorities and objectives for
the Louisiana Coastal Zone Program.

3. Hear and rule on permit applications upon referral
or appeal from the Office of Coastal Zone Management.

4. Re-view and approve and submit to the Legislature an
annual budget for the Coastal Resources Commission,
(researchagency), the Office of Coastal Zone Management, anT_
(planning agency) to ensure that financial
allocations are made in accordance with the goals, priorities
and objectives of the Louisiana Coastal.Zone Program.

5. Conduct hearings in accordance with the Louisiana
Administrative Procedure Act. The Coastal Resources Commission
shall have the authority to delegate the power to n@reside at
hearings to one nr more of its members. All hearings
shall be open to the public and reasonable public notices
shall be given of all hearings.

219

6. Update and revise rules, regulations, criteria and
standards on a continuous basis when appropriate to comply
with federal statutes, rules, regulations, and.guidelines.

7. Prepare and submit to the Legislature, the Governor,
and the public an annual report describing and evaluating
the Louisiana Coastal Zone Program.

8. Accept, receive, and administer grants, contributions
and appropriations and to allocate them to the three
functional programs in accordance with the goals, priorities,
and objectives of the Louisiana Coastal Zone Program.

9. Enter into and execute contracts.

10. Sue and be sued in any court of competent jurisdiction.
Venue3 for suits against the Commission, shall be in the
parish of East Baton Rouge or in the Parish where the proposed
use would take place.

11. Periodically hold meetings as may be necessary
to conduct business. All meetings shall be open to the public
and reasonable public notice shall be given of all meetings.

12. Acquire or recommend the acquisition of full title,
servitudes., easements or other rights in relation to real
property by donation, purchase, exchange, or lease and to
utilize such propertY3 in conjunction with other agencies,
as beaches, sanctuarieS3 wildlife refuges, game management
areas, or other facilities as may be necessary to achieve
the purposes of this act. This power shall not be construed
to supersede the land management functions of existing state
agencies.

13. Acquire or recommend the acquisition of full title,,
servitudeS3 easements or other rights in relation to real
property by donation, purchase, exchange, lease or eminent
domain for use as coastal and marine sanctuaries.

14. Do all things necessary to carry out the purposes
of this act.

J. No rule S3 regulationS3 criteria, standards, ordinances
or resoluticns intended to have the effect of law with respect
to significant uses of the coastal zone shall become -effective
unless approved by the Coastal Resources Commission.

Section 5: Management: The Office of Coastal Zone Management

A. There is hereby created the Office of Coastal Zone
Management.

220

The Of fice of Coastal @one Management shal@ be
assigned to the and the
shall be responsible for the administrative operations
of the Office of Coastal Zone Management.

2. The Office of Coastal Zone Management shall
be under the supervision and control of an
administrator employed in accordance with the
Louisiana Civil Service laws by the director of
the agency to which the Office of Coastal Zone
Management is assigned with the advice and consent
of the Coastal Resources Commission. The administrator
shall have exceptional professional qualifications.,
expertise, and experience with regard to the manage-
ment of natural resources. The administrator shall
be responsible for providing such additional staffing
as may be necessary to carry out the provisions of this
Act, in accordance with rules and procedures of the
agency to which the Office of Coastal Zone Management
is assigned.

B. The Office of Coastal Zone Management shall have the
following powers:

1. Receive, evaluate, and pass on applications
for permits for significant uses as defined by �2(H)..

2. Require modifications in proposed uses as
conditions to the granting of permits. This shall
include the power to require that appropriate steps
be taken to mitigate or minimize the adverse impacts
of the use as a condition to the granting of the
permit. This shall also include the power to
require assurances, including security, that the
applicant will in fact take the agreed upon steps
to minimize adverse impacts.

3. Conduct or cause to be conducted such in-
vestigations and studies as may be necessary to
consider permit applications and the cumulative effects
thereof and to carry out the purposes and provisions
of this act and rules, regulations, criteria, and
standards promulgated hereunder.

4. Systematically monitor and conduct surveil-
lance of significant uses which have been permitted
to ensure that conditions of permits are being fully
complied with.

5. Conduct short-term planning and research
necessary to make management decisions on a day-to-day
basis.

221

6. Recommend approriate enforcement measures
for violations of the criminal Drovisions of this
act.

7. Seek civil relief, as provided by Section 15
of this Act., in order to carry out the purposes and
provisions of this Act and rules, regulations, criteria,
and standards Dromulgated hereunder.

8. Enter into and execute contracts with any
person.necessary to imDlement the nurDoses and
provisions of this act.
9. Coordinate closely with the 1
(the planning agency), 1 (the research
agency), the Coastal Resources Commission and all
local, state, regional, or federal agencies with respect
to the management of the coastal zone.

10. Do all things necessary to carry out the
purposes of this Act.

Section 6: Planning; 1

A. Long-range coastal zone planning shall be the
responsibility of the 1. In undertaking this
planning function the -1 shall:

1. Recommend long-range coastal zone research
and coastal zone management goals, objectives,.and
priorities to the Coastal Resources Commission, the
Legislature, the Governor, the Office of Coastal
Zone Management and other state, local, and federal
agencies.

2. Synthesize research and other data into a
form usable by the Office of Coastal Zone Management.

3. Integrate long-range coastal zone research
and management goals, objectives, and priorities
with other goals, objectives and priorities of the
State of Louisiana.

4. Coordinate with local and regional planning
agencies and seek their active participation in
coastal zone planning.

5. Create local government advisory committees
composed of representatives of regional planning
commissions and/or local governments in order to receive,
on a continuing basis, advice as to the viewpoints of
local governments with respect to coastal zone planning.

222

6. Promote, to the extent practicable, full
public participation in coastal zone planning.
7'. Review, on an ongoing basis., the rules.,
regulations., criteria or standards of the Coastal
Resources Commission and recommend changes when
appropriate to conform with federal statutes., rules,
regulations or guidelines.

8. Develop, in conjunction with the Office of
Coastal Zone Management and recommend for adoption by
the Coastal Resources Commission, a list of all
permissible uses unde,r this statute, a continuing
inventory of the resources and land and water uses of
the coastal zone, and a set of broad guidelines on
priority uses for specific geographic areas, all con-
sistent with the provisions of this act.

Section.7: Research; 1

Long-range coastal zone research shall be the primary
responsibility of the 1 with the assistance,
of other research orgaiizations. It shall be the responsibility
of the to conduct necessary long-term
research regarding proper procedures, techniques and scientific
capabilities necessary.for the management of coastal and
marine resources. Insofar as possible this research shall be
responsive to the needs,, goals, and objectives of the
Louisiana Coastal Zone Program as determined by the Coastal
Resources Commission.

Section 8. Cooperation of Other State Agencies

It shall be the responsibility of every state agency
local governing authority, and political subdivision of the
State of Louisiana to cooperate fully and coordinate closely
with the Office of Coastal Zone Mana ment the@
(the planning agency), 9f (the *research agency)
and the Coastal Resources Commission in achieving the
objectives of the Louistraria Coastal Zone Program.

PART C: PERMIT PROGRAM AND PROCEDURES

Section 9: Permits Required for Significa-it Uses: Procedures
for-Ai)plving, Evaluations: Authorization for Denial

A. No person shall make a significant use as defined by
�2 (H) without first obtaining a permit from the Office of

223

Coastal Zone Management or the Coastal Resources Commission.

B. Any person who proposes to make a significant use
shall present an application for a permit to the Administrator.
The Coastal Resources Commission shall determine by means of
administrative regulation the forms and information necessary
for a proper application, and may require applicants to furnish
reasonable filing fees -and reimbursement of expenses.

C. Upon the receipt of an application, the administrator
shall make a determination as to whether the application
proposes to make a significant use.

D. If he determines that the application would not
involve a significant use, he shall so certify.

E. If he determines that the application would involve
a significant use, he shall comply with �11 and conduct a
thorough evaluation of the proposed use, fully considering
all of the criteria enumerated by �10,

F. After the evaluations have been conducted, and after
compliance with �11, the administrator shall grant or deny the
permit or impose conditions on the granting of the permit or
refer the matter to the Coastal Resources Commission.

G. He may deny the permit or impose conditions upon the
granting of the permit if he makes a finding that the proposed
use or the proposed use without conditions would be incon-
sistent with the applicable criteria enumerated by �10 and
incompatible as defined by �2(E).

H. The administrator shall submit' written reasons for
his decision with respect to each permit application.

I. If the administrator makes a finding that the
application is one which involves a significant controversy
or which is of significant public interest, he shall defer
a decision on the application and refer the matter to the
Coastal Resources Commission. Receipt of comments from the
public as a result of the disseminations required by �11
shall be evidence of a significant controversy or significant
public interest. If the administrator refers a matter to the
Coastal Resources Commission he shall submit to the
Coastal Resources Commission his technical recommendations with
respect to the application. The Coastal Resources Commission
shall hold a public hearing on the application in accordance
with the Louisiana Administrative Procedure Act. The Coastal
Resources Commission shall make a decision on the application
within 15 days following the hearing.

224

Section 10. Criteria for Decision-Making

A. In evaluatinj@ applications for permits for significant
uses as defined by �2(H) the Office of Coastal Zone Manage-
ment and the Coastal Resources Commission shall fully consider
all pertinent environmental, social, legal, economic and other
criteria and the findings, declarations and purposes expressed
by �1 of this Act.

B. The following shall be discouraged:

1. Uses which would cause adverse effects on living
resources productivity, adverse ecological effects, and other
long-range adverse effects.

2. Heavy industrial or commercial development and
urbanization which would cause t 'he permanent alteration of the
natural characteristics of estuarine systems or which would
take place in substantially undisturbed wetland areas.

3. Uses which would precipitate or induce secondary
impacts and developments which would result in inconsistency
with the criteria enumerated in, this section or incompatible
uses as defined by �2(E).

4. Uses which would require additional flood protection
works to be constructed in undisturbed or substantially
undisturbed wetlands.

5. Uses which would impose restrictions on public access
or use of recreational coastal resources, unless the public
access or recreational use would be detrimental to the
environment.

6. Uses which would unduly burden sewer and solid waste
disposal facilities.

7. Uses which would take place on soils intrinsically
ill-suited to adequately support those uses.

9. Uses in areas where there are habitats for rare or
endangered species of wildlife, or unique or irreplaceable
historical or archealogical sites, or aesthetic amenities
particularly unique to Louisiana's coastal zone.

C. The cumulative impacts of uses and proposed uses on
the estuarine systems shall be thoroughly and specially
considered. When the point is reached such that additional
significant uses will alter natural capacities of estuarine
systems, then additional significant uses shall be prohibited.

225

D. Economic effects., including the number of jobs
created and the income which would be generated by the wages
and salaries of those jobs, the amount of tax revenues . ,
potentially accruing to state and local governments, and the
need for increased governmental services to support the
developments shall be fully considered.

E. In addition to the statutory criteria enumerated
in subsections (A),(B), (C) and (D) of this section, the
Office of Coastal Zone Management and the Coastal Resources
Commission shall fully consider all rules, regulations, criteria,
and standards promulgated by the Coastal Resources Commission.

Se.ction 11. Public Dissemination

A. After the Administrator receives a permit application
and if he determines that it would involve a significant use,
he.shall disseminate notices of the application to all,persons
who have made written requests to be notified of such
applications. The Administrator shall also cause the notices
to be published in all newspapers where there is reason to
believe there would be an interest in the proposed use. Notices
shall contain the following information:

1. A description of the proposed use.

2. A synopsis of the probable beneficial effects
of the proposed use.

3. A synopsis of probable adverse effects of the
proposed use'.

B.- At the discretion of the Administrator,, these notices
may be contained and disseminated by means of weekly or bi-
weekly bulletins.

C. The Administrator shall invite and encourage public
comment on the proposed uses and shall take such comment as is
consistent with the purposes of this act into consideration
when making his determinations.

D. The requirements of this Section may be waived in
emergency situations, as defined by regulations of the
Coastal Resources Commission. Provided, however, where an
emergency action is taken by the Administrator, notice must
be immediately given to the members of the Coastal Resources
Commission and immediately disseminated to the public.

E. The Administrator shall disseminate immediately to
the public notices of action taken on permit applications.

226

PART D: REVIEW

Section 12. Administrative Appeals

A. Upon the petition of the applicant or 25 persons,
the Coastal Resources Commission shall review the decision
of the Office of Coastal Zone Management with respect to
the granting or denial of a permit. Provided, however, that
petitions for administrative appeals shall be filed within
10 days following public notice of final determinations by
the Office of Coastal Zone Management. Provided further
that the Coastal Resources Commission shall hear the matter
and ren--@er a decision within 30 days following the day of
receipt of the petition for review.

B. Any person shall have the right to submit a written
statement with respect to any application. The Commission
shall take such statements into consideration when making
its determinations.

C. Appellate hearings shall be conducted in accordance
with the Louisiana Administrative Procedure Act.

D. With regard to admin *istrative appeals, the Administrator
shall not be entitled to vote.

Section 13'. Judicial Review

Any person who exercises his right of administrative
appeal as provided by Section 12 shall be entitled to judicial
review in accordance with the Louisiana Administrative Procedure
Act.

PART E: ENFORCEMENT AND PENALTIES

Section 14. Criminal Penalties

A. Any person who intentionally makes a significant
use as defined by Section 2 (H) without obtaining a permit
from the Office of Coastal Zone Management or any person
who intentionally violates the terms or conditions of a permit
issued under the provisions of this act shall be guilty of a
violation of this Act. Any person who violates this Act shall
be subject to a fine of not more than $103,000 for each and
every day in which the violation occurs or imprisonment for not
more than 6 months or both.

227

B. The Attorney General shall have the authority to
directly prosecute persons accused of violations of sub-section
A without the necessity for prior referral to any District
Attorney.

Section 15. Civil Penalties

A. The Administrator shall have the authority to seek
injunctive relief, including temporary restraining orders and
preliminary injunctions, against any person he deems to be in
violation of this Act or rules, regulations, crite ria, or
standards promulgated hereunder.

B. The Administrator shall have the authority to issue
cease and desist orders against any person or agency he deems
to be in violation of this act or rules,-regulations, criteria,
or standards promulgated hereunder. Provided, however, that
cease and desist orders shall not remain in effect for a
longer period of time than ten (10) days.

C. The Administrator shall have the authority to revoke
any permits issued for significant uses for good cause. Upon
the revocation of a permit, the-user shall have the right to
apply to the Coastal Resources Commission for a review of the
Administrator's,decision pursuant to Section 12.

D. The Administrator shall have the authority to seek
civil damages. Monies collected through damage suits shall
be utilized to meet the costs of restoration of any affected
area to its condition prior to such violations, insofar as
practicable.

Section 16. Complaints

A. Any person shall have the right to file a complaint
with the Administrator alleging that a significant use has
occurred in violation of this Act or that a violation of the
conditions of a permit has occurred. Whenever from the,
complaint it appears to-the Administrator that there'is
reasonable cause to believe that a violation has occurred,
or'is occurring, the Administrator may take action himself,
or he may refer the matter to the Coastal Resources Commission,
along with his technical findings. If the Coastal Resources
Commission determines that there is reasonable cause to believe
that such a violation has occurred or is occurring, it shall
take appropriate-action authorized by this Act.

228

B. If after the filing of the complaint with the
Administrator, thirty .(30) days have elapsed and the Adminis-
trator has neither taken direct action, referred the matter to
the Coastal Resources Commission, nor adequately explained
in writing to the satisfaction of the complainant his
reasons for not acting on the complaint, the complainant shall.
have the right to file the'complaint directly with the Coastal
Resources Commission. The Coastal Resources Commission may
take appropriate action as authorized by this Act.

PART F: MISC
-ELLANEOU`

Section 17. Aipplicability gf Act

This act shall apply to:

A. All significant uses, where the application for the
permits are submitted to the Administrator after
and

B. All sJQznificant uses, proposed to occur before
where the user has not yet begun work;
and

C. All significant uses occurring nrior to
provided it is practicable to reconsider.anv or all as-nects
of the use to conform to this Act.

D. All significant uses occurring after
where the user has not applied for a permit.

With respect to any significant use described in sub-
section C, or any significant use where it is not practicable
to reconsider any or all aspects of the use, further work on
the use shall be undertaken to minimize or mitigate the
impact of the use on estuarine systems.

Section 18. Severability

If any provision of this Act or the application thereof
is held invalid, such invalidation shall not affect other
provisions or applications of this Act which can be, given
effect without the invalid provisions or applications and. to
this end all of the provisions of this Act are hereby
declared severable.

*Six.months after the effective date of the act.

229

The Governor and the Legislature will determine which
agencies shall be responsible for the implementation of this
statute. Recommended agency assignments, as well as
alternative assignments, are fully explored at the beginning
of this chapter. The Commission recommends that the
Office of Coastal Zone Management be attached to the Louisiana
Wild Life and Fisheries Commission., that the Office of State
Planning be responsible for coastal zone planning, and the
Louisiana Sea Grant Program be responsible for coastal zone
research.

230

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CHAPTER SIX
Special Programs for Louisiana's Coastal Zone

SECTION ONE
Louisiana's Marine Related Industries

A Report of the
Ocean Engineering
and
Development Committee

Although Louisiana's current industrial capacity in
fishing, minerals and support industries is extensive and
invaluable, new ideas are destined to increase productivity,
help conserve natural resources, and effect optimum benefits
for the people of Louisiana.

The extent of the fishing industry's impact on the
state's ec.onomy is evident in 1970 data. (More recent
data will be published by the Louisiana Wild Life and
Fisheries Commission this year.) The 1970 commercial fish
catch., more than 1.1 billion pounds, had a dockside value
of $62.5 million.(l) This catch was not unusual, for
Louisiana fisheries often report production exceeding one
billion pounds in a year.(2)

In terms of volume of fish landed, Louisiana leads
all other states. The Gulf of Mexico produces one third
of the nation's seafood supply. Of this third, more fish
are produced in Louisiana than in'the four other Gulf
states combined. The state is second only to Maryland in
oyster production, supplying 20 per cent of the nation's
total market.(3) Louisiana is the only state in which
oysters are harvested year-round.

Though not a fishing industry, fur trapping should
be mentioned because of its contribution to the economy
and its value to the coastal zone, where about 95 per cent
of the commercial fishing activity in Louisiana occurs.
Almost 40 per cent of the nation's wild fur pelts come
from Louisiana.

By comparison with existing production, untapped
potentials for fish production are equally impressive.
The coastal zone is vast enough to. support and nurture
increased yields. It is larger than the combined areas of

*This section was prepared by a special statutory committee
on ocean engineering and development added to the Commission
by Act 166 of 1972. Members included Fred W. Hartdegen., Chairman;
Drew Michel and Merrill True.

231

Connecticut, Delaware and Rhode Island. Of its approximately
7.1 million acres, about 3.7 million are marsh or swamp,
and 3.4 million are associated surface water area, which,
in combination, support vast fisheries and wildlife resources.

Further., mariculture, or "farming" the sea, has great
potential in Louisiana and its offshore waters. For years,
marine artificial reefs have existed in the form of off-
shore oil platforms which abound with fish. But when
the wells run dry and the platforms are removed, the
fish leave as well. Not dismantling the platforms would
save money for thelcompany and keep fish life in the area.
Pompano and other species might be raised in controlled
cages on the artificial reefs. A significant problem
arises if the platforms are transferred to governmental
or commercial fisheries groups since insurance and mainte-
.nance costs are very high and may be prohibitive.

New technologies help in the study and location of
fisheries resources. For determining damage to oyster
beds and checking reproduction in them, experiments have
been conducted with underwater television. Possibly,
such a technique would be useful in clear water areas of
the Gulf in locating schools of fish. Night flights have
been conducted, also on an experimental basis, off the
Louisiana coast to determine the feasibility of locating
menhaden schools this way.

Evidence for the exploits of Louisiana's fishing
industry is impressive; however, an account of the minerals
industry discloses some astounding facts also. The value
of Louisiana's 1972 mineral production exceeded $5.6
billion,and Louisiana retained second place nationally
in this category.(4) Of this total, more than $5 billion,
resulted from oil and gas production.(5) With a natural
gas yield of 8.4 trillion cub'ic feet in 1972, Louisiana
replaced Texas as the nation's leading gas producing state.(6)
Production of 779 million barrels of crude oil kept Louis-.
iana in the nation's No. 2 spot in that category.(7Y

Louisiana's 1972 sulfur yield was more than 3.3 million
long tons.(8) In a recent year, sulfur production was
valued at $140 million.(9)

More than 13.9 million short tons of salt (rock and in
solution) were produced during 1972 in the state.(10)
Responsible for 30,per cent of the nation's salt production,
which was valued in excess of $67 million, Louisiana was
the No. 1 state in this category.(11) Availability of
raw materialsl sulfur among them, is a primary reason for
the great surge of petro-chemical activity in the state.
(This topic is addressed in Chapter One under the heading
"Refining and Manufacturing.")

232

Oil, gas, sulfur and salt can be traced to the presence
of massive salt domes. "Islands"-from@which salt is mined
are., -in fact, parts of-salt domes poking up through the
marsh. The domes cause geological faults, or earth
crevices, in which.oil., gas and sulfur may be found.
Endowed with an abundance of these domes, Louisiana is in
possession of some of the world's great salt mines and
sulfur mines. The giant domes have helped Louisiana become
the nation's No.I offshore oil and gas producing state.
With more than 14,000 wells drilled in offshore Louisiana,,
the state has about,60 times as many offshore producing
wells as Texas.(12)

Two new developments moving toward reality and a role.
in the industrial drama in offshore Louisiana are the
superport and surface effect vehicles.

The superport seems certain to become an economic
catalyst. Abundant natural resources and experience
garnered by industry in utilizing these resources undoubtedly
will be factors in decisions affecting the location of
the superport off Louisiana's shores.

Surface effect vehicles work on the air-cushion
principle. Present large models weigh about 200-tons and
have a maximum speed of nearly 80 miles per hour (71 knots).
Some oil-field experts believe 'these vehicles will replace boats
and helicopters in many offshore fields. The nation's
only manufacturer for such vehicles opened operations in
Louisiana recently.(13) (Surface effect vehicles
are discussed in Chapter Six, Section Four.)

Offshore production., a complex operation relying
upon skills and. materials from other sources, spawned a
network of support industries. Pioneers in activity
off the shores of Louisiana 3 these support industries are
world leaders in offshore work today.

Four basic support industries related to Louisiana?s
offshore industry are drilling, construction!, transportation
and diving.

Drilling rigs of today are a far cry from rigs of 10
to 15 years ago. Today's rigs are veritable floating
palaces that can drill in water depths of several thousand
feet. They cost from $17 million Lo $30 million each.

The world's largest offshore drilling contractor is
from Louisiana.(14) This firm-, one of the pioneers of the
ocean drilling industry, continues to lead with new
techniques and has drilling rigs in many offshore areas of
the world.

233

Superlatives apply also to marine construction in
Louisiana, where the world's two largest offshore construction
firms are located.(15) Both build production platforms,
semisubmersible drilling rigs and support ships. They
also fabricate pipe. The firms employ thousands, who
they say are among the highest-paid marine employees
in the world.

Louisiana also has the world's three largest offshore
crewboat builders.(16) They began by servicing rigs in
the Gulf but their operations soon encompassed a worldwide
market. The technology they developed in designing a
fast, reliable crewboat for conditions in the Gulf of
Mexico soon was recognized as unique. The U.S. Navy and
several foreign navies, recognizing the importance of the
design, have awarded numerous contracts to these firms
to build patrol boats.

As offshore exploration developed outside the United
States, demand for these boats grew to the extent that
crewboats built in Louisiana assist in offshore drilling
operations throughout the world.

In the transportation field, Louisiana's status has
been enhanced by these boat builders, who realized early
that problems related to servicing the offshore industry
would become enormous. Perhaps the best measure of their
success is the fact that the world's two largest offshore
boat opeators are claimed by Louisiana.(17) Both companies
originated in South Louisiana only a few years ago. Today,
they are publicly held corporations with hundreds of boats
operating on a worldwide'basis.

In addition to boats, helicopters play a major role
in offshore transportation, principally for quick trips.
They ferry service crews on short notice and convey highly
important data, such as electric logs or core samples.
Scheduled crew changes quite often are carried out by
helicopter shuttles. Use of helicopters by the Louisiana
offshore industry is the most e,xtensive in the nation.

As water-based industrial efforts increased, added-
importance was placed upon the diving industry. An
integral part of offshore operations, diving is truly an
oceanographic.industry and a pioneer in related research.
Without it, Qffshore operations would be virtually impossible
because diving is so much a part of offshore activity.

Diving capabilities have been advanced to the point
that drilling operation can be supported in more than
600 feet of water. Newer saturation diving systems can
sustain divers in more than 1,000 feet of water.

234

Diving companies continue to carry out research and
development to extend their operations into deeper and
rougher water. The Gulf of Mexico off Louisiana has been
the training ground and proving ground for the largest and
most active diving companies in the
, world. Of the
world's six largest, five use Louisiana as home base.(18)

Although the fisheries and mineral industries of
Louisiana., along with the four support industries which
serve them, have provided substantial benefits to the state,
the Commission recognizes three major problems in Louisiana's
marine and ocean-oriented development program.

First, Louisiana's citizens are not as aware of the
oceanographic and marine-oriented activities of the state
as they should be. This constitutes a substantial impair-
ment to progress within our own boundaries. Although
Louisianans tend to benefit directly from coastal and
marine activities through employment or recreation., most
are unaware of the scope of their assets in Louisiana and
its economic-value to the state and the nation. This has
some serious reverberations withinLouisiana. Because
of inadequate marine-oriented training, Louisianans are
forfeiting local jobs to out-of-staters. Usually when
Louisianans get these'jobs, they have received their training at
schools and universities outside the state.

Beyond making citizens more aware of job potentials
within the state, it is critical that our citizens appre-
ciate their state more than they have. Pride' in our assets
and achievements should be a part of every Louisianan.
Since our ocean-related and marine-oriented activities are
among our greatest assets, these activities should be
common knowledge among our citizens.

Second, many of the dollars generated as a result
of economic activities in Louisiana leave the state.
This deprives other sectors of our economy from potential
benefits. For example, because most crewmen who work on
the platforms off Louisiana's shore do not live here, the
money they earn is spent elsewhere. Additionally, and
perhaps more significantly, wellhead equipment, instruments,
drilling and undersea apparatus used in mineral production
in Louisiana come almost exclusively from outside the state.
Hence, substantial portions of money paid for construction
and operations within Louisiana gravitate to other areas
of the country, where much of this special equipment is
manufactured.

Third, other states get more recognition then Louisiana
for their ocean-oriented activities. In Rhode Island and
Oregon, for example, substantial efforts are under way
by state government and universities to make their
states pre-eminent in oceanography and ocean-related
activities. Louisiana has.achieved more than either of

235

those states but ha s lacked sufficient national publicity.
Consequently, Louisianals'economic position could be
harmed. Industries, workers, or travelers, when unaware.
of the assets of Louisiana's marine-oriented activities,
may tend to overlook Louisiana in favor,of anotherlocation.
Further, a bette,r image for Louisiana's marine-oriented
activities nationwide could pave the way for other benefits.
Federal funding programs, national associations and other
groups may pay Louisiana more attention if efforts at
publicizing the state's assets are increased.

State government and industry should begin a program.
of cooperation to overcome these weaknesses as soon as
possible. With the great resources available within
Louisiana, every effort should be made to maximize their
benefits to the state.

The Commission recommends that an entity
be 'established within state government to enhance
Louisiana's role in marine and ocean industries.
This entity could be either a commission or board,,
a special section within the Department of Commerce
and Industry or a responsibility of the executive
.office of the governor. The entity could receive
private as well as public funds. It should be
capable of operating effectively within the exe-
cutive branch of government and should have close
ties to industry. The entity's responsibilities
would include:

1. Promoting marine and ocean-oriented
activities within the state-,

2. Promoting Louisiana as a leader in
marine and ocean-oriented activities
in the nation;

3. Assessing Louisiana's manpower needs,
industrial.potential and educational
facilities and programs in marine and
ocean.-oriented activities;

4. Acting as the public relations vehicle
of the state insofar as marine and ocean-
oriented activities are concerned;

5. Assisting in obtaining federal funds for
marine and ocean oriented activities.

236

References

1. Louisiana Wild Life and Fisheries Commission 14th
Biennial Report, (1970-1971), p. 20.

2. Louisiana Almanac (1973-1974), Pelican Publishing Co.,
Gretna, La., p. 203.

Ibid.

4. Mineral Industry Surveys, U. S. Department of the
Interior., Bureau of Mines, (Annual, Preliminary).

5. Ibid.

6. Sunday Advocate, Baton Rouge, La., April 1, 1973,
p. 6 B.

7. Ibid.

8. Louisiana Department of Conservation Estimates for
1972.

9. Louisiana Almanac (1973-1974), Pelican Publishing Co.,
Gretna, La., p. 203.

10. Louisiana Department of Conservation Estimates for
1972.

11. Bureau of Mines, Washington, D. C., Survey (1972).

12. Offshore Magazine, June 1973, p. 88.

13. Marine Directory, published by Simmons and Boardman.

Worldwide Directory of Offshore Contractors and
Equipment, published by Offshore Magazine, Oil and
Gas Journal-., et.al.

14. Ibid.

15. Ibid.

16.1 Ibid.

17. Ibid.

18. Ibid.

0':) 7

CHAPTER SIX
Special Programs for Louisianals.Coastal Zone

SECTION TWO
Coastal Zone
Research and Education

The great area and economic importance of Louisiana's
coastal zone make effective management of its lands, waters
and resources a vital concern of the state and nation.
Effective management depends on a variety of scientific,
technologic, legal, political-institutional and socio-economic
factors or capabilities. Among these are: (a) fundamental
understanding of complex coastal zone ecosystems, (b) valid
techniques for predicting economic and environmental impacts,
singly and in concert, of a diversity of activities and
developments proposed by man, and (c) efficient institutional
arrangements, regulations and enforcement provisions. None ,
of these capabilities or goals can be achieved without know-
ledge, obtained through research, and sufficient numbers of well-
trained personnel to implement and conduct needed activities.

The Commission believes that the present level of know-
ledge concerning Louisiana's coastal zone and the number of
-trained personnel actively engaged in well-organized or focused
marine and coastal programs are totally inadequate to satisfy
public needs. Problems or issues associated with these
needs and remedial actions are recommended.

I.. Research

A. University-state agency cooperation

An acute and immediate need exists for developing mechanisms
that will encourage and facilitate cooperative university-state
agency research on coastal and marine problems. State agencies
are, of necessity, primarily concerned with immediate or
operational problems. They usually have the capacity to identify
high priority research needs which incorporate views of local
organizations and citizens, obtain pertinent field data and
implement or enforce changes in practices dictated by research
program results. But often they are unable to assign sufficient
funds or personnel to the analysis of assembled data and keep.'
abreast of scientific and technologic developments.. Conversely,
a university does have the capacity to take a longer-range
and more comprehensive look at coastal and marine problems,
conduct thorough analyses of available data and maintain
awareness of scientific and technologic advances.

239

However, most universities regard te4ching as their
primary mission and discipline-based research along depart-
mental lines as an ancillary function. A fundamental challenge
that has not been faced by most universities is the develop-
ment of effective techniques for administering sorely needed
interdisciplinary studies relevant to local or regional
needs and of direct use to selected state agencies.

Effective university-state agency cooperation will require
institutional and attitudinal changes on both sides. Univer-
sity administrators and faculty must adopt a more positive
attitude toward applied or mission-oriented research and public
service programs. Concurrently, the reward stucture within the
university must be changed to provide recognition for accomplish-
ments in these fields. This may be possible only through
the creation of special divisions or organizational units
wherein the criteria employed in assessing accomplishments
differ from thoseutilized in the instructional and discipline-
based departments.

University attempts to become more responsive to a
broader range of public needs can succeed only if state agency
personnel are truly receptive to cooperative endeavors.
These individuals must accept the sincerity of cooperative
overtures by the university and overcome the all-too-common
attitude that all university faculties are overeducated,
impractical and unresponsive scientists incapable of efficient
program management.

On the other hand, university personnel must accept
the fact that all state agency employees are not second-rate
scientists working on mundane problems unworthy of intense
scientific investigation. Such attitudes can be overcome
only through establishment of working-level programs and
relationships that satisfy both organizational and individual
needs.

Careful consideration must be given to the staffing
of cooperative efforts to maximize the probability of success--
both from a technical standpoint and one of establishing mutual
trust between the university and the agency. Present insti-
tutional- arrangements, contractual procedures and state civil
service regulations work against the development of truly
cooperative, team e-f forts involving state agency and university
personnel. Mechanisms to circumvent or eliminate these
obstacles should be devised and employed extensively. In
addition.) the temporary transfer of personnel between univer-
sities and state agencies should be encouraged. This must be
accomplished in a manner not detrimental to the individual
in terms of salary, promotional opportunities, fringe benefits
or retirement options.

24o

The Commission strongly believes that effective conduct of
marine and coastal research in Louisiana can be achieved only
through top-to-bottom cooperation of state agency and univer-
sity personnel in planning and implementing programs and applying
research results. State agency contracts with university
faculty members, either on an institutional or private
basis, cannot be thought of as an acceptable substitute for
needed state agency-university cooperation in marine and
coastal research.

B. Sea Grant Program Support

The National Sea Grant College and Program Act was si gned
into law in 1966. The legislation is designed to bring the
expertise of academic institutions, research institutes and
laboratories to bear on practical problems relating to the
management and accelerated development of the nation's marine
and coastal resources. The program is administered by the
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration of the U.S.
Department of Commerce. It has increased in funding fr.om
$5 million.in fiscal 1968 to $19.5 million in fiscal 1973.
Although this increase is significant in these tight-budget
days and reflects wholehearted Congressional support, it has
not permitted establishing viable Sea Grant programs in each
of the 30 coastal and Great Lakes states--a major goal
of the program. Consequently, considerable competition exists
among universities in the various states to obtain Sea Grant
funds.
Funding support is provided in three categories: project
grants, coherent area grants and institutional grants.
Universities receiving institutional grants have high priority
for obtaining available funds. Fifteen institutions, including
LSU, are in this category. In addition, six of the fifteen
institutions have been designated Sea Grant Colleges and
enjoy the highest possible priority for obtaining federal
monies. In 1971, Texas A&M Universit*y, Oregon State University,
University of Washington and the University of Rhode Island
were designated Sea Grant Colleges. In 1972, the University
of Wisconsin and the University of Hawaii were so designated.
Achieving this designation requires strong university and
state commitment to the program concepts, superior performance
at the institutional level for three years and effective
conduct of regionally'significant research, education and
advisory service efforts in the marine field. Funds are
provided on an annual basis, pursuant to the National Oceanic
and Atmospheric Administration review of the program and
@roPosed work:for the following year. If the proposed program
is approved, federal funds are provided for two thirds of the
total cost, and the state must provide the remaining one third.

241

In Louisiana, both Louisiana State University and Nicholls
State University have participated in the program since its
formal initiation in 1968. NSU received project grant support
in 1968, 169 and '70. Since 1971, continuing projects have
been conducted by NSU and administered through the LSU program.
LSU received coherent area grant support in 1968, '-69 and '70.'
In 1971, LSU achieved institutional grant status. Under the
LSU'program,.projects have also been conducted by researchers
at the University of Southwestern Louisiana and Northwestern
State University. Thus, although the Louisiana.Sea Grant
activities are administered by LSU, it is a statewide program
and the expertise of any university in the state can be focused
on marine and coastal problems through this mechanism.

A basic objective of the Louisiana Sea Grant program
is to play a major role in providing the knowledge, methodologies
and trained manpower required toassure wise management and
development of the state's marine and coastal resources. This
will require a much more comprehensive understanding of natural
systems and man-environment relations than we possess. It
is recognized also that scientific truths are but one aspect
of a complex association of social, economic and legal factors
that demand exploration if practical solutions to problems
are to be obtained. Although the universitites cannot--and
should not--make management decisions regarding Louisiana's
coastal zone or marine resources . they can--and should--document
needs and provide capabilities that will encourage appropriate
state agencies to implement and enforce programs essential for
the optimum development of these areas and resources.

The Commission believes that the National Sea Grant
Program provides,an opportune mechanism to aid the universities
in this role and that every effort should be made to maximize
'Louisiana's role in this program.

A major obstacle to desired participation and growth
has been the lack of "hard cash" state monies to meet the
program's one-third matching requirement. The requirement
has been met primarily by "in-kind" contributions such as
percentages of investigators' salaries and overhead writeoffs.
This does nut provide needed leverage to broaden scientific and
technologic competence and compete successfully for Sea Grant
funds with institutions in other states with well-established,
broadly based marine research and education programs.

By the end of 1973, approximately $3 million in federal
monies will have been committed to the Louisiana Sea Grant
program since its inception in 1968. Achieving annual funding
at the million-dollar level and Sea Grant College status for
LSU depends primarily upon (1) outstanding programs performance
and (2) demonstration of a strong university and state
commitment to Sea Grant activities. Hard cash matching through

242

a Sea Grant line,item appropriation.in a university or state
agency budget is the best way to demonstrate this commitment
and ass ure pr ogram vitality.

The Commission strongly recommends that a
hard cash, line item, annual appropriation of $500,000
be established for support of the Louisiana Sea
Grant program. (In 1971 and 1973, the legislature
passed special appropriations of $125,000 and
$200,000, respectively, for Sea Grant matching
funds, but there is no guarantee of continuing
support.)

C. The Role of Local Government and Special Interests

Effective design and conduct of research programs aimed
at the practical solution of coastal zone problems dictates
active and concerned involvement of local government and
special interest groups. Such involvement is essential if
truly significant research problems are to be identified,
vali*d priorities established for the study of these problems
and research products obtained that will be useful in the
implementation of practical solutions.

The Commission recommends strengthening of
all, existing communication links c oncerni.ng"
research needs and activities amongst state
agencies, universities, local government and
industrial-commercial elements. As these links
are presently inadequate, it is further recommended
that advisory bodies and other mechanisms be employed
to assure that local government, industry and others
have an appropr 'iate influence on the design and
conduct of marine-related research in Louisiana.
The Commission specifically recommends that Sea
Grant establish an advisory council, with repre-
sentation;from state government, local government,
environmental groups, industry, universities and
other special interest groups to review and guide
the Louisiana Sea Grant Program. It is urged also
that industrial organizations and others confronted
with marine-related.problems make every effort to
utilize expertise available in Louisiana's public
and private institutions and firms in the solution
of these problems. Universities should not play a
passive role in this situation but should continually
monitor the developing needs of industry for such
services and develop appropriate programs and staff
to service these needs.

243'

D. Research Priorities, Responses and Overview

Although university-state agency cooperation, with
appropriate input from local government 'and special interests,
can contribute to the formulation and conduct of more focused
and relevant research.activities, the resulting program may
still be biased toward mission-oriented needs of specific
agencies and research interests of university faculties.
Therefore, a decided need exists for governmental overview
and direction that will assure development and conduct of a
coordinated, high-priority, well-balanced coastal and marine
research program for Louisiana.

The Commission recommends that a legislative
or intergovernmental liaison group formally be
assigned overview responsibility for state coastal
and marine research activities. The group would
also be cognizant of federal activities in this
field and act to maximize federal support for
needed state programs. Of special concern and
importance is organizing state research capabilities
to respond to opportunities afforded by the Coastal
Zone Management Act of 1972. A single agency or
division must have primary responsibility for these
activities, and its selection should be made with
full concurrence of the legislative, executive,
state agency and university community.

Establishment of an overview body to assign
specific agency roles and coordinate marine and
coastal research programs should be'explored care-
fully. As a minimum, membership of this body would
include representatives from the Governor's Council
on Environmental Quality, Joint Legislative Committee
on Environmental Quality, Louisiana Wild Life and
Fisheries Commission,, State Planning Office, Louisiana
Advisory Commission on Coastal and Marine Resources
(or its successor), Register of State Lands, State
Planning Office and the Louisiana Sea Grant Program.

II. Education

A. Secondary Schools

Louisianans have taken the state's abundance of
marine and coastal resources for granted. On the part of
most, there is little appreciation of the state's unique and
bountiful coastal zone and its importance in the history and
economic well-being of Louisiana. This situation has contri-
buted to the slow and inadequate development of marine and
coastal research in Louisiana.

*See Appendix Three for additional treatment of this subject

244

The Commission believes that concerted efforts should be
made to inform our citizens of their marine heritage and
resource dependence. This is needed especially at the secondary
school level. An immediate goal should be the inclusion of
marine and coastal resource Ipaterial as-part of a formal course
in the eighth-grade science curriculum of the public schools.
Federal funds should also be sought to conduct marine science
institutes for high school teachers.

B. Vocational Training

Although the coastal zone has managed over the years to
provide economic and recreational outlets, the people or
Louisiana are not benefiting fully from this wetland bonanza.
Nor will they until -adequately trained local manpower is
available to tap its vast store of natural resources and
develop their great potential for the future.

Insufficient marine-oriented., technologic research and
education have brought about serious problems, which must
be corrected if Louisiana is to be a leader in coastal zone
development, an area upon which so much of the state's future
depends. Among the most serious deficiencies is a shortage7
of locally trained, marine-oriented, technical workers,
such as boat pilots, able-bodied seamen . and dies6l techhicians.
One disheartening consequence is that offshore construction
firms need more than 5,000 welders, and the figure could double
by 1980.

Dr. James P.Schweitzer of the Department of Marine
Sciences at Louisiana State University in Baton Rouge sums
up the most unfortunate aspect of the shortage this way:
ft . . . the highest paying jobs often are filled by out-of-state
persons, owing to the scarcity of well trained local people."

Jobs are generated by offshore-mineral production
becausesatellite industries come into being to satisfy the
manifold requirements and diverse nature of such activity.
The satellite industries which relate most closely to offshore
operations are construction, diving, drilling and transportation.
The availability of jobs in these categories is indicated by
the scope and intensity ofthe satellite operations and evidenced
by the fact that in Louisiana are:

--the world's two largest offshore construction firms,(1)
--the world's three largest offshore crewboat builders,(2)
--five of the world's six largest diving companies
--the world's largest offshore drilling contractor,(4)
--the world.'s two largest offshore boat operators.(5)

245

Consequently, during the past several years, Louisiana
has ranked high--usually third--among the states in total
employment of individuals in marine-related industries. (Only
California and New York consistently employ larger numbers
of people in such activities.) Much of this employment is
associated with the building and repair of ships and boats,.
water transportation and services supporting the offshore
mineral industry. The obvious importance of marine and offshore
technology has not been reflected in the state's vocational
training activities. There are only one to two vocational
training programs in the state aimed at producing marine
technicians.

The Commission recommends that the labor needs
of industry and the present marine technician labor
force composition, i.e., in-state versus out-of-
state, be determined by the appropriate state agency.
It is believed that such an assessment will justify
easy expansion of marine technician training programs.
The South Terrebonne High School (Bourg) and the
Young Memorial Vocational-Technical School (Morgan City)
have developed programs that may well serve as models
for activities in other areas. It should be empha-
sized,, however, that priority would be better assigned
to providing adequate support for existing programs
than to the creation of new ones.

The Commission also recommends establishing
an Offshore Marine Academy. The academy would be a
cooperative endeavor by appropriate universities
and technical schools to develop two- or four-year
programs to train men in generalized capacities
such as management, supervision., ocean engineering
and seamanship.

C. Universities

In 1965, approximately 50 universities in the United
States offered degrees in marine science, but not one was
located in Louisiana. In 1966, a B.S. degree program in
marine biology was established at Nicholls State University
and in 1968, M.S. and Ph.D. programs in marine sciences were
initiated, under Sea Grant auspices, at LSU-Baton Rouge.
Marine-related courses are available at seven other univer-
sities in the state. There can be little doubt concerning
the need for programs aimed at understanding Louisiana's
complex coastal zone ecosystems and the effective management
of associated resources. However, the availability of jobs
for marine science graduates is contingent upon the establish-
ment of such programs. The Commission does not recommend the
creation of new degree programs until this job market is

246

well -defined and existing programs are funded adequately.
Neither criterion is met at the present time. Special
attention should be given the mix of university instruction
available in marine biology, physical oceanography and marine
socio-economic and legal fields.

The Commission believes that, although
existing biological programs require additional
facilities and equipment, primary emphasis should
be given to the strengthening of nonbiological
academic courses and programs. An exception to this
statement is in the systems ecology and population
dynamics fields, where additional program develop-
ment is needed.

It is also strongly recommended that quality
rather than quantity be stressed in all universi@ty
marine science programs and that'adequate support
be provided existing'programs to attain this goal.
The Louisiana Coordinating Council on Higher
Education, or its successor body, should monitor
carefully ongoing and proposed programs to assure
excellence and avoid needless duplication of
effort.

Research on air-cushion, or surface-effect, vehicles is
a field which lends itself to development at the university
level. These vehicles may revolutionize transportation
methods in many offshore areas by serving in lieu of boats and
helicopters. Because these craft are now under construction
in the state., it would be especially appropriate for Louisiana's
universities to initiate a related research program. (Additional
information concerning marine science programs and courses
offered by-Louisiana institutions is included in Appendix
Three.)

III. Facilities

Unlike other Gulf Coast states, Louisiana has no marine
science research and teaching facility. This is especially
unfortunate when one considers the fact that marine and
coastal resources are economically more important 'to Louisiana
than to any other Gulf Coast state. The Louisiana Wild Life
and Fisheries Commission conducts numerous biological and
ecological studies utilizing the extensive marshlands of its
refuge system as natural laboratories and its Marine Laboratory
on Grand Terre for more controlled work.

However. the Marine Laboratory is not equipped to routinely
handle students or university researchers. Most of the LSU
Sea Grant field activities in the Barataria Bay area utilize a
leased camp as a base of operations. Students participate
in these research activities, but there are no classroom or
laboratory facilities for formal or informal instruction. The
University of Southwestern Louisiana maintains a similar
facility at Fearman Lake. Nicholls State University recently

247

built a teaching research laboratory at Port Fourchon, but
the facility is only partially equipped and can handle only
a limited number of students.

The Commission believes there is an immediate
need for a marine science teaching and research
laboratory that would be available to all state
university faculties and students. The laboratory
should be accessible by automobile and boat and
have adequate sleeping and cafeteria equipment
to accommodate a minimum of 60 researchers and/or
students. The board of directors of the laboratory
should include representatives from each major
user university and the operational responsibilities
assigned a full-time, on-site staff. If this
arrangement proves to be impractical, it is
recommended that all major marine science research
and teaching facilities established by state
universities be located at a single site within
the coastal zone to maximize savings and efficiences
that can accrue through joint utilization of support
facilities, equipment and personnel.

Louisiana should also maintain a sea-environment
laboratory placed at the disposal of universities
and industry for study, experimentation adn training
in ocean engineering problems such as ship hull design,
the effect of waves on offshore platforms, the
suitability of materials used in hulls and offshore
platforms and other problems related to the marine
offshore industry.

A first rate marine science research and education program
cannot be developed if Louisiana students, agencies and
indu:@t�,ies must continue to rely on out-of-state facilities
for training and research services, Obtaining such facilities
for the state is a high-priority activity.

248

References

1. Marine Directory, published by Simmons and Boardman.

Worldwide Directory of Offshore Contractors and Equipment,
published by Offshore Magazine, Oil and Gas Journal, et al.

2. Ibid.

3. Ibid.

4. Ibid.

5. Ibid.

249

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CHAPTER SIX
Special Programs for Louisiana's Coastal Zone

SECTION THREE
Recreation, Culture, and Tourism
In Louisiana's Coastal Zone

I. Overview

The m,arshland and swamp areas of the Louisiana coastal
zone are so high in scenic, recreation, wildlife and fish
values that Louisiana is called a "Sportmen's Paradise."
Many believe the quantity and quality of recreation, culture
and tourism outlets in the Louisiana coastal zone are
unequaled elsewhere and constitute great potential for
developing the coastal zone. Recreation, culture and tourism
should be viewed together because they are interrelated.
Tourism depends on recreatio'nal and cultural opportunities,
and recreation depends, in part, on cultural opportunities.
However in this section., recreation, culture and tourism are
treated separately..

It is important to recognize that recreation, culture and
tourism are human values which relate to attractions
in the coastal zone and outside of it. Therefore, this section
covers in rather abstract terms the value of recreation,
culture and.tourism. Particular emphasis.is placed on those
aspects of recreation, culture and tourism which are
significant within the geographical boundaries of the coastal
zone of Louisiana.

It is also important to note that there are at least
four distinct types of land forms in the Louisiana coastal
zone--water, marsh, swamp and highlands. Some recreational
or tourist activities are found only on highlands, e.g., dry
land hunting, picnicking and camping, but others require areas
with more water. Unless specified otherwise, references apply
to activities which are appropriate to the particular land,
forms.

II. RECREATION

A. Physical Problems

Recreation is a benefit which., if properly planned and
managed, does hot degrade coastal resources. However . recre-
ational interests have at times competed with and adversely

251

. I I
affected other uses, such as commercial fisheries 3devlop-
ment of navigation facilities, timber operations and mineral
production.

Additionally, certain problems impede the full use and
enjoyment of recreational resources in the coastal zone.

1. Lack of Recreational Facilities-

In 1971, the State Parks and Recreation Commission
submitted a Comprehensive Outdoor Recreation Plan for Louisiana
so that the Commission could qualify for federal financial
assistance under the Land and Water Conservation Act.(l)
A major theme of this plan is that critical shortages of
adequate recreational facilities exist in the coastal zone
of Louisiana and the rest of the state.

According to the preface of the study:

"Both nationally and in Louisiana there
has been much public interest focalized on
our recreation. Extensive studies by gover-
mental agencies and private interests
indicated conclusively* that the demands by
the ever increasing public population for
wholesome outdoor recreational op]@ortunities
far exceed the supply-of both in quality
and quantity. Simultaneously, it is
conclusively indicated that the national
recreational resources are rapidly being
diverted to other purposes., which could
render these lands and water forever lost
to outdoor recreation."(2)

Similarly, the Corps of Engine ers has found that:

"Recreational development in the state
has not kept pace with demand. Since
1940, the state's population has increased
by about 40% with development falling far
short. Existing facilities used for
swimming, fishing, boating, camping and
p-4-cnicking can accommodate only 28 and 18
percent of the 1970 and 1985 demand,
respectively. The situation j:-n the coastal
area follows closely the overall situation
throughout the state."(3)

A Department of Public Works 1965 inventory of recreational
needs, while somewhat out of date, showed that the ranking
of needs by 1985 would be as follows:

252

(1) Swimming pools
(2) Fi hing
(3) Sw8imming beaches-
(4) Picnicking
(5) Nature Walks
(6)' Dry land hunting
(7) Boating
(8) Waterskiing
(9) Group camping
(10) Hiking
(11) Tent and trailer camping
(12) Wetland (waterfowl) hunting

According to DPW calculations, trends in the coastal zone
and other areas of the state are much the same.(4) It should
be noted that, of the 12 major needs, the top three are
water-oriented. Two needs, fishing, and swimming beaches, are
found predominantly in the coastal zone.

The primary problem is a shortage of developed recre-
ational areas accessible to the public despite the availability
of intrinsically suited areas. According to recent reports
by the State Planning Office:

IlGenerally, public recreation areas are
available in the State in greater
proportion than nationally. Louisiana
has more than one-half [actually two-and-
one half] as many acres avail-
able per 100 thousand persons (50/1,000)
(actually 50/100,0001. as the national
average which is 20 per 100 thousand.-
Yet while the State has more acres
available for recreation per person, it
has three times fewer recreation sites
(about 7 per 100 thousand) compared to
nearly 25 per 100 thousand persons for
the nation as a whole. Recreation '
planning should strive to readjust this
ratio.(5)

The demand for recreation is increasing with the rise in
Louisiana's population--about 40 per cent since the 1940s.
Further increasing the demand for recreation are more leisure
time, longer vacations and shorter work weeks. Additionally,
according to the State Parks and Recreation Commission,
Louisiana residents exceed the national average for partici-
pation in outdoor recreation. This is evident especially in
hunting, fishing, and camping for hunting and fishing
purposes.(6)

253

The following paragraphs focus on specific recreation
needs:

a. Swimming

Swimming is the most popular outdoor recreation activity
and, at present, demand for swimming outlets greatly exceeds
supply. At the current rate, the need for swimming pools
and beaches will nearly double by 1985. Much of the demand
is being satisfied by pools., undeveloped streams, lakes
and reservoirs, but there is a critical shortage of beaches
developed for public recreation in the coastal zone.(7)

Some undeveloped beaches are found along the coastal zone
Gulf shoreline and along the barrier islands. However,
inaccessibility and too few public facilities, e.g., bathhouses,
sanitary facilities, and trash receptacles, detract from their
acceptance.by the public. Moreover, many of the areas may.
not be naturally suited for recreation because much of it is
marsh and not conducive to such development. The Commission
believes that these undeveloped areas should be assessed to
determine their suitability for beach recreation.

b. Bicycling (Pedal-Propelled)

Bicycling ranks second in outdoor recreation participation.
However, no bike ways or bike paths are in the coastal zone.
The State Parks and Recreation Commission suggests that it
would require little expense to mark bike ways in-highlands
along lesser traveled country roads and within large
recreational areas such as parks. A problem is that high
land in the coastal zone is covered with roads. Bike-ways
could-be placed in highland areas along scenic country routes
connecting scenic, historical and recreational areas. The
State Parks and Recreation Commission also suggests that
agencies responsible for outdoor recreation should be
encouraged to incorporate bike ways into their plans. This
would be applicable especially in the beauteous upland Florida
Parishes, where pipeline and powerline rights-of-way could be
used to good advantage as bike ways. However, utilization of
the rights-of-way involves legal procedures in that they are
privately held.

Motor-propelled cycles or bikes could be accommodated by
highways, roads, or strips along them designated as "motor-
propelled cycle or*b--ke ways."

254

C. Sightseeing and Driving for Pleasure

Sightseeing and driving for,pleasure are favorite
recreational activit ies. The coastal zone is rich in scenic
attractions, but there are..no established systems for scenic
highways and roadways in highland areas. Toledo Bend
Reservoir road in west-central Louisiana has been planned
with proposed scenic highways and parksites. Perhaps Toledo
@Bend Reservoir Road could be used as'a model for developing
scenic highway systems in the,coastal zone. Indeed,, in the
coastal zone,.one finds',many beautiful roads, such as the
Old Mississippi River Road and the Azalea Trail, which could
be'-converted into scenic highways. Road parking areas,
scenic outlooks, roadside rest areas and picnic areas could
be attached to these highways. The State Planning Office has
recommended that wayside, rest or picnic areas be built along
scenic highways where there are antebellum homes, geological
and botanical attractions, or scenic streams.

d. Outdoor-Game Playfields

The State Parks and Recreation Commission study indicates
a.pervasive need for outdoor-game playfields.

e.. Water-Based Recreational Activities

Water-based activities include fishing, boating 3 water
skiing, canoeing, sailing, crawfishing, crabbing, floundering,
frogging and shrimping. Lakes, rivers and bayous are the
favorites of coastal zone residents for water sports. The
State Parks and Recreation Commission reports it is certain
the demand for recreational water facilities will continue
to increase rapidly. According,to the Commission, access to
water for skiing, recreational fishing, and motor-boating is
far below need,s, which are expected to increase dramatically
over the future years. Oneexception may be canoeing, a
popular sport, because it appears that facilities for canoeing
will be adequate in future years in most areas. The State
Parks and Recreation Commission is aware of the need for
parking and restroom facilities on streams suitable for.canoe
trips.

f . Hunting

Hunting is a traditional sport-enjoyed_by thousands of
people. However, according to the State Parks and Recreation
Commission, "If present trends of urbanization and increasing
population, intensified industrialization, and large scale
agriculture p-roduction of such crops as soybeans continue,
hunting in the state will soon be in short supply."(8)
According to the State Planning.Office:

255

"At the present time . . . the amount of
needed land for wildlife hunting exceeds
the land available in game management
areas. Double the amount is needed by
1985. By the year 2000 it is estimated
that . . . 47,312 wetland acres must be
.acquired to meet projected recreation
hunting needs.11(g)

Some landowners have opened land to unrestricted public
hunting and others allow hunting by permission. More
landowners should be encouraged to make their lands available
to the public for this kind of use.

g. Camping

Weekend camping which has experienced a 953 per cent
increase recently, is the fastest growing outdoor recreational
pastime. Yet, according to the State Parks and Recreation
Commission, the need for acreage for tent and trailer camping
is'critical. Using campgrounds in excess of carrying capacity,
is leading to destruction of scenic and aesthetic values.
Present demand cannot be met by the overcrowded, congested
public and private campgrounds, whose design and carrying
capacity render them inadequate.

h. Horseback Riding

Horseback riding is found only in highland areas,
predominantly less traveled roads, fields, forests and on the
few designated'horse trails. Opportunities for horseback
riding in or near urban areas are extremely limited. The
farms and ranches near cities could offer horseback riding on
a user fee basis to relieve much of the demand. According
to the State Parks and Recreation Commission' large public
lands should be opened, when possible, for horseback riding,
and agencies with land holdings should be encouraged to provide
facilities. Parks in highland areas also offer potential for
horseback riding,trails.

i. Hiking Trails

The number of developed hiking trails and nature walks is
inadequate. An abundance of natural areas would be suitable
for hiking trails and nature walk development, with the proper
planning.

256

Golf

The State Parks and Recreation Commission recognizes
the need for more public golf courses near urban centers.(10)

k. Bird-watching

Louisiana has many spec,ies of birds and offers a wide
variety of bird habitats. The coastal zone is in the southern
terminus of the Mississippi flyway and receives almost
unbelievable numbers of migratory birds, many of which winter
in Louisiana. There are many bird-watching clubs and many
people attract the birds with backyard feeders. Bird-watching
can be enjoyed simultaneously-with other recreation. According
to the State Parks and Recreation Commission, nature trails ,
should be developed in suitable areas to increase opportunities
to watch birds. Constructing feeders in marshes and swamps
is a means of observing all forms of wildlife which inhabit
these areas. In addition, Louisiana has many state and federal
refuges, many state wildlife management areas and private.
refuges with great potential for bird-watching.

1. Historical Sites

According to the study of the State Parks and'Recrea tion
Commission, the state must strengthen its historic preservation
program by systematic and competent appraisal of the historic
significance of various sites. Further, sinve Chalmette
Battlefield in St. Bernard Parish is Louisiana's only historic
site administered by the National Park Service, it is felt
that the state should take all appropriate action to get
federal assistance programs for historic preservation.

M. Wildlife Management and Refuge Areas

The difference between a wildlife management area and
a refuge is that a wildlife management area is opened re'gularly
for hunting but hunting is not allowed on a refuge. The-refuges
are used as resting places for-waterfowl. Table 6.1 provides
data'related to:,(11)

--wildlife management areas leased to or owned by the
State of Louisiana in the c oastal zone.,

--wildlife refuges owned by the State of Louisiana in
the coastal zone, and

--wildlife refuges owned and supervised by the U.S.
Department of the Interior in Louisiana.

.257

STATE OF LOUISIANA WILDLIFE MANAGEMENT AREAS

Name & Parish Date Acquired Acreage Ownership

Biloxi Oct. 14, 1968 39,583 Biloxi Marsh Lands
St. Bernard Parish Lease* Expiration, Corporation
Oct. 14,1978

Bohemia 1968 33,000 License
Plaquemines Parish Leaae expiration New Orleans
De c. 16 1993

Bonnet Carre 1957 3,7-89 License
co St. Charles Parish U.S. Army

Pass-a-Loutre 1921 66,000 Title was passed
Plaquemines from State of La.
to Dept. of Conserv.
Act 52 of 1921
Pearl River Dec. 1971 16,732 Purchased by La.'
St. Tammany Parish Wild Life & Fisheries
Commission

Pointe-au-Chien 1968 28 3243-8.8 Purchased by La.
Terrebonne & Wild Life & Fisheries
Lafourche Parishes

Sabine Island July 31, 1968 85103@ 39 Owned by State of
.Calcasieu Lease Expiration Louisiana
July 31, 1990)

Table 6.1

Name & Parish Date Acquired Acreage Ownership

Salvador 1968 27,498.83 Purchased by
St. Charles La. Wild Life
& Fisheries Comm.

Wisner May 13, 1968 26,310 Edward-Wisner
LaFourche Parish Lease Expiration Donation Advisory
May 13, 19-78, Committee

Zemurray 1965 5,294.88 Zemurray Estate
Tangipahoa Lease Expiration
Dec., 1980

N) State Wildlife Nov. 4 1911 Donated to State
\-n 1 13,000
ko Vermilion Parish by Ward-McIlhenny

Marsh Island Nov. 6, 1920 79,000 Donated to State by
Iberia Parish Russell-Sage-Found-
at1on

Rockefeller Nov. 8, 1920 86,000 Donated to State
Vermilion & Rockefeller Foundation
Cameron Parishes
St. Tammany Jan.. 31, 1938 1,600 Purchased by Dept. of
St. Tammany Parish Conserv. from Great
Southern Lumber Co.,

Sabine National Wild- (Federal Refuge) 142,717 U.S. Dept. of the
life Refuge Interior
Cameron Parish

Fig. 6.1 (continued)

Name Parish Date Acquired Acreage Ownership

Lacassine National (Federal Refuge) 31,125 U.S. Dept. of
Wildlife Refuge the Interior
Cameron Parish
Delta National Wild- (Federal Refuge) 48,834 U.S. Dept. of
life-Refuge the Interior
Plaquemines Parish

Fig. 6.1 (continued)

2. Degradation of Scenic and Aesthetic Resources

Pollution

Accordin g to the State Parks and Recreation Commission:

"Although Louisiana does have an abundance
of water,, much of it is presently inaccessible
or unsuitable for recreation use. ... Many
lakes, rivers, and streams in Louisiana are
unsuitable for recreation due to dense aquatic.
vegetation such as water hyacinth, alligator
weed, etc., shallow water, the presence of
trees, stumps or other obBtacles; and
industrial., agricultural, and domestic
pollu.tion."(12)

Water pollution problems in the coastal zone often have an
ad-verse effect on recreation. For example, Lake Pontchartrain
and some waterbodies in Plaquemines Parish have been
restricted for types of recreation on frequent occasions.(13)

b. Erosion

According to the-,U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, significant
:shoreline erosion along the entire coast of Louisiana is '
causing degradation of scenic and aesthetic resources available
for recreation.(14)

C. Alteration of Streqms

An evaluation of.Louisianals streams conducted by the
Louisiana Wild Life and Fisheries Commission showed that., of
63 major streams in the state, only 12 were unaffected by flood
control, drainage, and navigation-projects of public
agencies.(15) According to the State Planning Office:

"Over 75 per cent of the streams have been
changed or were scheduled for projects
which would drastically alter their
appearances. Reservoir construction,
channelization, and-clearing and snagging
projects were the most prevalent means
used by the government in their flood
control and drainage programs. Yet channel

261

excavation is the most damaging of the
stream,improvement practices. Stream
disturbance.projects have destroyed
more stream miles than pollution, and
Louisiana is rapidly losing all its
natural streams and rivers to such
construction programs. Clearly, a
priority decision must be made even
if a few are to be preserved for scenic
recreation purposes."(16)

According to the State Parks and Recreation Commission:

"Recent wholesale clearing of bottomland
hardwood, the soybean production and
flooding for impoundments has cauzed a
critical shortage of suitable wildlife
habitat in the state of Louisiana. . .11(17/)

d. Lack of Public Access

Existing natural resources of the coastal zone provide
a firm basis for meeting present and future recreational needs.
However, because of under development, much of coastal
Louisiana is currently not readily accessible.

According to the State Parks and Recreation Commission:

"Although Louisiana does have an abundance
of water, much of it is presently
inaccessible or unsuitable for recreational
use. In Louisiana the basic problem in
planning for these activities is providing
access tb water suitable for recreation. . . .
Many acres are suitable for outdoor recre-
ation but lack access. Access can be
provided by boat ramps, boat hoists, rental
boats,, or fishing wharfs or piers."(18)

Another problem relating to access is the shortage of
recreation facilities in urban areas.(19) Since there are
several major urban areas in the coastal zone, large portions
of the population, particularly the.urban poor, are deprived
of ready access to coastal zone recreation areas. It has
been suggested that there is a need for "pocket parks" or
11mini-parks.11 small acreages of urban terrain devoted to
recreational purposes.(20)

262

According to the State Parks and Recreation Commission
still another problem is the lack of facilities, and consider-
ation for the outdoor recreation needs of the aged, handi-
-capped and those otherwise incapacitated.(21)

B. Untapped Recreation Potential in the Coastal Zone

1. Multiple Use of Levees and Batture

Many miles of artificial levees winding throughout
Louisiana's coastal zone have for their sole purpose
the protection of lowlying adjacent lands from flooding
Because of the periodic nature of flood stages, many acres
of batture (land between the levee and water source) are,
during many months of the year, dry and suited for recreation.
The State Parks and Recreation Commission recommends that
attempts be made to coordinate efforts among state and
federal levee authorities to zone levee and adjacent batture
in suitable areas for hiking, horseback and cycle trails, and
other recreation.(22) Multiple use of levee and batture lands
for recreation would offer many advantages: linear parks
following population densities and.the major rivers, open
space and recreational camping sites close to historic and
cultural locations, such as plantation homes. However,
commercial and industrial interests are currently using
batture and levee lands in certain areas (e.g. for barge
docking). Therefore, the-Commission believes that commercial
and industrial uses of levee and batture lands should
predominantly oc-cur in areas other than where recreational
uses take place.

2. Lake Pontchartrain

Lake Pontchartrain fulfills many of the water-based
recreation demands of the New Orleans metropolitan-area.
On the other hand, competing demands on the lake, e.g., dredge
and fill, urban and residential development, sewage disposal,
shell dredging, hurricane' protection, and mineral develop-
ment,(23) are diminishing the lake's capacity for public
recreation. Proper planning could reconcile the competing
demands and maximize the public's access to recreation in the
in the lake.

3. The Old Mississippi River Road

Along the,Old Mississippi River Road between New Orleans
and Baton Rouge, there is a legacy of state history, plantation
homes and their surroundings, all of which are a part of
Louisiana's distinct cultural heritage. According to the
State Planning Office:

263

"While the River Road is still one of the
most scenic in the state, legislative
measures should be taken to preserve these
surroundings as well as to serve the needs
of growing industries. This can be
accomplished by effective zoning to insure
that green and open spaces-will remain
attractive. Should the road become an
official scenic route, a program of scenic
picnic sites or wayside areas and recre-
ational uses of the levees is highly
recommended."(24)

Recreational uses of the levee and batture by the public
require that access be provided by roads over the levee and
batture. Scenic viewing of the river and batture could be
provided by short (a mile or so) strips of road on top of
the levee, easily accessible to travelers on the old
Mississippi River Road.

4. Atchafalaya Basin

The Atchafalaya Basin, containing about 585,000 acres of
swamp, is an outstanding wilderness areas.(25) The Governor's
Commission on the Atchafalaya Basin, and the Atchafalaya Basin
Division of the Louisiana Department of Public Works, were
created by the 1972 legislature to formulate a land and water
use plan for recreational use of the Basin.

5. Swamp Tourist Attractions

Various groups have recommended establishing swamp tourist
areas, with boardwalks in the swamps, guided tours, visitation
centers, nature preserves and educational opportunities, all
with an emp@hasis on observation rather than use. Such
facilities would allow tourists to see swamps and swamp
animals and would promote a consciousness of the vast value
of our coastal estuarine area.(26) Similar development should
be considered in other areas.

6. Pearl River Basin

The State Parks and Recreation Commission recommends
developing recreational opportunities in the Pearl River Basin.
The Commission feels that development of facilities.in the
basin would provide outdoor recreational opportunities to the
metropolitan area of New Orleans.(27)

264

7. Great River National Park

The Department of Public Works recommends that a "Great
River National Park," accessible only by boat, should be
established at the mouth of the Mississippi River. Such a
park would allow people to view the delta-building process,
the mud lumps, wildlife, and other natural phenomena which
characterize the mouth of one of the greatest rivers in the
world and one of the most unusual deltaic processes.(28)

8. Multiple Use of Private Lands

Much of the marsh, swamp, and forest land of the coastal
zone is privately owned.' Perhaps, careful multiple-use land
management concepts could be developed on these lands, with
an emphasis on enhancing recreational potential for the public..

9. Plantation Homes and Other Historic Buildings

There are a large number of beautiful antebellum
plantation homes in Louisiana, particularly along the old
Mississippi River Road, Bayou Lafourche and Bayou Teche. The
recreation and tourism potential of these homes is relatively
untapped. Many are historic spots, whose culture is rooted
in the antebellum agrarian economy of South Louisiana. In
addition, the many fascinating little communities and other
historical buildings should be revitalized and used as .
recreation, culture and tourism centers. The state could play
6everal roles in the restoration ofthese homes and buildings.
The State Parks and Recreation Commission could purchase and
restore the old homes and buildings. (At present, Oakley House
is the only home owned by the state.) Louisiana could also
establish for these historic spots a directory system
coordinated with a state scenic highway system as follows.

10. Scenic Highway System

Several agencies have recommended establishing a scenic
highway system in highland areas on existing roadways to serve
the recreational sites. New recreational areas 'would be
developed adjacent to these scenic routes. These highways
would intersect major highways and be within an hour's drive
of major coastal zone cities. In addition to serving the
recreation units, the scenic highway system would pass through
major landscape areas of the state, including historic homes

265

and other historic buildings, and would offer the motorist
a vivid picture of attractions in the Louisiana coastal zone.
off-road parking areas, scenic overlooks, roadside rest
areas, and picnic areas would be available.(29)

C. Policy Problems

1. Lack of Adequate Funding

One of the major problems impeding development of a
comprehensive recreation system for the coastal zone of
Louisiana is perennial: insufficient funding of state agencies
with recreational responsibilities. For example, not enough
funds are available to acquire park sites (30), for proper
administration of the Natural and Scenic Rivers System, for
acquiring game management areas(31), dr@building access
roads.

2. Lack of Recreational Policy

As pointed out in the Commission's first annual report
and exemplified by the controversy,over commercial development
of Fontainebleau State Park, policy for defining how public
park areas ought to be utilized and preserved is nonexistent.

Another example of lack of recreational policy is the
current controversy over how the Natural and Scenic Rivers
System should be administered. The Natural and Scenic Rivers
System designates 35 streams to be preserved and names the
Wild Life and Fisheries Commission as the state agency to
administer the system. The act also provides that the Wild
Life and Fisheries Commission shall purchase scenic and surface
easements for recreational purposes. Yet, the Wild Life and
Fisheries Commission is given no guidance or guidelines for
administratfon of this system.

3. Lark of Systems Approach to Recreation

In the past,*there seems*to have been a-want of a systems
approach for coastal zone recreational facilities to tie
together the different recreational elements into a system
for the entire coastal zone. Perhaps, the Natural and Scenic
Rivers System, multiple use of levee batture for recreational
purposes, swamp parks, and the scenic highway system, utiliz-
ing such roads as the old Mississippi River Road, etc., could

2 66

be blended to inter lace the coastal zone and provide incal-
culable recreational, tourism, and cultural opportunities
-for everyone. However, zoning, land use controls and adequate
funding would be necessary for development of such a system
for the coastal zone.

D. Economics of Recreation

The economic value of recreation in the. coastal zone
has not been proved nor is it understood. If coastal recreation,
in all its forms and ramifications, can be called an industry,
it can rank at least a close third to the mineral and agri-
cultural industries in economic importance. For example,
sports fishermen harvest in excess of 100 million pound@ of
estuarine fishes annually. The recreational value of the
Louisiana coastal zone for sports fishing alone has been
estimated at $92 million.(32) Other economic values of coastal
zone recreation are not always recognized. Those include:
revenues from recreation related'to tourism'. Itnewtv money
brought into localities by nonresidents attracted by the
recreational opportunities, increased attractiveness of the
coastal zone for certain types of labor-intensive businesses
because the coastal zone.is a desirable place to live, and
business opportunities through direct service to recreationists,
e.g., sales of paraphernalia of outdoor recreation, boating,
etc.

However, economic benefits of the coastal zone should be
considered in the context of coastal ecology and quality of
life.

The Sea Grant-Program of the University of Wisconsin
states:

"Recreational utilization and development
should be encouraged but not at any price.
We can no longer pursue the short range
improvement of human existence at the
expense of long range environmental
rcpercussions that eventually return to
man. In increasing the recreation .
utilization of the marine environment,
we must, through ecologically sensitive
technology and user-resource planning
avoid the disasters wrought on.many of
our inland lake resources. This includes
filling, peripheral*deveiopment, and
accelerated eutrophication."(33)

267

Perhaps recreational zoning or recreational land use
policies could be developed so that certain ecologically
sensitive or fragile areas in,the coastal zone can be
preserved in their wilderness state. However, these
policies should also allow for developing other areas for
various levels of recreational activities.

E. Possible Adverse Effects of Recreation

Although the Commission recognizes the positive effects
of recreation, it believes there are also negative effects,
namely, from an ecologicallstandpoint. These include:

1. Problems attendant to the disposal of sewage
generated by recreationists.

2. Litter (solid waste).

3. Loss of habitat through noise, trampling and cutting
of vegetation, and construction of physical facilities.

4. Adverse environmental effects of establishing access
routes to recreational sites.

5. Increased erosion from excessive use.

6. Loss of wilderness-characteristics and ecosystem
changes because of commercial recreational development.

F. Conclusions and Recommendations

1. While the Commission recognizes recreation is a
positive value for the coastal zone, the Commission also
believes that recreation has at times caused problems and has
competed with other values and uses of the coastal zone. Among
these are ecology, commercial fisheries and trapping, develop-
ment of navigation facilities, mineral production and timber
production. The Commission believes that recreation'uses of
the coastal zone must be carefully balanced against other
values and uses. To attain the appropriate balance, the
Commission recommends the following:

268

a. Every effort,should be made by the
Stream Control Commission and other responsible
agencies to provide stricter and more systematic
enforcement of state water pollution control
laws. b.' The Coastal Resources Commission should
develop a use plan for Lake Pontchartrain to
facilitate recreation in the lake and reconcile
competing demands on the lake, such as those
for dredge and fill, urban and residenti.al
development, shell dredging, hurricane protection,
mineral development, and recreation.

C. The Coastal Resources Commission should
develop a comprehensive recreation policy which
would provide resource decision-makers with
guidelines explaining how land and water use
decisions relating to recreation are to be made.
Park use and administration of the Natural and
Scenic Rivers System are examples of such decisions.
The basic thrust of'the policy would be to provide
for recreation while protecting ecologically
sensitive or fragile areas*in the coastal zon 'e
However, the policy should also allow for develop-
ment of other areas for recreation.

d. Recreational elements should be linked
into a recreational system for the coastal zone.
The Natural and Scenic Rivers System, multiple
use of batture lands for recreation, and the Scenic
Highway System,would all be tied together in such a
system.

2. Although the coastal zone of Louisiana has certain land
and water areas intrinsically suitable for recreation, many of
these areas are unusable for recreation because of inadequate
public access As a result, public demand for wholesome
outdoor recreational outlets far exceeds the accessible supply
in quality and quantity. To alleviate the problem, the
Commission recommends that the following actions be undertaken,
all consistent with other important values of the coastal zone.

a. Recreation planning by the State Parks
and Recreation Commission and other agencies
should seek to establish adequate numbers of
publicly accessible sites in the coastal zone.

269

b. The state legislature should provide
adequate funding for development of a recre-
ational system for the coastal zone..

c. Cycle, foot and horse trails should be
built in appropriate parks and along scenic
country routes, with each use being independent
of the other.

d. Continual effort should be made between-
state agencies and private landowners-to provide
hunting on private lands, with adequate incentive
for landowners who make their lands available.
However, statutory or contractual measures should
be encouraged to relieve from liability landowners
,eho open their lands to sportsmen.

e. Construction of boat ramps, fishing
wharfs or piers should be encouraged in selected
areas.

f. Careful multiple-use land management
concepts should be encouraged on private lands,
with an emphasis on furthering their potential
for public recreation.

g. Additional camping grounds with appropriate
sanitary facilities should be provided in dry-land
areas of the coastal zone.

h. Hiking trails and nature walks should be
constructed in dry-land areas of the coastal zone.

i. "Pocket parks," or "mini-parks"--small
acreages of urban terrain devoted to recreation--
should be developed.

j. The State Highway Department should
institute a scenic highway system for highways in
the coastal zone, particularly in areas with
geological, botanical or scenic attractions. The
old Mississippi River Road and the Azalea Trail
should be designated officially as scenic highways.

k. Appropriate open spaces, off-road parking,
picnic areas and roadside restaurants'should be
attached to the scenic highways.

270

1. The U.S. Army Corps of Enginee rs, New
Orleans District, the Department of Public Works,
the levee boards and private landowners should
open available levee, batture and floodway lands
for multiple recreational use for such things as
camping, hiking, nature trails., horseback riding,
and cycle trails, with due consideration to
commercial interests.

M. Coastal zone beach areas suitable for
recreation.should be developed and made accessible
to the public.

3. The Commission recognizes that within the coastal zone
are unique natural estuarine and deltaic processes. To promote
better appreciation of these processes, the Commission
recommends the following:

a. Swamp parks should be established in
certain swamp areas and placed under the
direction of the Louisiana Wild Life and Fisheries
Commission. Included would be boardwalks, guided
tours, nature preserves and education opportunities.
The emphasis would be on observation rather than
physical use so as to preserve the areas in their
natural state.

b. A site should be established at the mouth
of the Mississippi River as an observatory for
deltaic processes.

III. CULTURE

A review of some of the distinct cultural and historiaal
values found only in south Louisiana may provide a more vivid
perspective of the people living inthe coastal zone.

A. Architecture

Until recently, architectural form in Louisiana's coastal
zone has been integrated totally with the ecology of the area-.
Plantation homes of French, Greek-Revival and many other
architectural styles lace the waterways, the.centers of commerce
of the antebellum era. Old museums, churches and forts are
also distinctive architectural elements of the coastal zone.

271

Hip roofs and large overhangs kept out semitropical rains;
louvered, movable shutters were the nineteenth century
counterpart of air-conditioning. Homes on stilts were the
answer to periodic flooding. It seems, however, that
much of this natural architectural form is being supplanted
by forms which are not in harm,ony with the natural environ-
ment.

B. Festivals

Yearly, throughout the coastal zone, there are many
festivals and celebrations which reflect the lifestyles of
south Louisianans. All have a unique south Louisiana flavor
resulting from the merging of different cultures in the
coastal zone and the varied customs that still survive.
Mardi Gras, the Cochoni de Lait, the Crawfish Festival, pirogue
races, the Jambalaya Festival, Fais do do, country dances and
Cajun fiddles are all important parts of the distinct cultural
heritage of the coastal zone.

C.. Music

French and Spanish colonial regimes in Louisiana were
superior to English regimes on several counts, one of the most
important being tolerance for the life styles of the divergent
cultures. In Louisiana, African slaves were permitted to
continue their musical and social traditions within broadly
defined limits, while their freedom of expression was suppressed
ruthlessly in English colonial cities of Charleston and
Savannah. Musicologists say that is the reason jazz originated
in New Orleans rather than in Charleston or Atlanta. The
surrounding area of New Orleans is rich with the folk music of
the Acadians, and the country and Negro music of the rural
south. Some twentieth century popular music owes more to
Louisiana than to any other geographical region in the nation.

D. Cuisine

Creole cooking--gumbo, jambalaya.a l1acadienne, crawfish
bisque, redfish courtbouillon--is part of a distinctive and
subtle cuisine developed through the centuries into one of
the great cooking bt@rles of the world. Creole cookery is an
amalgam of several cultural strains--the economy of provincial
French, tropical lushness of the Indies, and hot spices of the
Spanish. With the rich fishery harvest of the coastal zone,
this amalgam has produced the most distinctive of all American
cuisines.

272

Accompanying this development is the conviction that
the food must be savored, not merely devoured. Even in times
of near famine.,@cleverly contrived foods and food combinations,
such as chicory "cuts" in scarce coffee, were developed, and
slaves subsisted on leftover "greens" from the master's table.
Coastal zone'residents and tourists can dine in the
spectacular New Orleans French restaurants or little out-of-
the-way cafes all over the coastal tone.

E. Conclusions and Recommendations

The Commission recognizes the existence of a distinct
South Louisiana culture and history of positive value which
adds to the quality of life of people living.within the
geographical boundaries of the coastal zone. So that these
values may be preserved and enjoyed by more people, the
Commission recommends the following:

1. If the scenic highway system is
established as recommended herein (II F 2j),
it is recommended further that the scenic
highways be designated in the vicinity of
antebellum homes to provide additional access
to them.

2. The Historical Preservation and
Cultural Commission should establish a
directory system for historical and cultural
spots-in the coastal zone. The system.would.
coordinate with the Scenic State Highway
System.

3. The State Parks and Recreation
Commission should purchase and restore as
many old plantation homes and historic
buildings as possible.

IV. TOURISM

Tourism is closely tied in with recreation and culture
because much of the-tourism potential of the coastal zone is
directly dependent on recreational and cultural opportunities.
Tourism is an important coastal zone industry which.should be
developed so long as this. development is balanced carefully with
other coastal zone values.

273

For example, in 1971, 14 million out-of-state visitors
spent $420 million and the total tourism spending was $650
million.(34) (Coastal zone figures are not available but it
is assumed that spending was higher in the coastal zone than
in.any other single area because New Orleans and other
tourist attractions are part of the coastal zone.) In this
context, it should be noted that Louisiana spends substantially
less promoting tourism than many other states. For
example, Louisiana spends $85,000 on such promotion but the
state of Virginia spends $650,000.(35)

To promote tourism properly in the coastal zone, the state
must develop mechanisms for'informing and educating Louisiana
residents and others of the vast recreational and cultural
opportunities of the coastal zone. One problem in this regard
has been inadequate promotion of the rural recreation and-
cultural opportunities of the coastal zone. Louisiana sends
out tourist brochures displaying moss-draped cypress trees,
swamps, antebellum homes and other historic sites of the
coastal zone, but the state tourism industry never really
directs tourists to the rural areas. Generally, they are
directed to Bourbon Street in the New Orleans French Quarter.

State government must realize that tourism development,
in consonance with the natural and environmental values of
the coastal zone, offers great human.and economic potential.

A. Possible Adverse Effects of Tourism

While the Commission realizes the positive effects of
tourism3 it also recognizes negative effects stemming from
ecological considerations. (For a listing, see II E 1-6.)

B. Conclusions and Recommendations

The Commission recognizes that tourism in the coastal zone
is an important industry which should'be,developed, provided
this development is balanced carefully with other coastal zone
values. To develop tourism in the coastal zone, the Commission
makes the following recommendations.

.1. The Tourist Development Commission
should foster, with the proper environmental
protection measures, tours in certain.carefully
defined areas of the coastal zone.

274

2. The Tourist Development Commission
should promote adequately the rural recreation
and cultural opportunities of the coastal zone.

3. The Tourist Development Commission
should devise mechanisms for informing and
educating Louisiana residents and others of
the vast values and unique qualities of the
Louisiana coastal zone.

4. The legislature should be encouraged
to appropriate more money to the Tourist
Development Commission for promotion of tourism
opportunities in the coastal zone.

275

References

1. State of Louisiana Comprehensive Outdoor Recreation
Plan - 1970-1975 (1971) (hereinafter cited as
Comprehensive Plan), State Parks and Recreation
Commission.

2. Ibid., p. 8.

3. Louisiana Coastal Area, Plan of Survey, May 1970,
(hereinafter cited as Plan of Survey), U.S. Army
Corps of Engineers, New Orleans District.

4. A Summary of.Preliminary Findings Concerning the
Louisiana State Plan (1965) (hereinafter cited as
Preliminary Findings), Department of Public Works.
5. Ini'tial Elements Toward.a Comprehensive State Plan.,
Volume 2 (1972), p.-?82, (hereinafter cited as
Initial Elements), State Planning Office.

6. Comprehensive Plan, op. cit., P. 3-13.

7. Conservation Foundation,.Newsletter (May 1970).

8. Comprehensive Plan, op Cit., P. 5.26.

9. Initial Elements, op. cit., p. 428.

10. Init.ial Elements, op. cit.3 P. 382.

11. Compilation by Louisiana Wild Life and Fisheries Commission
(Revised March 20, 1973).

12. Comprehensive Plan, op. cit., P. 5.11.

13. Ibid, p. 8.165.

14., Plan of Survey, OP.- Cit-3 P. 31.

.15. Initial Elements, op..,cit., p. 437.
16. Ibid., p. 438.

17. Comprehensive Plan3 OP cit., P. 3-13,-

277

18. Comprehensive Plan, op. cit., P. 5.11.

19. Comprehensive Plan, op. cit., P. 7.6.

20. Dr. Charles E. Fryling, Louisiana State.University
Baton Rouge, technical a 'dvisor, "Outdoor Recreation
Uses of Coastal Areas," September 11, 1972.

21. Comp rehensive Plan, op. cit., PP. 714 and 8.171.

22. Comprehensive Plan, op. cit., P.,7-5.
23. Initial Elements, op. cit.,-p. 442.

24. Ini-tial Elements, op. cit.,, p. 442.

25. Comprehensive Plan, op. cit., P. @3-111-

26. Times-Picayune, August 30, 1972. A similar suggestion
was submitted to the Advisory Commission September
11, 1972, by Robert Murray of the Loui.siana Wild Life
and Fisheries Commission.

27. Comprehensive Plan, op. cit., p. 8.4.

28. Preliminary Findings, op. cit., p. 133.

29. Ibid., p. 134.

30. Gus.Stacy, State Parks and Recreation Commission,
technical adviser.,,Suggestion to the Advisory Commission.
(September 11, 1972).

31. Louisiana Wild Life and Fisheries Commission., "13th
Biennial Report" (1968-1969).

32. Louisiana Wild Life and Fisheries Statement,, Morgan City
Public Hearing (November 9, 1972).

33. The Social and E conomic Significance of Recreation
Activities in the Marine Environment, p. 8. (January
1972, University of Wisconsin Sea Grant Program).

34.. Louisiana Tourism, (1971). Louisiana Travel Promotion
Association.

35. Carlton McConnell,, State Parks and Recreation Commission,
Suggestion to the Advisory Commission, September 11,
1972.

278

CHAPTER SIX
Special Programs for Louisiana's Coastal Zone,

SECTION FOUR
New Developments of Significance
To Louisiana''s Coastal-Zone

The coastal zone, one of Louisiana's most valuable
resources, is important not only for its contributions to
the state's economy, but also for scenic beauty, recre-
ational uses and its role as a buffer zone protecting
populated areas from storm surge.

Spurred by advances in research and-technol.bgy, the
coastal region is becoming subject to new uses. Careful
research i& needed to explore the important economic and
-social benefits of these new uses. Environmental
impacts and stresses which might affect living and non-
living resources must be examined.

The Commission feels that, it would be beneficial to
examine some of the areas where research into these
new uses is in progress. The state should promote further
research and experimentation in these areas so that their
potential can be analyzed'intelligently and realistically..

Salt Domes

The vast quantities o f domal and bedded salt in
Louisiana's coastal zone are part of this potential. For
example3 th6 salt,.mayibe of use in solving disposal problems.
Salt is impermeable to liquids and gases. Itoften
occurs in the subsurface as thick tabular bodies and massive
intrusives-. Because of these characteristics, salt
deposits may be valuable for waste storage. The potential for
utilizing bedded salt for disposing of high-level radioactive
wastes has been demonstrated by industry. Perhaps techniques
could be developed to allow for disposal of such wastes in
domal salt cavities. With the growth of the nuclear power
industry, these possibilities are timely, but not without
such problems as the possibility of triggering movement
through heat from radioactive decay. Salt domes have a
high temperature due to the.depth at which they exist.
Because of these high.temperatures and the excellent heat
conductivity of salt, perhaps other wastes, even s olid wastes,
could be disposed of in solution cavities of certain salt
domes and their degradation accelerated by the higher
temperature.

*New developments have been discussed in Chapters Two and Four
of this report, -as well as other sections of Chapter Six.

279

Another possibility for utilizing abandoned mines or
solution cavities in salt dome-s involves their use as
holdover chambers for compressed'air in the storage of off-
peak electrical energy. The idea of air compressed by
low-cost energy has been explored in West Germany. A
variation, using a reversible compressor-expander, has been
suggested in Louisiana(l). The energy would be-reclaimed by
leasing the stored air through the compressor-expander
to generate power. Elevated temperatures within the salt
would be utilized to increase the efficiency of the operation.

Also proposed has been the generation of methane gas
.from organic wastes(2). Abandoned salt domes are sug Igested
for use as containment vessels for wastes during the gener-
ation process. One technical problem is related to the
salt dome temperature which would not be sufficient to
support the anaerobic decomposition of the organic materials'
(the process of generating methane gas). However,'it is
suggested that enough heat will be generated by aer.obic de-
composition within the dome to sustain the process. This
process, if and when developed, could serve t he two-fold
purpose of serving as a sewage disposal-technique and a
means of natural gas generation.

Use of Marsh for Waste Treatment

Wastewater effluent has caused several major problems
in Louisiana waters. Among these are odoriferous conditions,
possible harmful algal growth, eutrophication of still and
running waters accompanied by diminution of dissolved oxygen,
and large fish kills. It has been proposed that marshlands
be used to treat such wastewater. The theory behind the
utilization of marshlands for degradation of organic
wastewater is that the natural system of the marsh, already
eutrophic, will not be,broken down by recycling these organic
materials. The organic and nutrient levels will be reduced
to background concentrations by indigenous bacteria and fungi.

Currently, research is being done on land and marsh
leased by a menhaden processing,plant in Dulac, La., to record
and analyze the interaction of plant and animal life with
the wastewater(3).

The plan includes pumping menhaden wastewater effluent
over a dredge spoil area. From there, the water would drain
into the submerged area of the spoil and gradually mingle with
the marsh, where degradation would be completed. Finally,
the processed water would be discharged into the Houma
Navigation Canal.

280

The successful completion of this System could yield
scientific information applicable to agronomic use, e.g.,
sugar cane irrigation. The treatment of these waters is
simple and inexpensive compared to other treatment requirements
and it may lend itself to processing wast6s. The idea
is perhaps adaptable to pollution abatement and marsh
enrichment. The basic concept of effluent disposal has been
applied to irrigation,fertilization and ground-water recharge.
These ideas have been used on large areas in California.

The system has the potential to provide inexpensive
and simple sanitary engineering techniques and at the same
time enrich the natural resources that support the produc-
tivity of Louisiana's estuaries and marshes.

Controlled Deposition of.Sediment

Several factors have contributed to the widespread
deterioration of wetlands. These include erosion., subsi-
dence, compaction, And acts of.man. Be,cadse of the impor-
tance of maintaining high natural productivity in this area,
research into checking this deterioration is in progress.

Historically, the coastal marshes of Louisiana were,
developed gradually by deposits of sediment transported
by the Mississippi River during regular floods. However,
little marsh building is occurring today because most of the
water and sediment ofthe river is,contained within
man-made flood protection levees and reaches the Gulf of
Mexico through four major passes. The mouths of these passes
are close to deep water at the edge of the continental
shelf. As a result, the sediment is dumped into the Gulf's
oceanic deep and not into shallow areas suitable for the
development of subdeltas. Currently in Louisiana, when
land is lost to erosion or subsidence it is not regained
at a comparable rate. New deltaic lands co-uld be developed
by controlled diversions of river flow into suitable
shallow estuarine are as. Several potential.subdelta sites
have been identified by researchers(4).

Barrier islands are a possible method of minimizing
erosion along the muddy shorelines of large lakes and
bays, according to some current research. Considering
that Louisiana has more than 30.,000 miles of land-water
interface south of the Gulf Intracoastal Waterway, much of
which is eroding, control of erosion is extremely important.
The proposed islands, one-quarter to one-half mile long,
would be separated from the shore by a shallow lagoon.
Barrier islands would consist of a rigid core oP@interlocking
metal sheet piles, concrete tetrahedrons or similar rigid
material. Surrounding the core would be sediment from
lake or bay bottoms. Gravel, shell or other coarse material

281

would protect the seaward side of the islands to absorb
wave energy. Tidal passes separating the islands would be
lined with rigid, erosion-resistant material.. The lagoon
side of the island would be planted with marsh grass.

It has been reported that, although construction
would be expensive, there are a number of advantages
to barrier islands, among them-prevention of erosion and
reduction of storm surge without destruction of.,natural
land water interface along the estuary margin. Marshes
and swamps inland from the coast could be maintained in a
natural condition.

Additionally, it has been suggested that man-made
barrier islands be placed on the margins of large lakes
and bays in places where the wetlands are of high value,
e.g., estuarine nursery areas and wildlife habitats, or
high recreational value.

Alternate Uses of Offshore Platforms

Presently, oil companies maintain offshore structures
for drilling and producing oil and natural gas. Ports for
deep-draft vessels is a new use for offshore structures which
will be developing in coming years.

Potentially, these offshore structures could be used for
purposes beyond oil and gas production or port operatiohs.
Scientific observation, both oceanic and atmospheric, is a
possibility. Underwater portions of structures could be
used for mariculture operations with'possible handling and
processing facilities on the platform. Recreational fishing,
already developed to some extent off many platforms, could be
expanded. Platforms could be equipped as resorts, complete
with restaurants, hotels and docking facilities. The structures
could be maintained for commercial fisheries offloading and
processing stations@ so thatfishing vessels could eliminate
some of the expensive return trips to port.

Many of these new uses could be supported by the owners and
,operators of offshore platforms, whether oil companies or port
authorities,-and be compatible with the platforms primary function.
However, it may be feasible for a state government to acquire a
retiring platform, no longer being used commercially, to promote
these new uses. Besides state-federal juri6dictional problems,
the tremendous expense of maintaining a structure including
lights, horns, scraping, painting,, etc., presently makes the
cost of using retiring oil and gas platforms by states prohibitive.
Also, these structures must be removed when they are no longer
in use and the cost of,removal is extremely high.

As with many innovative ideas, problems to be solved are
many, but with increased technology and public support, these
uses of offshore platforms may not be so remote. A thorough

282

study of the problems and potential uses must be made.

Major Water Resource Projects

There are several major water resource projects under
consideration in the Louisiana c.oastal zone; expansion of
Gulf Intracoastal Waterway, infusion Of fres'h water fo*r
estuarine management and the'diversion of Mississippi
River waters to Texas. Careful examination of the environ-
mental effects as well as foreseeable benefits must be
carried out before action is taken.

The Rivers and Harbors Act of 1962 authorized the
enlargement of the Gulf Intracoastal Water (GIWW), the
plans for which were included in House Document No. 556,
87th Congress, Second Session. Because of the lack of
local cooperation to provide rights-of-way, plans have not
been implemented. The Gulf Intracoastal Waterway was
opened in the 1930s and has served,for tugboat andbarge
transportation. The,U.S. Army Corps of Engineers has
recommended enlarging it,"except in-developed areas or at
existing structures, to 16 feet deep and 150 feet wide
from the Mississippi River to the Houston Ship Channel.
In the area between the Atchafalaya River and the Sabine
River., the Gulf Intracoastal Waterway would be widened to
200 feet. Also recommended were three relocations, one
of which would bypass Houma.

The Louisianaportion of the Gulf Intracoastal Water-
way, which extends from Apalachee Bay, Fla., to,Browns-
ville., Tex., i@ 266 miles long,_about 12 feet deep and 125
feet wide. It'traverses marshlands that are-primarily
estuarine in nature. The probabie-ecological effects
of enlarging operations on the ecosystem of the marsh
must be studied carefully(5).

Introducing fresh water into marshareas for estuarine
management is another proposed major water resource
project. South of the Gulf Intracoastal Waterway, most of
the area is fresh-to-brackish marshes, lakes, ponds and
waterways. These marshes are extremely important elements
of the estuarine area because they directly shelter migra-
tory waterfowl, fur.-bearing animals and commercial reptiles.
Used for recreation and fishing, the area is important also
for its scenic value. The marshes south of the GIWW form
a buffer zone against flooding inland areas by storms.

Methods are,being.studied for providing supplementary
freshwater for estuarine management to offset saltwater
intrusion. This supplementary freshwatdr, int3@oduced
through control structures from the Mississippi and
Atchafalaya rivers into the estuaries, could optimize the
saltwater/freshwater balance. A surface water plan for
the Terrebonne-Barataria area is forthcoming(6).

283

Another major water resource project has been proposed by
Texas. Texas has a tremendous projected water need and the
Texas 'Water Development Board is looking to the Mississippi
River as the most logical water source to meet future needs.
Their proposal involves the diversion of 12 million acre-
,feet of water per year to the High Plains of Texas. Such
a diversion could seriously affect the volume of the-
river flow at New Orleans.' Also, when the river flow is
lowered substantially, salty Gulf water may.,move upstream
into municipal and industrial intakes. Conse quently,
pumping the necessary water to Texas could threaten muni-
cipal Louisiana water supplies and increase corrosion
of industrial equipment in industries using water for cooling.
This pr-oject needs further careful study(7).

Mariculture

The marine environment holds a tremendous potential
as a source of food. Research is taking place in the develop-
ment of techniques for the culture and harvest of these
resources. Mariculture, or sea farming, is the result.

Although pond culturing is growing rapidly in Louisiana
today, e.g., increased culturing of crawfish and catfish,
it is not technologically feasible to culture and harvest
shrimp, a product of great demand in the state and the
nation. Pond culture of shrimp would help in the prediction
of the size of the shrimp crop.

In Louisiana, white and brown shrimp are caught commer-
cially. Young brown shrimp come to coastal waters between
February and March and are ready to be caught in May.
In July and early August, young white shrimp develop near
shore and are mature by late August.

Marsh culturing of shrimp by u.se of weirs and screens
takes advantage ofthe tides and movement of the shrimp
into the estuaries'and out. This method of culturing
utilizes the excellent natural environment already existing
in the e8tuarine. areas.(8)

The culturing of shrimp by enclosing areas of open
water or extending enclosures from estuaries has been
explored in Florida. The resultant increase in shrimp
production and increased predictability brought about by
ideal growing conditions may eventually be matched by
technological advances to make the enterprise feasible.
Besides the technical problems involved, there may be
questions of jurisdiction and infringement on traditional
uses (navigation, fishing and recreation) by the exclusive
use of defined water areas. Issues relating to water
quality, conflicts involving riparian rights and priority
concerning mariculture and mineral leases, cables and
pipelines probably will arise.also.

284

In addition, to shrimp,culturing, research is being
done into the effects'of variou's salinity:levels on crawfish
and catfish growth and survival. The results of these
experiments will determine the feasibility of raising
catfish and crawfish in the marsh region.

Hovercraft

A new mode of transportation is beginning to find
acceptance in the coastal region.@ Hovercraft, also called
air-cushion vehicle's.and surface effect vehicles, are used
in other parts of the world but are quite new in this area.

Surface effect vehicles differ from hydrofoils in that
a hydrofoil is a motorboat with fins or plates attached by
struts for lifting the hull clear of the water as speed is
attained. The plates remain beneath the surface. Unlike
surface effect vehicles, hydrofoils require fairly deep
open water and consequently are not suitable for use in
the Louisiana marsh.

A hover6raft is defined as "a vehicle capable of being
operated so that its weight, including its payload, is
wholly or significantly supported on a continuously gener-
ated cushion or bubble of air. The air bubble or cushion
is put under pressure by a fan or fans and generally
contained beneath the vehicle's structure by flexible
skirts or sidewalls.."

Several reasons exist for an interest in such craft.
They can go much faster than standard boats and with smaller
operation costs. Whereas a standard crewboat can attain a
top speed of about 30 miles,per hour in calm water, certain
hovercraft of comparable sizehave attained speeds almost
three times that fast. Also, with comfort as a criterion,
the ride closely resembles that of a large airplane.

Problems associated with adaptability to operations
in Louisiana,have arisen but the hovercraft is close to
becoming a reality in this region..

A firm in New Orleans has built an 80-foot hovercraft
for the Navy. In tests on Lake Pontchartrain, the craft
achieved a top speed of 82 miles per hour. The firm recently
announced plans to design and, hopefully, to build the
world's first oceangoing,surface effect ship. The proposed
new ship would be more than 200 'feet long, weigh 2,000 tons
and be expected to attain a speed of 115 miles per hour (about
92 knots) on the high seas.

285

A leading boat builder, with operations in Berwick, La.;
has constructed an air-cushion vehicle which it hopes
to sell for use by the offshore oil industry.

A study is underway (5)to determine the feasibility
of using hovercraft to service the offshore oil industry.

I Only time will tell for a certainty how these craft
can be used in this region but the possibilities are varied.
They may be used to carry men and supplies to oil rigs -
in the Gulf and in the marshes, to carry commuters across
rivers and lakes as part of a larger overall transportaion
system, or as pleasure craft in much the same manner as
boats, helicopters and airplanes are used now.

286

REFERENCES

1. Gerald Whitehouse, Marion E. Council and Joseph D
Martinez, "Peaking Power with Air," Power Engineering,
v. 72 (1968).

2. Sherwood M. Gagliano, "Proposed Multiuse Management
Plan for the Louisiana Coastal Zonelf, prepared for
Louisiana Advisory Commission on Coastal and Marine
Resources (1972).

3. Department of Marine Sciences, Ecology Group, Louisiana
State University, Baton Rouge.

4. Sherwood M. Gagliano and Johannes L. van Beek,
"Geologic and Geormorphic Aspects of Deltaic Processes,
Mississippi Delta System, if prepared for Coastal Studies
Institute, Louisiana State University (1970).

5. See, Ronald H. Kilgen, "A Study of the Possible Ecological
Impact upon the Areas of Coastal Louisiana Affected by the
Proposed Widening and Deepening of the Gulf Intracoastal
Waterway from New Orleans to .. Sabine River." Louisiana
Coastal Commission (1972).

6. Sherwood M. Gagliano, Phillip Light, and Ronald E. Becker,
I'Controlled Diversions in Mississippi Delta System: An
Approach to Environmental Management." Hydrologic and
Geologic Studies of Coastal Louisiana, No. 8, Coastal
Studies Institute, Louisiana State University (1971).

7. Raphael G. Kazmann and Ottoniel Arguello. "The Mississippi
River--A Water Source for Texas?" Louisiana Water Resources
Research Institute, Bulletin 9 (1973).

8. Research into shrimp mariculture by use of weirs and
screens in marshlands has been conducted by the Nicholls
State University Biology Department and L.S.U.'s Sbhool
of ForeFtry and Wildlife Management.

9. James M. Pruett, Department of Mechanical, Aerospace and
Industrial Engineering, Louisiana State University,
Baton Rouge.

287@

288

APPENDIX ONE
Comprehensive Studies Affecting Louisiana's Coastal Zone

SECTION ONE
Report on Louisiana Coastal Area Study
U. S. Army Cor@s of Engini@ers'
New. Orleans District'*

The Louisiana Coastal Area study was authorized by reso-
lutions adopted by the Senate and House Committees on Public
Works on 19 April 1967 and 19 October 1967, respectively.
These resolutions,' which are identical as to purpose and scope,
authorize the study "with a view to determining the advisa-
bility of improvements or modifications to existing improve-
ments in the coastal. area of Lo'uisiana in the interest of
hurricane protection, prevention of saltwater intrusion, preser-
vation of fish and wildlife, prevention of erosion, and related
water resource purposes."

initial funds to conduct the study were received in
September of 1968. Public hearings.were held in the same
year at Jennings, Houma 'and New Orleans and were attended
by a total of 290 persons. Numerous requests for project-
type studies were received at the hearings. Principal
concerns of local interests were improvements for navigation,
hurricane protection and fresh water. Other needs cited
included measures for control of alluvial flooding, beach
erosion,, saltwater Intrusion, and requirements asso-
ciated with access, recreation

In preparing the plan of study, it was recognized that
the coastal zone, because of the type of natural environment,
is confronted with substantially more severe problems and
complex issues than those encountered in other areas of
narrowly defined land and water resources. Planning and
management of the coastal zone for multiple use must be
performed in such a manner as to accommodate the great diver-
sity of compatible and conflicting activities, and to provide
equitable and effective relationship between,long-range
interests and short-term uses of the area's resources.

A number of broad studies covering the entire coastal
area were initiated to provide basic information on the vital
forces at work affecting the use of water, marsh and land
areas; to identify problems and to determine their serious-
ness and urgency; and possible means of solution.

A fish and wildlife study of the Louisiana Coa st and
Atchafalaya Basin is being conducted by an interagency
group chaired by the New Orleans District to determine the
fresh water needed to maintain an optimum environment for
fish and wildlife. Work is continuing on a plan to optimize
fish and wildlife values in the coastal area.

*This Section prepared by U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, New Orleans
District
289

Agencies having particular responsibility.for certain
sections of the report include; U.S. Army Corps of Engineers,
New Orleans District, Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wild-
life, National Marine Fisheries Service, Bureau of Outdoor
Recreation and the Louisiana Wild Life and Fisheries Commission.
Certain sections of the study will be conducted under
contract by Gulf South Research Institute and the LSU
Coastal Studies Institute.

The LSU Center for Wetland Resources was retained
under contract to perform a number of studies concerned
with hydrological and geological characteristics and
trends in the area as a result of natural processes and
the works of man; identification of significant environ-
mental parameters; determination of fresh water requirements
to implement changes recommended by the interagency group
for fish and wildlife enhancement; development of measures
to reduce environmental impacts; and, finally, preparation
of a summary of the findings with recommendations on
management and structural approaches to solving problems in
the estuarine environment. Reports on a number of studies
have been published and drafts have been made available
on all outstanding reports.

Listing of titles of studies conducted under contract
for Corps of Engineers by the.LSU Centerfor Wetland Resources are:

Report Study Title
Number

1. Geologic-Geomorphic Aspects of Deltaic Processes,
Mississippi Delta System

2. Salinity Regimes in Louisiana Estuaries

3. Water Balance in Louisiana Estuaries

4. Summary of Salinity Statistics, Coastal Louisiana
Basin, 1946-1968

5. Salinity and Temperature Atlas of Louisiana Estuaries

6. Seasonal Precipitation Surplus and Annual Precipi-
tation Deficit of South Louisiana, 1945-1969

7. Louisiana Wild Life and Fisheries Water Chemistry
Data., Louisiana Estuaries, 1968-1969

8. Controlled Diversion in the Mississippi Delta System:
an Approach to Environmental Management

8-S. Hydrologic and Meterologic Data from Coastal
Louisiana, Evaluation of Data Gaps

290

Report
Number Study Title

9. Deterioration.and Restoration of Coastal Wetlands

10. Selective Ehvironmental,Parameters, Coastal
Louisiana, 1945, 1946, 1959-1965

11. Statistical Model of Salinity Distribution,
Southeastern Louisiana Estuaries

12. Wave Energy Studies Along the Louisiana Coast

13. Development of Atchafalaya Delta, Louisiana

14. Canals, Dredging and Land Reclamation in the
Louisiana Coastal Zone.

15. Measurement of the Louisiana Coastal Shoreline

Hydrologic Model of Barataria-Terrebone, South-
Central Louisiana

Shell Dredging Industry: Its Impact on Louisiana

Vol. I., Summary Report: Multiuse Management Plan
for South-Central Louisiana

Vol. II, Environmental Atlas and Management Plan
for South-Central Louisiana

So far,, the studies have yielded hard data and insight
essential for the proper planning for effective use of the,
coastal area. Information available includes a preliminary
or first cut quantitative need for supplemental fresh
water in the estuarine areas to maximize productivity of
fish and wildlife. Also, the rate of change of the
land-water ratio in the coastal zone has been identified.

Initial-ly, the findings in the broad studies are being
applied in a pilot study essentially confined to the Terre-
bonne Parish area. The pilot study report will be followed
by additional reports to serve as vehicles for authorization
of any recommended projects in the Terrebonne area, or
*These reports have been issued in draft form and'as yet
have not been assigned a number.

291

other areas of coastal Louisiana to which knowledge
gained in the pilot study can be applied. This procedure
will permit reports on vital features to be processed
more quickly than a report covering recommendations based
on the broader overall investigation.

All ongoing studies, including the pilot study, are
scheduled for completion in 1973. Firm dates for the comple-
tion of reports with specific recommendations to serve
as a basis of authorization of improvements will be estab-
lished following the completion of the pilot.study.

29@-

@Al

ISAwr -

FIN
ol
IT,

APPENDIX ONE
Comprehensive Studies Affecting Louisiana's Coastal Zone

SECTION TWO
Report on Cooperative Gulf of Mexico
Estuarine Inventory and Study,
Louisiana*

The report was part of a multistate investigation of
biological and physical characteristics of the coastal waters
of the northern part of the Gulf of Mexico. It was intended
to establish a baseline from which estuarine areas can be
evaluated. The report is divided into four phases entitled:
Area Description, Hydrology, Sedimentology and Bi6logy. Six
estuarine areas numbered I through VI were identified and
information was examined and griouped largely on the basis of
these study areas. Except for Lakes Pontchartrain, Maurepas
and Charles north of the Gulf.Intracoastal Waterway, the
northern boundary of the study areas was the Gulf Intracoastal
Waterway. The seaward boundary of the study was an arbitrary
line drawn across several offshore islands. The base line
period of the study was April 3 1968 through March 1969 but
some information was reported over a longer perioa. A phase
by phase summary of the work follows.

Area Desdription (Phase I)

Description of the physical characteristics of the area
is given. Water surface area in this study was found to-,be
3.3 million acres and the.volume of water was calculated as
23 million acre-feet. Stream discharge figures by monthly
average from 1953 to 1967 are presented for nine major rivers
and bayous in the study area. A brief description of private
and public oyster leasing includes 1969 figures on acreage.
Also briefly discussed are shore plant installation of
commercial fisheries, problems of.-domestic and industrial
waste, and certain aspects of navigation canals and filled
and drained areas.

*Information in this section was extracted
from data compiled for the Louisiana Wild Life and Fisheries
Commission and the U.S. Department of Commerce, National
Marine Fisheries Service (Public Law 88-309., Project 2-22-R).
The data were published in 1971 in two volumes entitled
"Cooperative Gulf of Mexico Estuarine Inventory and Study,
Louisiana."

293

Hydrology (Phase II)

Samples were taken at 109 stations throughout the six
study areas. Salinity and water temperatures were measured
at all stations. Dissolved oxygen, turbidity, the nutrients--
nitrate., nitrite, inorganic phosphates and total phosphorous
were measured at 82 stations. This information is discussed
by area and presented in tabular form. Data on air temperature,
precipitation, and stages and discharge of principal rivers
were collected. A table of surface water area by depth
intervals encompasses a nine-area division of the coast'al
region.

Salinities were found to be highest during the fall and
lowest during the peak river discharge. Water temperature
was seasonal, closely following air temperatures. Dissolved
oxygen concentrations were highest during periods of low
water temperature and salinity. Turbidities generally
fluctuated directly with river discharge and wind speed. The
seasonal distribution of nutrients was generally irregular;
however.5 nitrate values were highest at stations near the
mouth of the Atchafalaya:and Mississippi rivers during peak
discharge periods.

Sedimentology_(Phase III)

Between March,'1968 and June, 1970, sediment samples at
1,536 points were taken and the top three inches of the core
sample were examined. Sampling was irregular in time; thus,
cyclic (seasonal) changes in sediments were not determined.
Data are assembled on the basis of the six estuarine study
areas. For each sample point, percentages of clay, sand and
silt are given. Statistics on particle sizes in each sample
include mean, median, standard deviation, skew, a measure of
asymmetry of size distribution curves, and kurtosis, which is
a measure of peakedness of size distribution curves. Maps
showing sediment types of water bottoms in the-study areas
are included.

For the most part, sediment in Louisiana's coastal waters
was found to be similar. Peat, which results from
decomposition of marsh grasses, is a major component of the
marsh and water bottom.

Since most streams emptying into the coastal area are
sluggish and do not carry sediment to these lower reaches,
the sedimentologically dominant process is erosion. This

294

erosion.contributes to the fine particles found in estuaries.
The size of sediment p articles was found to vary from coarse,
near the Gulf of Mexico and barrier islands, to fine, in
the upper estuarine areas.

Biology (Phase IV)

This part of the report consists of two separate segments--
(1) fishes and invertebrates and (2) zooplankton.
For'the fishes and invertebrate study, 82 trawl stations
and 12 seine stations were established. Trawl samples were
collected monthly or biweekly and seine.samples were collected
monthly. The trawl samples were taken by towing a 16-foot
seine 200 feet offshore parallel to-the shoreline and pulling
it ashore.

Data are presented in tabular form. One table show s the
number of each species caught per average haul for each month
in each study area. Another shows the numerical catch of,
certain more common species by temperature-and salinity
intervals.

Size range of the species is shown in this table. Some
100 species of fishes and 12 species of invertebrates were
collected in a total of 1,390 trawls and 130 seine samples.
Half of the fish species and seven of the invertebrate species were
classified as commercial. Of all the species collected, 95 per
cent were found to be estuarine-dependent, that is, generally
the larvae, or juvenile, stage of the species life cycle is
spent in an estuary. A brief description of each species
caught is also given.

Data on commercial fisheries operation from 1930 to 1969
and the value of yearly catches of various species from 1962
through 1966 are presented.

Zooplarkton studies were made at 28 stations. A total of
681 samples was taken from April, 1968 through March, 1969. Samples
were collected by passing 100 cubic meters of water through a
net just below the surface. The sample was allowed to sdttle;
then, an aliquot of the sediment was examined by microscope and
the number of each species per 100 meters of water in the
filtered sample was calculated. Data are presented in three
series of tables. One gives species composition and relative

295

abundance of major plankters in monthly plankton aliquots.
The second series indicates gross distribution of plankton
by temperatures and salinity intervals and the third shows,
for each species, the distribution by temperature and
salinity interval.

Results are discussed on the basis of each study area..
Emphasis is placed on plankton level peaks and each of the
species of plankton found is treated briefly.

The greatest con'centration of plankton was found in study
area III, which is between the mouths of Bayou Lafourche and
Grand Bayou. The lowest-concentrations were found just east
of the Mississippi River and in study area VI from Vermilion
Bay westward t6the Louisiana-Texas line. A spring and fall
maximum plankton concentration was found in all areas and,
except at the mouth of the Mississippi River, the spring
maximum was the greater of the two maximums. Ctenophoric
were found to influence greatly the plankton levels. In all
samples in which etemophores were abundant, zooplankton was
low. (This might have been partially the result of net
plugging, e.g., poor sampling.) During the study, "acartia
tonsa" was found to be the dominant member of the zooplankton
community.

296-

APPENDIX ONE
Comprehensive Studies Affecting Louisiana's Coastal Zone

SECTION THREE
Proposed Multiuse Management Plan
for the Louisiana Coastal Zone*

I. Introduction

II. Approach

III. The Plan

A. Barrier Island Reef an.d Gulf Shore Areas

B. Estuarine Nursery Areas

C. Fresh-Brackish Marsh Aireas

D. Freshwater Basins

E. Areas Suitable for Development

F. Development Corridors

G. Geometry for Development

IV. Environmental Engineering

V. Implementation

Figures

A-1 The Louisiana Coastal Area
A-2 Proposed Multiuse Plan for the Louisiana Coastal Zone
A-3 Configuration of Proposed Man-made Barrier Islands

*Prepared for presentation to the Louisiana Advisory Commission on
Coastal and Marine Resources in December, 1972, and revised in
July, 1973. Prepared by Coastal Resources Unit, Center for
Wetland Resources, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, Project
Director.5 Sherwood M. Gagliano; staff, Penny Culley, Daniel Earle,
Jr... Curtis Latiolais, Phillip Light, Nancy Roques, Alice Rowland,
Roy Shlemon, Johannes L. va n'Beek.

This section is presented for its information value to readers
of this report. It was not adopted as a recommendation of
this Commission. However, the work of Dr. Gagliano and his
colleagues has been extremely helpful to the Commission in
formulating its recommendations'. His work is cited in many
pl,aces throughout this report.

207

Introduction

In early 1969, the Coastal Resources Unit adopted as
its major research objective the development of a management
plan for the Louisiana coastal zone (Fig. Al). Through a
series of contracts with the New Orleans District,, U.S.
Army Corps of Engineers, the NOAA Office of Sea Grant, the
Louisiana Wild Life and Fisheries Commission and the State
Mineral Board, steady progress toward the objective has been
made. Although none of the contracts specifically authorized
the development of a management plan for the entire coastal
zone., each contract has involved tasks related to environmental
setting or resource management and land use.

Funding of projects which have contributed directly to the
study during this three-year period totaled $416, 953. In
addition, invaluable data have been contributed by projects of
the Office of Sea Grant Development and the Coastal Studies
Institute.

The studies have progressed through several distinct
stages:

1) Review of natural pi%ocesses and forms and synthesis
of quantitative data
a) Geological, ecological
-b) Hydrology and water chemistry ( ialinity.,
temperature, sediment load, discharge)
c) Water balance runoff studies

2) Problem definition
a) Land loss
b) Saltwater intrusion
c) Canals, dredging, land reclamation@

3) Development of management plan and "creative"
approaches
a) Land use recommendations
b) Dynamic Management: (water chemistry, levels,
regimes and-controlled delta'building)
c)'Use of salt domes
d) Corridors
e) Barrier Islands

Results of the individual control studies have been
documented in a series of technical reports and journal
articles, listed at the end of this paper. These reports
provide much of the basic data upon which the plan presented
herein is derived.

As the title implies, the plan is proposed as an approach
to multiuse development of the coastal zone resources that
will provide for both growth and development of the area's

298

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population and economy, management and us e of th.ose renewable
and irreplaceable resources which are vital to the nation,,
the state and the quality of life-of the region's
inhabitants.

Approach

Throughout the many studies that have led to projection
of a management plan for the coastal zone , there has been a
focus on the development of a methodology for environmental
evaluation. Proceeding from the assumption that the best
basisof-projection is a sound understanding of the area
that is to be planned, scientific processes and knowledge
have-been applied to meeting immediate and practical needs.
The subject area of environmental evaluation has progressed
tremendously in the past few years and using environmental
data to plan is now a well accepted technique. The approach
recognizes that Louisiana's coastal zone is unique in both
natural landscape and cultural processes and it uses the *se
inherent qualities and values as a basis of projection.

The natural setting of the coastal zone of Louisiana
can be summed up in one word, "dynamic." It is one of the
most rapidly evolving areas of the world. This creates some
problems, but at the same time offers many opportunities. The
coast is the product of the delta-alluvial system of the
Mississippi River in contact with the marine forces of the
Gulf. The landscape forms--the natural levees, the fresh
water swamps and marshes, the brackish marshes of the coast,
the terrace and prairie lands, the bayous and water courses,
and the coastline of offshore islands--all are in a changing
andconstantly evolving relationship..

Changes are often so rapid and seemingly so complex that
one might view them as randorn and unpredictable, but that is
not the case. Over the years (based on our studies of coastal
wetlands) we have developed a good understanding of .the form
and process relationships that exist in the coastal area.
It is now possible to predict with a high probability the
effect of any major modification upon the environment. It
is this prediction capability that permits the development
and selection of possible alternatives for the future use and
management of our resources.

The inherent values of the coastal zone are many and.
varied, and i.t i.s the retention and development of these
values that makes planning essential. The economic values of
the coastal zone have been well documented. For example,
oil and other mineral extraction industries, commercial
fisheries., harvesting of fur animals, and the high recreation
value of the coastal zone are self-evident. Major cities,

dependent upon connection to the Gulf and inland areas,, have
developed at high land points or on the fringes of the
wetland areas. Of no less value, the coastal zone is rich in
scenic, historic and recreational resources. Other renewable
resource values include storage of surface and ground water,
and wildlife habitats, a buffer zone for air and water
pollution and storm surge.

The history of man's occ,upation of Louisiana's coasta 1
area has indeed been quite long, which testifies to its
past and current values as a living environment. Man's
presence in the area has been documented back 121000 years
and there is evidence of more or less continuous use since
that time. Early European settlers and more modern civili-
zations have tended to make extensive and often wise use of the
land as they settled, farmed, developed the levee lands,
and fished and hunted in the wetlands. 'Road.and water trans-
portation has long played a major role in development of the
region and is an essential component. In more recent times
as man has tried to overcome the hazards of floods and storms,
and as extraction of subsurface minerals and use of other
resources has become more pressing,.the environmental base
now shows signs of serious, perhaps irreversible stress.
There is a real danger that many of the values traditionally
cherished by the people are being threatened or lost through
environmental and cultural pressures. The prime basis of a
coastal zone management plan is to achieve a compatible
relationship between the land base and the needs of people,
one which will. be mutually beneficial, now and in the future.

In concept, the plan recognizes environmental opportunities
and constraints. It recognizes that man must make adaptions of
the environment for his successful use and occupation of the
land. It points out that man must use restraint in manipu-
lating the environment if it is-to continue returning long-
term values to him. Man is a user and a steward of the land.

The plan for the coastal zone is based upon two major
concepts. The first is a corridor-basin relationship.
Within the coastal zone are two broad, natural land systems,
the natural and protected levee ridges where historically
human settlement has taken place, and the wetlands that
throughout history have been the major re newable resource
base of the state. The plan recognizes the value of this
physiographic and historic pattern and emphasizes the levee
systems as sites for transportation and development corridors
with conservation of the wetlands as water system recharge
and natural resource development areas.

The second concept recognizes the need for successive
and changing land use in an orderly sequential manner. "This is
necessitated by the dynamic nature ofthe natural systems of

301

the coastal zone. We must recognize and accommodate natural
changes by modifying land use through time. The system
cannot be held in a static condition. The old engineering
dream of "harnessing the river" will surely destroy the
viability of the Louisiana coastal zone.

The concept of sequential use can be extended to man's
activities. Facilities for mineral extraction, industrial
plants and certain public works projects have a limited life
expectancy. When such facilities are designed, an attempt
to predict some future land use of the site should be made to
avoid irreversible environmental modifications that are not
compatible with predicted future use.

The Plan

The proposed managemnt plan '(Fig. A2) 'is based on major
natural and cultural elements of the coastal zone landscape.
It presents a broad-brush proposal for management and develop-
ment of the Louisiana coastal zone. Boundaries between
units are drawn from natural features., ranking of environmental
opportunities and constraints, and from historic and projected
land use patterns.

Bar rier Island, Reef and Gulf Shore-Areaa-
These features represent the first line of defense
against hurricane forces and marine processes. Tidal inlets
and streams associated with the islands, reefs and Gulf shore
are the control valves of,the estuaries, regulating inflow
and outflow of Gulf water. The islands are invaluable as
wildlife habitats and scenic-recreation areas. These features
are undergoing rapid changes as a result of coastal erosioni.,
accelerated regional subsidence, and hurricane damage. For
example,-large shell reefs in the vicinity of Atchafalaya Bay
and Marsh Island lie within areas leased for shell dredging
and soon may be destroyed. Canal dredging on the bay side
of a number of the islands for oil rig locations and pipe-
lines has seriously increased their vulnerability to storm
surge damage.

Grand Isle, the most stable of the Louisiana barrier
islands, is accessible by highway and is important as a
recreation area, as a base for the offshore oil industry and
as a fishing port. Frequent hurricanes and coastal erosion
are a continuous threat to life and property on the island.
Similar permanent development of other barriers should be
discouraged.

It is recommended that top priority be placed on management
of these units as natural barriers against storms and marine
forces (including tidal inflow and outflow of Gulf water) and
as wildlife and scenic-recreation areas. Their maintenance

30 2

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COASTAL RESOURCES UNIT PROJECT DIRECTOR - SH-OOD M. AGUA..
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DEC MBER. 1972 IONANNES L@ 1AN BEEK
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is vital to th-e continuing viability of the natural@systems
in the coastal zone. Detailed studies of erosion and deterior-
ation should be initiated immediately in order to implement
restoration and management. The islands are so vital to
the future of the coastal zone that they should be in public
ownership.

Estuarine Nursery Areas
From the,standpoint of biological productivity, the
estuaries represent the most productive acreage in the state.
Not only are they the foundation of the-state's fishing
industry, but they provide important habitats for migratory
waterfowl, fur bearing animals and reptiles, and are important
scenic-recreation-open space areas. The units are defined
on the basis of distributions of salinity, marsh vegetation,
oyster beds and length of land-water interface per unit area.

These areas should never be drained or reclaimed for
other uses, not even agriculture. Recent overflights indicate
that thousands of acres of marsh in the estuarine nursery
areas are in an advance state of deterioration. Programs
of marsh restoration and management should have the highest
priority and should be initiated immediately. Such programs
should include a detailed systematic evaluation of the marsh
condition followed by a water management program designed
to conserve runoff . reduce saltwater intrusion and curtail
erosion.

Although the map is intended to be a clear statement
that the primary management objective in these units is for
renewable resources, we also recognize that mineral extraction
industries are active in these areas. If it becomes necessary
to drill new wells, develop new fields orlay new pipelines,
the surface modification associated with these activities must
be made compatible with the primary management objective.

The concept of sequential use is also important. Since
an oil field has a life expectancy of 35 to 70 years, we must
plan for future use of areas now occupied by fields. In
many instances, creative planning of canal geometry and
spoil disposal could create new habitats, conserve freshwater
runoff and enhance the environmental setting. In general,
canal dredging should be minimized. Directional drilling should
be used to reduce the number of well locations, and pipelines
should be confined to corridors. Surface features should be
consideredin all future mineral industry planning. These
same guidelines apply to extraction industry activities in all
of the renewable resource management areas, and will not be
repeated.

304

Fresh-Brackish Marsh Areas

Largely unbroken fresh to brackish marshes and associated
lakes, ponds, and waterways occupy a major portion of the
estuarine zone south of the Gulf Intracoastal Waterway (GIWW).
They are delineated on the basis of distributions of salinity,
fauna and flora, configuration of streams and water bodies,
and length of water interface per unit area. Like the
estuarine nursery areas, these marshes are vital components
of the highly productive estuarine zone. They are of primary
importance to migratory waterfowl, fur-bearing animals and
commercial species of reptiles (alligators). They provide
scenic open space recreation areas and are of considerable
value to the commercial fishery. In addition, these marshes,
along with other renewable resource areas located south of
the GIWW, provide a critical buffer zone against storm
generated surge and prevent serious inundation of inland
communities. With regard to land-use, it should be pointed
out that in these units thick underlying deposits of peats and
soft clays provide poor foundation conditions.

Priorities and management recommendations are essentially
the same as those outlined for the estuarine nursery areas.

Freshwater Basins

Four' major -freshwater-. basins are identified on the map.
All lie north of the GIWW. They are dominated by extensive
swamps and marshes, rounded lakes and sluggish backswamp
drainage networks. They are usually underlain by thick deposits
of peat and organic clay, which provide very poor foundation
conditions and limit land use. Their value as wildlife
habitat areas is well known not only to the sportsmen and
naturalists of the region, but to a large segment of the
general public as well-. These basins are also important as
natural reservoirs ensuring freshwater flow into the estuarine
zone south of the GIWW throughout the year. This fresh
water influx is one of, the primary factors in controlling
estuarine water chemistry. Alteration of the flow regime
in some of these basins through drainage projects, canal
dredging, flood control projects, and highway embankments
is presently one of the major factors- in increased saltwater
intrusion in the estuaries.

These basins must' be managed as renewable resource
areas. Forestry, fisheries, and recreation are the main uses
recommended. Dredging should be minimized, and draining and
reclamation prohibited. In most instances, highways traversing
the basin should be el,evated on piers or piles. In general,
introduction of any new linear elements should be discouraged.
If unavoidable they should be confined to corridors parallel
to existing highways, pipelines, etc. Water storage in the
basins should be managed in order to optimize water chemistry
in the estuaries to the south.

305

Existing corridors through these basins should be de-
emphasized from the standpoint of development.. For example,
U.'S.-Highway 90 between-Boutte and-Raceland is an -important
transportation link, but should not be encouraged as a develop-
ment corridor. Access along such highways should be restricted.

Guidelines pertaining to the mineral extraction industries
are essentially the same as those proposed for estuarine nursery
areas. In addition, construction of tramways or roadway
embankments in inland swamps and marshes should be minimized.
Such features often redirect freshwater runoff in the basins
and provide obstacles to the movement of aquatic and terrestrial
animals.

Areas Suitable for Development
In general, areas suitable for development are those
places that have good foundation conditions, good drainage,
and are reasonably safe from flooding. Pleistocene terraces,
salt dome islands, and natural levee ridges form the higher,
positive topographic elements in the Louisiana coastal zone
that are designated as suitable for development. Historically,
agriculture, industry and.settlement have been largely restricted
to these areas. Attempts to extend these activities into
adjacent wetlands have often proved to be catastrophic.

The key to proper land use is careful planning. A good
mixture of urbanization, . industry, and agriculture in these
areas will insure both orderly growth and economic development
and a good place for people to work and live. Soil and meteor-
ologic conditions should be mapped in detail and suitability
for agriculture ranked. Prime agriculture areas should be
identified and promoted in every way possible. The rich rice
growing region of southwestern Louisiana, for example, should
be maintained primarily for agricultural use.

Development Corridors
Corridors constitute major elements in the proposed
multiuse management plan. They represent areas that are
already heavily developed or where development is projected.
In most casps, corridors are confined to land surfaces suitable
for development. In some instances however,, Itnatural" corridors
have been expanded to boundaries formed by prominent man-made
features such as major navigation canals or flood protection
levees. For this reason, some of the land included within
the development corridors has poor foundation conditions
and is flood prone. The rationale for expanding some natural
corridors is to provide adequate area for development so
that random extension into renewable resource areas can be
controlled.

3o6

In addition to land'suitability, locations of development
corridors are dictated by major land and water transportation
ar'teries, histori.c land use patterns, and the necessity to
maintain rather than dissect existing natural entities.
The term development corridor is not to imply blanket urban-
ization or industrialization. Creative planning is again
recommended to insure th-e best mix of land use.

Public works projects should be focusedon the corridors
to strengthen and further define them. Highways, flood
protection levees and structures, drainage projects, should
be incorporated into the corridor plan. Such. projects should
be combined wherever possible to minimize land acquisition
and costs. There is no reason, for example, why highways
cannot be constructedon the crests of levees. This is a
standard procedure in the Netherlands and many other parts
of the World. Water resource management, mass transit systems,
and regional waste collection treatment systems should like-
wise be incorporated into the corridors. Linear elements
such as pipelines,,power lines, should be confined to the
corridors.

The contact between corridors and intervening renewable
resource management areas presents an interesting challenge
to the planner. Should it be smooth or crenulated? Should
access between development corridors and marshes or swamps
be linear or nodal? Only detailed environmental analysis
can provide the.answer to these specific planning and
design decisions.

In some instances the continuity of a development
corridor depends on,a transportation link.across a wetland
area. A classic example occurs between Lafitte and Larose.
We believe that a transportation link between these two places
is important to orderly development of the coastal zone.
It is also recognized that excessive development across this
area is likely to cause.serious deterioration of the rich
Salvador-Barataria estuary system. In these instances, we
propose, therefore, that future highways be elevated on struc-
tures with permanent restrictions'against off ramps. This
same principle can be applied in a number of critical areas;
notably in 'U-he St. Charles.Par'ish wetlands along the south
shore of Lake Pontchartrain where I-10and 1-410 will join,
and along the Atchafalaya Basin crossing of I-10.

Geometry for Developmen
The development corridors shown on the plan represent
an excellent geometry for future growth and development of
the coastal zone that is compatible *with management of renewable
resource areas. The great oval linking Lafayette, Baton Rouge,
Hammond, Slidell . New Orleans, Larose, Houma, Morgan City,
and Franklin is one of the most, basic elements in the.orderly

307

use of the coastal zone. Reinforcement of this oval-shaped
corridor should have highest priority. The.southern Lafayette-
Houma@-Slidell are is of particular importance. Improved
transportation along this arc would provide easy ingress and
egress to the coastal zone making its opportunities available
without necessitating over population. Urbanization should
be encouraged on the well-drained surfaces near the eastern
and western poles of the oval. The Slidell-Hammond-Baton Rouge
area and the Opelousas-Lafayette-New Iberia area satisfy
most of the site requirements for good urban development.
Much of the southern arc is also suitable for urbanization,
but on a somewhat reduced scale. The Thibodauie-Houma area,
for example, would eminently provide for urban growth. The
channels and natural levee ridges of the Mississippi River
and Bayou Lafourche represent major transcoastal development
corridors and the state's most important gateways to the Gulf.
The Mississippi River corridor should be reinforced; although,
it must be asked what its capacity is. Is there alimit to
industrialization in this corridor or can every acre of
the natural levee be utilized? The banks of the Mississippi
River already are lined with industry and many additional
plants are anticipated. Air and water pollution are an
inevitable consequence of this industrialization. To what
extent can the natural system absorb even a minimum of
pollutants?

Despite these unknowns, the Mississippi River is 'and
will continue to be, the state's most valuable asset. Its
channel should be improved.to a navigation depth of 55
feet. The lower end of the Mississippi corridor should be
reinforced. Venice is destined to become an even more
important support facility for the offshore oil and gas
industry and future superport development.

The geometry of the development corridors and of the
environmental management units lends itself to evaluation of
proposals for both a deep water port (superport) and regional
air carrier terminals. If the decision is made to construct
a superport terminal along the Louisiana coast, (there is
still considerable doubt whether the natural systems of
the area can absorb the total primary and secondary impact
o,f such a aevelopment and whether it would be in the best
interest of the people of the state) present data indicates
that the best location would be in the Gulf southwest of
Venice, La. (se e Fig-.A-2). Southwest Pass, Tiger Pass
and the Empire Channel would provide initial
access to the oil terminal site. As later stages
of the facility develop, which may include containerized
and break-bulk cargo handling, a 55-foot navigation canal
and control lock should be constructed to link the super-
port with the Mississippi River at Venice. If this location
were utilized, all auxiliary development could be confined
to a relatively small area in the lower delta and to the
Mississippi corridor.

308

The Lafourche corridor should be reinforced with
improved highways and flood protection. However, flood
protection levees should not be extended south of Golden
Meadow. The proposed Lafourche Auxiliary Channel would
define the western margin of an expanded natural corridor
to Golden Meadow, and an upgraded limited access highway
would provide a link to the recreation resources of the
Gulf shore.

Although old beach ridges near the mouth of Bayou
Lafourche offer good foundation opportunities, recent
studies of this area suggest that its best use would be
for recreation and open space. The Grand Terre to Isle
Dernieres segment of the coast represents Louisiana's
most important recreation outlet to the Gulf shore.
In addition, the estuaries associated with this segment
of the coast account for a high percentage of the state's
fisheries harvest and are among the most productive estuaries
in the world. A critical evaluation of an earlier proposal
for a superport terminal offshore, from Bayou Lafourche
with onshore facilities at Port Fourchon has led to the
conclusion that this location would be highly impractical.
It would be folly to introduce a major commercial-industrial
intrusion into an area of such high recreation and renewable
resource value.

Minor transcoastal corridors include Bayou Terre aux
Boefs, Bayou Petite Caillou, Bayou du Large, the Atchafa-
laya River, Bayou Sale, Bayou Cypremont, Fresh Water Bayou,
the Calcasieu River, and the Sabine River. Each of these
corridors will play an important role as,outlets for
recreation, the fishing industry, the offshore mineral
industry and to some-'extent, as outlets for commercial
ports. However, further widening and deepening of
associated navigation channels is discouraged because of
the saltwater intrusion,problem. The roles of other minor
development corridors in the upper coastal zone are apparent
from their location and form.

If surface transportation in the corridor's is improved
as suggested, two major airports should be adequate for
serving the region. A long-term plan for gradual upgrading
of the Lafayette Airport would accommodate the western
half of the corridor network. Locating an airport to
serve the eastern half of the corridor oval is more challenging.
If it is not feasible to upgrade and 'enlarge Moisant Inter-
national Airport, a new facility should be constructed
in the vicinity of the intersection of I-10 and 1-55 near
Laplace, La. The site should be on the natural levee
ridge of the Mississippi River if at all possible@ The
Bonnet Carre Floodway should be investigated as a potential
site. However, if the floodway lands are used for this

309

purpose., an equal acreage of adjacent wetlands should be
purch.' ased -as a recreation area. The airport should not be
built in the swamps south. of Lake Maurepas because of
exceptionally poor foundation conditions and the value
of these wetlands for open space and recreation. A
proposed airport location in the eastern end.of Lake
Pontchartrain is a poor choice for similar reasons.

There is presently a rash of proposals for new towns
and harbor towns in the coastal zone. A number of these
proposals involve the use of-public lands or require
government assistance in the form of flood protection,
drainage, access roads and other aspects of site prepara-
tion. A number of the proposals would involve significant
loss of wetlands and create major water pollution problems.
There are many excellent sites for new towns within the
development corridors and those areas suitable for develop-
ment. The consumer will pay heavy penalties in increased
site preparation, maintenance costs and tax burdens
for any urbanization or development in wetland areas of
the coastal zone. All wetland reclamationS including
"Florida type" canal and homesite developments, for urbani-
zation should be prohibited.

The new community concept is an excellent one.
New towns properly placed within development corridors
would guarantee a more orderly growth of the region.
A limited number of harbor towns at carefully selected
locations would also be a major asset. However, the
locations should be pre-determin.ed by the geography and
hydrology of the region and not simply bythe wishes of
land developers. Since harbor towns can have major
environmental impact, additional study is recommended
to determine favorable locations and sizes.

Environmental Engineering

When coastal Louisiana was in a virgin condition,
nature did a superb job of environmental management.
Balanced environmental conditions resulted in high
biological productivity and, in general, the system was
self-maintaining. Erosion occurred along some parts of
the coast, but this was more than compensated for by new
land built in the vicinity of, the active outlets of the
river.

Man's impact has caused serious imbalance in the
systems. One symptom is massive marsh deterioration and
land loss. Land in the coastal area.is being lost at a
staggering rate of 16.5 mi2 per,year and a 80 year loss of
almost 5bO mi2 has been measured. It is not an exaggeration
to say that the delta is dying.

310

We mustrestore the delta and manage it to optimize
natural productivity. This can be achieved by directing
natural processes. For example, the freshwater outflow
and transported sediment load represent a tremendous amount
of energy and supply of materials. The delta has literally
been constructed by this energy source and material supply.
By redirecting flow and helping the river to initiate new
cycles of delta building, new marshlands and estuaries
can be built. Prime areas for these activities are
designed as controlled delta building areas on the map.
Our studies indicate that the Atchafalaya has been building
a marine delt lobe since about 1950 and,, if not interrupted,
some 100. mile@ or more of new marshland will have been added
to the coast by about the year 2000. Similarly, for rela-
tively small investments of flow and sediment, very large
.areas of land could be constructed along the lower
Mississippi River in nelatively short periods of time (30 to
50 years).

Our work has also documented a need for supplementary
freshwater for estuarine management. Supplementary water
introduced through control structures from the Mississippi
and Atchafalaya rivers into the estuaries could be used
to optimize salinity conditions and restore a'more
favorable balance in these systems. A comprehensive surface-
water management plan is now being developed for south
central Louisiana (Terrebonne-Barataria area) and will be
presented in a forthcoming report.

Erosion control is fundamental in the coastal zone,
but it is especially challenging as there are over 30,000
miles of land-water interface south of the GIWW and much
of it is eroding. Preservation of the barrier islands and
other sandy Gulf beaches depends on recognition of their
dynamic nature. Longshore dri 'ft of sand must not be
disrupted by channels, jetties or groins. Sand source
areas which p2ovide nourishment to the drift system must
also be protected. Dredging on or in the vicinity of
barrier islands must be prohibited. The Louisiana barrier
islands are in a very delicate natural balance, at best.
Further disruption of that balance will only accelerate
their demise.

One approach. to erosion control along the muddy
shorelines of large lakes and bays would be the construc-
tion of barrier islands. As shown in Figure A3. the islands
typically would be one fourth to one half mile in length
and separated from the shore by a shallow lagoon. Passes
would be left between individual islands. The islands
would be constructed around a rigid structural core of
interlocking metal sheet piles, concrete tetrahedrons,
or some similar rigid skeletal material. The body of the
islands wouldbe composed of lake or bay bottom sediment
supplied by suction dredges or large drag lines. The
seaward edge of the islands would be veneered with gravel,

311

FISHING PIER ROCK JETTY
---T' At STREAM!
cj to@t
BOAT DOCK.

TIDAL PASS
.4

-4.Z
TIDAL PASS R4192 RACKSM ;9'

FISHING VZ.
%
PIER

F TIDAL STREAM

IGIN L SHORELINE

SHELL FAINGIN 13
ROCK JETTY BEACH CREST IMAISM SHALLOW LAGOON MARSH

FISHING
PIER $OAT DOCK

ORIGINAL
till SHORELINE
STAIILIZING
MILL U come

SPOIL
BARRIER
ISLAND CONCEPT

Fi@ure A Configuration of proposed man-made barrier islands.

31P

shell, sand, or some other coarse grained material that
would absorb wave energy.. The (tidal) passes would be
lined with rip-rap or some other rigid, erosion resistant
material. A soft edge would be left on the lagoon side
of the islands and would be planted with marsh grass.

Although. this type of erosion protection would be
relatively expensive, it has a number of important advan-tages.
Islands would not only prevent erosion-, but would also reduce
storm surge without.destroying the important natural land-
water interface along the estuary margin. Marshes and
swamps could be maintained in a natural condition landward
of the lagoons. The islands would not only reduce signif-
icantly the erosion problem without damaging the estuary,
but would actually enhance the total environment.

Island construction would create new, more diversi-
fied habitats. These would include beaches, vegetated
island crests, lagoon fringing marshes, tidal passes and
lagoons. Increased recreation opportunities resulting
from this approach are particularly attractive. The beaches
and passes would be ideal for (surf) fishing and other
water contact recreation. Island backslopes and crests
provide picnic areas and camp sites, and lagoons could
function as small boat shelters. The new natural environ-
ments could also provide for wildlife and fish habitats.
These would include lagoons for oyster beds, passes for
fin fish and crustaceans, fringing marshes and lagoons
as estuarine nursery areas and habitat for migratory
waterfowl,, fringing marshes and regulated island crests
as mammal and reptile habitats, and beaches, passes and
island crests as habitats for shore and wading birds.

As shown on the map, man-made barrier islands should
be constructed on the margins of large lakes and bays
in places where the wetlands are of high value for recreation
and/or as estuarine nursery areas and.wildlife habitat. A
typical application would be along the western margin of
Lake Borgne, where erosion is not.only destroying valuable
marshes, but also is destroying a number of historic and
archeological sites. L

The barrier islands illustrate an important concept
of environmental engineering. That, is, if energy and
resources must be expended to solve a problem, it is often
possible to reap additional benefits by creative planning.
Subtle changes in elevationand geometry alter natural
processes to create favorable opportunities for desirable
fauna and flora. The same approach could be applied to
-the geometry of oil field canals and spoil disposal sites
that might result in environmental enhan-cement instead of
deterioration for the same expenditure of energy and
resources.

There are several.unique features in coastal Louisiana
that-may be of considerable value in solving problems of
regional waste collection and treatment. As previously
mentioned, regional sewage collection systems should be
confined to development corridors. Urban sewage has some
nutrient value to the estuary system if bacteria can be
eliminated. Pilot studies of marsh enrichment are presently
in the planning stage.

As shown on the map, aquifer recharge areas of the
Terrace Uplands are in relatively close proximity to coastal
urban centers. Using these areas and the seaward sloping
aquifers that they supply, soil filtration of sewage may
be highly feasible in south Louisiana.

Another approach, currently under investigation by
the CRU research group, involves use of large solution
cavities in subsurface salt domes as reaction-chambers
for generating methane gas and other usable byproducts.
Man-made solution cavities in salt domes are presently
used on an operational basis for storage of liquid propane.
We propose that raw sewage could be introduced into such
cavities where, with the introduction of selected catalysts
and temperature control, gas generating reactions might
occur.

Although rapid transit does not fit comfortably
within the category of environmental engineering, it is
viewed as an important consideration in future development
and management of the coastal zone. The proposed development
corridor geometry lends itself well to application of
rapid transit systems. It would provide one means of
allowing people to work, use, and recreate in the lower
coastal zone without destroying it by over population. In
this regi'On, the very large capital outlay required for
design and construction of a rapid transit system and even
subsidy for operation might be justified in terms of
renewable resource savings.

Although an in-depth discussion of navigation channels
is beyond the scope of this paper, a few specific comments
may be in order. It is recommended that a 55-foot deep
navigation channel be constructed from the Mississippi
River southwest to the Gulf in the vicinity of the Jump at
Venice. A majorlock that would accommodate ocean-going
vessels should be included in the.project. Although
initial costs would be very high, major benefits would
accrue from the project. The channel would bypass the
shoal areas associated with the mouths and lower reaches of
South and Southwest Passes. The lock would greatly reduce
the costs of maintenance dredging'and alleviate the threat
of saltwater intrusion during low river stage. The channel

314

would provide a link between the Mississippi and the recommended
superport site. If this channel and lock were constructed3
maintenance of Southwest Pass for navigation could be
discontinued, representing a considerable cost savings.
Further, this closure would release approximately 30 per cent
-of the lower river's discharge and flow for environmental
management purposes. This water and sediment could then
be used for controlled delta building. The project would
have both economic and environmental benefits.

In general, widening and deepening of natural channels
and dredging of canals from the Gulf inland creates serious
environmental problems. Saltwater intrusion, accelerated
runoff and increased tidal exchange accelerate marsh and
swamp deterioration and erosion. In this regard, the
Mississippi River Gulf Outlet (MRGO) has had catastrophic
environmental effects. The channel has greatly accelerated
deterioration of what was once one of the state's most
productive estuary areas. Economic 'ally, the project has,
been a failure. It was originally constructed as a short-cut
for ocean going vessels between the Gulf and the Port of
New Orleans. Because the channel is narrow (500 feet) and
shallow (35 feet) and prone to shoaling as a result of massive
bank failure.5 it is little -used. Only a small fraction of
ocean-going traffic uses the channel. Primarily because
of the unstable banks.5 maintenance costs have been exceptionally
high--averaging $3.9 million per year. Because of these
reasons and because the Mississippi River can and will
continue to serve the navigation needs of New Orleans,
Baton Rouge and other river ports., it is recommended that
maintenance of MRGO for ocean-going vessels be discontinued.

Proposals to improve navigation in the lower Atcha-
falaya (Atchafalaya River and Bayous Chene, Boeuf, and
Black Project) have serious environmental considerations.
Little consideration has been given to the impact that
this channel would have on delta building processes presently
occurring in the bay. This project should not be imple-
mented until the environmental impact is thoroughly understood.

Implementation

Obviously, the implications of the proposed plan are
far reaching. Although some landowners, many communities
and the state and the nation in general would benefit from
the plan, implementation would undoubtedly impose financial
and social hardships on a considerable number of individuals.
The emphasis of our studies has been on the environment and
suitability of the landscape for certain uses. Although
not considered here,, social, economic, engineering3 and
legal considerations are equally important.

315

The necessary legislation and authority to partially
implement such a plan may be already in effect. Large
public works projects can be used to reinforce development
corridors and to direct growth into suitable areas.
Without indirect subsidy in the form of highways, flood
protection and drainage,. wetland reclamati*on usually is
not economically feasible. Further documentation of the
value of renewable resources and consumer penalties associ-.
ated with misuse of wetland areas will strengthen this
argument.

It is fully recognized that private land owners must
be compensated for loss of property rights and revenues,
or for participation in environmental management programs.
This has been done in other states through tax reliefs,
scenic and use easements, and direct lease. Public
acquisition is recommended for the most important renewable
resource areas, and unique environmental and cultural features.

A continuing program of environmental and land use
research, and public education is vital. Systematic
ranking and evaluation,of our resources and a public aware-
ness of their value will insure responsible decisions
from elected and appointed public officials. It is essential
that the stateand local areas gain control of their destinies.
Decisions that may result in the-deterioration of-the
environment and the quality of life of coastal zone
citizens cannot be made in distant corporation board rooms
or administrative offices.

We must learn more about the capacity of the region
to absorb increases in population and industry. The natural
systems already exhibit clear signs of imbalance. Rigid
control standards must be imposed on industry. New
industry must be compatible with the environmental setting.

Historic studies document that random, unplanned
development in the coastal zone results in environmental
destruction by attrition. Although impact of individual
actions may seem insignificant, the cumulative effects
are often cf catastrophic proportions. For the past 30
years, the natural environment of the Louisiana coastal
zone has seriously deteriorated as a result of the impact
of growth and development. The deterioration is accelerating
at an alarming rate. These historic changes are documented
and can be measured and future changes, if controls are not
,imposed, can be predicted with a high degree of probability.

The plan presented here can be compared to a single
photographic frame in a very long motion picture. It
represents one step in a long and continuous process. It
should be modified and changed as our understanding of the

316

natural setting of the coastal zone increases and our
ability to analyze human processes is sharpened. However,
we believe that it does represent a specific point of
departure and a geometry that will allow for an orderly
increase in population.and use of.the resources of the
region for continued economic growth without destroying
those aspects of the region which are so fundamental to the
quality of life of the people who reside there.

317

TECHNICAL REPORTS AND PUBLICATIONS

Coastal Resources Unit

CENTER FOR WETLAND RESOURCES
Louisiana State University
Baton Rouge, LA 70803

Reports done under U.S. Army Co rps of Engineers
contract Nos. DACW 29-69-C-0092, DACW 29-70-C-0272, and
DACW 29-71-C-0219 constitute a series titled "Hydrologic
and Geologic Studies of Coastal Louisiana."

Report No. 1. Gagliano, S. M. and J. L. van Beek,
1970, Geologic and Geomorphic Aspects
of Deltaic Processes 3Mississippi
Delta System, 140 p.

Report No. 2 Gagliano, S. M., Kwon, H. J. and J. L.
van Beek, 1970, Salinity Regimes in
Louisiana Estuaries, 62 p.

Report No. 3 Gagliano, S. M., R. Muller, P. Light
and M. Al-Awady, 1970, Water Balance
in Louisiana Estuaries, 98 p.

Report No. 4 Gagliano, S. M., H. J. Kwon, P. Light
and J. L. van Beek.) 19\70, Summary of
Salinity Statistics, Coastal Louisiana
Station, 1946-1968.

Report No. 5 Gagliano, S. M., Kwon 3H. J.,'and J. L.
van Beek, 1970, Salinity and Temperature
Atlas of,Louisiana Estuaries. (over-
sized)

Report No. 6 Muller, R., 1970, Seasonal Precipitation
Surplus and Annual Precipitation Deficit
Maps of South Louisiana, 1945-1968.

Report No. 7 Coastal Resources Unit, Center for Wet-
land Resources, '1970, Louisiana Wild
'Life and Fisheries Water Chemistry
Survey'Data., Louisiana.Estuaries, 1968-

Report No. 8 Gagliano, S. M., Light, P., and R. E. Becker,
1971, Controlled Diversions in the Missi-
ssippi Delta System: An Approach to
Environmental Management, 134 p.

319

Report No. 9 Gagliano, S. M., Kwon, H. J. and J. L.
van Beek., 1970'. Deterioration and
Restoration of Coastal Wetlands, also
published in proceedings of the 12th
International Conference on Coastal
Engineering, Sept. 13-18, 1970, Washington.,
D.C.

Report No. 10 Gagliano, S. M., Kwon, H. J., Light, P.,
Peake, J. S., and J. L. van Beek, 1970,
Selected'Environmental Parameters
Coastal Louisiana, 1945, 1946, 1959-1965.

Report No. 11 Gagliano., S. M., P. Light and P. T.
Culley, 1972, Statistical Models of
Salinity Distributions, Southeastern
Louisiana Estuaries, 47 P.

Report No. 12 Becker, R. E., 1972, Wave Energy Studies
Along the Louisiana Coastl 22 p.

Report No. 13 Shlemon, R., 1972,-Growth of the
Atchafalaya Delta.

Report No. 14 Environmental Effects of Canals
Dredging and Land Reclamation in the
Louisiana Coas@al Zone (draft).

Report No. 15 Becker, R E.3 1972, Measurement of
Louisiana Coastal Shoreline., 16 p.

Ga'gliano, S. M. and J. L. van Beek, 1971,
Hydrologic and Meterologic Data from
Coastal Louisiana, Evaluation of Data -
Gaps, 8 p. 2 plates.

Coastal Resources Unit-, 1972, Environ-
mental Evaluation of the Terrebonne
Area, preliminary Report, 21 p.

Light, P., Shlemon, R. J., Culley, P.T.
and N. A. Roques, 1972, Hydrologic
Models for the 8arataria-Terrebonne
Area, South Central Louisiana, 46 p.,
4 plates (draft).

Proposed Multiuse Management Plan for
the South-Central Louisiana, S. M.
Gagliano, P. Culley, D. W. Earle, Jr.,
P. Light, N. Rogues, A. Rowland,
R. Shlemon, V. L. van Beek, in 2 parts
(draft).

320

Miscellaneous Reports and Publications

Earle, D. W., Jr. and S. M. Gagliano,
1972, Some Environmental Considerations
Relevant to the Growth of New Orleans,
Coastal Resources Unit, Center for
Wetland Resources, Louisiana State
University, 15 P.

Chatry, F. M. and"S. M. Gagliano, 1970,
Shaping and Re-Shaping a Delta, Water
Spectrum, Fall, p. 20-28.

Gagliano, S. M., Earle, D. W., Jr.,
Rowland, A. C. and P. J. Templet, 1972,
Environmental Evaluation of the New
Orleans East Area, Coastal Resources
Unit, Center for Wetland Resources,
Louisiana State University, 222p.

Gagliano, S. M. and J. W. Day, Jr., 1972,
Environmental Aspects.of a Superport
Off the Louisiana Coast in Center for
Wetland Resources, Louisiana Superport
Studies, Report No. 1, Preliminary
Recommendations and Data Analysis, p.
281-317.

Gagliano S. M., Day, J. W., Jr. and
J. R. Van Lopik, 1972, Environmental
Aspects of Louisiana Deep Water Port
Development. Preprint, Second Biennial
Symposium on Environmental Conservation,
Lafayette, LA, Nov. 13-14, 1972, 20 p.

Shlemon, R. J. and S. M. Gagliano, 1972,
Birth of a'Delta, Atchafalaya Bay,
Louisiana, the 24th International
Geological Congress, Sec. 6, Montreal,
Canada, p. 437-441.

Gagliano, S. M. and J L. van Beek, 1973,
A New Era for Mudlump@' Water Spectrum.5
Vol. 5, No. 1, pp. 25-31.

321

APPENDIX TWO

A LISTING OF PROJECTS IN THE COASTAL
ZONE BY CONSTRUCTION AGENCY

U. S. Army Corps of Engineers

Basically, Corps of Engin eers projects fall into three
categories: The first includes projects under general
investigation. Such projects are awaiting authorization
and are subject to general feasibility studies, i.e.,
general investigation. The second group consists-of projects
under construction. This category includes engineering
design in addition to construction. The third category is
for projects which the Corps of Engineers maintains. For
example, periodically it is necessary to dredge most
navigation channels to maintain specified depth.

Following is a listing of projects now subject to
general investigation followed by a description of the
study.

Barataria Bay Waterway

Determine feasibility of a..navigational channel from
Barataria Bay Waterway in the vicinity of Lafitte to the Gulf
Intracoastal Waterway.(l.)

Bayous LaLoutre,, St. Malo and Yscloskey

Determine advisability of extending navigational channel
1,500 feet in Bayou LaLoutre from Bayou Yscloskey.(2)

Gulf Intracoastal Waterway - Highway Crossings

Study of needs of coastal area for high-level crossings
of the Gulf Intracoastal Waterway at 10 locations.(3)

323

Mermentau, Vermilion and Calcasieu Rivers and Bayou Tech
Determine need for improvement to existing flood control,
navigation, water supply and quality control facilities with
respect to recreation, wildlife and related water and land
resources.(4)

Mississippi-River - Gulf Outlet
Determination of the feasibility of providing a larger
channel in the Mississippi River -.Gulf Outlet.

The following projects are in the construction phase:

Atchafalaya River, Bayous Chene. Boeuf and Black

This waterway will afford transporation for large offshore
drilling equipment being built in the area for offshore drilling
operations. Authorized by the-Rivers and Harbors Act of 1968,
this project will consist of a 20-foot by 400-foot channel from
the vicinity of the U.S. Highway 90 bridge at Bayou Boeuf
through Gulf Intracoastal Waterway, Bayou Chene, the Avoca
Island Cutoff Bayou Drainage Canal, and lower Atchafalaya
River, across Atchafalaya Bay to the 20-foot contour in the
Gulf of Mexico.

Estimated c-ost of the project is $12.14 million, which
includes $1.19 million in nonfederal funding. Preconstruction
planning was completed in 1972. Construction is scheduled
to,start in 1973-.(6)

BayouLafourche and Lafourche-Jump Waterway

Offshore operations and commercial fishing will benefit
from this project. The auxiliary channel will help alleviate
navigational hazards along Bayou Lafourche. Initial features
of the project were authorized in 1935 and modified in 1960.
That portion of the existing project on Bayou Lafourche, between
Thibodaux and Donaldsonville, has' been deauthorized under Public
Law 90-149, approved in November of 1967. Work between
Thibodaux and Lockport has been Postponed because acceptable
rights-of-way and spoil disposal have not been obtained by
local interests.(7)

The scope of the project includes a 12-foot by 125-foot
auxiliary channel on the west side of Bayou Lafourche from the

324

Gulf Intracoastal Waterway in the vicinity of LaRose, inter-
secting with Bayou Lafourche south of Leeville. A second part is a
12-foot by 125-foot channel from Bayou Lafourche at Leeville
through Bayou Rigaud and Caminada Bay to the north side of
Grand Isle.(8)

The auxiliary canal is still in the planning stage. It
is estimated that the project as modified will cost $10.44
million, of which $3.12 million is to be supplied from non-
federal sources.(9)

Mississi@pi River - Gulf Outlet, Michoud Canal

The Michoud Canal improvements will result in trans-
portation savings to industries on the Michoud Canal. This
project was authorized by the Rivers and Harbors Act of 1968.
A 36-foot by 250-foot channel will be dredged along the present
alignment of the Gulf Intracoastal Waterway from the Mississippi
River Gulf Outlet through Michoud Canal to a turning hasin
at the head of the canal.(10)

Estimated cost of the project is $1.69 million, of which
$63,000 is to be obtained from nonfederal sources. The project
is still in the planning stage.(11)

Vermilion Lock

The present Vermilion lock, with a depth over the sill of
11.3 feet below mean low Gulf elevation, has become a hinderance
to navigation. A replacement lock was approved by the Secre-
tary of the Army in May, 1-967, under authority granted by the
Rivers and Harbors Act of May, 1909. The lock will be just west
of the existing facility and will be 75 feet by 15 feet over
the sill at mean low Gulf elevation.

Estimated-cost of replacement is $7.36 million, of which $7,000
Is to be nonfeddral'funds. The project is currently in the
engineering design stage..(12).

The following projects are being maintained currently by
the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, with an expenditure in excess
of $4oo.,000 planned in fiscal 1974. In descriptions, dimensions
are in t-@_,rms of depth.and feet, in that order:

Atc afalaya Riveiz, MQrgan City to Gulf of Mexico
A 20-foot by 200-foot channel about 16 miles long,
terminating at the 20-foot contour in Atchafalaya Bay.(13)

325

Barataria Bay Waterway

A 12-foot by 125-foot cha nnel about 37 miles long
from the Gulf Intracoastal Waterway to the 12-foot contour
in the Gulf of Mexico beyond Barataria Pass is maintained.(14)

Calcasieu Riverand Pass

This project includes a 40-foot long by 400-foot channel
from the Gulf of Mexico to Lake Charles running about 35 miles,
and a turning basin at the upper end.(15)

Fresh Water Bayou

This project consists of a 12-foot by 125-foot waterway
between the Gulf Intracoastal Waterway in the vicinity of the
Vermilion River, and a lock in the vicinity of Beef Ridge
near the Gulf of Mexico. The channel is maintained to the
6-foot contour in the Gulf.(16)

Gulf Intracoastal Waterway, New Orleans District

The Gulf Intracoastal Waterway, New Orleans District,
consists of a 12-foot by 150-foot channel from Lake Borgne and
a 12-foot by 150-foot channel from the Mississippi River to the
,Sabine River. Also included is a channel from Morgan City
to Port Allen and the Franklin Canal, running from the main
waterway to Franklin. Eight locks are part of the waterway.(17)

Houma NaVigational Canal

This is a 15-foot by 150-foot channel from the Gulf
Intracoastal Waterway outside Houma, to Houma, to the Gulf of
Mexico.(18)

Mermentau River

This is a 6-foot by 60-foot channel from the Gulf Intra-
coastal Waterway at the south end*of Lake Arthur, through White
Lake to Schooner Bayou and Fresh Water Bayou. Also included is
a channel from Grand Lake through Mud Lake to Vermilion Bay and
two water-control structures at Catfish Point and Schooner
Bayou.(15)

326

Mississippi River, Baton Rouge, to the Gulf of. Mexico

This channel is 40-feet by 500 feet be'tweenNew Orleans
and'*Baton Rouge, 35 feet by 1,500,feet in the New Orleans
Port limits and 4Vfeet by 1,000 feet from New Orleans to the
Head of Passes.: Channels at the passes include: Southwest
Pass, 40 feet by 800 feet; Southwest Pass bar channel 40 feet
by 600 feet; South Pass, 30 feet by 450 feet; and South Pass
bar channel, 30 feet by 600 feet.(20)

Mississippi River Gulf Outlet
This is a 36-foot by 500-foot ship channel from the'38-
foot contour in the Gulf to a point about 76 miles inland,
a connecting channel with the New Orleans Inner Harbor
Navigational Canal, and a lock connecting the channel with
the Mississippi River.(21)

Louisiana Department of HiZ@ways

The Louisiana Department of Highways plans the following
new highway construction in the Louisiana coastal zone.(22)

State Highway 82

Extension of the highway to-the coast in the area east of
Pecan Island.and Paul.J. Rainey Wil dlife Refuge is planned.

U.S. Highway 90

Extension of the divided highway from Jeanerette to the
vicinity of Patterson.,.then"from Morgan City to the Des Allemands
area is planned.

State Highway 1

Extension from the Donaldsonville area along the west
bank of the Mississippi River to intersect the proposed Inter-
state 410 loop and U.S. 90 at Boutte.-is planned.

Interstate 410

Southern loop around New Orleans to run.from I-10 north of
e
Kenner across the Mississippi River to Boutte, then east and
across th e Mississippi River near Chalmette, intersecting I-10
north of Chalmette is planned.

327

LaRose - Interstate 410

Highway from State Highway 308 south of LaRose in a
north-easterly direction to intersect Interstate 410 in the
area of State Highway 45 is planned..

Soil Conservation Service

The Soil Conservation Service has responsibility for
develo ing watershed projects in Louisiana. The diagram in
Fig. A@, "Status of Watersheds - Louisiana,"
shows the general size and location of the projects in the
Louisiana coastal zone. Generally these projects are
divided into four categories with respect to the stage of
construction and these are discussed below.

I. Projects for which Applications have been Received.(23)

Number on Acreage
Diagram Name (thousand acres)

30 Little Chenier 30.0
32 Grand Chenier 23.5
31 Little Pecan 45.0
36 Bayou Mallet 108.0
29 Bayou Plaquemine 242.0
Brule
71 Bayou Queue de 195.0
Tortue
68 Bayou Plaquemine 1,51.5
62 East Ascension 107.4
28 Slidell 56.3

II. Projects Approved for Planning(24)

Number on Acres Construc.tion
Diagram Name (thousand acres) Included

38 Choctaw Bayou 110.0
59 Lake Verret 246.0 230 miles of
multipurpose
channel improve-
ments.(25),
12 Bayou Black 152.0

328

I I
man manim'm

STATUS OF WATERSHEDS -LOUISIANA

12 "A A:-,
57 610 3
61 2145 a 227M700c
CLAIaORNE MOPE.C(SE 2 :1 7 38 W
9
8 0
WEST 3@ Bjo@rsoo Rayo, 5,293 40. ce,'. Mp@i- 97,200
4. . As,. Ma, 22.9 00
CARRIX Upper,:West Fork Cyve 41 -all 99
ER 62 9j re 2 05,: 545000 N2. C-at in _-s Cdral 250
I. ,, 1 0
6 , as.,, 43@ A.u
00 47 00
EAST 7@ "1 .15, 00 44 At: , I M,000
LINCOL CARROLL t..K 45 AIs a C, -ao' e- 5
C,e,k 57,1 a' 30:Qi6
CAODO 8 5 12).200 4E, EBaI, 6 0 0
gus"'y Bay- 178 000
0
10. Bayou Rapides .",70 47. Central C.,or@,.
OUACHITA eC1, 135.7 0 48. Ncftr Ccrr,-d@a 225.0 C,
@2 It, a, 34.0000 49. S@a 44,500
- wu In C, 1-- 0
13 2i,66o 50 "s,c 34,000
JACKSON 51 P 248 900
BIENVILLE 14. North Ten SA 5 tC,ee 3915
"sa @86,072 West C:_j,
In 52.
26., Eds, Ca,rol', 258@00000 53. Ki,aill e-Call 247,908
0 li-s'
17. 8Y_ Blue 81:840 54 a1@ 101 240
a,d, 1 55 P__4 "s
11: 11 B7 97" : 's,,aC-
M R 19 B-,, Fp se 52,214 Bay Da- Care R- 107.070
CALDWELL 0 S '00
DE SOTO 2 e,enth Ward Canal 320 56. JcllsL, C-*1 193 :554
2l C@cddds-G1-C,, L,,!, l32,0 57: E-'@ Falk@ .1 914 250
2 ... .. es an, s 02 5 F 2700
2 ' e 161,100
I N 21. LowerTZoo 8.6 5". I,- V-1, 246,000
4 00 a, u,, 152 031
B-gue Los- C-11 62,0 60 B0an 0
2 Lower Bayou Teche 0 61. Bay.- B... e se 1260
ch 0 10
MATC ITOCHE AN, LA 26, Upper Bayou TeW 210,000 6 F at 740
27: C-)e JJ3,00 6 23: K",cl, 73 50C
It1 0 6 0
2 S 56,320 U. f-, Point 19,790
L. SALL 9 8 0
55 29. Ba you PI nue,ine Br,te 242@000 65: V;_@ 33.90
3 . Liltle Ch,nIs, 30 000 11 1 "I'll, 214U. 150
SABINE 30@ Li "'. Pe'so 45:000 67. Ba,., 0, 20. 200
3 8aPI-e-"t, 151.50
54 32 Gand, Chenier 23:500 68@ Y,@ ---
33. Poa ,Canal and Conway Bayou '1 780 69 East Ri .11 218,0 00
53 34. YPress Bialk 148.5 0 70. @es' Rii 92,0 0
Bayou
35. Gastis C,e,; 0,000 195,000
0
36. Bair- Ma 108,000
65 -_-7 37. Bayou G-a. Tste 137.000
T:', 8, 179 525

VERNON 49

113: EST EAST WASHIN"VOK
3- FEUCIANA
2it
Roll
BULPREGAR6 1. 47'
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38- BATON TANGIP&HOA
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n
A LIVINGSTON
36
CALCASIEU 11EIR ON A29 sT 62 28

5 I-s ow,
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IERREBONNE

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III. Projects for which the Work Plan has been Approved
for Operations

Acreage
Number on (thousand Construction
Diagram Name acres) --fn--cluded

46- English Bayou 36.0 44 miles of channel
improvements with
erosion control
structures (26).

27 Cameron Creole 210.0 19 miles of flood
protection levees, 35
miles of channel
improvements and 6
multipurpose water
control structures
(27)

50 West Fork of Bayou 34.0. 83 miles of channel
Lacassine, improvements with
control strucutures
for channel pro-
tection.(28)

25 Lower Bayou Teche 188.7 132 miles of multi-
purpose channels
(29)

26 Upper Bayou Teche 210.0 265 miles of multi-
purpose channels
- (30)

19 Bayou Folse 52.2 19.9 miles of
channel improve-
ment, 4.4 miles of
channel excavation
and 36.2 miles of
levee improvements
for flood protect-
ion.(31)

33 Panama Canal and 43.8 25 miles of channel
Conway Bayou improvements.(32)

330

IV. Projects which have been Completed

Acreage
Number on '(thousand Construction
Diagram Name acres) Included

20 Seventh Ward Canal 32 .0 3.3 miles of
levee, 4
water control
structures and
39.6 miles of
multipurpose
mains and
laterals(33)

13 Baker Canal 21.6

331

References

1. U.S. Army Corps of Engineers Lower Mississippi Valley
Division, Water Resources Development, Louisiana 1971,
P. 171 (hereinafter cited as "U.S. Army Corps 1971).

2. Ibid. p. 172
3. U.S. Army Corps of Engineers Public Meeting Announcement,
(March, 1973).

4. U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, p. 146.

5. Ibid.

6. Ibid. P

7. Ibid. P. 95--

8. Ibid.

9. Ibid.

10. Ibid. p. 99.

11. Ibid.

12. Ibid. p. 107.

13. Ibid. p. 105

14. Ibid. p. 97.

15. Ibid. p. 115.

16. Ibid. p. lo8.

17. Ibid. p. 120.

18. Ibid. p. 98.

19. U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, River and Harbor Projects,
U.S. Army Engineers District, New Orleans, Louisiana.
Project Maps, 1971, p. 2-4o.

20. U.S. Army Corps 1971, p. 44.

21. Ibid. p. 99.

333

22. Louisiana Department of Highways, Traffic and Planning
Section.

23. U.S. Department of Agriculture., Soil Conservation Service.,
Status of Louisiana Watersheds, 1972.

24. Ibid.

25. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Soil Conservation Service
Lake Verret Watershed Work Plan (November 1969).

26. U.S. Department of Agriculture., Soil Conserv ation Service
English Bayou Watershed Work Plan (June 1971).

27. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Soil Conservation Service
Cameron, Creole Watershed Work Plan (January, 1967).

28. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Soil Conservation Service,
West Fork of Bayou Lacassine Watershed (April, 1967).

29. U.S. Department of Agriculture., Soil Conservation Service,
Lower Bayou Teche Watershed Work Plan (April 1965).

30. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Soil Conservation Service,
Upper Bayou Teche Watershed Work Plan (August, 1966).

31. U.S. Department of Agriculture., Soil Conservation Service,
Bayou Folse Watershed Work Plan (March, 1962).

32. U.S. Department of Agriculture Soil Conservation Service
Panama Canal and Bayou Conway Watershed Work Plan (June,.
1967).

33. U.S. Department of Agriculture Soil Conservation Service,
Seventh Ward Canal Watershed Work Plan (March, 1,967).

334

APPENDIX THREE
MARINE SCIENCE EDUCATION IN LOUISIANA

Jam6s P. Schweitzer
Department of Marine Sciences
@Louisiana State University - Baton Rouge

I. Overview

Of the state's 22 state-supported and 13 nonpublic
institutions of higher learning, two have degree programs
in marine science. In addition, seven of the other insti-
tutions offer selected courses in marine sciences.

A. Degree Programs

1. Louisiana State University - Baton Rouge

The Department of Marine Sciences at Louisi-
ana State University in Baton Rouge offers graduate
degree programs leading to the M.S. and the Ph.D.
degrees in a wide variety of marine-related fields
of interest. The degree programs are interdis-
ciplinary and multidisciplinary and include courses
taught in several other departments in the Univer-
sity. Overall emphasis is given to the under-
standing and, practical application of knowledge
concerning the physical, chemical, geological,
biological, economic and legal aspects of marine
environments. About 35 graduate students are
enrolled in degree programs in the department.

The department was established in 1968 and
is associated with the Office of Sea Grant
Development and the Coastal Studies Institute.
These three units comprise the Center for Wetland
Resources at LSU-BR.

2. Nicholls State University

The university offers a B.S. degree in
marine biology through its Department of Biolo-
gical &Qiences. Courses in the degree program
include offerings in marine ecology, fishery
management, ichthyology, parasitology and earth
science. The university ha -s a newly established
marine research laboratory at Pass Fourchon
scheduled to begin operati.ons soon.

335

B. Marine-Oriented Courses in Louisiana Universities

A variety of marine-oriented courses is available
in at least eight of the state's universities. Five
of the state's universities have affiliation with Gulf
Coast Research Laboratory at Ocean Springs, Mississippi.
This institution provides marine science courses which
attract students from Louisiana and at least 10 other
states. The affiliation of Louisiana universities
with Gulf Coast Research Laboratory exists, in some
instances, because there is no similar facility in
Louisiana.

C. Trade and Vocational-Technical Schools

Of the 32 trade and vocational-technical schools
in the state, at least one has a Department of Marine
Science. That school,5 the Young Memorial Vocational-
Technical School, conducts a program in marine boat
operation for pre-service and in-service employees in
the marine industries of coastal Louisiana. One school
teaches aircraft maintenance; three teach. diesel
mechanics and fifteen teach electronics. These and
other instructional programs supply skilled workers,
but in insufficient numbers, to Louisiana marine
industries. At least two private, proprietary schools
help prepare students for Coast Guard administered
examinations.

No school or j.unior college in the state provides
a two-year degree program in marine technology. Such
programs are available in Texas, Florida, California
and several other coastal states.

D. Marine Science Education in High Schools

Marine science education in high, middle and
elementary schools can be of a vocational nature or
an academic nature. Only one high school in the
state., South Terrebonne High School, has a program
in marine operations. This vocational program involves
prepared for
about 30 high school seniors being
employment in boat operations and related marine
activities.

*Throughout the United States, upwards of a
thousand high schools have developed academic programs
in marine science. Typically, such programs consist of
a one-semester or year-long course in some aspect of
marine science, e.g., marine ecology, marine biology
and oceanography. These programs exist in virtually all
coastal states except Louisiana.

336

II. Louisiana's Needs in Marine Science Education

There is no indication at present that%additional
graduate programs in marine science are needed in the state.
The existing program at LSU-BR enrolls about 40 graduate
students, a level of production which will meet the state's
needs during the next one'or two decades.

The graduate program at LSU-BR is supported largely by
Sea Grant and other federally funded programs. The Center
for Wetland Resources at LSU-BR is too much a "soft money"
operation, dependent on federal grants and programs. The
state should provide more direct support to the center
which includes the Department of Marine Sciences.

The baccalaureate degree program in marine biology at
Nicholls State University is a successful program, which
should be encouraged to grow and develop. Other universities
in the state should consider developing a baccalaureate
degree program in marine science, with special emphasis on
nonbiological options. This need seems to be real on the
basis of the large number of inquiries received by the LSU
Department of Marine Sciences from Louisiana students and
from students in other states and nations. Before
initiating any new biologically oriented undergraduate
programs, the present capabilities of Nicholls State, Univer-
sity of Southwestern Louisiana and Southeastern University
should be assessed fully.

A rather urgent need exists for the development of a
two-year Associate Arts degree program in.marine technology.
The marine technology program would provide persons qualified
for employment in the marine transport, fisheries and
offshore petroleum industries. Many persons employed
in these Louisiana industries are inadequately trained. More-
over the highest paying jobs often are filled by out-of-state
persons, owing to the scarcity of well-trained local people.

The state does an insufficient job of providing a pool
of well-trained, efficient marine-oriented technical people
such as boat pilots, marine diesel technicians, able bodied
seamen and other job categories needed in the coastal-
marine industries. The marine program at Young Memorial
Vocational-Technical School should be expanded and provided
additional state support. The newly established trade
school at Houma should also be provided with the support it
needs to develop a program to train qualified personnel to
fill jobs in the marine-oriented industries of the state.

The state should develop an overall plan for the inclu-
sion of marine-related topics in its school curricula from
kindergarten to the twelfth grade. This can be done by

337

develop-ing appropriate curricular material and an adequate
program of pre-service and in-service training for teachers.
Louisiana sh.ould not lag behind other coastal states in
marine science educati.o n.

III. Marine Education and Research Laboratories

The Louisiana Wild Life and Fisheries Commission
operates at least three research laboratories in the coastal
zone. These facilities are located at Pass a Loutre,
Grand Terre and the Rockefell.er Wild Life Refuge and'Game
Preserve. The laboratory at Grand Terre is most directly
concerned with marine research and education.

Nicholls State University has constructed a marine
laboratory facility at Pass Fourchon. This facility is
scheduled to begin operations in September of 1973. The
University of Southwestern Louisiana owns a small estuarine
research facility near Vermilion Bay and Louisiana State
University at Baton Rouge operates a small marine research
facility in a rented camp at Grand Isle. This temporary
facility serves in the staging of the Sea Grant-funded
research activities in Barataria Bay.

There is a need for a large university-operated
marine research and education facility somewhere along the
Gulf coast in Louisiana. All coastal states-have some
version of such a facility except Louisiana. We should not
farm our marine students out to Texas and Mississippi for
training to do their field research on marine subjects.
The facility should be large enough to house at least 90
students and should-provid6 leadership in research of the
Gulf of Mexico in a way that Scripps Institution of Ocean-
ography (La Jolla, California) does for the Pacific and,
Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution (Woods Hole Massachu-
setts) does for the Atlantic.

338

APPENDIX FOUR

COMMISSION ACTIVITIES

Commission activity was divided into three broad phases:
Orientation, analysis and preparation of the final
report. Initially, meetings of the full commission were
conducted monthly. Various technical presentations were made
by persons having special interest,or expertise relating
to the Louisiana Coastal Zone. Briefly, these presentations
included:

Subject of
Name Date the Presentation

Dr. Sherwood M. Gagliano Dec. 13, 1971 Geological ahd
hydrological
overview of the
coastal zone.

Dr. Lyle S. St. Amant Jan.. 18, 1973 Living resources
production and
management
Mr. Gene'Cretini Feb. 29, 1972 Role of industry
in the coastal

zone

Mr. Robert Flaherty Feb. 29, -972 Oil and gas in
L
the coastal zone

Dr. Doyle Chambers March 21, 1972 Agricultural
concerns in the
coastal zone

Mr. William C. McNeal March 21, 1972 Needs and benefits
of water trans-
portation -industry

Mr. Gillis Long April 5, 197.2 'Environmental and
economic consequ-
ences of a super-
port for Louisiana

Mr. Fredrick Chatry May 3, 1972 Water resource
projects from
viewpoint'of the
federal govern-
ment

33.9.

Mr. Daniel Cre.sap May 3, 1972 Water resources
management from
the statets
point of view

Dean Gerald McLinden May 31, 1972 Education and
cultural aspects
of the coastal
zone

Mr. Richard Bryan, Jr. May 31, 1972 Environmental
and recreational
facets of the
coastal zone

Mr. W. L. Manning June 21, 19-72 Coastal zone
management from
the view point of
the landowner

Mr. William Beller July 27, 1972 General principles
of coastal zone
management and
experiences direct-
ing coastal zone
management programs
In Hawaii, the
Virgin Islands and
Puerto Rico

Concurrent with the technical presentations listed above,
the Commission conducted discussions with respect to land use
laws generally, and more specifically with respect to amendments
to Act 35 and the federal Coastal Zone Management Act of 1972.

The Commission then entered the analysis, or second phase
of its study. Public hearings were held in five major coastal
communities; Lafayette, Thibodaux, Lake Charles, Chalmette and
Morgan City in an effort to obtain reaction of citizens to the
Commission's efforts. Specifically, the objectives of the
meetings were to develop five main points: .

.1. To receive information on local natural resource use
and problems.

34o

2. To provide an opportunity for presentation of all
view points.

3. To inform citizens that the c oastal zone management
study @;as being conduc,ted and that their interests might
thereby be affected.

4. To educate the public to the need for coastal zone
management, and

5. To inform the public of the activities of the Louisiana
Advisory Commission on Coastal and Marine Resources.

@Five standing committees and three special committees
were formed to study specific problem areas. The standifig
committees addressed themselves to: Living Resources,
Industrialization and Urbanization, Water Resources, Trans-
portation and Recreation, Tourism and Culture. The three
special committees conducted studies on: Managing Authority
of the Commission., Research and Education and Ocean Engineering
and Development. The committees had responsibility for
developing principles which would form the basis of the coastal
zone management program. Written reports setting forth
adopted statements of the problems, proposed principles of
coastal zone managment, an approved bibliography and reference
sources, and a general review of the committee activity since
its formation were submitted by each committee.

The third phase of the study was devoted to assembling
and writing the final report.

The Commission established an official journal, the index
of which follows this section. A relatively small number of
complete copies of the journal will be available and they will
be placed in central libraries around the state.

The Co-mission also published two interim reports. They
coincide with completion of the first and second phases of
the study and reflect the information developed during the
preceding stage of the study. The first report was entitled
Louisiana Government and the Coastal Zone - 1972 and was @ublished
March 31, 1972. The second report is entitled Wetlands '73:
Toward Coastal Zone Management in Louisiana and was published in
March of 1973. Copies of both these reports are still available.

341

INDEX TO OFFICIAL JOURNAL
OF
LOUISIANA ADVISORY COMMISSION
ON
COASTAL AND MARINE RESOURCES

ITEM

0001 Act No. 35, (1972) Originating Commission
0002 Specific Requirements of Act 35
0003 Agenda of November 11, 1971,-Commission Meeting No. 1
0004 Estimated Budget for Advisory Commission, December
1971, through June, 1972
0005 Letter of November 23'. 1971, to all Commissioners,
Regarding Communication Procedure between Staff
and Commissioners
0006 Minutes of November 11, 1971 Commission Meeting No. 1
0007 Approved Commission Budget, November 19, 1971
0008 Curriculum Vitae of Marc J. Hershman., J. Arthur Smith,
III, and Paul H. Templet
0009 Agenda of December 13, 1971, Commission Meeting No. 2
0010 Memorandum of December 2. 1971, Technical Advisors to
the Louisiana.Advisory Commission on Coastal and Marine
Resources
0011 December-3, 1971, Orientation Phase, Two-Year Schedule
0012 Memorandum of December 7, 1971, Comparison of Five
State Laws Relating to CZM
0013 Memorandum of.Decem.ber 10, 1971, General Travel
oo14 Regulations
Letter of January 13, 1972, to All Commissioners,
Change of January Meeting Date-
0015 Minutes of December 13, 1972 Commission Meeting No. 2
0016 Agenda of January 18, 1972, Commission Meeting No. 3
0017 Letter of January'.13, 1972, to All-Commissioners, Initial
Draft of 1972-73 Budget
0018 Memorandum of January 14, 1972, Coastal Zone Manage-
.ment Bills in Congress - S-582
0019 Fishery Statistics for Gulf and Louisiana.
0020 Letter of February 8, 1972, to All Commissioners,
Appointment of Ninth Commissioner
0021 Januaty 24, 19,72, Budget for Fiscal Year Ending June
30, 1973
0022 Memorandum,of January 13 and 14, 1972, Meeting of the
California Advisory Commission on Marine and Coastal
Resources attended by Staff Members Paul H. Templet,
J. Arthur Smith, III and Commissioner Alva H. Harris.

342

ITEM

0023 Minutes of January 18, 1972, Commission Meeting No. 3
0024 Agenda of February 29, 1972-, Commission Meeting No. 4.
0025 Memorandum of February 29, 1972, Status of Annual
Report
0026 Presentation by Mr. Gene J. Cretini of the Depart-
ment of Commerce and Industry, Review of Manufacturing
in 25 Coastal Parishes.
0027 Presentation by Mr. Robert Flaherty of the Mid-
Continent Oil and Gas Association on Oil Industry in
the Coastal Zone
0028 Agenda of.March 21, 1972, Commission Meeting No. 5
0029 Minutes of February aq, 1972, Commission Meeting No. 4.
0030 Agenda of April 5, 1972, Commission Meeting No. 6
0031 Address of April 5, 1972, by Gillis Long, Chairman of
the Louisiana Superport Task Force to the Commission
0032 Letter of April 21,'1972, to all Technical Advisors
and List of Technical Advisors
0033 Agenda of May 3', 1972, Commission Meeting No. 7
0034 Minutes of March 21, 1972, Commission Meeting No. 5
0035 Minutes of April 5, 1972, Commission Meeting No. 6
0036 An Act, Amendment of Section 1363 of Title 51 of Louisiana
Revised Statutes of 1950
0037 Memorandum of May 3, 1972, to all Commissioners
Federal Regulatory Programs Affecting Louisiana's
Coastal Zone
0038 An Amendment (To provide and reenact Subsection B
and C of Section 1363 of Chapter 12 of Title 51
of the Louisiana Revised Statutes of 1950 to provide
for agricultural representation on the Commission.)
0039 Handout from Fred Chatry of the U.S. Army Corps of
Engineers, Water Resources Management 'in the Coastal
and Est7uarine Area of Louisiana by the Corps of
Engineers
oo4o Speech of May 3, 1972, by Daniel V. Cresap, Chief
Engineer, Louisiana Department of Public Works presented
to the Commission

oo4l Report of April 1972, by Dr. Floyd.L. Corty, Department
of Agricultural Economics and Agribusiness, LSU,
entitled Agriculture in the Coastal Zone of Louisiana
0042 Agenda of May 31, 1972, Commission Meeting No. 8
0043 Minutes of May 3, 1972, Commission Meeting No. 7
oo44 House Bill 434 by Mr. V. J. Bella (to provide a special
advisory committe in areas of Ocean Engineering and
Development)

343

ITEM

0045 Memorandum, Introduction to a Legal Study
Concerning the Land Use Laws of Louisiana
and their Relevance to Coastal Zone Management
0046 Presentation of May 31, 1972, Dy Richard W. Bryan,
Louisiana's Coastal Zone as a Recreational Resources
0047 Minutes of May 31, 1972, Commission Meeting-No. 8
0048 Agenda of June 21, 1972, Commission Meeting No. 9
oo49 Memorandum of June 20, 1972, to All Commissioners
concerning Commission documents to be entered into
official record.
0050 Memorandum of June 21, 1972, to.All Commissione:@s
concerning the Analysis-Writing Phase of June 21, 1972,
through September 15, 1973
0051 Resolution appointing Dr. Merrill True, Mr. Fred
Hartdegen, Mr. Drew Michel to a special statutory
Committee on Ocean Engineering and Development
0052 Resolution for Commission support for H.R. 14146,
the federal Coastal Zone Management Act of 1972
0053 Statement by-W; L. Manning to the Commission on
0054 behalf of landowners
Resolution of June 21, 1972, regarding the admendment
to.Senate Bill 378 adding an additional commissioner.
0055 Minutes of June 21, 1972, Commission Meeting No. 9
0056 Memorandum to All Commissioners from Paul H. Templet
0057 Agenda of July 27, 1972, Commission Meeting No. 10
0058 Memorandum regarding the trip to Texas to confer
with personnel of Coastal Resources Management Program
0059 Format for Hearings in Coastal Communities
oo6o Memorandum to Commissioners, Major Legislc;ition of
Interest to Commission Arising Out of the 1972
Louisiana Legislature
0061 Memorandum of July 25, 1972, to Commissioners, Budget
Report
0062 Memorandum of August 15, 1972, to Technical Advisors,
Appointment of Five Standing Committees and Three
Special Committees
0063 Agenda of September 21, 1972, Commission Meeting No. 11
0064 M4-nutes of July 27, 1972, Commission Meeting No. 10
0065 Budget Increase Request of SeDtember 14, 1972, to
Mr. Roy Theriot. Secretary, Board of Liquidation and
Debt, Office of State Comptrolle'r
0066 Statement by Fred Hartdegen to Commission on work of
the Ocean Engineering and Development Committee.
0067 The.Federal Coas-cal Zone Management Act of 1972
0068 Passage of the Federal Coastal Zone Management Act
of 1972

344

ITEM

0069 Resolution of Louisiana Advisory Commission on
Coastal and Marine Resources recommending
Dr. Lyle S. St. Amant's appointment to the
Secretary of Commerce's Coastal Zone Management
Advisory Committee
0070 Recommendation of January 8, 1973, for appointment
of Dr. Lyle S. St. Amant to Coastal Zone Management
Advisory Committee
0071 Address of January 25, 1973, to Joint Legislative@
Committee on Environmental Quality
0072 Budget Estimates and Requests for Fiscal Year
Ending June 30, 1974
0073 Memorandum of February 1, 1973, Recent Develop-
ments in the Federal Coastal Zone Management Program
0074 Minutes of September 21, 1972, Commission Meeting No. 11
0075 Agenda of February 16, 1973, Commission Meeting No. 12
0076 Memorandum of February 12, 1973, The Texas Coastal
Zone Management Program
0077 Memorandum of February 14, 1973, The Florida
Coastal Coordinating Council
0078 Presentation of February 16, 1973, by James P. Schweitzer
on Marine Science Education in Louisiana
0079 Memorandum of March 8, 1973, to Commissioners and
Friends, Louisiana Coastal Commission Meeting
0080 Memorandum of March 7, 1973, to Commissioners and
Friends, Developments in the Federal Coastal Zone
Management Program
0081 Memorandum of March 12, 1973, to Commissioners and
Friends, State Planning Office Requested Budget
Material to Governor
0082 Resolution regarding the Junior League of New Orleans
0083 Letter of March 26, 1973, to William D. Ruckelshaus,
Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, D.C.
0084 Memorandum of April 27, 1973, to Commissioners and Friends
Subject: Developments Implementing the Federal Coastal
Zone Management Act
0085 Memorandum of May 7, 1973,.to Commissioners and Friends,
R@@lationship of the Louisiana Advisory Commission on
Coastal and Marine Resources and the Louisiana Coastal
Commission
0086 Minutes of February 16, 1973, Commission Meeting No. 12
0087 Memorandum of May 29, 1973, to Commissioners and Friends
Subject: Nixon Administration's Interpretation of
the Coastal Zone Management Act of 1972

345

ITEM

0088 Letter of May 10, 1973, addressed to Kenneth M.
Mackenthun, EPA, Washington, D.C. Re: EPA Policy
to Protect the Nation's Wetlands
0089 September 7. 1972 , Lafayette Publia Hearing Transcript
0090 September 21, 1972,-Thibodaux Public Hearing Transcript
0091 October 5, 1972,.Lake Charles Public Hearing Transcript
0092 October 19,. 1972., Chalmette Public Hearing Transcript
0093 November 9. 1972, Morgan City Public Hearing Transcript
oo94 Memorandum of May 29, 1973, to Commissioners and
Friends, Legal effect of an approved Coastai Zone
Management Program vis-a-vis other federal permit
programs@
0095 Reprint of speech by Arthur A. "Don"
Mendonsa, City Manager, Savannah, Ga., Local
Government Concerns about the Coastal Zone
0096 Agenda of June 29, 1973, Commission Meeting No. 13
0097 May 10, 1973, Army Corps of Engineers announces
Proposed Revision of Permit Regulations
oo98 Coastal Zone Management - Nautilus Press, Vol. 4,
No. 5., May., 1973
0099 NOAA Proposed Regulations on Grants for Development
of Management Programs (38 FR 15588, June 13, 1973)
0100 Letter of June 143, 1973,'to Governor Edwards from
Commissioners
0101 Statement of June 29, 1973, from Vernon Behrhorst,
Director of Louisiana Coastal Commission
0102 Statement of June 29, 1973, given by Randy Clement,
City of New Orleans Planning Commission, Role of
Local Governments Regarding the-State CZM Plan
0103 Letter of July 31, 1973, to Robert W. Knecht, Director,
Office of Coastal Environment, NOAA commenting on
the federal guidelines promulgated under PL92-583
olo4 Memorandum of August 7, 1973, to Commissioners and
Friends, Key State Officials, Superporters and other
Interested Parties, Subject: Support in Washington
is Growing for Making Coastal Zone Management a
.Prerequisite to Superport Development

0105 Memorandum of August 10, 1973, Federal Coastal Zone
Management Act Receives $5 Million Dollars Funding
for FY 74
olo6 Minutes of Commission Meeting No. 13

346

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