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I- 09298 Coastal Zone c-2 Information Center Pictorial Atlas COASTAL ZONE INFORMATION CENTER FEB 08 1977 Of Texas Coastal Hazards, COASTAL & MARINA COUNCIL GB 452 T49 1977 c.2 c.2 This report is one of a series developed in response to S.R. 268 and H.S.R. 80 which called for the development of model minimum hurricane-resistant building standards for Texas coastal areas by the Texas Coastal and Marine Council. The series includes: o Report to the 65th Legislature on Building Standards and Coastal Natural Hazards (20 pages). o Model Minimum Hurricane Resistant Building Standards for the Texas Gulf Coast. o Potential Wind Damage Reduction Through Use of Wind-Resistant Building Standards. o Estimated Increased Building Costs Resulting from Use of a Hurricane- Resistant Building Code. o Photographic Atlas of Texas Coastal Hazards. o Natural Hazards of the Texas Coastal Zone (prior to S.R. 268, but key technical documentation of hazards). The above reports can be obtained from: Texas Coastal and Marine Council P.O. Box 13407 Austin, Texas 78711 (512/475-5849) ABOUT THE COUNCIL The Texas Coastal and Marine Council is a statutory body established by the Legislature for the purpose of assisting in the comprehensive assessment and planning for coastal and marine-related affairs. The Council is a mixed legislative-executive body composed of members independently appointed by the Governor, Lt. Governor, and Speaker. The Council serves in a "brokerage" capacity by bringing together groups with corresponding interests and acting as a catalyst by focusing legis- lative attention on issues and suggesting remedies which may be implemented by existing line agencies. The basic statutory mission of the Council has been supplemented/focused by Legislative resolutions calling for specific investigations. The Council's members are: Senator A. R. Schwartz, chairman; Richard Keith ArnoZd; Truman G. BLocker, Jr., M.D.; John C. Calhoun, Jr.; Senator Ray Farabee; James J. Flanagan; Senator D. Roy Harrington; Joe B. Harris; Edward H. Harte; Mrs. J. W. Hershey; Representative Joe A. Hubenak; Robert L. Massey; Representative Greg Montoya; Representative Pike Powers; George Fred Rhodes; Charles P. Turco; and Joe C. Moseley II, Executive Director. .............. Omar of A. R. SCHWARTZ GO.LYESTO% BRA OR%&, MATAGORDA. CALMOUN, ARA,Z( Chairman: TEXAS COASTAL .SAO AND HARRIS COUNTIES January 1977 nd MARINE COUNCIL S:H ATE COMPAITTEES: Chairman: JURISPRUDENCE Member: ADMINISTRATION FINANCE Dear Fellow Texans: The Texas Gulf Coast is a great place to.work, live, and enjoy leisure activities--as attested to by the fact that it is growing faster than Texas as a whole. Regrettably, this area is plagued with natural hazards that can cause sub- stantial loss of life and property. As a native of Galveston, I am well aware that we were the site of the largest natural disaster in the history of the United States--over 6,000 persons were killed by a single hurricane in 1900. Thanks to improved forecasting and modern communications, we now receive warning of approaching hurricanes. However, according to disaster preparedness experts, a combination of intense coastal development and public and government apathy is occurring that could allow it to happen again. While the likelihood of a major loss of life may be low, every day I see the consequences of natural processes adversely impacting people's lives and property. During my 25 years in the Legislature, I have worked to make sure that all citizens would be able to purchase windstorm and flood insurance, and to pro- vide for better government action to help prevent disasters and ensure speedy relief and recovery when they do occur. During the upcoming 65th Legislative Session, I intend to continue this effort, and plan to focus on the following: 9 IMPLEMENTATION OF HURRICANE-RESISTANT BUILDING STANDARDS to reduce losses and keep down insurance rates. Special studies done for the Texas Coastal and Marine Council indicate that wind- storm losses can be reduced 45-55% for an increased building cost of only 2-3%. For not more than [email protected] per square foot on a home that costs $35.00 per square foot, a significant reduction in damage and annual insurance costs would be realized by homeowners. * ADOPTION OF A SIMPLE NATURAL HAZARDS DISCLOSURE STATEMENT for purchasers of coastal property. Experts agree that awareness and preparation are the keys to survival. I believe that a simple, easy and inexpensive hazards disclosure statement will be a sig- nificant step in achieving that goal. s FULL IMPLEMENTATION OF THE TEXAS DISASTER ACT through provision of adequate funding to the state's Division of Disaster Emergency Services. I co-authored the basic Disaster Act in 1973, and many preventive provisions were specifically included; however, due to both a lack of funding and political reluctance to take many pre- ventive measures, these have not been implemented. I hope to see that changed. This report, one in a series, uses pictures of past and potential disasters to demonstrate the situations that exist along the Texas Gulf Coast. By develop- ing enough awareness, I hope we can stimulate those actions that will allow people to reside on the coast while minimizing the probable loss to life and property due to natural hazards. Sincere)y, R. S c artz Pictorial Atlas of Texas Coastal Hazards Prepared by TEXAS COASTAL AND MARINE COUNCIL As PartiaZ Response Pursuant to S.R. 268 and H.S.R. 80 U - S - DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE NOAA COASTAL SERVICES CENTER 2234 SOUTH HOBSON AVENUE CHARLESTON ; SC 29405-2413 Ckm C03 Property of CSC Library January, 1977 PREFACE Portions of the Texas Coast are disasters waiting to happen. According to recent research, the catastrophe potential due to hurricanes striking coastal areas has increased dramatically. The growing amount of coastal development, the natural hazards of subsidence and erosion, the disregard for natural protective elements on the coast, plus poor locational decisions and construction practices, are all-causes of this increased catastrophe potential. On the Texas coast, population in the 18 counties bordering the Gulf increased between 2.5-3.0% per year between 1960 and 1970 as compared with an approximate increase of 1.5-2.0% per year for the nation as a whole. All indications are that this population trend will continue for the Texas coast. The Texas Gulf coast, with its mild climate and many other natural and economic Number of hurricane landfalls, 1900-1972 27 amenities, is a good place -Area (square miles) of salt-water flooding, Hurricanes to live and spend one's Carla and Beulah 3,164 leisure time. Unfortunately, Area (square miles) of fresh-water flooding, Hurricane nature has also provided Beulah 2,187 some natural phenomena which Area (square miles) of fresh-water flooding by hurricane present hazards to life and rainfall (floodplains), northern part of Coastal property. It is possible, Zone only 2,073 through careful planning Area (square miles) below elevation of 20 feet (MSL): and preparation, including subject to salt-water flooding by tidal surge 5,787 education, to significantly Number of active or potential hurricane washover reduce the risks presented channels 137 by these hazards. Number of miles of Gulf beach erosion: greater than 10 feet per year (long term) 47 Many residents of the Texas Number of miles of Gulf beach erosion: from 5 to 10 feet 50 coast have never experienced per year (long term) the full force of a major Number of miles of Gulf beach erosion: from 0 to 5 feet hurricane. The last major per year (long term) 104 hurricane to strike the Number of miles of bay and lagoon shoreline erosion 408 upper Texas coast was Carla Area (square miles) of land subsidence: greater than 5 feet 227 in 1961. Thus, no upper Area (square miles) of land subsidence: from 1 to 5 feet 1,080 coast resident not yet out of Area (square miles) of land subsidence: from 0.2 to I foot 5,422 high school has felt the force Number of miles of known active surface faults 96 of a major hurricane. The Number of miles oi b u-Its oreline 367 last significant hurricane to Number of miles of bay-lagoon shoreline 1,100 strike any part of the Texas Area (square miles) of bays and lagoons 2,075 coast was Celia in 1970. Since Area (square miles) of land in map area 18,000 the Texas coast has averaged one hurricane every 2.5 years, coastal residents are long overdue for one. Land surface subsid 'ence due to the withdrawal of ground water has lowered the land elevation up to 8 feet in some places around Ga:lveston Bay; altogether more than 1300 square miles on the Texas coast are subsiding at rates up to 5 feet per year. These lowered elevations greatly increase the flooding threat of even a small storm, and in one case have caused the abandonment of numerous homes. Equally startling is the fact that subsidence is now 2 reducing road elevations of evacuation routes of coastal communities, including 1-45 and the approaches to the Galveston causeway, which is the principal escape route for that portion of the island's some 74,000 residents who opt to evacuate. Tides of 5 feet will inundate many critical evacuation routes. Erosion, though not a threat to human life, does result in the significant loss of property. Currently, severe erosion (greater than 10 feet per year) is occurring on 42 percent or 153 miles of the coast.and another 28 percent is experiencing moderate erosion. Accretion is occurring over 13 percent of the gulf shore and another 17 percent is in equilibrium. This publication is an attempt to bring to the public's attention examples of existing natural processes and the potential disaster situations they pose to the Texas coast. Only with increased public awareness and consequent preventive-preparedness actions can the growing threat to life and property due to hurricanes and other natural processes be dealt with and future losses minimized. In order to further increase general awareness of these potentially destructive processes, this document uses pictures to show damage and possible circumstances which lead to future losses. While this brief report relies on pictures to deliver its message, there is a very substantial body of scientific and technical data that thoroughly documents, in an accepted scientific manner, the nature, extent, and location of these natural hazards along the Texas coast. The best single document which discusses and maps the hazards is the Natural Hazards Atlas of the Texas Gulf Coast. See References for this and other materials. 3 IT CAN HAPPEN. THE LA RICHELIEU APARTMENTS IN PASS CHRISTIAN, MISSISSIPPI, WERE EXPENSIVE WELL-BUILT BRICK APARTMENTS LOCATED BEHIND A SEAWALL AND ACROSS A ROAD- WAY FROM THE GULF OF MEXICO. HURRICANE CAMILLE STRUCK THE MISSISSIPPI COAST IN 1969 WITH 200-MILE PER HOUR WINDS AND A 25-FOOT SURGE TIDE. THE APARTMENTS WERE COM- PLETELY DEMOLISHED AND OF THE TWO DOZEN RESIDENTS WHO STAYED TO HAVE A HURRICANE PARTY, ONLY ONE SURVIVED AFTER DRIFTING 12 HOURS IN HURRICANE FLOODS. MAJOR STRUCTURES ALONG THE TEXAS COAST ARE NO MORE IMMUNE TO DESTRUCTION IN THE EVENT OF AN EXTREME HURRI- CANE. LESSER STRUCTURES ARE APT TO FAIL EVEN SOONER. THE ADVANTAGES OF COASTAL,LIVING ARE MANY, BUT PAST EXPERIENCE INDICATES THAT COASTAL RESIDENTS NEED TO ASSUME THE RISK AND RESPONSIBILITY OF PREPARING FOR AND GETTING OUT OF THE WAY,OF HURRICANES.. PHOTO A-LA RICHELIEU APARTMENTS, PASS CHRISTIAN, MISSIS- SIPPI BEFORE HURRICANE CAMILLE. PHOTO B-REMAINS OF LA RICHELIEU APARTMENTS AFTER HURRI- CANE CAMILLE IN 1969. 4 PHOTO A M4 14 #;Savo, '_ Ww", i! Ro '*44 _ @[email protected] u v- PHOTO B Of -g iC%, VVe 44& 5 WIND IS SOMETIMES THE PRINCIPAL DAMAGE MECHANISM. HURRICANE CELIA, WHICH STRUCK THE TEXAS COAST NEAR CORPUS CHRISTI IN 1970, CAUSED MOST OF HER DAMAGE THROUGH SUSTAINED WINDS OF 130 M.P.H. AND GUSTS ESTI- MATED TO BE 160-180 M.P.H. DAMAGE FROM HURRICANE WINDS IS NOT ONLY SUSTAINED NEAR THE WATER, BUT ALSO WELL IN- LAND. FOR EXAMPLE, THE TOWNS OF GREGORY AND PORTLAND APPROXIM ATELY 20 MILES FROM THE GULF WERE VIRTUALLY DESTROYED BY CELIA'S WINDS. EAGLE PASS, ALMOST 200 MILES INLAND, WAS LASHED BY 90 M.P.H. WINDS. PHOTO A-HOUSING DEVELOPMENT, PORT ARANSAS, AFTER HURRICANE CELIA. PHOTO B-TOWN OF ARANSAS PASS AFTER HURRICANE CELIA. PHOTO A Nit` 16'1 77 F-A ----- -------- PHOTO B 10 ZU"; HIGH RISE STRUCTURES IF PROPERLY BUILT CAN BE EXPECTED TO SURVIVE ANY BUT THE MOST EXTREME HURRI- CANE; HOWEVER, SIGNIFICANT DAMAGE MAY BE SUFFERED ON WALL COVERINGS, WINDOWS, PORCHES, ETC. UNFORTUNATELY, ONCE A STRUCTURE IS COMPLETED, IT IS OFTEN VERY DIFFICULT TO PRECISELY DETERMINE ITS STRENGTH. EVEN IF THE BUILDING IS WELL-DESIGNED AND ENGINEERED, OVERSIGHTS IN CON- STRUCTION AND FAILURE TO INSURE PROPER INSPECTION MAY RESULT IN A STRUCTURE THAT WILL FAIL BELOW ITS DESIGN STRENGTH. IN THE FUTURE, AS POPULATION INCREASES ON THE BARRIER ISLANDS AND OTHER EXPOSED AREAS, IT MAY BECOME IMPOS- SIBLE TO EVACUATE RESIDENTS. IT WOULD THEN BE NECESSARY TO USE "VERTICAL EVACUATION." THIS INVOLVES RELOCATING PEOPLE IN THE INTERIOR SPACE OF HIGH-RISE BUILDINGS. IT BECOMES VITAL TO KNOW HOW STRONG BUILDINGS ARE IF THIS EVER OCCURS. PHOTO A-DAMAGE DONE TO LARGE BUILDING IN PANAMA CITY, FLORIDA, BY HURRICANE ELOISE, 1975. PHOTO B-SIMILAR STRUCTURE LOCATED ON THE TEXAS COAST FACING THE GULF. 8 PHOTO A Al e A @Ff, P, [email protected], v- - @17 pv; f;- 4 A, k 'lei ,nj b4f -7, lf 7,;,- 797 Ap lej, v [email protected] PHOTO B M M27ilgi A j-t t"r L,v A- Fm ll,@ qN, [email protected],; g-jig [email protected] ell --,!k Tim lu 9 SEVERE SUBSIDENCE DUE PRINCIPALLY TO GROUNDWATER PUMPING IS OCCURRING ON PARTS OF THE TEXAS COAST. IN ONE AREA NEAR THE SAN JACINTO MONUMENT, THE LAND HAS SUNK MORE THAN EIGHT FEET. WHILE SUCH EXTREME SUBSIDENCE IS LOCALIZED, THE "DISHPAN" EFFECT SPREADS OUT MORE THAN 100 MILES FROM ITS CENTER ON THE UPPER COAST, AND THE AREA OF FIVE FEET OR MORE SUBSIDENCE CAN BE FELT AS FAR AS 100 MILES FROM THE CENTER. THE FOLLOWING AREAS HAVE BEEN IMPACTED BY SUB- SIDENCE: GREATER THAN 5 FEET-227 SQUARE MILES FROM 1 TO 5 FEET-1,080 SQUARE MILES FROM 0.2 TO 1.0 FEET-5,422 SQUARE MILES PREVIOUSLY IT WAS THOUGHT THAT THE WHOLE AREA WAS SINKING UNIFORM- LY, BUT RECENT INVESTIGATIONS INDICATE. THAT THE SUBSIDENCE IS EF- FECTED BY FAULTS WHICH MAY ACT AS HYDROLOGICAL BARRIERS AND EXAG- GERATE CONDITIONS IN A PARTICULAR LOCATION. THE ACTIVATION OF FAULTS IS A PROBLEM IN ITSELF, BECAUSE IT CAN DAMAGE ROADS, BUILDING, UTILITY, ETC. THAT CROSS THEM. SUBSIDENCE MAKES COASTAL RESIDENCES MUCH MORE SUSCEPTIBLE TO ORDINARY FLOODING AND IN SOME. CASES, HOMES, SUCH AS THIS ONE NEAR BAYTOWN, HAVE BEEN PERMANENTLY SURROUNDED BY WATER. SUBSIDENCE ALSO GREATLY INCREASES VULNERABILITY TO HURRICANE FLOODING AND CONSEQUENT LOSS OF LIVES AND PROPERTY. PHOTO A-ABANDONED HOUSE IN BROWNWOOD SUBDIVISION NEAR BAYTOWN. PHOTO B-DOWNTOWN STREET IN BAYTOWN AFTER TROPICAL STORM DELIA, 1973. PHOTO C-CARS SUBMERGED IN BAYTOWN AFTER TROPICAL STORM DELIA. PHOTO A P "l",o'Q' Inn NO, w,", 4 g, y A VAN _Av bul"i w W" PHOTO B Ira Nill"IN MIM All m 4 @v7 -d.A PHOTO C Pit.- [email protected] 4t 40 vi iunx i42, V14 T. [email protected] w AUM SOME OF THE MOST BEAUTIFUL BEACHES IN TEXAS AND A SUBTROPICAL CLIMATE ARE FOUND OFF SOUTH PADRE ISLAND. THESE AMENITIES, COMBINED WITH ITS PROXIMITY TO MEXICO, MAKE SOUTH PADRE ISLAND GREAT FOR RETIREMENT HOMES AND VACATION FACILITIES. BECAUSE OF ITS ATTRACTIVENESS, SOUTH PADRE HAS EXPERIENCED MAJOR GROWTH IN THE LAST DECADE. MANY OF THE SAME ELEMENTS WHICH MAKE SOUTH PADRE AN INVITING PLACE TO LIVE OR VISIT ALSO MAKE IT SUSCEPTIBLE TO DAMAGE FROM NATURAL PROCESSES AND PHENOMENA. LIKE OTHER TEXAS BARRIER ISLANDS, IT CAN BE COMPLETELY INUN- DATED BY A MAJOR HURRICANE. LOW ACCESS ROADS CAN FLOOD EARLY AND THUS BLOCK EVACUATION. HURRICANE BEULAH, 1967, CUT PADRE ISLAND IN MORE THAN 50 PLACES AND THESE WASH- OVER CHANNELS, IF REOPENED, CAN DESTROY STRUCTURES BUILT IN THEM. ALSO MUCH OF THE GULF SHORELINE IS ERODING. PHOTO-SOUTH PADRE ISLAND LOOKING SOUTH* WITH NATURAL HAZARDS INDICATED 12 LOW ELEVATION ROADS AND EROSION, IN EXCESS OF 10 FEET BRIDGE APPROACHES CAN BE PER YEAR IS ENCROACHING CUT EARLY BY RISING TIDES FAR UPON PRIVATE PROPERTY AND IN ADVANCE OF HURRICANES. DESTROYING THE PUBLIC BEACH. ALSO NOTE THAT THERE IS ONLY THIS SEAWALL, NOW WELL OUT ONE EVACUATION ROUTE OFF IN THE SURF, WAS BUILT IN 1962. SOUTH PADRE ISLAND. THE LEVELING OF DUNES FOR BEACHFRONT CONSTRUCTION CAN ELIMINATE THE NATURAL PROTECTION AGAINST STORM SURGE. PHOTO A 2' a i @;s f [email protected] '6 0, 12 f"o" iz, CLEW" S CONSTRUCTION IN WASH-OVER CONSTRU F CHANNELS CHANNELS. PART-WAY THROUGH THE ISLAND CAN MAKE IT MORE SUSCEPTIBLE TO SEVERING BY WASHOVERS. 13 SEVERE LOCAL EROSION CAN BE CAUSED BY MINOR HURRICANES WITH MINIMAL WINDS AND MODERATE STORM SURGE AND THIS MAY PRESENT A HAZARD TO BEACH FRONT PROPERTY. HURRICANE DAMAGE DUE TO EROSION CAN BE GREATLY REDUCED, HOWEVER, THROUGH THE USE OF WISE BUILDING TECHNIQUES. FOR EXAMPLE, A SLAB FOUNDATION IS MUCH MORE SUSCEPTI- BLE TO SEVERE DAMAGE FROM HURRICANE EROSION THAN A STRUCTURE BUILT ON PILINGS AND PROPERLY ANCHORED. PHOTO A W Ilk Sol ;6ZOP @7_ -N UR, PHOTO B _0 nil, M410N No 41 - 3BA 14 PHOTO C PHOTO A-PANAMA CITY, FLORIDA, MOTEL AFTER HURRICANE ELOISE, 1975. PHOTO B-SOUTH PADRE ISLAND ANN"* MOTEL, 1976. PHOTO C-BRICK HOUSE ON SLAB FOUNDATION AFTER HURRI- CANE BEULAH-A TOTAL LOSS. PHOTO D-BEACH FRONT HOUSE ON PILE FOUNDATION AFTER HURRICANE BEULAH--NO MAJOR STRUCTURAL DAM- MUM AGE '90 656 2T, MQ jiggg", PHOTO D g 5N 15 CHRONIC EROSION PLAGUES MUCH OF SOUTHERN SOUTH PADRE ISLAND WHICH IS ERODING 5-10 FEET PER YEAR. THE PRIVATE SEAWALL SHOWN ON THE OPPOSITE PAGE WAS CON- STRUCTED IN 1962 AND WAS ORIGINALLY 200 FEET FROM THE HIGH TIDE LINE. THIS SEAWALL WAS INTENDED AS A REPLACE- MENT FOR ANOTHER SEAWALL 20 FEET OUT THAT WAS PREVIOUS- LY DESTROYED BY A STORM PRIOR TO 1962. WHILE HURRICANE BEULAH IN 1967 DID ACCELERATE SOME LOCALIZED EROSION, THE BEACH IN THIS AREA HAS BEEN RECEDING MORE THAN 10 FEET PER YEAR. A SEAWALL SUCH AS THIS WOULD COST APPROXIMATELY $100/ LINEAR FOOT TODAY. A MAJOR SEAWALL SUCH AS THE GALVES- TON SEAWALL WOULD CURRENTLY COST BETWEEN $1200-1500/ LINEAR FOOT. THE SMALL WALLS BEING BUILT ON THE BEACH SIDE OF STRUCTURES ARE USED PRINCIPALLY TO RETAIN THE FILL MATERIAL BEHIND THEM AND THEIR EFFECTIVENESS AGAINST ANY HURRICANE IS NEGLIGIBLE. EVEN IF SUCH SEAWALLS DO NOT FA IL STRUCTURALLY, EROSION CAN REMOVE THE SAND IN FRONT OF THE WALL AND THUS CAUSE A LOSS OF A MAJOR AMENITY-THE BEACH. PHOTO A-PRIVATE SEAWALL ON SOUTH PADRE ISLAND LOOKING NORTH. PHOTO B-SAME PRIVATE SEAWALL LOOKING SOUTH. 16 PHOTO A 71, 7- 1 [email protected] '[email protected] `@. xi, PHOTO B "'T _71" ,v V UP 591 M73, 7 17 EVACUATION FROM TEXAS' BARRIER ISLANDS, PENINSULAS, AND OTHER LOW-LYING COASTAL AREAS PRESENTS A CRITICAL PROBLEM IMMEDIATELY PRIOR TO A HURRICANE. CAUSEWAYS, DRAWBRIDGES, AND FERRIES REPRESENT THE ONLY MEANS OF ESCAPE FOR RESIDENTS IN MANY OF THESE AREAS. ALL OF THE ABOVE MEANS OF EVACUATION COULD BE CUT OFF PRIOR TO A HURRICANE AS EXPLAINED BY THE PHOTOS AND TEXTS ON THE FOLLOWING PAGES. HURRICANE FORECASTING HAS GREATLY IMPROVED IN RECENT YEARS. EXPERTS NOW GENERALLY AGREE THAT FORECASTING CAPABILITY HAS REACHED A PLATEAU AND SIGNIFICANT IM- PROVEMENTS ARE NOT ANTICIPATED IN THE NEAR FUTURE. HURRICANE FORECASTING INVOLVES EXTENSIVE MONITORING AND COMPLEX MODELLING OF A NATURAL PHENOMENON WHICH DISPLAYS SIGNIFICANT RANDOM BEHAVIOR. PREDICTIONS MUST BE MADE OF THE HURRICANE PATH, LANDFALL POINT, THE INTEN- SITY, AND THE SPEED OF TRAVEL. MAP-SOME CRITICAL ACCESSIEVACUATION POINTS ALONG THE TEXAS COAST (Prepared in cooperation with the Division of Disaster Emergency Services) 18 SUBSIDENCE HAS SIGNIFICANTLY EXAG- FERRY ACROSS HOUSTON SHIP GERATED THE FLOODING DANGER IN CHANNEL AT LYNCHBERG MANY PLACES AROUND GALVESTON BAY. S. H. 87 SWING BRIDGE OVER GULF DRAWBRIDGE ON SH 146 ACROSS CLEAR C E INTRACOASTAL WATERWAY FERRY GALVESTON CAUSEWAY AA- SAN LUIS PASS CAUSEWAY AT SOUTHWEST --A END OF ISLAND SWING BARGE-BRIDGES OVER GULF INTRACOASTAL FM 457 WATERWAY FM 2031 FERRY m-JFK CAUSEWAY TO NORTH PADRE AND MUSTANG ISLANDS APPROXIMATELY 5,780 SQUARE MILES OF THE TEXAS COAST ARE LESS THAN 20 FEET ABOVE SEA LEVEL AND THUS SUBJECT TO SALT WATER FLOODING BY HURRICANE SURGE. [email protected] QUEEN ISABELLA CAUSEWAY MANY ROADS AND BRIDGES TO SOUTH PADRE ISLAND COULD BE BLOCKED BY HIGH WATER. SINCE EVERY HURRI- CANE IS DIFFERENT, IT IS NOT POSSIBLE TO PRESCRIBE EVACU- ATION ROUTES FAR IN ADVANCE. WHEN A HURRICANE THREATENS, KEEP YOUR RADIO ON TO HEAR THE LATEST SITUATIONS AND EVACUATION INSTRUCTIONS. SOME CRITICAL EVACUATION POINTS MANY SMALL ROADS LEADING FROM PARTICULAR SUBDIVI- ALONG THE TEXAS COAST SIONS AND BETWEEN MAJOR ARTERIES CONTAIN CRITICAL POINTS AT LOW PLACES, CUL- VERTS, AND SMALL BRIDGES. 19 CAUSEWAYS ARE THE PRINCIPAL MEANS OF EGRESS FROM THE HEAVILY POPULATED ISLANDS. ALTHOUGH THE CAUSEWAYS THEMSELVES ARE ABOVE STORM SURGES, THE LAND APPROACHES TO THEM ARE ONLY A FEW FEET ABOVEMEAN SEA LEVEL. THE APPROACH TO THE GALVESTON CAUSEWAY VIA INTERSTATE 45 IS ALSO PLAGUED BY SUBSIDENCE. COMPOUNDING THE EVACUATION PROBLEM IS THE INCREASING POPULATION ON THE ISLANDS. ACCORDING TO THE NATIONAL HURRICANE CENTER, 500 VE H ICLES /TRAFFIC LANE/HOUR CAN THEORETICALLY EVACUATE. HOWEVER, IN PRACTICE, ONLY ABOUT 350 VEHICLES/LANE/HOUR CAN SUCCESSFULLY MOVE OVER ROADS. THUS, ON THREE LANES OF OUTBOUND TRAFFIC, APPROX- IMATELY 1000/VEHICLES/HOUR CAN BE MOVED IF ALL GOES WELL. WITH A TWELVE HOUR WARNING BEFORE LANDFALL, 12,000 VEHICLES COULD BE EVACUATED. HOWEVER, THE STORM SURGE COULD CUT CAUSEWAY AP- PROACHES AT LEAST 4-6 HOURS PRIOR TO LANDFALL, LEAVING ONLY 6-8 HOURS IN WHICH TO EVACUATE ALL THOSE LEAVING. PERSONS TRAPPED IN CARS ON LOW-LYING ROADS WOULD NOT HAVE VERY GOOD ODDS OF SUR- VIVING. PHOTO A-GALVESTON CAUSEWAY CONNECTING GALVESTON ISLAND TO THE MAINLAND. PHOTO B-JFK CAUSEWAY LINKING CORPUS CHRISTI TO PADRE ISLAND. PHOTO C-QUEEN ISABELLA CAUSEWAY, THE STATE'S LONGEST BRIDGE, LINK- ING MAINLAND PORT ISABEL TO SOUTH PADRE ISLAND. PHOTO A 4__ @%s UIN Upill. 20 PHOTO B V"y 'U @ffl eS MY MAP? F;wn M -IF-1- -w' R rw 01, 09! sM it YN [email protected] SAO, 70" e IF-) I iF PHOTO C X- [email protected] A 7 7 1.71INMISM" ja NIN"' 21 LOW ELEVATIONS AND FLAT TOPOGRAPHY OF THE TEXAS COAST CREATE HAZARDOUS SITUATIONS BY INCREASING THE AREA'S SUSCEPTIBILITY TO HURRICANE FLOODING. LARGE RESIDENTIAL DEVELOPMENTS ARE OFTEN BUILT ON LOW-LYING FILLED LAND TO PROVIDE EASY ACCESS TO BOAT CHANNELS. IN MANY PLACES THERE IS SIMPLY NO "HIGH" GROUND (i.e., GREATER THAN 15-20 FEET MEAN SEA LEVEL) NEAR WATER. IN SOME CASES, THE ONLY ROAD WHICH PROVIDES A MEANS OF EGRESS CAN EASILY BE CUT BY RISING WATER. SOMETIMES IT PARALLELS THE BEACH OR A BAY SHORELINE, AND IN OTHER IN- STANCES IT MAY CROSS A CREEK OR BAYOU ON A LOW BRIDGE. PHOTO A-RESIDENTIAL DEVELOPMENT ON MAN-MADE LAND IN ARANSAS COUNTY. PHOTO B-STATE HIGHWAY 87 BETWEEN THE TOWNS OF PORT BOLIVAR AND SABINE PASS. 22 PHOTO A R? "Al 1'.i --g ""a 'u% @u iK %TOk"'? k- t "'0 i " i @ @ @ @' UW" g M 14 R "Ik R R @'M' -j'a, k uk 'k 'on ij, V, 'g, A - , @" @" f, @' R, Z"> , @' @ @' @0 "'@ ;"L q,@' "g X, @.kqj: 'n ar" @[email protected] IN WE- M PHOTO B lray -y gzw [email protected]@ vgv @111 g- [email protected] -C"U'll, xg""@ "Y [email protected] 9'Yfffl ,C" [email protected]@ "W" i'V'RAA 2"'AF @'e ff - @ " _F I- QN-S'. t 'UA-, N _V 'Y N [email protected] ' - @ "' '@@ 'X @@, ,,, g v JR I, RBO "F g ZAW-4 % 6 F A @X' J5 p _wo' o" [email protected] ".4 M, XY @'[email protected] "Mv Coll -R' 20 i ""M -4m p,-A q,Ze, [email protected] rK"I _g gl' -5, M'W 424, 0, at, A. A IF gg 3- rpig @4 V [email protected] f V, R, Z"', px- Afi' 23 DRAWBRIDGES ARE STILL USED IN A FEW PLACES ALTHOUGH THE MAJOR POPULATION CENTERS LOCATED ON TEXAS ISLANDS AND PENINSULAS ARE CONNECTED BY CAUSEWAYS TO THE MAIN- LAND. IN ADDITION, A MAJOR DRAWBRIDGE IS LOCATED ON THE MAINLAND OVER CLEAR CREEK BETWEEN KEMAH AND SEA- BROOK. DRAWBRIDGES CAN BECOME DANGEROUS BOTTLE- NECKS DURING EVACUATION SINCE FEDERAL LAW REQUIRES THAT IF BOTH VESSELS AND VEHICLES ARRIVE AT THE DRAW- BRIDGE, THE VESSELS WILL HAVE PRIORITY. PHOTO A-REVOLVING BRIDGE OVER THE INTRACOASTAL WATER- WAY AT HIGH ISLAND, TEXAS (NOW BEING REPLACED WITH HIGH BRIDGE BY DEPARTMENT OF HIGHWAYS AND PUBLIC TRANSPORTATION). PHOTO B-APPROACH TO DRAWBRIDGE ON STATE HIGHWAY 146 OVER CLEAR CREEK. 24 PHOTO A % v PHOTO B -7-77 6,4'4 0 @ - @ Q , @U 4", 52P,@ IT A Je' F 4i LZ W-, @a 4 4 q WA, VAT 'yv FMA yg- YA- 7 pile V1, 6" 25 FERRIES ARE STILL OPERATING AT THREE PLACES ON THE TEXAS COAST-ONE BETWEEN GALVESTON ISLAND AND PORT BOLIVAR, ONE BETWEEN PORT ARANSAS AND ARANSAS PASS, AND ONE ACROSS THE HOUSTON SHIP CHANNEL AT LYNCHBURG NEAR THE SAN JACINTO BATTLEGROUND. ALTERNATE ROUTES OF EGRESS EXIST IN ALL CASES, BUT THE FERRIES ARE ALSO UTI- LIZED. HOWEVER, SINCE THE FERRIES CEASE OPERATION WHEN WINDS REACH TROPICAL STORM INTENSITY (38.5 M.P.H.) OR THE TIDES REACH FIVE FEET, THEIR EFFECTIVENESS AS A MEANS OF EVACUATION IS LIMITED. PHOTO A-GALVESTON ISLAND-PORT BOLIVAR FERRY. PHOTO B-PORTARANSAS-ARANSAS PASS FERRY. 26 PHOTO A IA PHOTO B pr 27 STORM SURGE CAUSED BY HURRICANES OFTEN CUTS COMPLETELY THROUGH BARRIER ISLANDS AND PENINSULAS. MORE THAN 130 WASHOVER CHANNELS HAVE OCCURRED ALONG TEXAS COAST BARRIER ISLANDS. SUCH WASHOVERS CAN BE WIDE AND CUT TO A DEPTH OF SEVERAL FEET BELOW SEALEVEL. A LARGE WASHOVER CHANNEL ACTIVE DURING HURRICANE BEULAH IN 1967 IS NOW THE SITE OF MAJOR DEVELOPMENT AS EVIDENCED BY PHOTOSA, B AND C. SINCE STORMS TEND TO REACTIVATE THE SAME WASHOVER CHANNELS, THESE STRUCTURES ARE PARTICULARLY VULNERABLE TO HURRICANE DE- STRUCTION. MAN'S ACTIONS, SUCH AS REMOVAL OF FILL MATERIAL FROM BEACH AREAS, CONSTRUCTION OF CHANNELS A SIGNIFICANT DISTANCE ACROSS ISLANDS, OR DUNE DESTRUCTION, CAN INCREASE THE LIKELIHOOD OF A WASHOVER OCCURRING AT A PARTICULAR SITE. PHOTO A-STRUCTURES NOW PRESENTIN SOUTH PADRE WASHOVER CHANNEL. PHOTO B-1974 AERIAL PHOTO OF SOUTH PADRE ISLAND WITH LOCATION OF WASHOVER CHANNELS INDICATED. PHOTO C-1967 AERIAL PHOTO OF SOUTH PADRE ISLAND SHOWING WASHOVER CHANNELS; PHOTO A It 28 PHOTO.B WV MM" PHOTO C 29 CHRONIC OR CONTINUING EROSION, NOT CAUSED BY A PARTICULAR STORM OR HURRICANE, IS OCCURRING ON THE TEXAS COAST. SEVERE ERO- SION (MORE THAN 10 FEET PER YEAR) IS TAKING PLACE IN THE SARGENT'S BEACH AREA LOCATED DIRECTLY EAST OF MATAGORDA PENINSULA (Photo A). RECENT RATES OF EROSION OF BETWEEN 5 AND 10 FEET PER YEAR HAVE CAUSED DESTRUCTION AND ABANDONMENT OF HOMES IN THE COMMUNITY OF SURFSIDE (Photos B & C). HOWEVER, WHILE THE SURFSIDE BEACH IS NOW IN AN EROSIONAL STATE, THE BEACH HAS ACTUALLY ACCRETED SEVERAL HUN- DRED YARDS OVER THE PAST CENTURY. A MAP MADE OF THE AREA IN THE 1850'S INDICATED THE BEACH LINE TO BE FAR INLAND OF ITS CURRENT LO- CATION. THE FOLLOWING LONG-TERM EROSION IS OCCURRING ALONG THE 367 MILES OF GULF SHORELINE: SEVERE-GREATER THAN,10 FEET/YEAR-47 MILES (13%) MODERATE-FROM 5 TO 10 FEET/YEAR-50 MILES (14%) MINOR-UP TO 5 FEET/YEAR-104 MILES (28%) THE REMAINDER IS EITHER IN EQUILIBRIUM OR ACCRETING. OF THE APPROXI- MATELY 1100 MILES OF BAY-LAGOON SHORELINE, IT IS ESTIMATED THAT 408 MILES (37%) IS ERODING. PHOTO A-EFFECTS OF EROSION ON SARGENT BEACH (1974 photo). IN 1974 AN- OTHER ROW OF HOUSES STOOD SEAWARD OF THE HOUSE IN THIS PICTURE, WHICH ITSELF RESTED IN THE SURF.' TODAY EROSION HAS ALMOST REACHED THE SPOIL MOUND LOCATED JUST SEAWARD OF THE ROW OF HOUSES IN THE BACKGROUND. PHOTO B-DESTRUCTION DUE TO CRITICAL EROSION NEAR SURFSIDE. PHOTO C-HOUSE LOCATED ON SURFSIDE BEACH. PHOTO A 7 S1, 071 ili pluli iff VAN' ir- i"Thl, m w a A R-V 'N [email protected]@, 12 1, A "A 1L gyr2 Nvl "'CY, [email protected] 3!A ""i"Sit'i "17P Nil, N [email protected] @ "`,[email protected] u A, 2 Z iliizii iid-m [email protected],,,vmnf mz_, tv E [email protected] -SA gg,@x @4 P 'H- q N IT qft,,_a# "'MAL v "bur @Nh 10- ThE "U [email protected] "i - W " , - f N ql V ?Y IEl, A 21Y 30 PHOTO B 14 MA 4, Y INHY PHOTO C *wow-" it 9 P,"9' a, 'k- 01" Rv [email protected] 31 AN EXTREMELY WELL-BUILT SEAWALL WHICH CAN SURVIVE HURRICANES MAY STILL CAUSE THE LOSS OF BEACH AMENITY DUE TO EROSION (Photo A). EROSION WILL ALSO TAKE PLACE AT EACH END OF A SEAWALL (Photo B). IN ADDITION, INTER- RUPTION OF THE NATURAL BEACH PROCESSES BY THE SEAWALL CAN ALSO COMPLICATE SOMEONE ELSE'S PROBLEM DOWN THE BEACH. PHOTO A-VIEW OF GALVESTON SEAWALL SHOWING NO BEACH EXISTING IN FRONT OF SEAWALL. PHOTO B-AREA ADJACENT TO SOUTHWEST END OF GALVESTON SEAWALL WHICH HAS ERODED MORE THAN 200 FEET SINCE COMPLETION OF THE SEAWALL EXTENSION IN 1961. 32 PHOTO A k -101 A. -7 'law PHOTO B A4`1 LIT FF, N'M ""Y, - 4 Sr - Z, ki v*r IN 33 NATURAL PROTECTION AGAINST HURRICANE WIND AND WAVES IS PROVIDED BY VEGETATED SAND DUNES LOCATED ON THE TEXAS COAST. HOWEVER, SOME OF MAN'S ACTIVITIES ARE DESTROYING SOME OF THIS NATURAL PROTECTION. RECREA- TIONAL VEHICLES SUCH AS DUNE BUGGIES OR TRAIL BIKES CAN CAUSE IRREVERS-IBLE DAMAGE TO THE DUNES, DESTROYING THE STABILIZING VEGETATIVE COVER ON DUNES, THUS MAKING THEM MUCH MORE SUSCEPTIBLE TO EROSIVE DAMAGE BY WIND OR WAVE ACTION. DUNES ARE OFTEN LEVELED IN ORDER TO FACILITATE BEACH- FRONT CONSTRUCTION. IT SHOULD BE NOTED THAT THE CON- STRUCTION AS SHOWN IN PHOTO B HAS ALLOWED THE FORE- DUNE TO REMAIN IN PLACE AND THUS RECEIVES SOME NATURAL PROTECTION. PHOTO A-PHOTO OF DUNE BUGGY. PHOTO B-CONSTRUCTION ON DUNE-PORT ARANSAS. 34 PHOTO A SP g" 4 Ro 01 PHOTO B M myp' "R, @,P g, Uvili, @ 16 A,ly oq AP" 35 MOBILE HOMES ARE ONE OF THE MOST POPULAR RESIDEW TIAL DWELLINGS ON THE TEXAS COAST. IF NOT ANCHORED PROPERLY, THEYCAN INFLICT SEVERE DAMAGE TO NEIGHBORING STRUCTURES WHEN LIFTED AND DRIVEN BY HIGH WINDS. UN- ANCHORED MOBILE HOMES WILL MOVE AT LESS THAN HURRICANE FORCE (74 M.P.H.) WINDS. STATE LAW NOW REQUIRES THAT THEY BE TIED DOWN, BUT, EVEN WITH BEST ANCHORING, MOBILE HOMES CANNOT BE EXPECTED TO SURVIVE IN A MAJOR HURRI- CANE BECAUSE OF STRUCTURAL WEAKNESS. PHOTO A-MOBILE HOME PARK ON GALVESTON ISLAND. PHOTO B-REMAINS OF LARGE TRAILER PARK IN PORT ARANSAS FOLLOWING HURRICANE CELIA IN 1970. 36 PHOTO A 117 @7qf Will, ING Uq% L PHOTO B M,02, ,%[email protected],fk 00A A Rol ve- 14 37 JETTIES ARE BUILT TO STABILIZE PASSES THROUGH THE BAR- RIER ISLANDS AND THUS MAKE COMMERCIAL NAVIGATION POSSI- BLE. GROINS ARE SOMETIMES BUILT TO "TRAP" SAND AND THUS INHIBIT BEACH EROSION. SUCH STRUCTURES MAY HAVE SEVERE EFFECTS ON ADJACENT BEACHES THROUGH THE ALTERATION OF NATURAL SHORELINE PROCESSES. FREQUENTLY EROSION WILL OCCUR ON ONE SIDE WITH ACCRETION ON THE OTHER SIDE. PHOTO A-JETTIES AT MANSFIELD CHANNEL. PHOTO B-GROIN PROJECTING FROM GALVESTON SEAWALL. 38 PHOTO A N"A [email protected]! -Mil I'M "'Q 4W Wlid 9 u t ;1: 0 om IV -04", o'dw !s*, dA @II g R @Fl a lk -A. "'A V [email protected]@7 F4 iF g ff t* 06, e M IF Zx_ 4 FI Ff, PHOTO B 39 REMOVAL OF SAND MATERIAL FOR CONSTRUCTION FILL HAS OCCURRED ON SOME BARRIER ISLANDS. OFTEN WHEN THIS DREDGING IS DONE, BORROW PITS OR ARTIFICIAL PONDS ARE CREATED. THESE PITS PROVIDE A READY-MADE PATH FOR HUR- RICANES TO CUT THROUGH THE ISLAND. SUCH BORROW PITS HAVE BEEN CREATED AT THE END OF THE GALVESTON SEAWALL AS MATERIAL HAS BEEN DREDGED TO RAISE LAND IN AREAS BE- HIND THE SEAWALL. SUCH PRACTICES HAVE LARGELY BEEN STOPPED BY STATE LAW. PHOTO A-AERIAL VIEW OF THE GALVESTON SEAWALL WITH BOR- ROW PITS LOCATED AT THE WALL'S SOUTHWEST END. PHOTO B-CLOSEUP VIEW OF GALVESTON ISLAND BORROW PITS. 40 PHOTO A [email protected] 10 ts" PHOTO B 'N;,@!, WiFt-NA"A M"! "AN, u- io-'!, i'V", la, Plo @, ji 41 HUMAN SUFFERING IS ONE ASPECT OF NATURAL HAZARD DISASTER SITUATIONS OFTEN OVERLOOKED. DESTRUCTION OF BUILDINGS, FLOODING OF STREETS, ETC., ARE GRAPHICALLY PORTRAYED, BUT HUMAN SUFFERING AND LOSS ARE NOT USUAL- LY GIVEN AS MUCH ATTENTION. ON THE TEXAS COAST, THE POTENTIAL FOR HUMAN SUFFERING IS GROWING EQUALLY AS QUICKLY AS THE POTENTIAL FOR LOSS OF PROPERTY. PHOTO A 'vl @i 001"UN MM g-a fO fix mErm-mr [email protected] if`,A [email protected] ff [email protected] al @L- F VN"sl'h'@@PN _-Ve 49C; N"x 42 PHOTO B all Do IL Plus J- 411 A [email protected] V T C 4,@ A 6-Ak", "ri [email protected], VA014 F "AW 4' Oth % [email protected] .,ii,& -4 0 0 - T!Y eV S; "Q1 I 64 1,04- 4 [email protected] MIR N"Ift -NAIM All Sq A A V Q h 70 "t-A w S wX 'To IV T NU IU i @Ilw AP AE Q. . . . . . . . . . W 5f, 43 APPENDIX A HURRICANES storm center, experienced peak gusts of 85 mph; total damage from this storm exceeded Hurricanes are the most destructive 400 million dollars. storms which affect wide areas of the Texas Hurricane Beulah (1967) carried lower coast. On the average, since 1900, hurri- maximum winds (Fig. 1) and resulted in a canes have hit some part of Texas once every storm surge of 10 feet above MSL at Brazos two to three years and have claimed over Santiago. During movement over land, Beulah 7,000 lives and caused over 1.3 billion produced torrential rainfall in excess of 30 dollars in'property damage. Hurricanes push tnches during the four or five days of large volumes of sea water ahead of the aftermath storms. At least 115 tornadoes storm which inundate low-lying coastal accompanied the hurricane, with some as far areas. This process is called storm-surge inland as Austin. flooding and is the most destructive storm Hurricane Celia (1970) carried minimal effect along the Texas coast. Fresh-water rainfall, and a storm surge of less than 9 flooding due to torrential hurricane rain- feet above MSL was restricted to a very fall can also be extremely destructive near narrow zone. The hurricane wind pattern had overflowing creeks and rivers, and in natu- a diameter of 80 miles, making Celia a very rally low-lying areas. Rainfall rates small storm. At the time the storm made become much heavier as a hurricane makes landfall, however, the eye decreased in size landfall and its forward movement is re- by about 40 percent and wind velocity in- duced. When hurricane Audrey struck near creased from 90 to 130 mph with gusts of 160 the Texas-Louisiana border in 1957, some to 180 mph. These winds were highly damaging, 40,000 to 50,000 cattle were killed, mostly leaving distinct paths of destruction through by drowning. Indeed, nine out of ten human the Corpus Christi area. victims of hurricanes result from drowning, This brief synopsis of hurricane effects when low-lying barrier islands and mainland should give the potential coastal property areas are flooded. owner an appreciation of the awesome power Hurricanes are defined as storms having of these intense storms. The National winds over 74 mph, but winds of 100 to 135 Weather Service recently pointed out that if mph are common and may occur over a 300 mile Carla returned today at least 50,000 more wide area. Severe storms have wind veloci- ties of 135 to 160 mph. Damage to structures results from sudden pressure changes associa- ted with gusts; mobile homes are particularly Variables Beulah type Carla type Celia type vulnerable to wind damage. Hurricane Carla, Wind Moderate Moderate High which struck near Port O'Connor in 1961, had sustained winds of about 175 mph, and Storm-surge Camille, which struck the Mississippi coast tides Moderate. High Low in 1969, packed winds of 200 mph. During the past 70 years, most coastal Rainfall High Moderate Low areas in Texas have experienced severe weather from impact or fringe effects of a Sizeof hurricane. Three hurricanes which have made destructive Medium Large Small landfall in the Texas coastal zone since core 1960 have had distinctively different major effects, and have varied greatly in the size Length of of the area impacted (Fig. 1 and Table 1). aftermath Extended Intermediate Brief Hurricane Carla (1961) was a very in- effects tense hurricane with a storm surge in excess of 10 feet above mean sea level (MSL) at Character of Port Mansfield: Port O'Connor: Port Aransas: Port O'Connor and of 22 feet above MSL at coastline poorly vegetated, well vegetated, moderate vegetation, Port Lavaca; she was probably one of the affected low relief, broad local relief to local relief to 30 feet, largest hurricanes for which there are unrestricted bay 30 feet, funnel-like reliable records. Parts of Matagorda Penin- funnel-like Nueces Bay sula were breached by storm channels and Lavaca Bay shorelines were eroded as much as 800 feet under the action of huge storm waves (McGowen Table 1 the characteristics of basic types and Brewton, 1975). During Carla, Corpus of hurricanes striking the Texas Coastal Christi, which was 50 to 60 miles from the Zone. From Brown and others (1974). 44 @[email protected]@ A-, 6ESPIE AMIN BURLESON BE I AALK IA L HAI AR AR kum6NT IKENOA ---A- HOUS1 _-kt V FAYETTE LT_ co Q As BANDER IEXAA 3EKAR.',WA ."'U LVESTON MEGINA STON NILSON,>, "2 AN 'DECTI N jA-T LTA AGA N -A .50 GO LEI AS ALLE T75 75 D MMIT Of [email protected] o 2C 40 60 j SCALE IN MILES SCALE IN MILES 125 0" I DINAL S D.AL WEBB HISTI WEBB @@CHRI T I INIF FAG 75 -A BROO ZMTA JIM No ZAPATA JIM [email protected] "GliA KENEDI L 7 7 57ARR w. CARLA STARR CELIA HIDALGO 75 HIDALGO CAKNON BR WNSVILLE BR NSVILLE TIT I LESPIE -HARD. E E, LAG @@LEE [email protected] ___ - J ,vl' [email protected]% L BERTY"[email protected]@ HAYS [email protected] S1 I N HARRIS g u 6NT BA S, A - HOUS _N1 "I I D"ell /IAI'IT'TE REA MENA @a.AL " \'. , - c'AMBENS L -F(_C00AAbG/'_'j -, Tm r 4 -t 'UE'ND BEAAN' iGALVESTD ALM I \ ' HURRICANE WINDS AND TORNADOES AIEDINA L GALVESTON WILSON BRA IA ZAVALA /OEWITT MATIGO N 75 MPH IAII 75 G0 IMAOT LA SAL Ra: ED 125 MPH 0 150 MPH I, f SCALE IN MILES M1 wu Ana I LARISTI 175 MPH TORNADOES KTA JIM L @4 STARR V., BEULAH 125 RQK WNSVILLE Figure 1. The track of the eyes of Hurricanes Carla, Beulah and Celia, and the area covered by hurricane-level winds, Texas Coastal Zone. From Brown and others (1974). people would be directly affected. A critical islands or peninsulas. These channels problem in the effort to avoid loss of life readily develop at sites of wind erosion and to minimize storm damage to property is (blowouts) or in areas of poorly developed the lack of hurricane experience of many new fore-island dunes and beach ridges. Storm- coastal residents. The need for awareness surge waters flow landward through the of the hurricane danger and the need for channels, scouring sand. Following passage preparedness planning increase as the popu- of the hurricane, elevated bay and lagoon lation increases in vulnerable coastal waters also return to the Gulf through these areas. channels. Storms tend to reactivate the same washover channels, which are closed at HURRICANE RELATED EFFECTS their gulfward end by shoreline processes Washover Channels during non-storm conditions. Construction within or immediately adjacent to hurricane One of the principal effects of hurri- breach or surge channels may lead to prop- cane stom surge is the development of erty damage in the event of hurricane washover channels that breach barrier landfall. 45 Waves but possible, flood hazard. The Federal Storm waves, superimposed on . the Insurance Administration provides large- hurricane storm surge, cause severe erosion scale maps showing flood hazard area bound- of shorelines and extensive damage to ary and rate information for incorporated structures. Breaking waves can destroy many and unincorporated areas. A local insurance buildings, but their destructive potential agent or broker should be consulted to is greatly increased by pilings, uprooted determine how these designations affect a trees and other debris that act as battering particular piece of real property. rams. Although accretion between storms may SHORELINE EROSION AND restore much of the shoreline lost during a ACCRETION hurricane, the shoreline may retreat several hundred feet in a few hours during hurricane Gulf Shorelines wave attack. Shorelines are naturally or through Wind man's influence in a state of erosion, accretion or equilibrium. Erosion, which Hurricane winds deserve special mention produces a net loss of land, is the most because they can be particularly damaging, critical situation, while natural accretion even in the case of small storms such as of shorelines, which produces a net gain in hurricane Celia. Due to the increased risk land is generally a desired condition. of wind damage, coastal counties are in the Accretion may pose a problem in some situ- Windstorm Catastrophe Insurance Pool. ationsi however, where accreting materials Property seaward of the Gulf Intracoastal may block navigation channels or limit Waterway is usually subject to greater access to docks and canals. insurance premiums for wind damage coverage, Shorelines change in response to since this area must face the full impact of tides, storms, sediment supply and relative hurricane winds as the storm comes ashore. sea level changes. Historical studies This zone is often referred to as the "beach indicate that long-term erosion during the zone" with respect to wind damage potential. past 74 to 132 years has subjected 46 linear miles (13 percent) of the Texas Gulf WIND TIDAL FLOODING shoreline to severe erosion (over 10 feet Most severe weather in the coastal re- per year), and 154 miles (42 percent) to gion, other than hurricanes, tropical moderate erosion (up to 10 feet per year). storms and thunderstorms, is related to Short-term erosion during the past 7 to 23 frontal systems, or "northers". In the years has subjected 153 linear miles (42 winter, polar fronts may move rapidly into percent) of the Texas shoreline to severe the coastal area, bringing low temperatures, erosion and 101 miles (28 percent) to rain, and strong northerly winds., Locally moderate erosion (Brown and others, 1974; heavy rainfall may occur. The northerly Morton, 1974, 1975). Thus, recent data winds may generate high water levels that indicate that over two-thirds of the Texas inundate tidal flats and other low areas, Gulf shoreline is undergoing erosion. especially on the southern margin of bays Most beaches undergo short cycles of and the back sides of barrier islands. erosion and accretion no matter what the Wind-tidal flooding is slow and does not long-term trend. These cycles are in re- present a serious hazard, but it may be a sponse to day-to-day conditions such as hazard for property at low elevations along storm-wave frequency, seasonal wind pat- bay and lagoon margins. terns, and, locally, the opening and closing F. I. A. FLOOD HAZARD of periodically active tidal inlets. Super- imposed on these natural processes are man's The Federal Insurance Administration activities, such as the building of sea- has designated flood hazard zones which walls, jetties, and groins, and the altera- determine eligibility and applicable rates ion tion of both dune lines and vegetation. for property flood insurance. These zones Although shoreline control and stabilization include: A, an area of special flood structures may alleviate an erosion problem hazard (having a 1-percent chance of being in one area, they frequently increase problems flooded each year), with subcategories Al in a nearby area which loses its supply of through A30 assigned according to flood sand due to the impoundment, or the sand- hazard factors; AO, an area of special flood trapping effect of the structure. By hazard with flood depths less than 2 feet interrupting the lateral drift of sand, and/or unpredictable flow paths; V, an area along the shoreline, structures such as of special flood hazard with velocity that seaward-projecting stone jetties and groins is inundated by tidal floods; B, an area of can result in sand-starved conditions and moderate flood hazard; C, an area of minimal consequently, long-term erosion of beaches flood hazard, and D, an area of undetermined, downdrift from the coastal structures. 46 A-logical-conclusion which can be drawn 113 million dollars. A 6-foot tide associa- from available information is that shoreline ted with tropical storm Delia in 1973 posi.tion will continue to change, and erosion, resulted in subsidence-related damages or landward retreat, will be the ultimate estimated at over 53 million dollars (Kreitler, long-term trend. The combined effects of 1976a). Some areas, such as a part of the diminishing sand supply and the impact of Brownwood subdivision, Baytown, Texas, have tropical cyclones is insurmountable except completely subsided beneath sea level. in very local areas such as river mouths. In 1961, Hurricane Carla with a peak No evidence exists that a long-term reversal flood surge of 16.4 feet, flooded 123 of shoreline erosion will occur to change square miles of Harris and Galveston Coun- the present trend. When coastal development ties surrounding Galveston Bay. Subsidence plans are being formulated, careful consid- which has occurred between 1961 and 1976, eration should be given to evidence that will expose at least an additional 25 square shoreline erosion will continue. This map miles (a 20 percent increase) to tidal flood should aid potential property owners to waters resulting from a hurricane of the evaluate trends of erosion and accretion in same magnitude and characteristics as Carla. their area. While Gulf beach-front property The environmental impact of subsidence in may demand the highest prices, it may also this area is great because of the high carry with it the greatest risks from storms population density, low elevation, and and long-term erosion. proximity to the Gulf of Mexico. Bay Shorelines SURFACE FAULTING While research on precise rates of bay- A fault is a fracture in the earth shore erosion has not been completed, along which movement has occurred. A except for Matagorda Bay and parts of surface fault is the surface expression of a Corpus Christi Bay, areas of bay shoreline fault which may extend to depths of several undergoing erosion have been mapped. Approx- thousand feet. A surface fault forms a imately 37 percent of the Texas bay-estuarine linear rupture of the land surface that can shoreline is currently undergoing erosion. be identified by breaks in man-made structures The distribution of these eroding segments and/or the presence of a linear topographic is principally related to the dominant winds escarpment. Surface faults are important to as well as to hurricanes and tropical property owners because gradual movement storms. Wind strength and duration, depth along the fault surfaces can damage homes of water, and orientation of bay shorelines and other structures, crack or buckle are factors controlling bay shoreline streets, highways and runways, and damage erosion. As on Gulf beaches, erosion leads utility structures, such as pipelines. to a loss in land area, and can be a serious Evidence (Kreitler, 1976a; 1976b) hazard to bay-margin structures. suggests that the same ground water with- drawals, which contribute to land surface LAND SUBSIDENCE subsidence have contributed to activation of surface faults. Differential land subsidence Land subsidence, both amount of land (uneven loss of land elevation over a short elevation lost and area affected, has been distance) occurs where faults are activated. increasing significantly in Harris and This process of fault movement, coupled with Galveston counties during the past three land surface subsidence, can adversely decades. Subsidence is related primarily to affect the quality of the present or future production of some 500 million gallons of land use in a particular area. In Harris ground water per day. Ground water with- and Galveston Counties, for example, several drawal results in the nearly irreversible surface faults have been activated. These compaction of clays associated with the faults intersect two airports, interstate water-producing sands, and even if all highways at 11 different locations, railroad ground water pumping would stop today, some tracks at 28 locations, and pass through 11 subsidence would probably continue for many communities in which more than 200 houses years. Much smaller areas of subsidence in evidence fault damage. other coastal counties may be related to Faults in the Texas Coastal Zone need local oil production. not be a problem. Future construction on The greatest hazard from subsidence in faults can be avoided, and where this is areas surrounding Galveston Bay is an in- impossible the awareness of faults will crease in susceptibility to flooding by permit architects and engineers to design hurricane storm surge waters. From 1943 to structures which can withstand the low rates 1973, total property damage and loss from of differential movement. Faults along the marine inundation caused by subsidence in Texas Coast are not associated with earth- the Houston-Baytown area is estimated to be quake activity. 47 0 GU*lf Res-idents.Warned [email protected] bd Cc) To Have Evacuation Plans "d W-. M;9. M. T BY RICHARD FLY Chronicle Staff '97 yaa With the Gulf Coast in the six-month hurricane season In -lust rs" ca Anue-', 04 the National Weather Service in Galveston is advising area eg4 residents to make plans for Official admits Houston overdu [email protected] or evacuation in the event of a storm. thi The season lasts from June There're many n to do 1 through Nov. 30,-,:.but the bm gs majority of storms which w cc [email protected] come ashore between evert wnen caught unaware Galveston Bay and Freeport in the past century have P. y j "N' 'N'A L 0 N E Y occurred in August and Sep- Post Reporter Dr. John C. Freeman Jr. is not predict- That may Q [email protected] E ing a hurricane for the Houston-Galves-. -pria to [email protected] fel Ak Of,.the 42 hurricanes and ton area during the official six-month �uch .that [email protected] [email protected] storms experienced in .5 the. iast 100 years, 26 have Season which began Tuesday, but says, @"I -along -the enti will agree we-ate overdue."L far away as occurred in those two months. rm, The director of the Institute for Sto Since Carla ;oft ThO last time a full hurri-L Researe @ delivere CL) canet1it this area was 1961, bm" twO h at the University of St. Thomas* IRW E 'a W z of the G rioted that it-has been since Septe [email protected] Carla swept , inland, a) L* cc .1961 that thisarea hasLfelt the effect of a r4tQ leaving. 46 dead and more '0 hurri IFLNEWC( cane. - 4n than, $400 million in property 0 V dambge in its wake. not think the 4; C; WH* -5 1. [email protected] 2'[email protected] - THAT IS L EN Carli - the larg&t-, been forturiat 'e u storm of record to ravage the Texas Coast five hurricane CA . C 11, . W have since s @11 @7 niade landfall at Port O'Connor, some .0 U Cd 0.- 125 miles south. ,state's coast. Cl 0 17; Cz > V 8C Q, Cj - - z H 5 lc'q C1 0 a [email protected] 'a, %_ * L -0 - ". > a) cz co 4) E- :0- 0 E s 2 .5 .0 M e , 1, CU Z. Ci Cj C: Cc:0 0 U C V:0' C1 -0 W V Z r. M = , 0- C > 0 ,0 - 5 P 0 - 0 C, N) [email protected] 2 M -0 -w 8.4 *0 0 Qj ' 0 .8 W tj co U E Cz 0 L*1 0 x :Re E w2 q U > co> > E 5) In D 2L 0 CU so - ch E CD E. 03 W CzE C', 0 U [email protected] E "o 41 5awfoot t*dA-bs would J6 [email protected]@ e 60, -,,% virtually t*solate' 'Fig 0 @d e b re Olr4m ,t, Here Are Main Routes That Galveston By 1ACK STENGLER Might Become Impassable The following are some of the main routes leading out of rost Galveston Bureau coastal areas with less than eight foot elevations above mean GALVESTON - All escape routes from sealevel (MSL). The figures indicate their elevatiorL if tides Galveston island, Bolivar Peninsula rea(0 that level the roads probably will become impassable. Texas City and many other Galveston 0 _kA 0 Galveston Island areas would very likely be closed if tides - Five-foot tides would virtually isolate Galveston- Island during a hurricane reach five to seven feet. from the mainland. Davis Benton, meteorologist in charge of Mve-foot tides will isolate West Galveston Island from the Galveston office of the National Galveston. Weather Service, said this flooding is due The road elevations on IH 45 just south of La Marque are to road elevations in the Galveston Bay d*n to five feet above MSL. area and other parts of the upper Texas Five-foot tides will isolate Bolivar Peninsula from Galves- coast reaching "very critical levels," due tori. Normally, the ferry ceases operation when tides reach 5 mostly to'severe land subsidence. 13 000N f e qt. "If a hurricane should strike this area. San Lui Pass bridge normally is closed when tides reach 3 during 1975, there is a real possibility that V.-5;J) EYM feet, sinces the road on the Brazoria County side becomes several thousand persons could be trapped Texas City Area warnings," Benton sai Id. ail to he .ed Loop 197 between junctions of Highways 3 and 146 and More than 300,000 persons 1h flooded and impassable. by the rising tide waters if they f .mm Texas City Levee - 3 feet above INISL. Port O'Connor and High Islan Texas Ave. or FM 1765 between 29th Street and Highway which would flood, he said in a r 14&- 6 feet MSL. Approximately 90 per cent of Highway 146 between Texas City and Dickinson Bayou, at who are killed in hurricanes ar FMW Moses Lake - 5 feet MSL. in tidal waters which rise 15 San Leon-Dickinson Area above normal. 19 FM 517 south, between the San Leon Area at the Chamber Records show tides along of commerce building and Highway 146-6 feet MSL. Texas coast, including Mata,, _0 Kemah - Seabrook and NASA Area Galveston bays reach 10 feet Highway 146 in Kemah between FINI 2094 and Clear Creek years and as high as 15 feet ever: 6 feet MSL. "With the severe land subside -,A# U:[email protected]@Azv r7- FM 2094 between Highway 146 and League City - 7 feet Galveston Bay area over the pz MSL. years. this situation has becc en+ NASA Road I between Highway 146 and Spacecraft Center more serious," Benton said. @ 0 feet MSL. He urged everyone in the fl Baytown Area areas to be familiar with groL Lynchburg lerry crossing on Highway 134-4 feet MSL. tions and roads leading from the West Main in Baytown at Goose Creek-4 feet MSL a 0 >1 -0 a) - C.) 06 -_ -0 0--a a) 0 C: Z". to -L > < 2 @3 .- - n, CL > 0 M 3 a [email protected] 0 =old p 6 0 to - rJ - CUU 0 0 U V C: U S 0J - C U 0) -0 0-- C: 0 0 > -0 O_= 0 0 0 > -Z; C: Q va n @ Q, - `- a) 0 c.) 0 u E0 - -- to u cc >":;; cz E "N C-1 -,2 V -rj --r- [email protected] E -0 to- to @5 Lu Q) f;l o -to - C: > -0 cc E lo @14 0 C 0 -0 X CL C E - U 2 rJ Cj to , 0 > CJ rs IL r3 U. v 02 :3 - -_ C >:E 0 C: U '0 0 d r3 S -0 u- 0 @@ _Q C.) -0 r- U CL-C (D 10 > Ln2 ej 0 u U U U (U 0 0 0 -0 U to'D C: OM [email protected] > CL 0J C m 'u C1 0 -J -0 -2 - -C >, [email protected] .- o E -0 E Qj 0 VJ 0_0 rJ co C: -00 "Rm" .1, x 0 r3u 0-6 C3 0) 's E 0 ! - > E: C) _j Ea, 70 > 0 ;s 0 - :, -- z tot 0 C) [email protected] a - -a u _0 _20 u CJ CJ C: -2 :3 -0 -2 'L E c) [email protected] ;; cs C 0 U 0 -0 x Ce X E cL o :1 0.:5 - "a @i 2, a, 1-1 -- 2 -E E Z _0 a _U C: U 0 0-.2 V [email protected] 0 cc t -a 0 [email protected] 0 C: V U 0 - 1,- -0 O_i-- U Lu >@ rz.S 0 49 Subsidence Has Doubled Hurricane Damag pauivIfta 2TuitxX ng the Houst-odi-Galveston 'aulla-loqs 2uiypuz ioj pod si purs uEa3o IlL, IoN ol laa, 1-01 099 JO lppiht A major hu 'rricane strik! area could cause $1 Won in damage, a federal weath- v 9tin vw .10i Arlrnb 109 ato apnpul lauueqz) .10 Or @xpert said. E! 1! 11 - peaq aql uo, pa.%uld --q puus pfpaip aEp Imp -aJ0qSJJ( That is: about twice. the finan ial 'loss attributed to pauaplm si lauuup aql ueqA% luql paf-odead 13,,tuexX aql woij [email protected]?paip Hurricane Carla, which battered Tcexas in 1961. f=4 ,allOIS allO EJJIA% PJ11131 SpJfq OA%I,, aEll 01 a9013 PUPS 2 The expert, Davis Benton., said a significant factor in aas ol aylq p1nom aq pius'q3eaq zpIsIii7,S 61 'OUISil ul -Palm the projected increased damage from a major storm is pa,sajajut a1doad jo dnoi2 e JEWpaLl '5!wvjX 0ioa!) land subsidence, which has added large areas of land G41 lq5!1 ol [email protected] I -alep uoijaldwoz) io SuiliLls e [email protected] susceptible to rising tides. 0 . About 227 square: mfles of land in this area are now 16u aAeq ButuaplAi lautzetra pasodoyd aql Tol sueld awos IL, aeaS jad Amok five feet lower than the .v were in 1961, said Benton, *tI,3e;IU ap!spnS uo pallsodap pug lawaup Axau aup wo-IJ uolsoia q3Laq ;qJ PJQ ua3jej aq p-Lnoz) pues juqj apetu uaaq seq Irsodoid V' AUSTIN (AP) - The director of the lational .41JOU Ioaaj-009 Hurricane Center in Miami, Fla., says Znsive J! OUIAOUI Pug '411;3( ap!sj_,nS ',r4jar tpiou 'Outisixo aq) jo SUq VNI UOISO-1a P a J0 '! 6velopment of, the Texas coast could refil"t in the IVAOMal a4l 101 INIZ) PlnOA% laUUeqZ) alil 10 cn'UIUGP!A% OqLL [email protected] 114S Sla U"U' dea,ths 'of. several, thousand persons. f [email protected] hurri- cane& Siich-,al catastrophe, [email protected] said, could cbur in the U17 2 a ON D-Upor-2-0 a V; S44 8 0 0 P _'Ej, iL AMMA Ar .-uV APuUA Pug 'oo oaueans uqor Sq. poanpoad 'JaA I E M anbivW rI 9qI ui 'AutARIJa g BAoqu jaaj xis Uuqj ssal im 2 'az)uap!sqns p*ual AAL,;@q ol an co LW 0 5 cu atp aq Auut suoi RAaJO pUVJ p cc % -24 raft co W W 'p!us Uoluag'.1eaf, SI = WZ RE 70 Waols jolatu u Aq @anajs uaa'c In C: Un- _-W 0 '[email protected] E- cz i2 E E a a IL, Ino ja2 ol ueld noA 1! .i: 0 164- 1 " -T ca W >.= LIU. Bu aqi"'@'P!Us 04 "Aanxnj CL C.. cc ol alnuitu Isal aql ll!l Irem A 0 0;E 2 7E; .-Arpsanqj, pla cu.2 :3 (U @ " 0 12 cc W 9 It' PIVS'03tAI0S.I9qJU9M I ccE Er- 00. 4) co in %A10 SUXaLL aqJ 2UOIU 0AII OqA\ SUO dam& noluatl 1, in W__0 laigg lpjaNu Q auu REFERENCES SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY Dolan, Robert, Paul J. Godfrey and William E. Odum, "Man's Impact on the Barrier Islands of North Carolina." American Scientist, V. 61, Andrews, P.B., Facies and Genesis of a Hurricane Washover Fan, No. 2, pp. 152-166. 1973. St. Joseph Island, Central Texas Coast: University of Texas at Austin, Bureau of Economic Geology Rept. Inv. 67, 147 p. Dunn, G.E. and B.I. Miller, Atlantic Hurricanes: Louisana State University Press, Baton Rouge, Louisana, 377 p. 1964. Baker, Earl J. and Joe G. McPhee, Land Use Management and Regulation in Hazardous Areas: A Research Assessment: Erickson, Neil J., Scenario Methology in Natural Hazards Research: University of Colorado at Boulder, Institute of Behavioral University of Colorado, Institute of Behavioral Sciences, Boulder, Sciences. 1975. Colorado. 1975. Bodine, B.R., Hurricane Surge Frequency Estimated for the Gulf Federal Disaster Assistance Administration, U.S. Department of Housing Coast of Texas: U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Coastal Engi- and Urban Development, Digest of Federal Disaster Assistance neering Research Center Tech. Memo 26, 32 p. 1969. Programs: Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C. August, 1975. Boone, C.F., et al, ...and Celia was Her Name: Boone Publications, Fisher, W.L., et al, Environmental Geologic Atlas of the Texas Coastal Inc., Lubbock, Texas. 1970. Zone: Galveston-Houston Area: TheUniersity of Texas at Austin, Bureau of Eonomic Geology. 1972. Boykin, Rosemary E., Editor, Texas and the Gulf of Mexico: Texas A&M University, Department of Marine Resources Fischer, Bill and P.T. Flawn, Land Use Patterns in the Texas Coastal Information, Center for Marine Resources, College Station, Zone: Division of Planning Coordination, Office of the Governor. Texas, 1971. 1970. Brinkman, Waltraud A.R., et al, Hurricane Hazard in the United Friedman, D.G. Computer Simulation Methodology and Natural Hazards States: A Research Assessment: University of Colorado, Research: University of Colorado, Institute of Behavioral Sciences, Institute of Behavioral Sciences, Boulder, Colorado. 1975. Boulder, Colorado. 1975. Brinkman, Waltraud A.R., et al, Local Windstorm Hazard in the United Friedman, D.G. and T.S. Roy, Simulation of Total Flood Loss on States: A Research Assessment: University of Colorado, Dwellings on Inland and Coastal Flood Plains: Report prepared for Institute of Behavioral Sciences, Boulder, Colorado. 1975. the U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development. The Travelers Insurance Company, Hartford, Connecticut. 1966. Brown, L.F., Jr., Robert A Morton, Joseph H. McGowen, Charles W. Kreitler, W.F. Fisher, Natural Hazards of the Texas Coastal Gabrysch, R.K. and C.W. Bonnet, Land-surface Subsidence in the Houston- Zone: University of Texas at Austin, Bureau of Economic Galveston Region, Texas: U.S. Geological Survey open-file rept., Geology, 1974. 23 p. 1974. Brunn, Per, "Beach Erosion and Coastal Protection." In Rhodes Golant, Stephen, Human Behavior Before the Disaster: A Selected W. Fairbridge (ed.) Encyclopedia of Geomorphology: Van Annotated Bibliography, Natural Hazards Research Working Paper #9 Nostrand Reinhold, New York. 1968. University of Toronta, Toronto, Canada. 1969. Burton, Ian, Robert W. Kates and Rodman E. Sneed, The Human Ecology Haas, J. Eugene and Thomas E. Drabek, "Community Disaster and Systems of Coastal Flood Hazard in Megalopolis: University of Chicago, Stress: A siciological Perspective." In Joseph McGrath (ed.) Department of Geography Research Paper #115. 1969. Social and Psychological Factors in Stress: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, New York. 1970. Carr, J.T., Jr., Hurricanes Affecting the Texas Gulf Coast: Texas Water Development Board Report 49, 58 p. 1967. Harbridge House, Incorprated, AnInquiry into the Long-term Economic Impact of Natural Disasters in the United States: prepared for Clanton, E.S., and D. amsbury, Open Fissures Associated with Office of Technical Assistance, Economic Development Administration, Subsidence and Active Faulting in the Houston Area, Texas (abs): U.S. Department of Commerce. Harbridge House, Inc., Boston, Geological Society of America, Abstract with Programs, V. 6, Massachusetts. 1972. No. 7, p.688-689. 1974. Harris, D.C., Characteristics of the Hurricane Storm Surge: U.S. Cochrane, Harold C., Natural Hazards: Their Distributional Impacts: Weather Bureau Tech. Paper No. 39, 139 p. 1963. University of Colorado, Institute of Behavioral Science, Boulder, Colorado. 1975. Hayes, M.O., Hurricanes as Geological Agents: Case Studies of Hurricanes Carla, 1961, and Cindy, 1963: University of Texas at Colon, J.A., "Some Aspects of Hurricane Carla (1961)." In Hurrican Austin, Bureau of Economic Geology Rept. Inv. 61, 56 p. 1967. Symposium: American Soc. Oceanography Pub. No. 1, October 10-11, 1966, Houston, Texas, pp. 1-33. 1966. Henry, Walter, Dennis M. Driscoll, and J. Patrick, Hurrincanes on the Texas Coast: Texas A&M University, College of Geosciences, Congressional Research Service, After Disaster Strikes: Federal College Station, Texas. July 1975. Programs and Organizations: A report to the Committee on Government Operations by the Congressional Research Service of The Homeport Story: An Imaginary City Gets Ready for a the Library of Congress. U.S. Government Printing Office, Hurricane: U.S. Department of Commerce, National Oceanic and Washington, D.C. July, 1974. Atmospheric Administration, National Weather Service, Washington, D.C. 1971. Council of State Governments, Suggested State Legislation, Lexington, Kentucky. 1972. Hurricane Information and Atlantic Tracking Chart: U.S. Dept. of Commerce, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Dacy, Douglas C. and Howard Kunreuther, The Economics of Natural Washington, D.C. 1971. Disasters: The Free Press, New York. 1969. Jelesnianski, C.P., SPLASH (Special Program to List Amplitudes of Davenport, Sally D., Human Adjustment to the Hurrican Flood Surges from Hurricanes), 1: Landfall Storms: Publication #NOAA Hazard on the Texas Coast, Unpublished Master's Thesis, TM-NWS TDK-46, System Development Office. U.S. Department of University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX. 1976. Commerce, Silver Spring, Maryland. 1972. Davis, A.B., Galveston's Bulwark Against the Sea--History of the Kane, John W., the Climate and Physiology of the Texas Coastal Zone: Galveston Seawall: U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Galveston Division of Planning Coordination, Office of the goverfnor. 1970. District, 19 p. 1961. Kunreuther, Howard, Recovery from Natural Disasters: American Defense Civil Protection Agency, Protecting Mobile Homes from High Enterprise Institute for Public Policy Research, Washington, D.C. Winds: DCPA #TR-75. U.S. Department of Defense. Government 1973. Printing Office, Washington D.C. 1972. Lesso, William G., Potential Wind Damage Reduction Through Use of Division of Disaster Emergency Services, Office of the Governer, Wind-Resistant Building Standards: Texas Coastal and Marine Disaster Planning Manual for Local Governments: Texas Department Council, Austin, Texas. December 1976. of Public Safety. 1974. 51 McGowan, J.H. and J.L. Brewton, Historical Changes and Related Texas Coastal Management Program, The Coastal Economy: An Economic [email protected]) Processes, Ulf and Mainland Shorelines, Matagorda Bay Area, Report General Land Office, Aus!Tin @Texas. October 1975. Texas, University of Texas at Austin, bureau of Economic Geology Rept. Inv. 84. 1975. Texas Coastal Management Program, The Gulf Coast: General Land Office, Mileti, Dennis S., Disaster Relief and Rehabilitation in the United Austin, Texas. 1975. States: A Research Assessment: University of Colorado, Institute Texas Coastal Management Program, Resources of the Texas Coastal of Behavioral Sciences, Boulder, Colorado. 1975. Region: General Land Office, Austin, Texas. Or t_o_b_e_r_T_9T5_ Mi leti , Denni s S. , Natural Hazards Warning Systems in the United Texas Coastal and Marine Council, Hurricane Awareness Briefi States: A Research Assessment: University of Colorado, Institute Texas Coastal and Marine Council, Austin, Texas. I T74. U-S of Behavioral Sciences, Boulder, Colorado. 1975. Texas Coastal and Marine Council, Texas Coastal Legislation, Second Mitchell, James K., Community Response to Coastal Erosion, Individual Edition: Texas Coastal and Marine -Council, Austin, Texas. October and Collective Adjustmentsto Hazard on the Atlantic Shore: 1975. University of Chicago, Department of Geography Research Paper No. 156, Chicago. 1974. Texas Coastal and Marine Council, Model Minimum Hurricane-Resistant Building Standards for the Texas GuR -Coast: General Land Office, Morton, R.A., Shoreline Changes on Galveston Island (Bolivar Roads Austin, Texas. September 1976. Univers to San Luis Pass): @ity of Texas at Austin, Bureau of Economic Geology Circ. 74-2, 34 P. 1974. U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Report on Hurricane Carla, 9-12 September Moore, Harry E., Before the Wind: A Study of the Response to Hurricane 1961: U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Galveston District, 29 p.1962. Carla: Disaster Study No. 19, National Academy of Sciences, National Research Council. 1963. U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Report on Hurricane Beulah 8-21 Sept. 1967: U.S. Amy Corps of Engineers, Galveston District, National Bureau of Standards, Building Practices for Disaster 26 p. 1968. Mitigation: NBS Building Series #46, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C. 1973. 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Water Resources Development, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers in Texas. Office of Emergency Preparedness, Disaster Preparedness Report to tht -5-a-llas, TX 1975. Congress by the Office of Emergency Preparedness: Government Printing Office, Washington, D C. 1972, U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development. Federal Insur- ance Administration. Summary of Flood Disaster Protection Act Reilly, William K., ed., The Use of Land: A Citizen ' Policy [email protected] of 1973. Washington, D.C. 1974. Guide to Urban Growth: Thomas Y. Crowell, New Y. rk. 1973, U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development. National Flood Rosenthal, John, "Reconstruction After a Natural Disaster, a Need Insurance Program. Washington, D.C. January 1974. - for Rapid Planning and Development." Presentation at 57th, Annual American Institute of Planners Conference, San Antonio, U.S. Senate, Committee on Commerce, National Coastal Zone Manage- Texas. October 27, 1975. ment Act of 1972. Report of the Senate Committee on Commerce on S. 350-7. Senate Report #92-753. 92nd Congress, 2nd Session. Sheaffer, John R., Introduction to Floodproofing: The University U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C. 1972. of Chicago, Center for Urban Studies. 1967. U.S. Water Resources Council, A Unified NationallIroW gram for Flood Shepard, Francis P. and Harold R. Wanless, Our Changing Coastlines.: Plain Management. U.S. Water Resources Co nc , @shington, D.C. McGraw-Hill, New York. 1971. 1972. Simpson, R.H. and M.B. Lawrence, NOAA Technical Memorandum NWS SR-58, U.S. Water Resources Council, Regulation of Flood Hazard Area, to, "Atlantic Hurricane Frequencies Along the U.S. Coastline." U.S. Reduce Flood Losses. Washing ton, b.C. 1972. Department of Commerce, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administra- tion, National Weather Service, Southern Region Headquarters, White, Gilbert F., et al, Flood Hazard in the United States: A Fort Worth, Texas, June 1971. Research Assessment. The University of Colorado, Institute of Sorensen, John H. and J.D. Mitchell, Coastal Erosion Hazard in the Behavioral Science, Boulder, Colorado. 1975. United States: A Research Assessment: The Uni ersity of Colorado, White, Gilbert F., Human Adjustment to Flood. University of Chicago Institute of Behavioral Sciences, Boulder, Colorado. 1975. Press, Chicago. 1945. - Survival in a Hurricane: U.S. Department of Commerce, National White, Gilbert F. and J. Eugene Haas, Assessment of Research on Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Washington, D.C. 1970. Natural Hazards. M.I.T. Press, Cambridge, @Mass- 1975. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Photographs used in this publication were obtained from the following sources: Bureau of Economic GeoZogy, The University of Texas-at Austin; American Red Cross; National Oceanic and Atmospheric AcbniniStration; Texas Department of Highways and Public Transportation; Texas Coastal and Marine Council; Texas General Land office, and Texas Parks and Wild- life Department. 52 DATE DUE GAYLORD.No. 2333 PRINTED IN U Sk 3 6668 14