    [From the U.S. Government Printing Office, www.gpo.gov]

                                                                              Bluff
                                                               Slu             ping
                                                                                   Stability
                                                                           a consumer's guide

                                                         -Moe

                                      C;A>

        GB
        452.2          Sponsored by: U.S. Geological Survey and Michigan Sea Grant
        .T13
        1982

                                                         Bluff
                                             Slumpin &
                                                                  ' flity
                                                       a consumer s guide
                                                           ,n
                                                           St%a

                         BLUFF SLUMPING AND STABILITY: A CONSUMER'S GUIDE

                                                       by

                                               Suzanne P. Tainter

                                          Michigan Sea Grant Program
                                             University of Michigan
                                            Michigan State University

                                                                          DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE NCA
                                                                    nOAVAL SERVICES CENIEF,
                                                                    2234 SOUTH HOPSON AVENOF
                                                                    CHARLESTON , SC

                                                MICHU-SG-82-902

                                               Michigan Sea Grant
                                               Publications Office
                                            2200 Bonisteel Boulevard
                                           Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109

                    This publication is a result of work sponsored by the Michigan Sea Grant
                    Program, Project R/CE-4, with a grant NA-80AA-D-00072, from the Office
                    of Sea Grant, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA),
                    United States Geological Survey, U.S. Department of Commerce and funds
                    from the State of Michigan.

                                            pro"rty Of CSC Library
            LZ

       4:1

                                                  ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

                               This publication was written by Suzanne Tainter, Michigan Sea
                        Grant Program, with significant technical contributions made by Donald
                        H. Gray, Professor of Civil Engineering, University of Michigan.       The
                        comments of Robert W. Fleming and Norman E. Wingard of the U.S.
                        Geological Survey, and Donna Asselin were especially helpful and have
                        been incorporated into this booklet, as were reviews of the material by
                        Charles H. Carter, Ohio Department of Natural Resources, Division of
                        Geological Survey; Donald F. Eschman, Professor of Geological Sciences,
                        University of Michigan; Ellen Fisher, Coastal Zone Management, University
                        of Wisconsin Sea Grant College Program; Martin R. Jannereth, Michigan
                        Department of Natural Resources; J. Phillip Keillor, University of
                        Wisconsin Sea Grant College Program; Charles L. Kureth, Jr., The Traverse
                        Group, Inc.; and A. J. Zeman, National Water Research Institute, Canada
                        Centre for Inland Waters. Editing was provided by Nancy Hilary, Michigan
                        Sea Grant Program.    Illustration 2daptations were supplied by Technical
                        Illustrations, University of Michigan.    Cover illustration, publication
                        design, and production by Millie J. Flory.

                                                                                                                                      Contents

                             Acknowledgments                .........................................................................     iv
                             Abstract        .......................................................................................      vi

                             GETTING STARTED
                                      Where This Publication Came From                          ......................................    ix
                                      Who Should Use This Publication                      ...........................................       x
                                      What This Publication Will And Won't Do                             ............................    xi

                             WHAT'S HAPPENING IN THE BLUFF                                 ...........................................       1
                                      Factors In Bluff Stability               ......................................................        5

                             YOUR OPTIONS IN EROSION DAMAGE                                    .......................................       9
                                      Land Use Controls              ................................................................        9
                                      Stopping Wave Attack                 ..........................................................     10
                                      Reshaping The Bluff Face                   ....................................................     11
                                         Methods         ............................................................................     12
                                         Examples         ...........................................................................     14
                                      Subsurface Drainage              ..............................................................     16
                                         Groundwater Problems                  ......................................................     16
                                         Groundwater Control Methods                       ...........................................    17
                                      Surface Water Control                ..........................................................     1. 9
                                      Vegetation        ............................................................................      20
                                         Planning Considerations                .....................................................     22
                                         Preparing Your Site                .........................................................     27
                                         Planting Grasses And Groundcovers                         ...................................    2B
                                         Planting Trees And Shrubs                  .................................................     30
                                         What To Plant            ...................................................................     31
                                         Sources       .............................................................................      33
                                         Maintenance           ......................................................................     33

                             PROPERTY MANAGEMENT CHECKLIST                                     .......................................    37

                             KNOW YOUR SITUATON                        ..............................................................     41
                                      Assessing Your Property--A Checklist                          ..................................    41
                                      You Don't Have To Go It Alone                        ..........................................     44
                                      Weigh Your Alternatives                 .......................................................     45
                                      Calculating Erosion Hazard Setbacks                         ....................................    47
                                      Active Intervention             ................................................................    48

                             MORE INFORMATION                      ..................................................................     51
                                      Help     .....................................................................................      51
                                         United States          ....................................................................      51
                                         Canada       ..............................................................................      54
                                         Sea Grant Network Agents                    ................................................     56
                                      More Reading            .......................................................................     57
                                         General       .............................................................................      57
                                         Shore Protection With Emphasis On Wave Attack                                  ..............    57
                                         Bluff Retreat          ....................................................................      58
                                         Citizen Action           ...................................................................     59
                                         Permits, Regulations, And Planning Guides                            ........................    59
                                         Vegetation         ........................................................................      60
                                      Glossary      ...............................................................................       62

                                                              A13STRACT

                                This booklet presents issues and options in bluff stability problems for
                          the current or prospective shoreline property owner, as well as community
                          officials, agricultural landowners, park managers, and shore community
                          residents.   Natural forces (erosion) and human activities which contribute
                          to bluff instability are defined.       While instructions for construction of
                          protective devices are not included, interventions which could enhance bluff
                          stability are suggested. Land use controls, protection against wave attack,
                          reshaping the bluff face, subsurface drainage, surface water control, and
                          veaptntion planting are explored, along with eyamples and case studies. A
                          guide for assessing property is offered, and Rn extensive list of resources
                          for profess! orcill 1-ielp and additional annotated reading material are provided.

               vi

                 Getting Started

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                                                     Where This Publication Came From

                              In 1981, the Great Lakes Basin Commission began developing
                       information on buff stability problems for Great Lakes shoreland owners.
                       When the GLF3C was terminated in 1981, Michigan Sea Grant, with funding
                       from the U.S. Geological Survey, took on this attempt to help property
                       owners along the Great Lakes shores cope wit@ their bluff retreat problems.

                              So rarely is bluff stabilization a do-it-yourself propositiong that we
                       have not tried to prepare any blueprints for installing bluff protection.
                       Rather, the goal of this booklet is to acquaint property owners with the
                       issues and options in bluff stability problems so that they can deal
                       knowledgeably with professional help on these matters.

                              A state-of-the-art conference on bluff stability problems was the
                       first step in the preparation of this material.    This publication uses the
                       proceedings of that conference and draws liberally from the following
                       publications which are now difficult to obtnin. Harmony With the Lake:
                       Guide to Bluff Stabilization, Lake Michigan, Illinois, produced by the Illinois
                       Coastal Zone Management Program for Illinois Lake Michigan coastal
                       residents, includes extensive material on vegetation suitable to that region,
                       and detailed drawings of surface drainage diversions.          The Role of
                       Vegetation in Shoreline Management, a Guide for Great Lakes Shoreline
                       Property Owners is produced by the Great Lakes Basin Commission, and
                       Help Yourself is a shore erosion pamphlet from the Corps of Engineers.
                       In addition to these publications there are many other useful materials
                       listed under MORE READINC.

                              Although the information in this publication may not include any
                       startling new advances in the state-of-the-art in erosion control, especially
                       of bluffs, the booklet does pull together for the individual property owner
                       all the major considerations and some applications and limitations of control
                       measures.

                                                                                                               ix

                Who Should Use Thi's Publication

                                This information is directed primarily to the individual Great Lakes
                          shoreline property owner interested in a permanent residence or vacation
                          home on the property.

                                The discussion is also useful to-

                                      o  commmunity officials
                                      0  agricultural land owners
                                      o  park managers
                                      o  shore community residents, who in a sense all own pieces of
                                         the shoreline and are responsible for use of public lands

                                If you haven't yet developed or purchased your property, you have
                          many more options and may save yourself a lot of heartbreak -- let alone
                          money -- if you consider the forces at wor@ on coastal bluffs and your
                          land use alternatives.

                                If you are merely contemplating the uses you will make of your shore
                          property, this discussion will provide a good basis for judging the suitability
                          of various uses and what management is necessary to maintain shore property
                          for those uses.

              x

                                           What This Publication Will and Won't Do

                         For undeveloped lands, there are guidelines based on recession rates and
                     setback ordinances which could help people avoid problems.           For more
                     information on these types Of approaches to bluff stability problems see
                     MORE READING.

                         For developed lands, approaches to bluff stability problems range from
                     relocation of the buildings to aggressive interventions such as toe protection,
                     drainage, surface diversions, and vegetation. Intervention measures should
                     often be used in combination with one another.

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                                         BLUFF            -T-;E:R-rniN0LjC6Y

                         This publication will acquaint  you with:

                            � terminology of bluff problems and protection
                            �   natural forces causing instability
                            � range of intervention necessary to stabilize Greqt Lakes bluffs

                         It will prepare you to work with natural forces to cope with bluff retreaL

                         This publication will not:

                            � explain wave protection options
                            �   substitute for professional help in:
                                              determininq soil composition of your bluff
                                              slope modification
                                              designing and installing drainage
                                              landscaping
                                              designing and installing a shoreline protection system

                                                                                                               xi

           What's Happeningo 9 9

                                   What"s Happening in the Bluff

                            Wind, waves and running water continue to shape the shores of the
                      Great Lakes. Considered in a geologic time frame, the Oreat Lakes shore
                      is a recent development. Erosion is a process of reshaping begun before
                      we were here which will continue, despite our best efforts, after we are gone.

                            Erosion, broadly defined, is a process of degradation or wearing down
                      of the land surface.    Both surficial erosion and mass erosion are at work
                      on the coastal bluffs around the Great Lakes. Surficial erosion is a process
                      of particle detachment and transport by wind and water.          Wind can pick
                      up and remove fine sand and silt provided they are relatively dry.         Water
                      can carry away sand, silt, and clay particles. Mass erosion, on the other
                      hand, involves the movement of relatively large, intact bloc      of soil and/or
                      unconsolidated sediments.      Mass erosion is driven by gravity forces in
                      conjunction with a weakening effect from the presence of water in a slope
                      or bluff.   Slumping is a particular form of mass erosion which tends to
                      occur in clay.

                           Bluff erosion manifests itself in several Ways. Waves Can eat at the
                      toe of a bluff undermining the upper layers. Mud may flow down the face
                      of the bluff. Whole layers of the bluff soil May slide down the surface. In
                      a bluff slump, a large chun@ of the bluff MoVeS down 21ong a concave
                      failure surface.   The type of erosion likely to occur in a bluff largely
                      depends on the bluff material and structure (e.g., stratification).          This
                      publication is concerned mainly with the landslides and slumps which tend
                      to occur in  the bluff regions characterized by clay materials.
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                               Glacial sediments of unconsolidated deposits of clays, silts, sands,
                         gravels, and boulders constitute shores which are prone to erosion.        Left
                         in many forms by advancing and retreating glaciers, the shoreline has
                         considerable variety.   Erosion tends to be site specific.   What's happening
                         on your stretch of the shore may differ from what's happening on adjacent
                         property.

                               The key to maintaining a stable bluff or prescribing 2 remedial program
                         is to recognize the factors which affect stability at a particular oite and
                         the interplay between these factors and natural forces acting on the bluff.
                         Successful  plans should answer all of the following questons:

                                     o  Is the bluff toe protected from wave attacks?
                                     o  What materials comprise the bluff?
                                     o  How are soil types distributed within the bluff?
                                     o  What is happening to soil moisture and groundwater
                                        in the bluff?
                                     o  How is runoff water handled on the bluff top?
                                     o  What is the angle of the bluff?
                                     o  How is the bluff being used?
                                     o  What vegetation grows on the toe, face, and top surface
                                        (table land)?

                               Bluff stability is a balancing act between forces within the bluff and
                         acting on the bluff, and the resistance of bluff materials to those forces.

                               Gravitational and Climatic forces act upon the bluff.      Gravity acts
                         via the natural weight of the soil and water in the soil and the additional
                         weight of structures on the bluff.

                               Climate acts on the bluff directly and indirectly. Climate generates
                         the storms and water levels which allow the Waves to run up on the beach
                         and attack the bluff toe.     Climate provides the rain which loosens and
                         saturates soil in the bluff.

             2

                            The bluff's resistance to these forces is provided mainly by the so-
                      called shear strength of the soil itself and by vegetation.

                           Shear strength is a measure
                      of the ability of a soil to resist
                      the forces trying to shear away
                      pieces of a bluff or detach
                      individual particles.   Shear                                U V1 a
                      strength in granular soils, such                                 lVie fmd
                      as sand, is governed mainly by                              00
                      particle gradation and porosity.                             101*
                      Dense, well graded sands are
                      strongest.   Shear strength of                                     dmp ahd bUs
                      clays is more complex, but in
                      general the lower the water                                        Whesive
                      content and plasticity, the                                        aril bektava
                      stronger the clay.    The stability                                in et c4ffi_-rent-
                      of clay slopes is governed by              CLAY                     manner
                      shear strength, slope angle, and
                      height. The stability of a sand
                      slope, on the other hand, is
                      independent of height. Quite                  A
                      often the stability of an entire             GLAC4ALTILL        D'
                      slope will depend on the strength                           4     A
                                                                                  0
                      and location of a weak zone or                                L
                      layer in the slope. It is                    ELACH LAYM
                      important to be on the lookout
                      for such localized zones.                    5 B KAYE-5 LA We a MY

                           Soil moisture and groundwater conditions are critical to the stability of
                      a bluff.   Soil moisture which saturates a soil reduces shear strength and
                      increases shear stresses. Pockets Of Water pressure which can develop in
                      a slope will greatly weaken it. Seepage through a slope which emerges at
                      the face can lead to a piping failure. This occurs in stratified slopes with
                      water bearing seams of sand and silt--a fairly common occurrence in Great
                      Lakes bluffs.

                           Water management is essential for bluff stability.          Water should be
                      diverted or prevented from entering the bluff by use of appropriate drainage
                      measures.    Water pressure within the bluff can be relieved and seepage
                      intercepted by using horizontal drains, vertical relief wells, and drainage
                      trenches. Planting vegetation, such as willows, also helps.

                                                                                                                     3

                                 Human uses affect bluffs by altering natural resistances to the forces
                           of pravity and climate.

                                 Some human interventions work against the natural forces which
                           stabilize the bluff.   By building near the bluff edge, property owners add
                           additional weight and water to the bluff, requiring additional shear strength
                           in the soil.

                                 By clearcutting vegetation on the face of the bluff, property owners
                           lose vegetation benefits.    Plants no longer remove soil moisture.        Forces
                           of raindrops are no longer dissipated @efore they slam into the soil. Nothing
                           remains to trap moving sediments.        Roots which formerly helped to bind
                           and reinforce the soil die and become zones of weakness.

                                 Bluff recession seldom occurs uniformly or continuously. After each
                           slide, the slope temporarily stabilizes until the net effect of the interacting
                           factors causes another slope failure.

                                 A slope may appear stal3le, grow vegetation, and remain stationary
                           for some time only to have a major slump many years later. In soils prone
                           to blUff slumps, failures such as these are li@ely to occur within the useful
                           lives of most buildings.

                                 One large slump can take 50 to 100 feet of bluff with it.             These
                           slides can be dangerous as well as costly, taking lives as well as property
                           with them.

               4

                                                                         Factors in Bluff Stability

                            The following factors all play a role in the stability of any part;cular
                      bluff.

                            Wave attack -- is a major cause of bluff erosion. Waves eat at the
                      toe of the bluff, undermining higher layers of bluff material.        Eventually
                      the force of gravity pulls the material down, sometimes bringing      vegetation
                      and buildings with it.      Waves also attack beaches carrying away the
                      protective beach material. Other publications go into the beach relationships
                      in much greater detail than is possible here. Devices to provide protection
                      from wave attack are discussed in the3c publications as well.         All these
                      devices work on the principle of dissipating the wave energy so that it
                      cannot carry away the shoreline materials. See MORE READING.

                            Off shore take depths -- help determine the size of the waves likely
                      to run up on a particular beach, and thus whether they are likely to reach
                      the bluff toe.

                            Beach width -- affects whether waves can reach the bluff toe.

                            Soil composition of beach and bluff -- in the beach, helps determine
                      its resistance to the erosive forces of the waves; in the bluff, whether the
                      bluff is Clay, silt, sand, or rock determines to a great extent its natural
                      shear resistance.

                            Stratification within the bluff -- is another major factor in bluff
                      stability.  Stratification is the arrangement of types of soil within the
                      bluff, and dictates the bluff's susceptibility to groundwater problems.

                            Groundwater table -- The height or elevation of the groundwater table
                      determines, in combination with the stratigraphy, slope angle, and height
                      the stability of the bluff.

                            Soil moisture -- Saturated soil is much less stable because its shear
                      resistance is greatly reduced.

                            Surface drainage -- can help determine how much water seeps into
                      the bluff.   This May lead to the soil and groundwater problems outlined
                      above;   or excess water may run over the surface of the bluff carrying
                      along bare soil and eroding gullies and rills into the bluff surface.

                                                                                                                 5

                               Use of property -- Some uses, such as traffic, compact the soil,
                          increasing runoff problems.     Lawn sprinkling can increase soil moisture
                          problems, as can septic systems and swimming pools.        Some uses destroy
                          protective vegetation.

                               Vegetation -- increases bluff stability four ways. It directly removes
                          water from the soil layers. The root systems hold soil in place. Vegetation
                          softens the impact of raindrops which otherwise could jar loose soil particles.
                          Vegetation slows runoff and filters out suspended sediment.

                               Bluff angle -- helps determine how strong an influence gravity will
                          have on the bluff.    Angle is a function of height and distance from the
                          the lake.  The higher the bluff, the more materials it contains, and the
                          more mass gravity can act upon it.       The soils in high, steep bluffs must
                          have great shear resistance to overcome this gravitational force and resist
                          stumping.

                               Frost  action -- includes freezing and thawing which can break up the
                          bluff material, and solifluction which occurs in spring when frozen clays
                          begin to melt and the thawing soil flows down the face of the slope.

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                 Your Options e * e

                                       *Erosion Damage Prevention

                            You are reading this publication because you are concerned about the
                      damage that can ")e caused by bluff retreat.

                            The two major approaches to erosion        problems are 1) to prevent
                      damages and loss of life by controlling uses of erosion-prone land; or 2) to
                      prevent erosion itself. Focus on erosion reduction leads towards empha         sis
                      on structural solutions; a land use control approach permits greater flexibility
                      of options.

                            To use this publication, read through the options in damage prevention.
                      Get a feel for what each option entails. Then use the property assesssment
                      checklist to measure vour own qitu2tion.          Finally, weigh the damage
                      prevention options against your own situation.

                                                                                                               L
                                                                                  Land Use Controls

                            T'he land use controls work better for undeveloped than for already
                      developed lands. Tools for preventing erosion losses include: zoning, building
                      codes, public disclosures, and land acquisition by government bodies.

                            Zoning

                            Zoning in high risk erosion areas prevents inappropriate use of these
                      lands for human actvities. Most approaches allow some uses for open space
                      or recreation unless the risk to life is very great.     A related approach is
                      to make 211 developments subject to review; then such developments typically
                      have to meet certain criteria such as setbacks or bond requirements.

                            Building Codes

                            Standards such as moveability could be required for any building
                      located in erosion prone areas.

                            Public Disclosure

                            A public disclosure system would warn buyers of potential hazards.

                            Land Acquisition

                            Government bodies could acquire title to lands deemed most hazardous.

                            We have assumed that most readers of this publication already have
                      developed property which needs protection. If, however, you are fortunate
                      enough to have more options, consult Regulations to Control Shore Erosion
                      listed in MORE READING for suggestions on non-structural controls of
                      erosion damage.

                                                                                                                  9

                Stopping Wave Attack
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                                 Wave attack is a major cause of bluff retreat and shore erosion around
                           the Great Lakes, and should not be overlooked in any plan for erosion
                           control.   Other, easily obtained publications do a very thorough job of
                           explaining wave protection options. Accordingly, individual wave protection
                           devices won't be examined here. See MORE READING for a list of these
                           publications.

                                 The concept behind all wave protection options is to dissipate the
                           energy of the waves so that they can't carry away beach and bluff material.
                           Sea walls and revetments do this directly.        Devices known as groins and
                           beach nourishment programs either preserve existing beaches or cause the
                           buildup of a protective beach which lets the wave energy spread itself over
                           the beach without attacking the bluff.         Wave attack problems are site
                           specific, and individual situations must be evaluated on a case-by-C2se basis.
                           Any devices must receive proper maintenance.

              10

                                                                      Reshaping the Bluff Face

                            Bluff stability depends to some extent on the slope of the bluff face.
                      The degree to which any particular angle is stable depends on the soil types
                      and the amount of water in the soils that make up the bluff.

                             In this publication slope angles are given in terms of rise in feet for
                      a given horizontal distance in feet.     For example, a bluff slope of 1:2
                      means the bluff face rises one foot over a distance of two feet. The slopes
                      in this publication are all given in a vertical: horizontal ratio.         The
                      accompanying figure shows examples of various slopes.

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                            To make a bluff stable, the soil and water content of the bluff
                      material must be determined. Again, the slope angle which is stable will
                      depend on the type of soil materials and the amount of water in the
                      materials.

                           For example, a predominantly clay bluff with a high water content
                      may not be stable even at a 1:21 angle. Yet the same soil, if it is dry,
                                                        2
                      may be stable at slopes as stee  p as 1:1. Some experts use a rule of thumb
                      of a slope of 1:1-21 as the dividing line between a bluff which can be readily
                      stabilized and one which cannot. It depends on your particular site. On
                      a 1:11 slope it is possible to establish vegetation without resorting to
                            2
                      sophisticated professional land reclamation services.       However, before
                      wheeled equipment can be used the slope would have to be 1:3.

                                  In many clay areas such as the red clay shores of Lake Superior, a stable
                            slope is even flatter, about 1:3. Cutting back a bluff to that angle would mean
                            the loss of a lot of table land.      In some areas, and to many property owners,
                            that would be totally unacceptable. In other areas, the land value and use would
                            make the cost prohibitive.

                                  Reshaping is expensive and difficult.       However, if this approach is viable
                            for your site, there are three basic methods to recasting the slope.

                                  All these methods work on the principle of counterbalancing forces of
                            gravity in the slope. The methods also incorporate subsurface drainage controls.
                            Additionally, in areas where the toe is subject to wave attack, the new bluff
                            face needs adequate toe protection.

                                  Buttress Fill

                                  This method brings in soil,
                            preferably select granular
                            material, from an outside source
                            and adds it to the base of a
                            steep bluff so that the angle is
                            modified. First the natural bluff
                            must be drained, and, of course,
                            the toe of the new slope must
                            be protected.      The fill itself'
                            must also be free draining or
                            incorporate internal drains so    as
                            not to impede drainage from       the
                            face of the bluff.

                                  The advantage of this
                            method is that     there is an
                            increase in the    amount of
                            property. The      disadvantage is
                                                                                                 A
                            that fill has to   be available and                                              kerna(
                            the drainage is    costly.
                            Furthermore, in    some  places
                            there is not room enough to      add
                            material to the    base without
                            having to dump     some  of it into
                            the lake. That     means permits                                           FILL
                            will be required   from the Corps               BUTMES
                            of Engineers and appropriate
                            state officials.

               12

                             Terracing

                             A modification of
                       the fill method is to
                       create a series of terraces
                       down the face of the
                       slope with the new fill.
                       This requires building some
                       retaining walls, but the
                       terraces between the
                       walls, created with the
                       fill, could have a slope  of
                       1:3 which would be very
                       stable.  Again the
                       underlying bluff must have
                       a drainage system, and the
                       terrace fill should allow
                       water to percolate   through
                       the bluff to the drainage
                       system. The terraces
                       could support vegetation.                  TEWCING

                                                                           Cut and Fill

                                                                           The upper unstable
                                                                     portion of the bluff is cut
                                                                     away, and that material is
                                       ..... .                       used as fill which is
                                                                     compacted at the bottom of
                                                                     the bluff so that the overall
                                      ...... .                       angle is more stable than the
                                                                     original face.  The advantage
                                                                     of this method   over the fill
                                                                     method is that   the f ill
                                                                     material is at hand. The
                                                                     disadvantage is  that some
                         CUT               F1                        table land will  be lost.

                                                                                                                13

                                Cut Only
                                Here, the bluff is                                         MNOVC
                          excavated to a new stable angle.
                          A large amount of material can
                          be removed which is an
                          advantage   or disadvantage
                          depending   on whether you   have a
                          use f or it, or 2 buyer.
                          Otherwise   its disposition can be
                          expensive.   A large amount of                               WL.
                          table land  can be lost  in this
                          method.    Again, subsurf ace
                             Inage is usually incorporated
                          into the method.
                                                                       CUT C)NLY'

                                EXAMPLES of how these methods could be done are suggested for
                          bluffs along the Illinois shore of Lake Michigan.     Cost data is from 1979.
                          Examples and figures are from Harmony With the Lake.

                                Fill Method

                                      The natural bluff will be drained by placement of a plastic
                                filter cloth and gravel, an 8-inch perforated collector pipe, and
                                a 12-inch outlet pipe installed as described for the cut and fill
                                method.    An alternate method of stablizing the bluff consists
                                of the construction of a series of 6 to 9-foot high retaining
                                walls (cribs or gabions) separated by a fill graded to a 1:3 slope.
                                The horizontal distance between the walls should be 21 feet.
                                The fill to be placed to the rear of the lower walls can be used
                                as a working surface from which the next upper wall and section
                                of drainage can be constructed. The areas to be filled can be
                                filled with materials consisting mostly of sand and gravel or
                                crushed rock to provide for drainage through the fill to the
                                drainage system. The surface may be filled with soil to a depth
                                sufficient to support vegetation.    This method is not difficult
                                to construct and will drain the existing slope, stop groundwater
                                seepage, and provide stable, gradually sloping terraces which will
                                resist erosion and support plant life. This method is particularly

              14

                              useful for those bluffs with overall stable slopes, with the
                              exception of the immediate upper bluff area.         The estimated
                              first cost for this method may be $1,000 to $1,700 per lineal
                              foot if treatment of the entire bluff face is needed.        If only
                              the upper bluff wood cribbing walls are needed, these will cost
                              some $15 to $45 for each linear foot depending upon the height
                              of the wall.

                              Cut and Fill Method

                                   Fill from the upper portion of the unstable bluff is
                              excavated and compacted in the lower portion. This method
                              drains the natural slope of the lower portion of the bluff (after
                              it has been cleared of vegetation) by placing a maximum of four
                              feet of coarse gravel on the filter cloth.    The cloth and gravel
                              can be placed as the lots of the fill are added. Groundwater
                              drained from the bluff strata will be transmitted downward
                              through the gravel layer to an B-inch diameter perforated drain
                              pipe to be installed parallel to the base of the bluff.        Water
                              collected in the perforated pipe will be drained to the lake by
                              12-inch diameter drain pipes at a slope of approximately 1:100.
                              These outlet pipes, which are perpendicular to the bluff face,
                              can be spaced approximately 400 feet apart.        If sand and silt
                              lenses with seepage problems occur above the fill area, a drainage
                              method to control these, such as 2 horizontal drain system, may
                              be advisable.    The collection pipes for these drains may be
                              connected to the collector pipe located at the base of the bluff.
                              Care in compaction is a necessary engineering concern.            The
                              amount of compaction per lift and thickness of each lift of soil
                              depends on the type of soil used for the fill.       The estimated
                              first cost for this method is approximately $350 per linear foot.

                              Cut Only Method

                                   This method of bluff stabilization consists of excavating
                              an unstable slope to a recommended slope of 1:11. Any seepage
                                                                                  2
                              zones May be eliminated by a dewatering system. In this case
                              perforated horizontal drains are recommended. Water collected
                              in the perforated drains should be carried in an B-inch collector
                              pipe to the bluff face. The Water should then be carried down
                              to the toe of the bluff through outlet pipes whether buried or
                              carried on the surface. The estimated first cost of this method
                              is approximately $600 per linear foot.

                                                                                                                   15

            Subsurface Drainage

                                                GROUNDWATER PRC6LEMS

                             Water is the major culprit in bluff stability problems in the Great
                       Lakes region.    Many bluff stabilization efforts are a matter of managing
                       the water.

                             Lake water is generally recognized as the most serious threat to
                       stability.  The erosive energy of waves and currents can be controlled,
                       however, by toe protection.

                             Soil moisture and seepage
                       can also pose a problem. The
                       amount of soil moisture is an
                       important determinant of shear
                       strength and a soil's ability to
                       resist the forces of erosion.
                       High groundwater tables in a
                       bluff result in high pore water
                       pressures and seepage forces
                       which greatly reduce stability.

                             Seepage is one of the most
                       recalcitrant problems confronting
                       shore property owners, particu-             CLAY
                       larly in stratified clay till bluffs.
                       In the Great Lakes region clay
                       strata comprising the shoreline            5AND
                       bluffs are often interbedded with
                       tenses of sand or silt that allow
                       water to collect above less
                       permeable clay layers. The
                       water then moves laterally                      00
                       toward the lake and seeps out               CtAC14L_ 0
                       the face of the bluff. This
                       seepage will destabilize the soil
                       above it, and chunks of the     bluff
                       may slide down the face.                                                     0.
                            Sometimes seepage zones in              C1ROLJNCWAZM
                       a bluff are easy to detect.
                       There may be an obvious wet                  FLOWIW-A THP-0061H
                       spot or spring. Vegetative                   PErMeAOLE,
                       indicators can also be used to               LAYMS
                       spot a potential problem.     Plants
                       such as horsetails (equiseturn ,
                       cottonwoods, willows, and even
                       cattails tend to grow in wet or
                       moist zones in a bluff.

         16

                                        GROUNOWATER CONTROL METHODS
                            To make a bluff more stable, groundwater has to be drained out of
                     and conveyed away from the bluff. There are several ways of achieving
                     this goal.
                            Vegetaton is one means of managing water on the bluff.                Plants
                     intercept raindrops and help to prevent surficial rilling and gullying.
                     Vegetation also removes water from the soil and releases it into the
                     atmosphere via roots, stems, and foliage.
                            More mechanical means of controlling groundwater in a bluff can also
                     be employed. These include horizontal drains, vertical wells, and drainage
                     trenches.

                       1.   Horizontal Drain Systems
                            A small-diameter pipe is drilled nearly horizontally into the face of
                            the bluff, extending back into the bluff, especially into tenses of silt
                            or sand. A system of collector pipes, outlet pipes or ditches is usually
                            needed to safely carry away the seepage water without further face
                            erosion.  In most horizontal drains, installation of the initial drains
                            is merely exploratory to locating areas where additional drains should
                            be installed.  Finished projects usually space drains across the face
                            of the bluff at 20 to 50-foot intervals.         Determining the natural
                            spacing of each drain is a lengthy, complicated process. If a substrata
                            or sand lens drainage system is necessary, a professional geotechnical
                            engineer is recommended.

                                        well

                              A
                                             77W

                                                                               cir6tn

                            A
                                               "GLNJAUT1                            C-01
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                                                                               4                OU4- let- pipe-

                                                                                                        - - - - - - - - - -

                                                                                                                    17

                          2. Vertical Well Systems

                             Vertical well systems are used to improve groundwater conditions.          A
                             pump moves water to the bluff surface, and collector pipes, outlet pipes,
                             and ditches carry the water away to some location where it can be
                             discharged without danger of reentering the slope.     Some well systems
                             can bypass impervious soil layers, allowing seepage to drain vertically
                             down into permeable sand and gravel at the base of the well.

                          3. Drainage Trenches

                             Drainage trenches or so called French drains can be employed to intercept
                             and divert shallow seepage.     A drainage trench consists of a narrow
                             trench dug parallel to the edge of a bluff which is backfilled with graded
                             aggregate.   In some instances a pervious filter cloth is placed around
                             the aggregate to prevent washout of fines into the trench. A perforated
                             or slotted pipe can also be laid in the bottom of the trench to improve
                             its hydraulic efficiency. Drainage trenches are effective in intercepting
                             shallow seepage in water-bearing sands or silts which cap an underlying
                             clay till.

                          A Caveat

                             While the drains and wells mentioned above can make a difference in
                          layered soil, many bluff stability experts take a dim view of the capability
                          of any engineering devices to sufficiently dewater the solid clay bluffs
                          found along Many Great L2kes shores.

             18

                                                                          Surface Water Control

                            Land areas along the lake shores tend to drain toward the la@es.
                       Unless controlled, runoff from major storms will flow over the top of the
                       bluff and down the face carrying soil and vegetation with it.

                            Another problem common along Great Lakes shores is that the soil
                       in the upper layers of the bluffs is relatively permeable, but several feet
                       down an impermeable clay layer forms a barrier. In an intense rain storm,
                       or after long lawn watering periods, the water saturates the soil; and above
                       the usual groundwater acquifer, a perched water table forms. This water
                       moves through the soil toward the lake, seeping out the bluff face.         A
                       surface drainage system can help control this problem.

                            Such systems usually consist of a surface water retention area
                       (diversion channel) on top of the bluff to intercept and temporarily hold
                       surface runoff.  An outlet pipe carries the stored runoff water down the
                       bluff face to the lake.    An underground tile system or drainage trench
                       along the bluff face is necessary to intercept the perched groundwater flow
                       (see SUBSURFACE DRAINAGE). The underground system can discharge
                       into the same outlet needed for the diversion channel.

                            This diagram shows a diversion/drainage system developed for Illinois
                       shoreland areas to accomodate the excess water from a 24 hour storm
                       likely to occur once every 10 years.

                                                               PIVMSO)

                                           P)
                              inlet
                              P'PC

                                TTPr,.& DESIGN OF DIVE95M CMANIal

                                                                                                              19

                                This is but an indication of the type of drainage system installed in
                          the region.   Individual conditions dictate site specific solutions.     Property
                          owners should seek professional advice before installing such systems.

                                The typical diversion channel design takes into consideration the area
                          to be drained and the likely amount of water to be handled,, and then
                          specifies: 1) the required bottom width of the diversion, 2) the required
                          size of the channel outlet pipe, 3) a choice of plastic or metal pipes to
                          be used, 4) the depth at which the pipes should be buried to be,safe from
                          frost, and 5) support for the outlet pipe to protect it from wave attack at
                          the lake level.

                                Another way to control surface water is to regrade the surface so
                          that  it slopes away rather than toward the lake, or to build a berm to
                          divert surface water away from the bluff face.

                 J
              Vegetation

                                Vegetation may be the last step in an erosion control program, but it
                          is still very important because it has several critical erosion control functions
                          and because it improves the appearance of a shore site. Vegetation also
                          provides food and cover for wildlife.

                                Vegetation alone is of little use against wave attack or slumping of
                          a bluff crest because of deep groundwater problems. Before initiating
                          vegetation work, be sure the bluff is protected from wave attack and the
                 1i       slope is stable.

                                The presence or absence of vegetation is a good indicator of the
                          stability conditions of the slope.      Vegetation is extremely difficult to
                          maintain on very steep, unstable slopes.       Slopes steeper than 1:1 rarely
                          have vegetation since the soil is not stable at such steep angles. Slumps
                          often carry large trees to the beach along with all the grasses and other
                          covering vegetation. If there are large seeps in the bluff face, vegetation
                          will not establish itself readily.

                                Compared with the structural means of controlling erosion, establishing
                          vegetation is inexpensive.      However, when planning an erosion control
                          program it is important to budget sufficient money for seed, nursery stock,
                          fertilizer and mulch. Sometimes it is necessary to use professional services
                          such as hydroseeding.

             20

                                            How P@Srl@-S c2rtrOR EZ05@Gn

                           Vegetation is useful in the battle against surface erosion caused by
                     runoff and spring thaws and raindrops. Grasses trap moving soil particles
                     and intercept raindrops.

                           P12nt root systems hold soil particles in place, and deep roots can
                     penetrate lower soil layers where water is drawn up by the roots, through
                     the tree to the leaves and reused into the atmosphere.      This moisture
                     removal can  help stabilize the soil.

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                                                                                                        21

                               Role of Vegetation                       Type of Vegegation

                                                               Herbs            Shrubs            Trees

                          intercept rainfall                   good              good             good

                          retard runoff                        good               poor            poor

                          filter surface soil particles        good               poor            poor

                          root penetration                very sh2llow        shallow to       ghntlow to
                                                           to medium           medium             deep

                                Slope Angle

                                The vegetation which can be established on a slope depends on the
                          slope angle.    If that angle is steeper than 1:1, the soil is likely to be
                          unstable and it will be practically impossible to establish vegetative cover.
                          Slopes steeper than 1:11 are likely to require specialized professional
                                                     2
                          planting services.    On Slopes flatter than 1:3 it is possible to use lawn
                          mowers so it is feasible to plant a lawn. On slopes between 1:1 and 1:3,
                          vegetation will grow providing groundwater and wave attack problerns have
                          been corrected.

                                            WPM
                                            rA n
                                                    45*

                                                                 VAIL be ei

                                         MCAWMWa THM OLOPB

              22

                             Climate

                             The climate of the Great Lakes coastal regions is modified by the
                       large water mass of the lakes.        Thus the hardiness zone for vegetation
                       along the share may be at least one zone more tolerant than adjacent
                       inland areas.    But remember that the bluff face is going to be exposed to
                       winds and water runoff, making tough conditions for plants.

                             The Great Lakes region covers several latitudes and takes in several
                       hardiness zones for plants. Your best guidance for establishing vegetation
                       is to rely on the expertise of local people such as your county cooperative
                       extension agent or soil conservation service. They will know which species
                       of particular plants do well in your location.

                             Often you can get a clue to the type of vegetation likely to thrive
                       in your area by looking at what thrives naturally in unmanaged areas.

                             Soil Limitations

                             Droughtiness, fine textures, claypan soils, wetness, alkalinity, acidity,
                       shallow depth, toxicity, and nutrient imbalance all affect how well any
                       particular species will grow in your soil.

                             Existing Vegetation

                             Survey the slope to determine what healthy vegetation currently exists
                       on your shore property. Is is compatible with your preferred uses of the
                       property?    Often your slope will have bare patches even though the rest
                       of the area is well vegetated. You can use selective planting to fill those
                       areas.

                             Asthetics

                             Plants have different colors, sizes, shapes, and textures.             These
                       characterisitcs can be taken into consideration for pleasing combinations
                       of living material.

                             Functions

                             Plants can help you achieve desired effects.        If a view of the lake
                       is desired, consider the eventual height of the plants you choose.            Some
                       vegetation can help you attract wildlife, for example, chokecherry. Other
                       vegetation can help you control traffic. Thorny brambles will discourage
                       foot traffic over your bluff. If top soil is your goal, a fast growing species
                       with a wide spreading root system should be chosen.

                                                                                                                    23

                              Human Activity

                             Success or failure of vegetation depends on the human activity to
                        which it is subjected. Choose plants that are appropriate for the use you
                        intend to make of your property.     You might consider altering your uses
                        to better allow the vegetation to  establish itself. For example, you may
                        need to control traffic over the   bluff face with a stairway so that the
                        Plants Can get started.

                             One major reason for living   along the Great Lakes shore is to have
                        a view of the lake.    Clearcutting the trees for a better view of the lake
                        may lead to slope failure as those roots no longer hold the soil or provide
                        other water-removing functions. Vegetation largely determines the overall
                        effect of the view.   It is possible to use vegetation in creative ways to
                        enhance the views you want while screening out undesirable sights and
                        blocking the view from the beach of your house.

                                                 IRA

                                                                                       4,

            24

                             Location

                             Vegetation on the bluff top forms a protective buffer for the bluff
                       f ace.  A greenbelt should be maintained along the bluff edge.        Much of
                       the Lake Michigan and Lake Erie shore is used for agriculture; for these
                       lands, it would be too costly to reshape the bluff to a stable slope. Farmers
                       can maintain wide strips of dense, natural vegetation along the edge. These
                       strips control traffic, keeping it far enough away from the edge and retard
                       runoff from plowed fields. If the bluff edge is currently cleared you should
                       consider leaving the strips undisturbed.     Shrubs and trees will naturally
                       invade the area and reestablish the greenbelt; or you can speed the process
                       with your own plantings.

                             Very large trees near the
                       edge of a steep bluff can be a
                       mixed blessing.   If the roots are
                       showing on the bluff side, the
                       tree is probably unstable. When
                       the tree topples, it may carry
                       away a large chunk of the bluff
                       top with it. If you have such
                       trees, you may wish to cut them
                       down so that they don't fall
                       down during a storm. You can
                       leave the roots in the bank to
                       hold the soil temporarily until            );WMRD IN )NOPf,qND
                       new vegetation becomes                     INCAEA5E ue DwFFI-:5,
                       established.                               R6S15-r7WCE TO 5LWAFW4@3

                                                          B!Uff F2ce

                             Vegetation traps sediment, controls runoff, and holds soil in place on
                       the slope face. Trees, shrubs and grasses can all be used on the bluff face.
                       If the slope is too steep to mow, consider ground covers other than a lawn.

                             Cottonwoods and willows can be planted as cuttings Or Saplings and
                       are particularly good for seep zones and other wet areas Of the slope face.
                       However, avoid planting willows near drainage systems because the roots
                       seek water and may eventually clog or break up your drains.

                                                                 17CS

                             If you have sufficient beach, it is possible to establish vegetation at
                       the bluff toe.   It provides additional anchoring and some protection from
                       all erosive processes.   Willows may root in the wet soil at the bluff toe.

                                                                                                                 25

                             Native Versus Introduced Species

                             Both native and introduced species thrive in the Great Lakes region.
                        Some people prefer to plant only native species; others like a combination
                        of native and introduced plants.    Some people believe native species do
                        better than introduced species.  In fact, many introduced species do very
                        well in the region and some are freer of natural enemies.      Whether you
                        should plant native or introduced species depends on the effect you are
                        trying to achieve.   If you want a "natural" look, then you may want to
                        consider only native species. Combinations of native and introduced plants
                        are appropriate in landscaped settings. Whichever you choose, be sure the
                        plants meet your requirements for appearance and maintenance, and grow
                        well under the conditions on your property.

                             Species Selection

                             Often for the same type of plant, you will have a choice of species.
                        One species  may do better than another for the particular conditions on
                        your slope. Take into consideration the following factors:

                                   0  ultimate size
                                   o  rate of growth
                                   o  ease of establishment
                                   o  suitability to soil type and mositure levels
                                   o  susceptibility to insect and disease problems
                                   o  longevity
                                   o  appearance
                                   o  cost
                                   o  habits such as dropping limbs in storms
                                   o  compatibility with other vegetation

                             Maintenance Requirements

                             Some plants are carefree once established; others require constant
                        attention for shaping, watering, fertilizing, and the like.   Select plants
                        which require no more maintenance than you are willing to give them.

            26

                                              PREPAR@NC;@ YOUR SITE

                          Slope Stability
                          is the slope presently stable or will it be when you add the plantings?
                     If not, look at earlier sections of this publication for ideas on how to make
                     it stable.
                           If regrading is too costly, consider gentle slope modifications which
                     will allow vegetation to get established. One such idea is terracing discussed
                     in the section on slope angle.
                           A terracing idea that uses vegetation is contour wattling.         Cigar-
                     shaped bundles of live willow cuttings are anchored into the bluff face with
                     either construction or live willow stakes. This bundle traps surface runoff
                     and soil particles and lets vegetation get a hold. Furthermore, the willow
                     stakes are capable of rooting in the bluff soil if there is enough moisture.
                     See MORE READING for details of this method including a Soil Conservation
                     Service field trial on Lake Michigan bluffs.

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                                                  Willow
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                                                                                                               27

                             Soil Tests

                             Before you select vegetation or plant it, find out what kind of soil
                        you have. Is it clay? Sand? Silt? Does it tend to dry out? Or stay wet?
                        Is it acid or alkaline?   Does it need fertilizer?   See HELP for soil and
                        crop experts.

                             Surface Preparation

                             Proper surface work is essential to successful planting.     Remove all
                        debris that could smother vegetation.

                             Smooth out all rills and gullies.    Be sure surface drainage is being
                        controlled.

                             Based on your soil tests, add fertilizer and other soil conditioners.

                                       PLANPTENQ GRASSES AND GRO@'@'NDCCVER

                             Seeding and Planting

                             Once the area is prepared, seeding and planting also should be carefully
                        handled.

                             In many cases grass mixtures can be seeded by scattering the seed
                        along the bluff face by hand.

                             For large scale planting and steep slopes, machines called hydroseeders
                        which spray mixtures of seed, water, and mulch are recommended. These
                        are generally used by the Soil Conservation Service.

                                         I
                                     0   0   0                             Groundcovers are usually
                                  0    0   0    0                    available as small container
                                     0   0    0                      grown plants, and must be
                                                                     individually planted. Dig
                                                                     small holes with a trowel,
                                                                     forming a staggered pattern.
                                                                     The number of plants required
                                                                     depends on the variety of
                                                       Y..
                                                                     groundcover used.
                                                   YN

           28

                             Waterinq

                             Even though excess soil moisture problems can lead to a slope disaster,
                       initial plantings and seeding often will require some judicious sprinkling
                       and watering to get the plants going.

                             Mulching

                             Mulching is particularly important for slope plantings. Mulch protects
                       against rain and wind while seeds are germinating and plants are
                       reestablishing roots.  Mulches also reduce moisture loss during dry spells.

                             The accompanying table lists common mulch materials and methods
                       for anchoring the mulch.       For more information consult references in
                       MORE READING.

                              Mulch Material                         Anchoring Method

                            Hay or Straw                       peg and twine network
                             (11-2 tons/acre)                  punched into slope with spade
                               2

                            Jute Netting                       staked according to manufacturer's
                                                               spec if ications

                            Plastic Netting                    staked according to manufacturer's
                                                               specifications

                            Manure or Compost                  no anchoring necessary

                            Glass Fiber                        follow manufacturer's instructions

                          Timing

                          The Great Lakes region has a typical pattern of precipitation/dry spells
                       which affect plant success.     Your efforts to establish vegetation should
                       take this into consideration.    Seeding of grasses and legumes should be
                       avoided in July and August because long dry periods are most likely to
                       occur then. Legume-based mixtures should be planted as early as possible,
                       but no later than mid-June. Grass-based mixtures can be seeded before
                       and after July and August.

                                                                                                                  29

                                              PLANTING TREES AND SHRUBS

                             Handling
                             Trees and shrubs are available four ways:          as seedlings, bare-root,
                       balled and burlapped, and container-grown. Easily transplanted species can
                       be handled as seedlings and bare rooted.        More sensitive species need to
                       have undisturbed roots.     Balled and burlapped and container-grown plants
                       are expensive, but the plants suffer less shock from being moved and the
                       roots are better protected from drying out. The root ball can be heavy.
                       Thus, on a steep slope it is usually impossible to plant a balled and burlapped
                       tree with a root ball larger than 18 inches in diameter. In any transplanting,
                       always be careful to prevent the roots from drying out.

                             Spacing

                             For maximum erosion control, trees and shrubs should be planted after
                       grass has been established. Plants should be spaced to prevent dense shade.
                       Trees should be planted at least 50 feet apart and shrubs, 15 to 25 feet
                       apart.  If trees and shrubs are going to be mass planted to achieve total
                       ground cover, then the trees can be 6 feet apart and shrubs, 3 to 4 feet apart.

                             Timing

                             Evergreens, shrubs, and small trees are best planted in spring before
                       they have begun new growth. Plant them after the ground thaws and the
                       air temperature exceeds 351 F. You can also plant in late autumn after
                       the plants are again dormant, but before the ground freezes.

                             Fertilizer

                             .It is not absolutely necessary, but fertilizer can be added when planting
                       trees and shrubs.    Use a small amount and be careful to prevent it from
                       coming into direct contact with the roots.         It's best to mix it into the
                       backfill for the hole. .

                             For information on specific formulations for particular species, consult
                       local vegetation experts.
                             For more information on planting, consult any good gardening or
                       landscaping book.     Cooperative Extension Service offices, libraries, and
                       bookstores all carry such planting guides. Also, plants are often sold with
                       planting instructions.

        30

                              This table gives suggested vegetation which is suitable throughout the
                        Great Lakes region. For more detailed information, consult with a local
                        vegetation expert such as your county extension or soil conservation service
                        agent.

                              This information comes from The Role of Vegetation in Shoreline
                        Management produced by the Great Lakes Basin Commission.

                                                                    5oil Moisture Types

                                                                   Well-Drained Imperfectly Poorly
                             Species                  Droughty Good Moisture Drained             Drained

                        Autumn Olive*                     X              X
                          (Elaeagnus umbellata)
                        Bearberry                         X              X
                          (Arctostaphylus uva-ursi)
                        Chokecherry                                      X
                          (Prunus virginiana)
                        Gray Dogwood                      X              X             X
                          (Cornus racemosa)
                        Red-Osier Dogwood                                              X           X
                          (Cornus stolonifera)
                        Wild Grape                        X              X             X
                          (Vitis riparia)
                        Common Juniper                    X              X
                          (Juniperus Communis)
                        Staghorn Sumac                    X              X
                          (Rhus typhina)
                        Sandbar Willow                                   X             X           X
                          (Salix interior)
                        Heartleaved Willow                               X             X           X
                          (Salix cordata)

                           Species

                        Cottonwood                                       X             X
                          (Populus deltoides)
                        Black Locust                                     X
                          (Robinia pseudo-acacia)
                        Silver Maple                                     X             X           X
                          (Acer saccharum)
                        Willow                                                         X           X
                          (Salix spp.)
                        Red Maple                                        X             X
                          (Acer rubrum)
                        Box Elder                                        X             X
                          (Acer negundo)

                        *Indicates introduced species                                                             31

                                              Grass and Legume Seed Mh4luTas

                                      Species                               Lbs/Acre

                                      Perennial Rye Grass*                      5
                                        (Lolium perrene)
                                      Redtop*                                   4
                                         (Agrostis alba)
                                      Smooth Bromegrass*                        12
                                        (Bromus inermis)
                                      Orchard Grass*                            8
                                        (Dactylus glomerata)
                                      Canada Bluegrass                          8
                                         (Poa compressa)
                                      Sweet Clover                              4
                                        (Melilotus alba)
                                      Red Clover*                               6
                                        (Trifoliuim  pratense)
                                                                                4-7 lbs/acre
                                      TMs m@Kfx2-3 can he pR2rted @-n      all.         SCH&

                                      Creeping Red Fescue*                      10
                                        (Festuca rubra)
                                      Kentucky Bluegrass*                       2
                                        (poa pratensis)
                                      Redtop*                                   I
                                        (Agrostis alba)
                                      Tall Fescue*                              20
                                        (Festuca arundinacea)
                                      Timothy*                                  2
                                        (Phleurn pratense)
                                      Birdsfoot Trefoil*                        10
                                        (Lotus corniculatus)
                                                                                45 lbs/acre,
                                      Th@2 m@xluLa car, @is           @,:q

                                      Reed Canarygrass                          15
                                        (Phalaris arundinaceus)
                                      Garrison Creeping Foxtail                 5
                                        (Alopecurus arundinaceus)
                                      Redtop*                                   5
                                        (Agrostis alba)
                                      Birdsfoot Trefoil*                        10
                                        (Lotus corniculatus)
                                                                                35  lbs/acre
                                      TNs m@rWre can he p@anled @n @m-          d   -      . -    1@@

                                      *Indicates introduced species

             32

                             Local nurseries will have many plant materials you can use for erosion
                       controt on bluffs.

                             Some state, provincial, and federal programs offer substantial discounts
                       on obtaining materials for erosion control programs. See HELP at the end
                       of this publication.

                             Lawns

                             Healthy, vigorous grass will be maintained only with annual fertilizer
                       applications. Light applications will keep an established lawn healthy. But
                       don't overdo it or water quality problems may result. Use care to prevent
                       fertilizer from reaching the lake.

                             Trees and Shrubs

                             Newly planted trees and shrubs require care until they are established,
                       usually one to two years after planting.         Slopes are often very dry in
                       summer, so water the trees about twice a month. Keep competing vegetation
                       cleared away from the base of the tree. Many plants are susceptible to
                       insects and diseases.    Healthy, vigorous plants are seldom bothered, but
                       declining plants may be attacked.          A yearly inspection and a little
                       maintenance can keep plants vigorous. When short-lived species have been
                       established for several years, you may wish to introduce some long-lived
                       species.

                             Selective Topping and Thinning

                             A dense, heavily wooded slope effectively controls erosion. However,
                       such woods often block the lake view.          Selective pruning, topping and
                       removal of some trees opens up the view without endangering slope stability.
                       Thinning will also allow more sunlight into the existing trees which will
                       strengthen them. Handle thinning gradually, a little bit each year. Leave
                       brush and shrubs undisturbed. Never cut down all the vegetation at once.
                       Clearcutting the slope will rob the slope of all the benefits of the vegetation,
                       and make it vulnerable to erosion.

                             Debris

                             Remove all debris that is covering the soil to be vegetated.            Cut
                       down dead trees, cutting them so that they fall across rather than up or
                       down the slope, leaving the trunk and roots in place. Remove dead shrubs.
                       Don't use your slope as a dumping ground. Leaves, grass clippings, or other
                       debris dumped over the edge of the slope will smother the vegetation you
                       are trying to establish.

                                                                                                                  33

                                          p

                                          I

                                          I
                                          I

                                          i

                        * o 9 Checklist

                              Property Management Checklist

                            Now that your bluff has been stabilized, what measures do you need
                      to take to keep it that way?      Here is a checklist.

                                    Maintain toe protection. Prevent toe scour; repair damaged
                                    sections.

                                    Keep septic system and drain field unclogged.

                                    Maintain any drainage devices, keeping drains     free of debris.

                                    Establish suitable traffic patterns (stairs, fences, shrubbery)
                                    to protect vegetation; keep weight off the bluff edge; and
                                    prevent sail compaction.

                                    Keep surface, face, and    toe well vegetated.

                                    Use sprinkling with care.

                                    Consider effects on bluff stability of changes before under-
                                    taking new activities

                                                                                                               37

                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        I

                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        i @

                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        I

                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        I
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        @ I

                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        I

                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        @ i

                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        i

                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        i I

                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        @ 1
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        1

                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        II

                                                                                                   Know Your Situation

                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        I

                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        l@
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        I

                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        I

                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        H
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        I

                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        @i

                                                           Know Your Situation

                            Some 80 percent of the Great Lakes shoreline is privately owned.
                      About half the private shore which is susceptible to erosion is used for
                      residences. This means the responsibility for controlling erosion is in your
                      hands.

                            How do you approach an erosion problem?

                            First use the site assessment checklist to learn what is happening on
                      your  bluf f site. By the time you have finished filling out the assessment
                      sheet, you will know most of the relevant information for determining what
                      erosion problems you have.

                            Then you can match the natural factors you are up against with your
                      options in erosion protection.

                            Finally, when you've made a decision on what to do, you can make
                      a detailed plan of how to go about it.

                                                  Assessing Your Property - A Checklist

                            Dimensions

                                      height above the water

                                      width of beach between water and bluff toe

                                 ___slope angle

                            Composition

                                 Of what materials is the beach made?

                                           sand       gravel        cobbles

                                 Of what materials    is the bluff made?

                                           sand       silt      glacial till  _clay           combinations

                                 Make a diagram of     your bluff showing the relative  vertical location,
                                 depth, and thickness of the materials in the bluff.

                                                                                                              41

                        2. WHAT PROBLEMS ARE YOU ENCOUNTERING?

                            Wave Action

                                            waves eroding the beach -waves eroding the bluff toe
                                    Are there any shore protection devices nearby?

                                            on your property _on adjacent property

                                    Are these devices protecting the beach?

                                    Are neighbors having problems?

                            Surface Drainage

                                    Is water running over the face of the bluff after rainfall or
                                    sprinkling?

                                    What are yo  ur contributions to surface runoff?

                                            sprinkling _downspouts/rain gutters

                            Subsurface Drainage

                                    Do you have a septic system drain field?

                                    Are there seep areas on the bluff face?

                                    Are there wet areas?

                                    Is the soil saturated during heavy rains?

                                    Are any drains installed in the bluff?       If so, do they operate
                                    correctly and is the drain outlet correctly situated to cause no
                                    further face or toe erosion?

                       3. WHAT VEGETATION IS AT YOUR SITE?

                                    Toe
                                             grasses         shrubs          trees

                                    Face
                                             grasses         shrubs         trees

                                    Top
                                             grasses  or lawn        green   belt     trees
                                                                                      -no roots exposed
                                                                                      -roots exposed

                                    If there used to be vegetation on the toe, face, or top of the
                                    bluff, but it is no longer there, what happened to it?
          42

                   4. WHAT USES WILL YOU MAKE OF THE PROPERTY?

                       Access to the beach

                                 foot path -stairs     roadways

                       A place from which to view the lake

                       Building site

                   5. WHAT LOCAL, STATE, AND FEDERAL RESTRICTIONS APPLY TO
                       YOUR PROPERTY?

                   Once you have identified the type of property you have and the problems
                   you may encounter, then you can determine how to handle your problems.

                                                                                            43

               You Don't Have To Go It Alone

                                To most effectively treat shore and bluff stability problems, join
                          together with your neighbors.     Such an approach considers an entire reach
                          of shoreline which may be subject to erosion and retreat, and avoids trying
                          to handle a major problem with spot treatments.

                                There nre mqny real savings in joining together.          Property owners
                          with shore erosion problems are rarely alone. Usually adjacent landowners
                          have similar problems. With wave protection devices it is necessary to tie
                          the device back into the shore or eventually the erosion problems will
                          retreat around the outside edge of the protection causing additional
                          problems.    With groundwater problems, often the water carrying strata
                          extends under a considerable stretch of the shoreline.         Runoff Water on
                          property far removed from your own may travel along that layer of soil,
                          seeping out the face of your bluff.

                                Thus, sometimes it is essential to work together to handle problems.
                          Geological structures rarely conform very well to property lines.

                                Experience has shown that when property owners have tried to go it
                          alone, the result has often been ineffective protection. Devices frequently
                          fail because of continued erosion on adjacent properties.

                                Working together also may create some economies of scale in shore
                          protection.

                                One effective way to band together is to create a property owners'
                          association.  Your organization's plan for shore protection should include:

                                      o  hiring consultants
                                      o  administration
                                      o  site assessment
                                      o  alternatives to be considered, both structual
                                         and non-structural
                                      o  preconstruction planning
                                      o  engineering considerations
                                      o  maintenance

                                In non-structural approaches to shoreline coping strategies, such as
                          zoning for appropriate uses or other creative approaches, often it is all
                          the more important to have community-wide support to make the political
                          institutions function for you.

                                For hints on how to organize for shore protection, see MORE READING
                          and HELP.

             44

                                                                   Weigh Your Alternatives

                           Shore protection options range from doing nothing to a full scale,
                     multifrontal attack on the problem.

                           Decisions on what 2etions to take should always be made by weighing
                     the alternatives.

                           Do Nothing

                           The first alternative is to do nothing.  What is the cost of letting
                     the erosion and retreat continue? This depends to a great extent on the
                     use of the property. In the case of home development, this is usually too
                     costly unless a building is adequately set back from the bluff.    However,
                     alternative land uses are very viable options for lands which have not yet
                     been developed.   Over the years, the do nothing option ir, often the low
                     cost option.

                           The do nothing option is often, psychologically, the most difficult
                     decision to make, although sometimes economics dictates it.

                           Altemative Use

                           If you can make alternate uses of the property, despite erosion, you
                     may wish to opt for this idea rather than invest in protective devices.
                     Nature preserves and park lands are often compatible with erosion-prone
                     property.

                           Land Management Changes

                           This option is one that lets you continue your original use with some
                     small changes in practice. These practices may not stop major retreats,
                     but they might slow erosion and they can prevent some damages.           For
                     example, many Wisconsin clay bluffs are agricultural lands. A small change
                     in practice, such as leaving a greenbelt along the bluff edge, rather than
                     plowing all the way to the edge, may help to slow bluff retreat at minimal
                     cost.

                           It is often essential to incorporate land management changes into
                     major erosion intervention strategies.

                                                                                                          45

                              Relocation

                              The ne@et option is to move the building. You should seriously consider
                        this alternative because erosion is a natural process that is extremely
                        difficult to curtail. If your erosion protection fails, you have lost your
                        investment and you may still lose your house or cottage.

                              The relocation of your structure requires that there be enough land
                        between the bluff edge and your house to move in the necessary heavy
                        equipment.   Between 15 and 20 feet of clearance are required.

                              You must have land which will safely accomodate your home or
                        cottage. Thus, your lot mu3t be deep or you must have property elsewhere,
                        outside the erosion area.

                              Your building must be constructed in a Way that allows it to be
                        moved.   Buildings built on slabs Can rarely be moved.

                              Moving homes is rarely 2 do-it-yourself proposition.      Moving your
                        house can r2nqe in cost from a modest amount to almost as much as the
                        cost of a new structure.    Also to be considered is the cost of preparing
                        the new site -- building a foundation, installing gas, water, and other
                        utilities, etc.

                              To make a sound decision about moving a structure, you need to know
                        the recession rate and the stable slope angle for your property so that you
                        can determine how far back to place your structure.

             46

                                                    Calculating Erosion Hazard Setbacks

                            Some Oreat Lal<es states have adopted voluntary or mandatory setbac@
                      regulations for properties. These guidelines dictate minimum distances from
                      the take where buildings can be located. They are set to try to prevent
                      damage from erosion.

                            Recession Rates

                            Most setbacks are based on the recession rate.        This is the rate at
                      which the property could be expected to retreat over a given period of
                      time.   Rates are best calculated over a long term, 20 to 100 years. The
                      rate is determined by loot<lng at historical measurements    of where the qhorn
                      was in some distant, previous year and comparing that        with the bluff line
                      today.   Then, you can calculate how far the bluff has retreated in the
                      intervening years.    By dividing distance by the number of years, you learn
                      how fast the bluff may be expected to retreat. For example, if the bluff
                      has retreated 200 feet in 100 years, the recession rate is 2 feet per year.
                      If the setback regulation calls for a 50 year safety margin, you would want
                      to locate any building at least 100 feet from the lake or bluff edge
                      undergoing active erosion.

                            The problem with calculating        recession rates in the clay bluffs
                      susceptible to major stumps is that it is extremely difficult to determine
                      when a major portion of the bluff could   give way. For example, a Milwaukee,
                      Wisconsin slope well protected from       wave attack for at least 20 years,
                      suddenly gave way in 1979. A major slump can take 100 feet of bluff at
                      one time.    Thus, clay bluff setbacks    need to have a considerable margin
                      of safety built into them, or a stable slope setback (see below).

                            Stable Slope Setback

                            The stable slope setback considers the angle that is stable for a
                      particular shoreline.      For example, in Wisconsin the Coastal Zone
                      Management program recommends 1:2-1 as a stable slope along the Lake
                                                                2
                      Michigan shore, and 1:3 for the Lake Superior shore. The number of feet
                      back from the base of the bluff where that angle intersects the bluff top
                      is the minimum safe setback. For example, a 50 foot high Lake Michigan
                      bluff would require a 125 foot setback (50 x 2-@F).       The stable angle (21)
                      would intersect the bluff top (50 feet high) 125 feet from the bluff toe (base).

                                                                                                                 47

                                The Erosion Hazard Setback

                                The erosion hazard setback takes into consideration both the recession
                          rate  and the stable slope setback.      For beach areas, the recession rate
                          determines the setback.      For bluff areas, the erosion hazard setback is
                          determined by adding the recession setback to the stable slope setback.
                          Again, consider the 50-foot high Lake Michigan bluff with a recession rate
                          of 2 feet per year.     If the setback requires a useful building life of 50
                          year6@ then the aafe minimum di3tance from the lake at which a building
                          could be located would be 225 feet, 100 feet to cover the recession rate
                          and 125 feet to account for the stable slope setback.

               Active Intervention

                                If you have determined that the best course of action is to intervene
                          in the shore erosion process to halt bluff retreat, consider attacking the
                          problem in this order:

                                1.    Protect the toe against wave attack.

                                2.    Reshape the angle of the bluff.

                                3.    Drain excess groundwater and soil moisture.

                                4.    Divert runoff.

                                5.    Revegetate toe, face, and bluff top.

                                6.    Maintain devices and vegetation, vigilantly.

                                Inspect your property, using the site assessment checklist and then:

                                1.    Select the type and combination of controls needed to correct
                                      each specific problem.

                                2.    Make a detailed plan of operations for installation of the system
                                      of controls.

                                3.    Install the system starting at the toe of the slope, working to
                                      the top. Controls in the upper portion of the slope are dependent
                                      on the lower controls.

                                4.    Revegetate.

                                5.    Maintain.

             48

                            0
               More information

                                                              More Information

                          The following listings are suggested places where you can obtain
                    additional help with your bluff erosion questions.

                                                                                                Help
                                                UNITED STATES

                                         U.S. Army Corps of Engineers

                                 North Central Division

                                      Division Engineer
                                      U.S. Army Engineer Div., North Central
                                      536 South Clark Street
                                      Chicago, IL 60605

                                 District Of f ices

                                      Buffalo District
                                      District Engineer
                                      U.S. Army Engineer District, Buffalo
                                      1776 Niagara Street
                                      Buffalo, NY 14207

                                      Detroit District
                                      District Engineer
                                      U.S. Army Engineer District, Detroit
                                      P.O. Box 1027
                                      Detroit, MI 48231

                                      Chicago District
                                      District Engineer
                                      U.S. Army Engineer District, Chicago
                                      219 South Dearborn Street
                                      Chicago, IL 60604

                                      St. Paul District
                                      District Engineer
                                      U.S. Army Engineer District, St. Paul
                                      1210 U.S. Post Office and Custom House
                                      St. Paul, MN 55111

                                                                                                      51

                    Coastal Zone Management Program               Great Lakes Shorelands Section
                    Department of Transportation                  Division of Land Resource Programs
                    Marina City Office Building                   Michigan Dept. of Natural Resources
                    300 North State St., Room 1010                P.O. Box 30028
                    Chicago, IL 60610                             Lansing, MI 48909
                    Soil Conservation Service                     Soil Conservation  Services
                    Federal Building                              U.S. Dept. of Agriculture
                    P.O. Box 678                                  1405 S. Harrison Road
                    Champaign, IL 61820                           East Lansing, MI 48823
                    Bureau of Soil and Water Conservation         Michigan State Soil
                    State Dept. of Agriculture                    Conservation Commission
                    Emerson Bldg., State Fair   Grounds           Lewis Cass Building
                    Springfield, IL 62756                         P.O. Box 30017
                                                                  Lansing, MI 48909

                                                                  Michigan Sea Grant
                                                                  University of Michigan
                                                                  2200 Bonisteel Blvd.
                                                                  Ann Arbor, MI 48109

                                                                  LOC21 County Drain Commission
                Endiana                                           Local County Extension Director
                    Coastal Zone Management Program            Minnesota
                    State Planning Services Agency
                    143 West Market Street                        Coastal Zone Management Program
                    Harrison Building                             Minnesota State Planning Agency
                    Indianapolis, IN 46204                        100 Capitol Square Building
                                                                  St. Paul, MN 55101
                    Soil Conservation Service
                    Atkinson Square West                          Soil Conservation Service
                    5610 Crawfordsville Road                      200 Federal Bldg. & U.S.   Court House
                    Indianapolis, IN 46224                        316 North Robert Street
                                                                  St. Paul, MN 55101
                    Indiana State Soil & Water
                    Conservation Committee                        Minnesota Soil & Water
                    Rm. 7, Agriculture Administration Bldg.       Conservation Board
                    Purdue University                             300 Centennial Building
                    West Lafayette, IN 47907                      St. Paul, MN 55155

                                                                  Minnesota Sea Grant Program
                                                                  Director, Sea Grant Extension Program
                                                                  109 Washburn Hall
                                                                  University of Minnesota, Duluth
                                                                  Duluth, MN 55812

           52

                   N"L
                     -w yerk

                     New York Coastal Zone                       Coastal Zone Management Program
                     Management Program                          Dept. of Environmental Resources
                     Department of State                         Bureau of Resources Programming
                     162 Washington Avenue                       Third & Reilly Streets
                     Albany, NY 12231                            Harrisburg, PA 17120
                     Soil Conservation Service                   Soil Con-servation Service
                     U.S. Courthouse & Federal Building          Route 19
                     100 S. Clinton Street                       R. D. 5
                     Syracuse, NY 13202                          Waterford, PA 16441
                     New York State Soil   & Water               Agriculture Stablization
                     Conservation Committee                      and Conservation
                     Box 1, 142 Emerson Hall                     County Committee
                     Cornell University                          Route 19
                     Ithaca, NY 14853                            R. D. 5
                                                                 Waterford, PA 16441
                  ch'10
                                                                 Pennsylvania State University
                     Shoreland Management                        Cooperative Extension Service
                     Division of Water                           850 E. Gore Road
                     Ohio Dept. of Natural  Resources            Erie, PA 16509
                     Building E, Fountain Square
                     Columbus, OH 43224

                     Soil Conservation Service             @Visccnstn
                     311 Old Federal Building
                     3rd & State Streets                         Coastal Zone Management Program
                     Columbus, OH 43215                          101 S. Webster
                                                                 Madison, WI 53702
                     Ohio Soil & Water
                     Conservation Commission                     Soil Conservation Service
                     Fountain Square, Building B                 4601 Hammersley Road
                     Columbus, OH 43224                          P.O. Box 4248
                                                                 Madison, WI 53711
                     Office of the Chief Engineer
                     Department of Natural Resources             Wisconsin Board of Soil & Water
                     Fountain Square                             Conservation Districts
                     Columbus, OH 43224                          Room 346
                                                                 I.B15 University Avenue
                     Division of Geological Survey               Madison, WI 53786
                     Ohio Dept. of Natural Resources
                     -P.O. Box 650                               Wisconsin Sea Grant College Program
                     Sandusky, OH 44870                          Advisory Services
                                                                 1815 University Avenue
                                                                 Madison, WI 53706

                                                                                                         53

                       William S. H2r2S                            D. L. Strelchuk
                       Shore Property Studies                      Engineering Services Branch
                       Research and Development Division           Ontario Ministry of Natural Resources
                       Ocean and Aquatic Affairs                   Whitney Block, Room 5620A
                       Central Region                              Queen's Park
                       Fisheries & Environment Canada              Toronto, Ontario M7A IW3
                       867 Lake Shore Road                         (416) 965-1271
                       P.O. Pox SOSO
                       Burlington, Ontario L74 4A6
                       (416) 637-4338

                          @Aln@Mtr-y cf: AgTlcu@Luzs arF@@f Fcc-rj

                 County            Agricultural Representatives                Soils & Crops Specialists
                 Essex             Essex (519) 776-7361                        N. C. Laing (519) 674-5456
                                                                               c/o R.C.A.T. Ridgetown

                 Kent              Box 726, 435 Grand     Ave. W.
                                   Chatham, Ont. (519)     354-2150

                 Lambton           Box 730, Petrolia (519) 882-0180

                 Elgin             594 Talbot St.                              David Norris (519) 674-5456
                                   St. Thomas (519) 631-4700                   c/o R.C.A.T. Ridgetown

                 Wentworth         R.R. 1, Ancaster                            Harvey Wright (519) 824-4120
                                   (416) 527-2995                              Ext. 2513
                                                                               c/o Crop Science
                                                                               University of Guelph

                 Huron             Box 159, Clinton (519) 482-3428             Patrick Lynch (519) 271-8280
                                                                               Box 398, 478 Huron St.,
                                                                               Stratford

                 Norfolk           19 Kent St. S.                              E. B. Pridham (519) 426-0680
                                   Simcoe (519) 426-0680                       19 Kent St. S., Simcoe

                 Haldimand         Cayuga (416) 772-3381

                 Niagara, North    Vineland Station (416)   562-4142

                 Niagar2, South    574 South Pelham St.
                                   Welland (416) 732-7552

                 Bruce             Box 1330                                    R. A. Upford (519) 8B1-3301
                                   Walkerton (519) 881-3301                    Box 1330, Walkerton

                 Gray              181 Toronto St. S.
                                   M2rkdale (519) 986-2040
             54

                  Halton             181 Main St.                           J. P. Fish (416) 895-4519
                                     Milton (416) 453-9866                  Newmarket Plaza

                  Peel               3 Elizabeth St. S.
                                     Brampton (416) 451-5474

                  York               Newmarket (416) 895-4519

                  Simcoe, North      Box 340, Elmvale                       C. H. Kingsburg, (705) 435-5521
                                     (705) 322-2231                         Box 370, Alliston

                  Manitoulin         Box 326, Gore Bay (705) 282-2043       Walker Riley (705) 474-3050
                                                                            222 McIntyre St. W., North Bay

                  Muskoka &          Box 130, Huntsville
                  Parry Sound        (705) 789-5491

                  Sudbury            1414 LaSalle Blvd.                     WAer Riley (705) 474-3505
                                     Sudbury (519) 566-163B                 222 McIntyre St. W., North Bay

                  Thunder   Bay      Ontario Gvt. Bldg.
                                     435 James St. S.
                                     Thunder Bay (897) 475-1631

                  Durham             234 King St. E.                        Neil Moore (705) 324-6125
                                     Bowmanville (416) 623-3348             322 Kent St. W., Lindsay

                  Northumberland     Box 820, Brighton (613) 395-3393       W. E. Hurst (413) 475-1930

                  Hastings           Box 340, Stirling (613) 395-3393

                  Lennox &           41 Dundas St.                          G. J. Smith (613) 476-3224
                  Addington          Napanee (613) 354-3371

                  Prince Edward      Box 470, Picton (613) 476-3224

                  Frontenac          Box 657, 1055 Princess St.
                                     Kingston

                  Leeds              Box 635, Brockville (613) 342-2124     J. C. Shelhaut (613) 258-3411
                                                                            Box 2004, Kemptville

                  Grenville          Box 2004, Kemptville (613) 258-3411

                  Dundas             Box 488, Winchester (613) 774-2313

                  Stormont           Box 655, 109 11th St. W.
                                     (613) 933-1581 Cornwell

                  Prescott           Box 110, Plantagenet                   P. E. Beaudin (613) 673-5115
                                     (613) 673-5115                         Box 110 Plantagenet

                  Glengarry          Box 579, Alexandria (613) 525-1046

                                                                                                               55

               Ron Kinnunen                                     Christine Hagerman
               Michigan Sea Grant Extension Agent               New York Sea Grant Extension
               U.P. Extension Center                            Cooperative Extension Regional Office
               1850 Presque Isle                                412 E. Main St.
               Marquette, MI 49855                              Fredonia, NY 14063
               John McKinney                                    Mike Voiland
               Michigan Sea Grant Extension Agent               New York Sea Grant Extension Office
               Governmental Center                              Morgan III
               400 Boardman Avenue                              Brockport, NY 14420
               Traverse City, MI 49684
                                                                David 0. Kelch
               Chuck Pistis                                     Area Extension Agent
               Michigan Sea Grant Extension Agent               Ohio Sea Grant Program
               County Extension Office, Rm. 101                 1575 Lowell Street
               Ottawa County Building                           Elyria, OH 44035
               Grand Haven, MI 49417
                                                                Frank R. Lichtkoppler
               John Schwartz                                    Area Extension Agent
               Michigan Sea Grant Extension Agent               Ohio Sea Grant Program
               P.O. Box 599                                     99 East Erie Street
               County Building Annex                            Painesville, OH 44077
               Tawas City, MI 48763
                                                                Fred L. Snyder
               Steve Stewart                                    Area Extension Agent
               Michigan Sea Grant Extension Agent               Ohio Sea Grant Program
               Cooperative Extension Service                    1401 Walter Avenue
               County Building, 9th Floor                       Fremont, OH 43240
               Mount Clemens, MI 49043
                                                                Kim Bro
               Dale Baker                                       Wisconsin Sea Grant Program
               Minnesota Sea Grant                              University of Wisconsin
               109 Washburn Hall                                P.O. Box 505
               University of Minnesota                          Washburn, WI 54891
               Duluth, MN 55812
                                                                Lynn Frederick
               Stephen Brown                                    Wisconsin Sea Grant Extension
               New York Sea Grant Extension Program             The Walkway Mail
               129 Merritt Hall                                 Sister Bay, WI 54234
               S.U.C. Potsdam
               Potsdam, NY 13676                                Cliff Kraft
                                                                Wisconsin Sea Grant Advisory Service
               Robert Buerger                                   E.S./105
               New York Sea    Grant Extension Program          University of Wisconsin-Green Bay
               66 Sheldon Hall                                  Green Bay, WI 54302
               S.U.C. Oswego, NY 13126
                                                                James Lubner
               David Greene                                     Wisconsin Sea Grant
               New York Sea    Grant Extension                  Great Lakes Research Facility, 600 E. Greenfield
               Home & Farm      Center                          University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee
               2100 S. Grove   Street                           Milwaukee, WI 53204
               E. Aurora, NY 14052
             56                          *Network:  Sea Grants bordering the Great    Lakes.

                                                                                   More Reading

                   Many of these listings were gleaned from an annotated bibliography prepared
                   by Susan Prinz as -part of the original Great Lakes Basin Commission
                   proposal for this project.

                   Dorr, John A. Jr. and Eschman, Donald 1970. Geology of Michigan. Ann
                          Arbor: University of Michigan Press. Standard reference to geology of
                          Michigan.
                   Environment   Canada 1975. Canada/Ontario Great Lakes Share Damage
                          Survey: Technical Report. Includes methods and criteria of survey,
                          causes of erosion, magnitude of erosion (comparing different 'areas and
                          different techniques).

                                                                    ON
                          SF@,CRE P@RCY,                                          YA @1111<
                   Fisheries and Oceans   Canada/Ontario Ministry of Natural    Resources 1979.
                        Shore Property Hazards. Coping with the Coast Series. Available from
                        Marine Information Center, Bayfield Lab, Box 5050 Burlington Ontario.
                        A brochure for shore and property owners which includes a section on
                        shore processes, a list of potential hazard indicators and descriptions
                        of possible solutions. Also federal/provincial policy and programs.
                    Hanson, S. N.; Wallace, W.; and Chenoweth, R. 1978. Great Lakes         Shore
                          Erosion Protection: Structural Design Examples. Owen Ayres and
                          Associates for Wisconsin Coastal Management. A report focusing on
                          structural responses to shore erosion. Includes a general discussion of
                          structural methods, design drawings and process, and 2 number of site
                          examples in Wisconsin.
                    Michigan Sea Grant Program   1980. Shoreline Erosion: Questions and Answers.
                                                                                                 r
                          Ann Arbor, Michigan.    A question and answer format brochure fo
                          property owners which includes information on shore protection
                          structures, their effectiveness and relevant permits and laws. A
                          glossary and sources of further information.
                    Michigan Sea Grant 1980. Shore Erosion: What To     Do. Eight page brochure
                          with the basics of how wave attack erosion occurs, and devices for
                          preventing erosion from wave attack.
                    Strelchuk, D. L., ed. 1981. Canada/Ontario Great Lakes Shore Processes
                          and Protection. Toronto, Ontario: Ontario Ministry of Natural Resouces.
                          Public Information Centre, Whitney Block, Queens Park, Toronto.
                    Strelchuck, D. L., ed. 1981. Canada/Ontario Great Lakes Shore Management
                          Guide. Toronto, Ontario: Ontario Ministry Natural Resources. Public
                          Information Centre, Whitney Block, Queens Park, Toronto.

                                                                                                         LJ 57

                              U. S.   Army Corps of Engineers, North Central Division 1979. Help Yourself.
                                      A property owner's brochure which includes a map of generalized
                                      shore     types,     a    guide     for    selecting      shore     protection,        permit
                                      requirements, and the advantages and disadvantages of various
                                      solutions, primarily structural in orientation.

                              U.S. Army Corps of Engineers 1982.                        Low Cost Shore Protection. An
                                      overview of the various low cost shore protection devices tested in
                                      a nationwide demonstration project.

                              U. S.   Army Corps of Engineers 1982. Low Cost Shore Protection: A Guide
                                      for Property Owners. Detailed information to prepare the property
                                      owner to cope with shore erosion problems. Booklet covers the various
                                      protection devices and pros and cons of various systems. To obtain
                                      this publication, get the one above from any Corps of Engineers office
                                      and send in the postcard in the back.

                              U. S.   Army Corps of Engineers 1982. Low Cost Shore Protection: A Guide
                                      for Engineeers and Contractors. To obtain this publication, get the
                                      overview publication from any Corps of Engineers office and send in
                                      the postcard in the back.

                              U. S.   Army Corps of Engineers 1982. Low Cost Shore Protection: A Guide
                                      for Public Officials. To obtain this publication, get the overview
                                      publication from any Corps of Engineers office and send in the postcard
                                      in the back.

                                                                    BLUFF RETREAT

                              Berg, Richard C. and Collison, Charles 1976. Bluff Erosion, Recession Rates,
                                      and Volumetric Losses on the Lake Michigan-Shore in Illinois. Illinois
                                      Geological Survey, Environmental Geology Notes. Number 16. Study
                                      of erosion, recession rates and volume losses on bluffs of Illinois Lake
                                      Michigan Shore; specific data. General conclusions about contributing
                                      factors.

                              Conservation Foundation.               1980. Coastal Environmental Management:
                                      Guidelines for Conservation of Resources and Protection Against
                                      Storm Hazards. John Clark, Project Director. Washington, D.C. Chapter
                                      4 includes a brief discussion of slumping phenomena and three
                                      management policy recommendations: 1) alteration of bluff-top danger
                                      zones, 2) alteration of the slope, and 3) protection for the toes of
                                      bluffs. The report is available through the Government Printing Office.
                              DeYoung, Bruce and Brown, Larry 1979. Controlling Bluff Groundwater
                                      Along the Great Lakes. Six page fact sheet which explains the role
                                      of groundwater in bluff instability and gives examples of drainage
                                      systems to correct this problem. Available from New York Sea Grant
                                      'Extension Program, Fernow Hall, Cornell University, Ithaca, New-York
                                      14853. 150 each.

             58

                      Edil, Tuncer F3. and Vallejo, Luis E. 1976. Shoreline Erosion and Landslides
                            in the Great Lakes. University of Wisconsin Sea Grant Program.
                            Advisory Report No. 15. A study using              field  and   laboratory
                            investigations of six active bluffs to perform a stability analysis and
                            establish models of slope evolution.

                      Edil, Tuncer B. 1980. Control of Coastal Landslides. In Proceedings of the
                            International Symposium on Landslides, Vol. 3, New Delhi, India.
                            Describes the natural coa5tal landslidezi and possible methods of
                            control, primarily engineering solutions with only a brief mention of
                            non-structural alternatives.

                      Gray, Donald and Tainter, Suzanne, eds. 1982. Bluff Stumping: Proceedings
                            of a State-of-the-Art Assessment Workshop. Michigan Sea Grant report,
                            MICHU-SG-82-901.      Collection of papers, and recapitulation of
                            discussion at a state-of-the-art workshop held February, 1982.

                      Hadley, David W. 1976. Shoreline Erosion in Southeastern Wisconsin.
                            Wisconsin Geological and Natural History Survey. Special Report
                            Number 5. Includes a description of the geology of Wisconsin's Lake
                            Michigan shore, mechanisms of bluff slumping, and briefly discusses
                            possible solutions; indicates areas for research and the importance of
                            a good data base.

                      Illinois Coastal Zone Management Program 1979. Harmony With the Lake:
                            A Guide to Bluff Stabilization. [Division Of Water Resources, Illinois
                            Department of Transportation, Room 1010, Marina City Office
                            Building, 300 North State Street, Chicago, IL 60610. A pamphlet which
                            describes processes of erosion, identifies shore types on the Lake
                            Michigan shoreline of Illinois, and explains in practical detail a variety
                            of mitigation techniques.

                                                    C7RZEN ACTEON

                      Burke-Griffin, Barbara 1979. Racine County Coastwatch Program: Final
                            Report. County Planning and Zoning Department and Wisconsin Coastal
                            Management Program. A report on a volunteer/public involvement
                            program set up to monitor shore erosion. Primarily evaluates the
                            program's effectiveness and specific problems. For further help on
                            setting up a similar program, see Gabriel.

                      Gabriel, Stephen R. 1980. Implementing A Beachwatch and Sand Dune
                            Development Program: A Community Handbook. City of Ocean City,
                            N.J. Excellent handbook of "how-to" for community involvement in
                            monitoring and improving coastal hazard areas in New Jersey
                            dunes/beach environment.

                                                                                                                 59

                           Butler, Kent; DeGroot, Robert; Greenwood, Mark; and Thomas, David 1978.
                                 Feasibility of Compensation for Man-Induced Shore Erosion. Wisconsin
                                 Coastal Management Program. Part I - Summary report, including
                                 brief analysis of legal and administrative options for gaining erosion
                                 compensation (insurance, tax relief, legal actions), feasibility of
                                 relating human activities to erosion, and options for the individual
                                 and the state. Part II - Legal options including theory, standing and
                                 evidence requirements. Part III - Relation of human actions, such as
                                 lake   level   regulation,    shore protection structures,        upland     land
                                 management, and navigation, to erosion.

                           Fisheries and Oceans Canada/Ontario Ministry of Natural Resources 1978.
                                 Canada/Ontario Great Lakes 100-year Flood and Erosion Prone Area
                                 Maps. Public Information Center, Whitney Block, Queens Park, Toronto.
                           Fisheries and Oceans Canada/Ontario Ministry of Natural Resources 1978.
                                 A Guide for the Use of Canada/Ontario Great Lakes Flood and Erosion
                                 Prone Area Mapping. A discussion of Canada's hazard mapping project
                                 -_ includes its uses, development, definitions, and criteria for
                                 determining areas of risk.

                           Illinois Department of Transportation 1979. Lake Michigan Shoreline Erosion:
                                 A Report To State Officials. Briefly discusses the erosion problem in
                                 Illinois, and the development of the Lake Michigan Shore Erosion
                                 Protection Plan, and makes recommendations regarding planning
                                 principles, several specific sites, and future actions.

                           Michigan Department of Natural Resources 1979.              Great Lakes Shoreland
                                 Erosion. Division of Land Resource Programs.               A brochure which
                                 discusses Mich'igan's Shorelands Protection and Management Act as it
                                 applies to high risk erosion areas; includes discussion of some of the
                                 costs associated with erosion, methods for determining rate and extent
                                 of process, and restrictions and standards for new development on
                                 shore.

                           Pennsylvania Coastal Zone Management Program 1975. Shoreline Erosion
                                 and Flooding: Erie County, Pennsylvania. Department of Environmental
                                 Resources.     Extensive field study of erosion and flooding in Erie
                                 County, PA, which includes a very good discussion of contributory
                                 mechanisms.

                           Roden, Robert W. 1977. Some Non-structural Alternatives for the Reduction
                                 of Shore Damages. Wisconsin Coastal Zone Management Program,
                               .Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources.                 A fairly detailed
                                 description of non-structural responses to coastal hazards including
                                 warn ing/disclosure mechanisms, land use controls/zoning, delineation
                                 of a hazard zoning district, zoning administration, insurance, relocation
                                 of buidlings, and public acquisition of hazard areas.

            60

                     Schultz, Carol J. 1979. Erosion Hazard Areas:         An Option for Shore
                           Management. Wisconsin Geological and Natural History Survey,
                           University of Wisconsin Sea Grant Institute. A further development
                           of Wisconsin's Shore Erosion Plan which focuses on non-structural
                           approaches; includes good assessment of discussions of delineating
                           hazard areas and potential management strategies.

                     Sprinqman, Roger and Born, Steve 1979. Wisconsin's Shore Erosion Plan:
                           An Appraisal of Options and Strategies. Wisconsin's Coastal Zone
                           Management Plan. A policy plan which assesses structural and non-
                           structural options for reducing shore erosion damage in Wisconsin,
                           including discussion of present framework, possible policy responses
                           (regulation, financial, and technical assistance), and several valuable
                           appendices.

                     U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. Permit Program: A Guide for Applicants.
                           EP 1145-2-1

                     Yanggen, Douglas A. 1981. Regulations to Reduce Coastal Erosion Losses.
                           Wisconsin Coastal Zone Management Program, State Office of Planning
                           and Energy, GEF 11, 101 South Webster Street, Madison, WI 53702.
                           This report discusses the use of zoning and subdivision regulations to
                           adjust land use to erosion hazard, and legal factors that should be
                           considered in regulatory policies. Part 11 includes some erosion
                           provisions that can be included in zoning ordinances.

                                                                  _N

                     Gray, Donald H. and Leiser, Andrew T. 1981. Biotechnical Slope Protection
                           and Erosion. Van Nostrand Reinhold Co. 1981. A book describing the
                           combined use of vegetation and structures to deal with slope and
                           erosion problems.

                     Gray, Donald H.; Leiser, Andrew T.; and White, Charles A. January 1980.
                           Combined Vegetative-structural Slope Stabilization. Civil Engineering.
                           Brief descriptions of techniques for erosion control using both
                           Vegetative and structural components. Includes contour wattling,
                           staking of willow cuttings, and conventional plantings used in
                           conjunction with retaining structures.

                     Great Lakes Basin Commission* The Role of Vegetation in Shoreline
                           Management: A Guide for Great Lakes Shoreline Property Owners.
                           Ann Arbor, Michigan. Following a general discussion of coastal
                           problems and the role of vegetation, this brochure includes a checklist
                           for identifying particular shoreland problems, guidelines for shoreland
                           planning and design with vegetation, and a plant list.

                     Great Lakes Basin Commission joint with U.S. Department of Agriculture,
                           Soil Conservation Service* 1977. Proceedings of the Workshop on the
                           Role of Vegetation in the Stabilization of the Great Lakes Shoreline.
                           Ann Arbor, Michigan. A look at the roles vegetation plays in shoreland
                           Management.

                     *Basin Commision no longer in existence. Federal depository libraries may
                     have the reports.
                                                                                                            61

                Glossary

                           Angle of Repose - The angle that the bluff ma@es with the lal<e.

                           Beach - Zone of sand or gravel extending from the low water line to a
                           point landward where either the topography abruptly changes or permanent
                           vegetation first appears.

                           Bluff - High, steep bank at the water's edge. In common usage, a bank
                           composed primarily of soil. See CLIFF.

                           Boulders - Large stones with diameters over 10 inches.             Larger than
                           COBBLES.

                           Breakwater - Structure aligned parallel to shore, sometimes shore-connected,
                           that provides protecton from waves.

                  @i       Clay - Extremely fine-grained, cohesive soil with individual. particles less
                           than 0.002 millimeters in diameter.

                           Cliff - High, steep bank at the water's edge.        In common usage, a bank
                           composed primarily of rock. See BLUFF.

                           Cobbles - Rounded stones with diameters ranging from 3 to 10 inches.
                           Cobbles are intermediate between GRAVEL and BOULDERS.

                           Crest - Upper edge or limit of a bluff or shore protection device.

                           Cross Section - View of a structure or beach as if it were sliced by a
                           vertical plane.  The cross section should display structure, ground surface,
                           and underlying material.

                           Current - Flow of water in a given direction.

                           Cut and Fill - Method of reshaping the bluff contour by removing bluff
                           material from higher portion and adding it to lower region to change the
                           angle of repose.

                           Dune - Hill, bank, bluff, ridge, or mound of loose, wind-blown material,
                           usually sand.

                           Equilibrium - State of balance or equality of opposing forces.

                           Erosion - Wearing away Of land by action of natural forces.

                           Face - Front surface of the bluff which faces the lake.

                           Filter Cloth - Synthetic textile with openings for water to escape, but
                           which prevents passage Of Soil particles.

                           Glacial Till - Unstratified glacial drift consisting of unsorted clay, sand,
                           gravel, and boulders, intermingled.

              62

                     Gravel - Small, granules of rock with individual diameters ranging from 3
                     down to 0.18 inches. Gravels are intermediate between SAND and COBBLES.

                     Groin - Shore protection structure built perpendicular to shore to trap
                     sediment and retard shore erosion.

                     Groundwater - water within the pores between soil particles; usually, a
                     permanent groundwater table is evident; this is the source of water for
                     wells and springs; if Water percolating through the soil encounters barriers
                     before reaching the permanent groundwater table, a perched water table
                     May form.

                     International Great Lakes Datum QGLD) - Common reference datum for
                     the Great Lakes area based on Mean Water level in the St. Lawrence River
                     at Father Point, Quebec and established in 1955.

                     Landslide - any movement of soils down the bluff; major forms are
                     translational slides and SLUMPS; translational slides are generally shallow
                     and have a planar sliding surface.

                     Lens - a pocket of sand or silt in a less permeable layer of soil.

                     Littoral Material - Sediments moved in the LITTORAL ZONE by waves and
                     currents.   Also called littoral drift.

                     Littoral Transport - Movement of LITTORAL MATERIAL by waves and
                     currents.

                     Littoral Zone - Indefinite zone extending from the shoreline to just beyond
                     the breaker zone.

                     Low Water Datum (LWD) - The elevation of each of the Great Lakes to
                     which are referenced the depths shown on navigation charts and the
                     authorized depths of navigation projects.

                     Marsh - Area of soft, wet, or periodically inundated land, generally treeless,
                     and usually characterized by grasses and other low growth.

                     Nearshore - In beach terminology, an indefinite zone extending seaward
                     from the shoreline well beyond the breaker zone.

                     Perched Water Table - table of groundwater which forms when excess
                     groundwater collects in a soil layer more permeable than the layer below
                     it, but above the usual groundwater layer.

                     Permeable - Having openings large enough to permit free passage of
                     appreciable quantities of (1) sand, or (2) water.

                     Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC) - Plastic material (usually black) that forms a
                     resilient coating suitable for protecting metal from corrosion.

                                                                                                              63

                          Profile, Beach - Intersection of the ground surface with a vertical plane
                          that may extend from the top of the dune line to the seaward limit of
                          sand movement.

                          PVC - see POLYVINYL CHLORIDE.

                          Revetment - Facing of stone, concrete, etc., built to protect a scarp,
                          embankment, or shore structure against erosion by waves or currents.

                          Riprap - Layer, facing, or protective mound of stones randomly placed to
                          prevent erosion, scour, or sloughing of a structure or embankment; also,
                          the stones so used.

                          Rubble - (1) Loose, angular, waterworn stones along a beach. (2) Rough,
                          irregular fragments of broken rock or concrete.

                          Runoff - excess water from rain, lawn sprinkling, swimming pool splashes,
                          etc. which rather than soaking into the ground, instead runs off the slope.

                          Runup - The rush of water up a structure or beach on breaking of a wave.
                          Amount of runup is the vertical height above stillwater level that the rush
                          of water reaches.

                          Sand - Generally, coarse-grained soils having particle diamenters between
                          2 and 0.075 millimeters. Sands are intermediate between SILT and GRAVEL.

                          Scour - Removal of underwater material by waves or currents, especially
                          at the base or toe of a shore structure.

                          Seawall - Structure separating land and water areas primarily to prevent
                          erosion and other damage by wave action. Se also BULK-HEAD

                          Seepage - Water which leeks out the face of the bluff usually from a LENS
                          or PERCHED WATER TABLE

                          Shallow Water - Commonly, water of such a depth that surface waves are
                          noticeably affected by bottom topography.       It is customary to consider
                          Water of depths less than one-twentieth the surface wave-length as shallow
                          water.

                          Shear Strength - Ability of soil to resist forces trying to shear away pieces
                          of the bluff or detach individual particles.

                          Shore - Narrow strip of land in immediate contact with the sea, including
                          the one between high and low water lines.         A shore of unconsolidated
                          material is usually called a beach.

                          Shoreline - Intersection of  a specified plane of water with the shore or
                          beach (e.g., the high water shoreline would be the intersection of the plane
                          of mean high water with the shore or beach). Line delineating the shoreline
                          on National Ocean Survey nautical charts and surveys approximates the
                          mean high water line.

              64

                      Silt- Generally refers to fine-grained soils having particle diameters between
                      0.075 and 0.002 millimeters. Intermedi2te between CLAY and SAND.

                      Slope - Degree of inclination to the horizontal.      Usually expressed as a
                      ratio, such as 1:25 or I on 25, indicating I unit vertical rise in 25 units
                      of horizontal distance; or in degrees from horizontal.

                      Slump - Usually, a deepseated movement of a whole chunk of a bluff; its
                      soil moves down and rotates, leaving behind a concave depression.           The
                      bluff looks like a giant ice cream scoop was used to scoop out a portion of
                      the bluff, and then the scoop was dumped at the foot of the bluff.

                      Specifications - Detailed description of particulars, such as size of stone,
                      quality of materials, contractor performance, terms, and quality control.

                      Solifluction - Downslope flowing movement of water-saturated soil in a
                      previously frozen slope.

                      Stillwater Level - Elevation that the surface of the water would assume if
                      all wave action were absent.

                      Surface Water - Rain, snow melt, lawn sprinkling, and any other additions
                      of water to the soil surface.

                      Subsurface Water - Surface water after it has soaked into the ground, or
                      additions made to soil below the surface such as from a septic system
                      drain field.

                      Table Land - The top surface of the bluff; the sort of bluff land used for
                      building.

                      Toe - The base of the bluff where it meets the beach, or if there is no
                      beach, the lake.

                      Topography - Configuration of a surface, including relief, position of streams,
                      roads, buildings, etc.

                      Wave - Ridge, deformation, or undulation of the surface of a liquid.

                                                                                                               65

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                                   MICHIGAN SEA GRANT

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