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GROUNDWATER In The Coastal Plain of South Carolina BY: Stuart Greeter August 1975 GB 1025 .S6 G74 1975 CoastaL Zone Information NOV 1 1976 Center GROUNDWATER IN THE COASTAL PLAIN OF SOUTH CAROLINA Stuart Greeter August 1975 Introduction Groundwater is a necessary resource that is often overlooked or ignored until it's too late. That is, until problem occur that have to be cc)rrectE;d with more costly investments of public monies. These problem my include water shortages, inadequate water quality, or contamination of a pure aquifer. Consequently, it would be wise to plan for and manage the use of groundwater resources, which are renewable if utilized properly. Planning for these resources should include adequate data collection, evaluation of the data to determine present and potential problem, and recam-endations ,concerning future use of this resource. it is a generally accepted fact that most groundwater problems, in our State, occur in the immediate vicinity of the coast. Given that this area is likely to experience the most rapid growth, there is a reason for concern. Presently, some aquifers are suffering from too much draw down, in certain instances salt water intrusion is oc=ing and many people must drink watex that does not meet U.S. Department of Health drinking water standards. The purpose of this report is to collect and evaluate available informaticn to determine what problems presently exist, potential problem that are likely to occur, what information is lacking, what information is being collected, and recommendations on future actions. Section II is a summary of the geologic situation in the Coastal Plain of South Carolina. This must be understood by the reader, if the problems discussed in Section III are to be appreciated. Sections II and III are based on information that is presently available. Section IV reviews current and- proposed studies, i.e. the information that will be available in the future. TABLE OF CONTENTS I. INTRDDUCTION ......................................... 1 II. GBOLOGIC STRUCTURE AND MAJOR AQUIFEI@ SYSTEMS ....... 2 Groundwater flow ................................ . 9 How nuch groundwater? ........................... 13 Cost ............................................ 14 Recharge ........................................ 15 III. GPOUNDWATER PROBLEMS IN @THE COASTAL PLAIN ............ 16 Problem in the Beaufort Area .................... 16 The Grand Strand Area ........................... 20 The Charleston Area ............................. 23 IV. CURRENT AND PROPOSED STUDIES PERTINENT TO GROUNDWATER SYSTEMS .................................. 24 Past studies .................................... 24 Safe Drinking Water Act ......................... 24 South Carolina Dept-of Health and EnvironTmntal Control ...................................... 25 United States Geological Survey ................. 26 EPA 208 Program ................................. 28 Waccaraw Berkeley-Charleston-Dorchester Lowcountry State Laws ...................................... 29 V. WHAT INFORMATION IS NEEDED ........................... 32 VI. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS ...................... 33 Conclusions ..................................... 33 Recomendations ................................. 34 VII. SUHVVM ......................................... ..... 35 A 2 There seems to always be a need for more data, due to the fact that ground- water systems are rather nebulous entities. Section V will indicate perinent. information that does not presently exist. Finally, Section VI lists con- clusions that nay be deduced from this report and reccomendations that may serve as indications of future activities to pursue. II. Geologic Structure and Major Aquifer Systems Structure To understand the problems associated with grounciwater, one must first gain a general knowledge of the geologic structure of the Coastal Plain and the potential complexity of groundwater systems. The Coastal Plain is that area between the fall line and the coast line. The fall lines runs in a southwesterly@northeasterly direction through Columbia, at an elevation of approximately 400' to 500' above man sea level. Basenient rocks (igneous and metamorphic) outcrop northwest of the fall line. The Coastal Plain (scutheast of the fall line) is con-posed of a wedge of sedimentary rocks resting on basement rocks. The structure is similar to that of a layered @cake, only quite lopsided. The layers of sedimentary rocks thicken and dip to the southeast, as shown in the cross sections in figures 1 and 2. These layers continue.past the coastline and conpose at least part of thecontinental. shelf. Figure 3 is a stratigraphic section which shows all the sedimentary rocks present in the Coastal Plain. Now1here are all these formations present in one single column. In other words, when drilling in the Coastal Plain, one may not be certain which rock layers will be encountered, but the relative order in which they will be encountered is certain. This is because the formations represent deposits that occured at different times when the sea 17 K A.4 4 ri Z-% x j6" 3- -N@ A" toewrovil or cnoss-o"Ttemo in vise 40ASTA4. PL4111 AND VCLLS *Wo to 21 CROSS-SECTIOM ALONG LINE A-A! Figure 1A. Transverse cross-sections of the South Carolina coastal plain. From: Stock-and Siple Ground-TRater Records of South Carolina Miscellaneous Report f,0.5, 1969. COOSS-6947100 ALQ*4 L.1169 20-OP Horozontal 1" 6:-mil6s Vertical' 1", 400'. IP; a.. T a 9 N Ho#ozontal 1" = 6 miles Vertical lit= 400' j Figure 1-B Transverse cross-sections of the South Carolina coastal plain. From: stock and Siple, Ground-Water Records of South Carolina miscellaneous Report No. 5, 1969. Figure 2-A. Location of longi of the coastal plain r AP)ALACHIAN CATAWBA _,T, 4' C Mo. a'. d PEE DEE CENT L .4\ RAL MIDLANDS 7 4 UPPER SAVANNA 2 SANTEE- ldg.l-.Id 1\ [email protected]' 6 0-9.b.,g WACCAMAW 8 LoWER S 7 - SAVANNAH 5 N U. h. I., SOUTH CAROLINA 4 BERKELEY- REGIONAL COUNCILS rHARLESTON DORCHts OF GOVERNMENT 9 1. South CaroUm Appal.ch Ian C9,ftil of GM,,pn,,t, 2. UPPer Savannah Regional Planning and '),OWCO NTRY t. Nvelopn*omt Cque@cll 3. Catawba Regional Planning Council 4. Contral hildlands Regional Planning ComKil S. Low" Savorassh Regional Planning and Devoloponont Coumcll % S. Santee.Wftero* V*glonal Planning Council "77 I Pot Doo R#glo"l Planning " Devel"nynt Council a S. Wactsmaw mogiaml planning and Donlopment Council r J Regional Plarfilms Counglil 'M L"country Regional Planning Council CROSS -SECTION OF THE SOU *ROLINA COASTAL P .LAIN Horozontal Scale ch 32 miles 0, B_ei,ufart-----W terbor leasant Geor etown Horry C A cat-eke 500 Goo 1000 1500- LED Ile 2000. oo r@ACCVMS 4-3 2500. grar Figure 2-B. Epochs time strati units. Transtated from data in S.C. water Resources corrmission, Tidelanc K , -ii@ port, 1971, with liberal int reEi 3000. -3500J CROSS-SECTION OF THE SOUTOROLINA COASTAL PLAIN-. Horozontal Scale: ch 32 miles --w Georg j&Cq___jjorry Cc 0, r_t_ -terboro-'7-'__._-_Xt,_ Hc% "q @dvr 500 e-,, te /Vi Aw-Y Poe A 1000-1 a) 1@ 1500- eNk 2000- Q) 2500- K, Figure 2-C. Fbrwations lithologic Translated from data in S.C.. Water Re 3000. Convdssionj@ Tidelands- Report, 1971, liberal int6i7pretations. r Z@V'@ 3500J LN I iI , WA-1-k-K 5UFPLY Z I-D L r--U Vr-%JL.V%Jlq- U Alluvial fill and terrace deposits '11inor importance as aquifers, do.- Z SURFICIAL in stream valleys, consisting of tan mestic yields from thick sections ce r4 MATERIAL to gray sand, clay, silt and gravel; only. Water may be high in iron, L) 0 blanket deposits of coarse gravel sulfate. and nitate, generally soft. on higher terraces. The surficial material lies as a blanket upon 0 the underlying older Cenozonic strata of the coastal plain. The Z Z average thickness of the surficial W material is 10 to 15 feet and the U maximum thickness is on the order of 50 feet. Tan, red and purple sandy clay The Hawthorne, because of its low Z HAWTHORN interbedded lenses of gravel and permeability, is not considered,a FORMATION numerous classic dikes. The Haw- major aquifer. However@ it does thorn formation covers the high provide sufficient water for domes- interstream. areas of the inner- tic purposes and for limited indus. Coastal. Plain. trial use. lRed, brown, yellow and buff f ine Does not yield large quantities of BARNWELL f to coarse massive to cross bedded water readily to wells, partly be- FORMATION sand and sandy clay. Often con- cause of too small size of the san&- tains beds of mottled-gray to grains. Yields for domestic use I greenish-gray sandy clay and ;@ay be obtained from wells ;a ledges of ferruginous sandstone the Barnwell formation from local- that range. in thickness from I ifies where the sand is sufficiently inch to 3 feet. The Barnwell for- coarse and free from admixtures !nation is exposed in the uplands of silt and clay. 04 in most of Aiken & Barnwell Counties & form the area of re- charge for its subsurface equiva- lent - the Ocala Limestone. White limestone, fossitiferous, A major source of water in Beau- OCALA somewhat calcitized and crystal- fort and Jasper Counties. Yields- LIXIESTONE line. Found only in the subsurface of 500, to Z900 gpm are obtained in the southern portion of the from %veils penetrating the entire >4 coastal plain. principal aquifer. %Vater i's mod- (4 erately bard, lo%v- in iron and Z Water from the lower chloride. part of the aquifer may have rela- Itively high chloride. The 'McBean formation is the The beds of swid and limestone in T@IcBEAN shoreward equivalent of the Santee the tower part of the formation in FORMATION Limestone. This formation con- Aiken and Barnwell Counties are sists of yellow-brown to green fairly permeable and )ield moder- fine to coarse sand, inter-bedded ate to sizeable quantities of water with green, red, yellow and tan to industrial and municipal wells. 14 clay, sandy marl or limestone and @4 lenses of siliceous limestone. Crops out in Aiken, Barnwell, and I Northern Calhoun counties. A creamy-white @d Yields from this aquif to buff color er range SANTEE highly fossiliferous limestone. The from 50 to 500 gpm. The water is LIMESTONE limestone is usually soft but wea- moderately- hard, has a dissolved thered exposures may contain solids content normally between I ledges or lenses of recalcified and 150 and 250 mg/1 and a. pH of 7.t indurated rock. The Santee lime to 7.9. stone crops out in the central por- tion of the coastal plain. The Black Creek formation con- Yields from 8_1() inch gra,,d- PEE DEE sists primarily of fine to medium packed wells with Screens place& 0 AND phosphatic and glauconitic sands Opposite the sands in the Pee Den- W BLACK CREEK which may be locally interbedded and Black Creek- vary from 60 U FORMATIONS with gray and black clay. The Pee gpm to 900 gpnL Yields as higit Dee formations crop out in the as 1,70 Spra have been reported northeastern third of the coastal from wells in the Black Creek- for- U plain and underlie younger sedi- mation, but usually such quantities ments in the remainder. 'The for- are obtained downdip from the matiom dip south-southeast ap- outcrop area, where a thicket proximately 20-25 feet per mile. section of the unit is found. The confirmed thickness of these two formations is approximateLr 1400 feet near the coast. Cn 0 Tan, buff. and white cross bedded, A potential source of large quail- micaceous feldspathic. quartz sand tities of water in the coastal plain. U TUSCALOOSA and gravel interhedded with red, The permeability is relatively FOR11ATION brown. gray and purple impure high, and in several areas yiel-Is 0 clay and with-kaoliti- up to 3.400 gprn can be obtained U The Tuscaloosa formation is the from individual wells. The tran*_ < basal unit o4' the formations in the missibilitv of the Tmscaloosa for- L eoastal plain. The thicknes of the mation is apparently greatest in to 40 xniles`daZvnd formation ranges from a feather areas - i from U edge in the vicinity of the fall line the outcrop arm This incrfas, in to approximately 800 fcet in %veils transmissibility of the aquifer iiear the coast. The outcrop area downdip from the outcrop area forms a belt that is from 10 t-) 33 may be due to the increase in - 'aquifer thickness in that di tio miles wide and extends Northeast rec n ward acros-z South Carolina from rather than an increase in perme- Augusta. Georgia, to the North ability. Water is soft and low ki Carolina line. total solid,,, Figure 3: Stratigraphi-C section of all sedirrentary formations in the "coastal plain. From: , ;'S. C. Water Resources Conrnission and S. C. Society of Professional Engineers. The Prc)rc*-djn= of the water Well C;P_minA-r fnr 1972. 9 level, relative to the land, rose an d fell, i.e. transc fressed and regressed. This may have been a result of a rise and fall of the continental land nass, a eustatic rise and fall in sea level due to glaciation, or a combination of these two factors. Figure 4 is a map of the surface geology. This represents what we would see if all the unconsolidated overburden were stripped,off. This overburden may range frorn 0' to 150'. With the knowledge that all the sedimentary units dip to the southeast and the use of this map, me can be fairly certain of the formationsto be encountered and the sequence in which they will be encountered, for a certain location. This siuple picture can be greatly complicated by faulting or tectonic shifting of rock bodies. This iray be the case in the southern part of the coastline, in the vicinity of Beaufort County. Here, Siple indicates there I is a stratigraphic high or dome, which would alter the groundwater flcw. (Figure 5). He calls it the "Burton High". There are also indications of faulting.2 Thus, any generalizations made for this area could be false due to unknown alterations in rock structure. Groundwater flow Groundwater in the Coastal Plain moves from the Northwest to the Southeast. There are, of course, local variations, but it can generally be stated that groundwater will move at right angles to topographic contour lines. The reason for this is that topographic contours are usually synchronous with contours of equal groundwater level or head. Due to gravity, the groundwater will flow from topographic highs (hills),to topographis lows (rivers, swaffps, ocean). (Figure 6) IIhe water will flow easily through 1X - 21 3 Z@- I I-Ya IIZ\ -101V 17 N' @W 1-3- ."4 n a s w v. -tt- v-'t 3, --NI I; IA I.- Z-_' .. ... ..... IKI@ N.- N b "3 'A V , 4 ol "N M "N\ V-; N\\ %@\N N NK, A -7' 2 1-u I-TIJ 2 I.A L7 _7 0 v NOIIk'NVIdX3 qf'6T st *OR UT'4;aTTna IPUTToxeo LRnc)S UT SUOT4Pf:)T-4saAul -11 @ I . - --r,- -ri . oil Go" 10 00 ..0 0.00 A/ A L L E L Mend RJAft cc ta Charles GRilter p 0 111wo Fort mosAW& OAJ 'PA' Lobtco % 0 aIt too dqR n4 % 9)(PtANATIO)f S! HEIL. NA Jr A P E SOU140 1q, Souchat contow A ISO top 01 the @*Wt 16 por "rk cashed who* a"aim3te. Contour Wamas 50 toot. Datum Is me&* So& tanu j pli ch3rdviU* Igo Nul lco Scala, savartivall x E SE,% IR 0 10 10 20 Moneers Figure 5. Structure contour map of the Eocene to Miocene limestone surface of Southeastern South Carolina. From: Siple, Salt-Water Encroachnent of the Tertiary Limestones Along Coastal South Carolina, Bulletin No. 15, 1965. 'SUOTlunjTs uzATS iopun moTj aaIrm punoaq :9 9.tn2Tj, ioA ;J7 'A 1.)o A 1.@ I-OA,al vas 13 permeable layers (sand) and be ccntained by impern-eable layers (clay). In addition to the horizontal moven-ent, the groundwater may move vertically from one aquifer to another. The vertical movement is much slower than the lateral movement because it is retarded by layers of silt and clay which separate the aquifers. 3 It is even possible for me rock.forratim to have several zones, each containing water of different quality or quantity. Understandibly, this greatly complicates our ability to predict acceptible groundwater sources. In the coastal zone, thetwo major acquifer systems are the Black Creek Pee:Dee formations and the Eocene limestones (Ocala and Santee formations). (Figure 3) In the immediate vicinity of the coast the Tuscaloosa (or Middendorf) forrmtion tends to be salty, butfurther inland on the Coastal Plain, it is the highest producing aquifer in the State.4 The following section will give indications of the water quality in these aquifer systems in different areas. How much groundwater? Statistics seem to indicate that the majority of groundwater resources in South Carolina are untapped. "About 23.7 tillion gallons of water per year falls in the State from precipitation.' If only 10 percent of the annual precipitation is added to groundwater,.then the recharge is about 2.37 trillion gallons annually. Thus the estimated average use (1970) is only about 3.6 percent of the total recharge. The extent to which the draft on groundwater can be increased will depend largelyon whether a proper balance can be achieved locally between the rate of withdrawal from wells and rate of replenish-- 5 ment of groundwater by natural and/or artificial mans." 14 The problem of groundwater quality was not taken into account in the foregoing statistics. The question of how much usable groundwater exists cannot be answered at this time. The reasons for this are that the quality and quantity of water available in a given rock formation my differ at different locations. Also, the same rock formation may have more than one producing zone with disimilar water characteristics. One zone of very poor quality my make other adequate zones look poor. A well must be properly,tested and cased in order to tell for sure. We don't have enough of this type of information to estimate how much water of a satisfactory quality is available. Surely it is more than 3.6% of the total recharge.. In the coastal areaf the question of how much is mst inportant. Another factor to consider.is the rapidly increasing deirand for fresh water. In South Carolina the total use of water increased 100% 6 between 1960 and 1970, while the population increased by only 8.8%. This increase is largely a result of agricultural and industrial users.. The average person is responsible for the use of 180 gallons of water per day. Future den-and for water will, no doubt, rise. While 1he den-and is increasing, the quantity available reimins constant. Therefore, those who develop water managerrent policy must keep in mind that there are limits to the use of such a resource, if it is to remain a renewable resource. This is especially true when withdrawing ever increasing amunts frcm the same aquifer at the same location. Cost Published estimates indicate the average cost of surface water is ap proxi- mately thirteen center per 1,000 gallons, and the anticipated cost of groundwater, 15 7 in most instances, is less than five cents per thousand gallons. In the city of Georgetown, a surface water source costs about 20 per thousand gallons 8 while the groundwater source costs approximately 10@ per thousand gallons. Thus, it is fair to generaliz e that an adequate groundwater source will always be cheaper than a surface water source. This is an inportant factor to both industrial and domestic users. A domstic user will probably put up with the excess cost, but an indistrial user my be forced to locate elsewhere. it is therefore imperative that a determination be made as to whether or not adequate groundwater resources do exist in the coastal area of South Carolina. Most groundwater specialists feel that adequate resources do exist, if properly utilized and nanaged. However, one should be aware of future population projections for the coastal zone, when making this determination. Recharge The recharge areas for the major aquifers are where these rock formations outcrop, or are exposed to permeable overburden. The geologic map in Figure 4 shows this.. The recharge areas for the Tuscaloosa, Pee Dee-Black Creek and Santee aquifers have been shaded in. Actually, the actual recharge areas are much larger than shown. For instance, even though a realtavely inpermea- ble bed overlies an aquifer near the surface, som water will perculate through to recharge the aquifer. So, the recharge area-for the Tuscaloosa can be represented by a wide band running southwest-northeast across the State. The recharge area for the Santee.limestone can be represented by a wide curved band running east-west across the southern corner of the State. The band would include the outcrop of the Cooper Marl, even though it is relatively inperneable., Likewise, the Pee Dee-Black Creek recharge is much larger than that shown by shading. 16 There is sor-e disagreement about where the Santee formation leaves off and the Ocala formation begins. The Ocala formation is present in the Southern corner of the State, but probably pinches out somewhere between ]Beaufort and Edisto Island. The recharge area for this formation is, likewise the 9' southern corner of the State. The recharge for a large portion of the water. used in Savannah goes into the aquifer in Hampton and Jasper counties. Recharge areas for the major aquifers are large enough so that there is no danger of covering them with impermeable man-made surfaces. The quantity of Ited by aquifer transTLissivities, not size of recharge areas. groundwater is lim However, the possibility of polluting the aquifer through recharge of conta- minants from surface activities always exists. Present laws governing solid waste disposal sites, septic tank fields, and deep well injunction seem to be adequate protection against such a possibility. .III. Groundwater Problems in the Coastal Plain Problems in the Beaufort area: A report by McCollum and Counts (1964) indicates that the city'of Savannah obtains water from the Ocala formation (Upper Eocene) and the Lisbon formation (Middle Eocene). There is som disagreement among experts as to whether the Ocala and Santee formations are actually.seiparate entities. For the purposes of this report, it will be assumed that the Ocala formation overlies the Santee formation,with the separation being rather indistinct. Keep in mind that the Santee formation may be equivalent to the Lisbon formation in Georgia. 17 Within these shallow aquifer formations are five major water@yie lding zones, separated by rather impenneable layers. (See Appendix I) Before pumping began in 1880, the original groundwater flow was east toward Port Royal Sound. (see Appendix II) It is uncertain whether or not the lower Permeable zones extend into South Carolina. By 1939 the piezometric surface (height to which the groundwater rises above the aquifer) had decreased 60 or 80 feet. The piezometric surface shown in Appendix II indicates that by 1961, the water level in Savannah had dropped a total of 120 feet from the 10 original surface. The wells are still artesian. That is, the piezometric surface is still above.the aquifer. However, remembering that the groundwater flow is at right angles to the contour lines of the piezometric surface,one may observe that the groundwater flow in the Hilton Head Island area has exactly reversed. This reversal is a direct result of the pumping in Savannah. If maps of the piezomtric surface contours are compared from 1958 (Counts and Donsky 1963) and 1961 (McCollum and Counts 1964), the 10 and 20 foot contours on Hilton Head Island are in approximately the same position. The contours further inland continue to declineover time. This indicates that 11 ocean water is being recharged into the aquifer at Hilton Head Island. Originally being a freshwater discharge area, Port Royal Sound has become a salt water recharge area. The chloride content of the groundwater increases to the east and northeast of Savannah. Chlorides in the lower zones are thought to be from connate water (original interstitial water in the rock) which has not been flushed completely due to.low permeability. Chlorides in the upper zones are believed to come from salt;%Taterlintrusion in the Port Royal Sound area. Evidence pointing toward this conclusion is as follows: 18 1. In Port Royal Sound, the limestone aquifer is less than 100 feet below sea level. 2. Upon lowering the piezometric surface and reversing the ground-: water flow, the discharge area becomes a recharge area. 3. Many tidal waterways are deep enough to channel the limestone and provide access for the salt water. 4. The upper confining layer (Hawthorn.formation) is absent in some locations thus providing possible access for salt water. 5. Limestone resembling that of the upper aquifer has been dredged from the Beaufort,River-adjacent to Parris Island, thus providing access for salt water.12 .6. Groundwater analysis indicates the chloride content, of water 13 obtained from test wells on Hilton Head Island, to be increasing. Thusthe evidence denoting salt water intrusion in the Port Royal Sound area is almost uniquivocal. Estimates of the time required for salt water to reach Savannah, via the aquifer, range from 100 to 400 years. Brackish water in the lower producing zones is much closer to Savannah, but those zones are also less permeable. There is understandibly disagreement and uncertainty among experts about when salt water may reach Savannah. It is certain, however, that the shallow aquifer on Hilton Head Island will turn brackish long before that water reaches Savannah. Beaufort has already been forced to a surface water supply and Hilton Head Island my be next. This once renewable groundwater source is now being depleted, as saltwater intrusion will permanently alter the water quality. The fact that this is a shallow aquifer makes the problem more serious. Rural areas may be without a drinking water source, as they cannot afford to drill deep wells. There are possible solutions, or at least.deterrents, to the problem. In 1944, Wcirren estimated that 25 mgd could be pumped in Savannah without continual decline in the piezometric surface of the acquifer. Based on the information presented in Figure 7, McCollum and Counts estimate 40 mgd can be pumped without. continual decline in the piezometic surface. Present pumping in Constant volume pumping -C 70 UT Z ft A _J I %fhA m 0. 930 M WY 20 Go BRY 50- 25 .1;,. 40-- BRY1 150 30- 26 mile% sout1roest 20 CK@ 330 40 Ila - a miles SOU CHA 323 17rnil*s a 94 200 5 miles easr 44 CHA % I mile n A -4d -- L 1.,O-J mile east WIA Ic mi"s fig a" and d refer to( enter of pumping Ila- 2C Constant water:.level Figure 7. Constant water level at 40 ma) pumping. From: McCollum and Counts, "Relation of Salt-Water Encroachn-ent to the Major AqDAfer Zones Savannah Area, Georgia and South Carolina," Water Supply Paper.1613-D (1964). @@C A 3, _@c 14, 20 Savannah is approxiinately 70 ngdand 25 mgd is obtained from the Savannah River and treated. If half the required groundwater could be obtained from a well drilled 20 miles west of Savannah, the problem. might be solved. This would result in a rise in the T)iezometric surface at Savannah and an elongation of the cone of depression to the west. The piezon-etric surface at Hilton Head,Island is also likely to rise. The mvement of salt water would at least be retarded, and might be stopped. Another possible solution is to tap a deeper aquifer. This could be done at either Hilton Head Island or Savannah. The city of Savannah is presently drilling a deep well to test water quality in the deeper aquifers. The water quality in the deep aquifers at Hilton Head Island, are unknown, at thi's tine. Another solution may be for Savannah to expand their surface water treatment plant, or for Hilton Head Island to develop a water treataient plant. it is unlikely that the industrial users in Savannah.are willing or able to pay for a surface water source. It is also expensive to obtain a surface water source on an island surrounded by sea water. However, it might be economically feasible to treat water obtained from the shallow or :.deep aquifers on Hilton Head Island. The Grand Strand Area At the northern end of the South Carolina coast, the deep aquifers are much closer tothe surface and easier to reach. But, there are more problems with water quality. Flouride content may average around 4.0 ppm. This exceeds U.S. Departmnt of Health safe drinking water standards (figure 8). Children drinking high flouride water my,have mttled teeth as a result. When this happens, the teeth are,dis.colored, but no other 1-.Y-..,ITS ES TAEUSHEED ArXOR"' Nt'- _X9!NKN%'G WATERM PR CPO S@_:-) Sl-A U A RD S'_1 -qm Tou! Sol`di 5M,pr-rm Turb;di,.y 5 L U. CCE 0-2 Cjcr 15 c. U. Nitrwm Ta Pam - A-katimitv NO est*lirnits Nit-hu po - Tv No emL lirniu 0 em *rm-@ S '_ I @.Muav No esm liam Odor Hardn-n 'o- - 'm r, 'St. lim? . PESTICIOSS 7 1.0 so ;'I'M seft) . . Hydrocarbc.-m ---- I S 1 1. GO Aidrin ppm. -,!00 Hurd) 011M Ch!crdama cm __33 DOT 0-05 ppim Sodium N Iron 0.3 MaWrim, Ch!orideq 25C, 0-co T H* Endm? p- 6.5 - &5 pp:"'JcWpwbl*. HeptacMer iiacm P-10it"W"c - I ri.05 P.'3177' capper 1.0 ppirk - I Epo;cid-- CLOM, 41fM 5-0 opm Undarte 0-cas ppm -.7 Fhucric-_ CrY! tml led W - 1.0 ppm) Methox./chler 1-0 Pot2:siurm 'No'es'- p;:m Qnromiurn 0.05 pprn cc--nium CIO! pprn & Carbamamr. CL I Lead 0. 05 A -,nic 0.01 pp?" m 1.0 ppm Herb: d---- cya--62 0 2: vrn P .2.4-0 G'.G! ppm 2. 4. 5:-T SiNer G CS 2, 4. 5-TP iSizveml an_3 Figure 2: U. S.. Department, of Health diinking water standards 22 physical damage can be detected. Water from the Black Creek Pee Dee formations are high in flouride throughout the Grant Strand area. There is no economically feasible way to remove the flouride from the water. Near North Carolina, theseformatinos increase in chloride content. Presently, this poses no health problem. Iocally, high sulfur and/or, bicarbonate content may occur. The sulfur gives the water an odor and the bicarbonate makes it mre difficult to wash clothes. No health problem has been related to occurrences@of these contaminants in drinking water. As one moves inland,the quantity and quality of the water is this aquifer system increases. The Tuscaloosa is salty near the coast, but fresh further inland. It has not been determined whether the chlorides result.from sea water or unflushed connate water. The city of Georgetown has five wells near the Pee Dee River. 'A deep well was drilled when the others began to get salty. It has not been determined whether the chlorides are from sea water or unflushed connate water. Upon encountexing basement rock (igneous and retamorphic rocks) at a depth of 1,875 feet, the water frcm the well had between 1,200 and 1,800 ppm chlorides. At that point, the decision was made to develop a surface water source. If the chloride content i-n Georgetwon's wells is due to unflushed connate water, it is possible that the problem could be alleviated by proper well development and construction. First the well would have to be tested with a ftow meter to determine the location of the producing zones, and the quantities of groundwater available. At the same time, water samples from various levels in the well would have to be taken. Then a deterntination could be made as to whether or not there is an adequate fresh -vTater zone available. If so, the well could be properly cased 23 and screened to produce fresh water. It is impossible to know if fresh water zones exist in the well when water from all the producing zones is nAxed and the end result is the only thing that is measured. Presently the city of Georgetown services about 12% of the region's population (12,000 people) with surface water. Present use is about 2MGD while the treatrent plant capacity is 6 YLGD. The surface water source costs about 23 - 24@ per thousand gallons, while the groundwater source 14 costs approximately 9 10@ per thousand gallons. Consequently, the wells are used on week-ends.. The Charleston Area: The Black Creek Pee Dee formations have a high flouride content along the coast north of Charleston. Very near the coast the chloride content is high. For instance, wells at Sullivan's Island and Isle of Palms mix deeper high chloride water with the shallow fresh.water table to obtain enough potable drinking water. The shallow reserve does not. have enough quantity-to be used alone. This aquifer system is also salty south of Charleston., However, on Edisto Island the wells were properl-Y screened and cased and they now have at least one fresh water well. It should be noted that no direct health problems have been related to a chloride content of 500 600 ppm which occurs here. Again, the Tuscaloosa is salty near the coast and fresh further inland. At one time, Charleston utilized the Black Creek Pee Dee system as asource of drinking water. A surface water source was developed as a result of increased demand and sorre increase in chloride content. Again,it was never determined whether the chlorides were from connate water or sea water. 24 IV. Current and Proposed Studies 1@--rtinent to Groundwater Systems. Past Studies: Numerous studies that pertain. to groundwater in the CoastAl Plain have been done in the past. They generally pertain to a very limited area anda single rock formation. The studies are published in U.S.G.S. Bulletins and Professional Papers, Geologic Society of American reports, and others. Pertinent information from applicable reports has been incorporated into Section III and the cross section of the coast (Figure 2). Safe Drinking Water Act (PL 93-523): The Safe Drinking Water Act was enacted by Congress in December 1972 and signed by the President in December 1974. The Administrator of EPA has 90 days, after enactment, to publish primary drinking water standards. The standards have not yet been determined but will eventually be published in the Federal Register. Within 180 days, the Administrator shall promulgate regulations as he deems appropriate. The regulations shall take effect 18 months after their date of promulgation. Primary drinking water standards are those which refer to contaminants which my have an adverse effect on human health. The States have primary enforcement responsibility. If a state does not comply, the Administrator may bring civil action in a U.S. district court. The State my grant variances and exemptions to local water systems, based on reasons listed. in Section 1416. The Administrator will reivew all exemptions. The Administrator will also publish regulations for underground injection,,. to protect underground sources of drinking water. A state may issue injecti6n permits if Uie regulations are adopted. The regulations do not pertain to injection associated with the recovery of oil or gas-.;,. 25 Underground injuection.has been considered as a means of disposal-for nuclear wastes. However, the Nuclea Regulatory Commission has not yet determined an acceptible means of disposal. The Act authorizes 15, 25, and 35 million dollars for three conse- cutive years,1975-77. A fifteen mezber National Drinking Water Advisory Council will be appointed to advise the administrator (Section 1446). The administrator will consult with the Secretary of Agriculture and various states and conduct a survey of the quantity, quality, and availability of rural drinking water supplies. There are 1, 2, and 1 milliondollars authorized for these studies in the three respective yea s 1975-77. The South-Carolina Department of Health and Environmental Control plans to apply for funding under this Act.. South Carolina 22222@1@nt of Health and Envirorznental Control: An "Economic and Environmental Impact of land Disposal of Wastes in the Shallow Aquifers of the Lower Coastal Plain of South Carolina" proposal will be sLtmitted by DBEC to the Coastal Plains Regional Commission for funding of $233,529. The proposal is presently in draft form and w illbe submitted by the Hydrology and Quality Control Section of the Water Supply Division of the Office of Envirorffrental Quality Control. The project will take two years to complete, and drill 400 fifty foot average depth wells. The study area will be from the immediate coastline to 20 miles inland, 6 4,000 square mile area, or the coastal se gment of eight coun ties. The drilling locations will be chosen by t he@ geologist, based on previous information (soil surveys, geological studies), test wells; population centers, groundwater pollution sources, and.information 26 obtained from previous wells in this study. The study should supply the following information: .1) A compilation of published and unpublished reports on groundwater and geology in the-area 2) An inventory of potential pollution sources. .3) Groundwater samples will be analyzed for bacteriological and chemical conposition and the wells will be continually monitored. 4) Yield tests will be undertaken where water quality is high. 5) A map showing locations of potential solid waste and wastewater sites. It is significant to note considerable overlap between this proposal and the 208 planning guidelines. The 208 guidelines refer to establishing guidelines to protect ground and surface water quality through controls on the deposition of residual wastes and on land disposal of pollutants." Section 208(b)(2)(F--K);(2) The purposes of the Act include protection of groundwater quality and assurance of adequate.water supplies.@ The guidelines refer specifically to delineation of aquifer recharge areas and solid waste disposal sites. However, it is doubtful that the COG's have the technology and equipment that is required for such a detailed subsurface study as DHEC proposes. Hence, they should utilize the infor- mation obtained in DHEC's proposal, if it is funded. The only problern is that the,-DHEC's Program takes two years to complete. The 208 proaram 7MISt al.-:90 be completed in two years. United States Geological Survey: U.S.G.S., in conjunction with the South Carolina Water Resources Commission, is.-undertaking two "capacity use studies. One is for the Waccamaw region and the other is for the Lowcountry region. The Wacdamaw Study is near completion and the Lowcountry.study may take another three years to complete. U.S.G.S. will not release any of the data or information collected,until their studies are published. 27 The "capacity use" studies are primarily a result of our State's Groundwater Use Act of 1969. (R520,H1009). The Act indicates that the studies will contain the following results: 1) The number of persons using an aquifer and the object, extent and necessity of their respective withdrawals or uses;, 2) The nature and size of the aquifer; 3) The physical and chemical nature of any impairment of the aquifer., adversely affecting its availability or fitness for other water uses (including public use);, 4) The probable severity and duration of such impairment under forseeable conditions; 5) The injury to public health, safety or welfare whichresult if such impairment were not prevented or abated; 6) The kinds of businesses or activities to which the various uses are related; 7) The importance and necessity of the uses claired by permit applicants' (under this section), or of the water uses of the area (under section 5). and the extent of any injury or detriment caused or expected to be caused to other water uses (including public use); 8) Diversion from or reduction of flows in other water courses or aquifers; and 9) Any other relevant factors. However, Phil Johnson indicates that sore of these results will not be achieved. The lWaccarraw study is based on atotal of ten wells, with possibly one or two going down to basement rock. Twenty@five wells are planned for the Lowcountry region, but it is mre likely that only ten will be drilled. The Groun&.7ater Use Act requires permits from the Water Resources Comnission for consumptive uses of over lMGD, after a "capacity use" study has been conpleted. Granting of permits will, of course, be based on the study. The Water Resources Com*nission is represented on our Coastal Zone Council, hopefully poviding a check on groundwater factors when permit applications are considered. 28 It should be noted that the biggrest problem in the State, related to capacity-use, is in the Lowcountry region. The 7mrping in Savannah is resulting in drawdown as far away as Hilton Head Island and the city of Beaufort. The capacity use study for this area may not be completed for another three years. EPA 208 Program Waccamw: (Bob Barker) As of July-75, the Waccan-aw region is still in the consultant selection phase of their 208 program. A work program has not been developed yet. Mx. Barker indicates that aquifer recharge areas,. spray irrigation sites, and solid landfill sites will probably be mapped, but the details are not presently known. Berkeley-Charleston-Dorchester: (Ken Fujishiro). The B-C-D 208 program will address groundwater sources but this will not be their major concern. A water resources study for the entire region will be printed in-another rronth. Ken Fujishiro indicates that the results of this study show the only reliable source for good quality drinking water to be a surface water source. Presently, approximately 60% of the region's population rely on surface water. In twenty years, it is likely that only 10% of the population will rely,on ground water.15 This will be a rural population with shallow wells (less than 100'). Presently, Charleston gets water from the Edisto River, through an underground aquaduct. The tunnel is in good condition and is likely to last many years. Lake Moultrie is seen as the major future water source for the region. The Corp's potential rediversion. project will not affect this source.16 29 Offshore islands will1have to pay a higher price to have water piped out. The method of disposal will either be trea tn-ent with an ocean outfall or spray irrigation. Spary irrigation is a possibility for many other areas of the region, particularly forest lands and golf courses. Solid landfill recommndations will not be site specific, but indicate general areas that are suitable. Shredding and spreading may be a feasible alternative to the solid landfil method. Lowcountry: (Commander Charles Baggs) Conn-kander Baggs indicates that the Lowcountry region will have a definite and detailed work program by late October 1975. They will probably map aquifer recharge areas, solid land- fill sites, and spray irrigation areas. Commander Baggs feels that the Lowcountry Region will probably be going to a surface water supply, in the future because of the numerous problem encountered with groundwater in this region. At least, that will hold true for Beaufort County and the coastal portions of Jasper and Colleton Counties. Presently, the city of Beaufort, Port Royal, Parris Island,and parts of lady's Island are served by a surface water source.. This represents about 35% of the population in the Lowcountry region. State Laws 1. Proposed Water Well Contractors Licensing Act: This bill was introduced in '72 and '73 by the Departnent of Water Resources and then in '74. and 75 by DI-MC. Originally the bill would have been irplermrnted by the Water Resources Con-anission, now the commission of Health and Environmental 'Control. It seems that small drilling operaters are the major opposition to the billand as of January 1976 the bill has not passed. 30 The bill states that the Con-mission -has authority to issue., withold, deny, revoke or suspend licenses to drillers. A driller must have two years experience, pass a written or oral exam, and pay a fee ($25) to obtain a license. Thedriller is also required to supply the ConrLission with a well log and water quality informtion for each well. The informtion will be conpiled and open to the public. 2. Groundwater Use Act of '69: Upon request of a local government, the South Carolina Water Resources Conmission n-ay designate a "capacity use area". In a capacity use area, the Conmission has the authority to: 1) require water users to submit periodic reports on quantity and sources of water used; 2) regulate timing of withdrawals 3) regulate well depth, spacing controls, and pumping rates. Permits are required for groundwater withdrawal in excess of lMGD. In adopting rules.and regulations, the Commissicn shall consider: 1) the nunber of persons using an aquifer and the objec-E,- extent and necessity of their respective withdrawals or uses; 2) the nature and size of the aquifer- 3) the physical and chenLical nature of any in-pairnent of the aquifer, adversely affecting its availability or fitness of ather water uses (including public use); .4) the probable severity and duration of such imparlMnt under forseeable conditions; 5) the injury to public health, safety or welfare which result if such irrpairrrent were not prevented or abated; 6) the k-inds of businesses or activities to which the various uses are related; 7) the importance and necessity of the uses clained by permit applicants (under this section), or of the water uses of the area (under section 5) and the extent of any injury or detrinent caused or expected to be caused to other water uses (including public use); 31 8) diversion from or reduction of flows in other water courses or. aquifers; and 9) any other relevant factors. 3. The South Carolina Pollution Control Act created the South Carolina Pollution Control Authority. The Pollution Control Authority was absorbed by DHEC, but the rules and regulations promulgated.under the Act remain the same DHEC is presently the implementor of the following guidelines: a) South Carolina Landfill Regulation (PC-SW Regulation 1): Approved September 1971; as of July 1972, an. old or new solid waste system requires a permit from the State Board of Health. All open dumps areprohibited. Site location requirements consider potential water pollution, surrounding environment, cover material, and future develoFment of the area. Site design requirements include a rap, a plot plan with cross sections, soil borings, leachate containment, observation testwells (when necessary), and geologic and hydrologic information to a depth of 10 feet below proposed excavations or lowest site elevation.@ b) South Carolina Industrial Solid Waste Disposal Site Regulation (Regulation PC-STq-2) Approved and Effective March 1972. As of July 1972 all new or old systems for disposal of industrial solid waste shall require a pern-Lit from the South Carolina Department of Health and Environmental Control Discharge of organic or inorganic solid matter into waters of the State is prohibited. The pen-nit application shall include a map and plot plan. The disposal facility shall be designed by asoil scientist, geologist or engineer. c) South Carolina Guidelines for Waste Disposal Permits (SPCA SWG -2). February 1973. This is the guideline on the minimum. submission requirements. for a permit to dispose of inert, nonburnable, nontoxic wastes by earth burial in a manner such that environmental pollution does not result. 32 V. What Information is Needed 1. one important component of information that is lacking-is a good indication of the rock structure in the coastal plain. The cross section in Figure 2 was translated from published reports and is inadequate because. of lack of detail and adequate number of controls, i.e.-validity of information. U.S.G.S. (Columbia Office) should be prompted to release this type of information as soon as possible. This is especially true for the Lowcountry region where the rock structure nay be very complex. 2. A determination of how much usable groundwater exists in the coastal zone is needed. This can be accomplished by plotting the producing zones on the cross:lsection referred to in the previous paragraph. Well tests must be run to determine the quality and quantity available from each zone. We know that the total quantity available exceeds demand, but water quality is a limiting factor here. We also know that water quality generally deteriorates nearest the coastline. U.S. G.S. is presently collecting this information and it is the author's recommendation that the data be made available to the public as soon as possible. An indication of the availability of drinking water on sea islands is most important. 3. A reliable population projection for the coastal zone is needed. The projection should not only indicate how much growth, but the type of growth that will occur, i.e., industrial, residential, recreational, etc. Then the future demand for potable water can be determined. If the demand is high, it may be wise to develop a surface water source. The EPA-208 program should supply the type of information required here. The Charleston-Berkeley-Dorchester region will probably rely heavily on a surface water source, while the Waccamaw and Lowcountry regions are yet undecided. 33 4. Some type of water well monitoring system would be helpful. All new and old wells should be monitored as to water level and water quality. Any permanent drawdown (taking seasonal fluctuations into account) will indicate overpumping. A change in water quality may indicate salt water intrusion, which is also a result of overpumping. When this occurs, a new well can be drilled further away and usually both wells can be pumped without any permanent damage to the aquifer. A monitoring system would give us an indication of the capacity of a particular aquifer, thus safeguarding its perpetual usefulness. VI. Conclusions and Recommendations Conclusions 1. In the short-run, surface water is always more expensive than ground- water. 2. Some people will always be using groundwater (rural- homes, industry? agriculture), so these resources should be preserved. 3. The recharge areas for the major deep aquifers in the Coastal Plain are so large that it is extremely unlikely they could ever be covered up to the point of hindering recharge. However, these aquifers could be polluted from improper waste disposal in the recharge areas. 4. The quantity of water in the mjor producing aquifers is limited by the formations' transmissivities, not the recharge areas. 5. Most groundwater problems are in the i:mmediate vicinity of the coast. 6. Growth is likely to occur most rapidly in the immediate vicinity of the coast. 7. The largest quantities of groundwater are available from the deeper aquifers in the Coastal Plain. 8. Groundwater problems could result in large economic loss, i.e. the Grand Strand area, Hilton Head Island, etc. 34 Recommendations 1. A study should be undertaken to determine the maximum capacity of groundwater system underlying sea islands along the coast. Development and the need for new public water supplies will occur most rapidly there. Priority should be given to the Beaufort area because the problems seem to be most serious there. Secondly, the Grand Strand and thirdly the Charleston area, because the B-C-D region is most likely to rely on a surface water source. The.affect of septic waste systems on sea islands should also be considered. 2. An intensive study should be undertaken at Hilton Head Island to determine how long it will take for their primary waterlsource, the Ocala fm. (Santee fm.).to become salty. other possible drinking water sources should be evaluated. These include the Black Creek Pee Dee formations, the Tuscaloosa formation, and the surface water source at Parris Island. Possible methods to improve the situation should also be considered. 3. The proposed Well Driller's licensing Act should be endorsed as it would: serve to supply much needed groundwater information; aid in insuring proper well designand construction; and protect.-public invest- ments and existing pure aquifers. 4. Reliable projections.of future water requirements for the coastal area must be developed. These should be based on population and industrial growth projections. The decision to rely on groundwater or develop a surface water source will be facilitated once future water needs are determined. 35 5. A study should be undertaken to determine the capacity of various fresh water producing aquifers in the coastal zone. This will also facilitate the groundwater surface water decision. Again, priority should be given to the Beaufort area. 6. A survey to determine potential contamination of shallow amifers. in the coastal zone is advised. Shallow aquifers are likely to be of great importance to the growth, econcruc developuent, and quality of life here. There will always be those who rely on shallow water supplies in rural areas, suburban areas, recreation areas and sea islands. VII. SumTaxy Most groundwater problem occur in the imnediate vicinity of the coast where the highest demand for groundwater is likely to occur. The three urban centers along the coast (Charleston, Georg .,etown, Beaufort) are already utilizing a surface water source. Areas ium-ediately adjacent to these urban centers are served by a surface water source. There will alwavs be rural comiunities that must depend on groundwater. These comn-inities can usually utilize a shallow well even though the largest quantities are available from deeper aquifers. Problems of drawdown, salt water intrusion, or septic contamination.are most likely to occur in the shallow aquifers. This is especially,true for offshore islands which are likely the first areas to be developed. Presently, the rost serious,.' problem seems to be salt water intrusion occurringin the Beaufor-t area. Information on the water qua:@ity-iK--Ehe deeper aquifers is needed here. The other@major problem is that of water quality in the Waccamaw region. Hopefully, the U.S.G.S. study will supply enough information so a solution can be proposed. A third area where water 36 problerrs are very likely to occur in the inuediate future, is the sea islands. Information on the shallow and deep aquifers is needed. Costs of piping out a water source should be estinuted, but they are likely to be prohibitive. The n-iost perplexing problem seents to be; should a surface water source.be enphasized or should we continue to take our chances with groundwater? Additional geologic and hydrologic information, along with reliable growth projections, is needed to make this determination. Large users may be forced to a surface source while smallusers may find ground- water adequate. The U.S.G.S. studies and the 208 studies should aid in answering this question. Footnotes lGeorge E. Siple, Salt Water Encroachment of the Tertiary Lirrestone Along Coastal South Carolina (International Symposium of,Dubrovnik, 1965), p. 4441. 2Conversation with Don Duncan, S. C. Departmnt of Health and Environmental Control, Columbia, South Carolina, July 1975. 3Donald A. Duncan, "Ground Water Resources of South Carolina" Proceedings of the Water Well Seminar for Professional Engineers (February 1972), pp. 16-25. 41bid., P. 20. 5 Ibid., pp. 20-21. 6 Ibid., p. 21. 7 Ibid. 8 Conversation with George Hewitt, Georgetown Waterworks, Georgetown, South Carolina, July 1975. 9Conversation with Alan Zupan, Geology Division, State Development Board, Columbia, South Carolina, July 1975. @10M. J. McCollum and H. B. Counts, "Relation of Salt Water Encroachment to the Major Aquifer Zones Savannah Area, Georgia and South Carolina," Water-Supply Paper 1613-D (1964). Ibid., p. D16. 12 Conversation with Alan Zupan, Geology Division, State DevelopTent Board, Columbia, South Carolina, July 1975. 13Unpublished test well records obtained from the U.S.G.S. office in.,@tlanta, July 1975. 14 Conversation with George Hewitt, Georgetown Waterworks, Georgetown, South Carolina, August 1975. 15 conversation with Ken Fujishiro, Berkel(a@v-Charleston-Dorchester Council of Governments, Charleston, South Carolina, August 1975. 16 ibid. Bibliography Boggs, Commander Charles. Lowcountry Regional Planning Council, South Carolina. Personal communication, August 1975. Barker, Bob. Waccamaw Regional Planning Council, South Carolina. Personal communication, August 1975. Counts, H. B. and Ellis Donsky. "Salt water encroachment, geology, and groundwater resources of the Savannah area, Georgia and South Carolina" U.S.G.S. Water Supply Paper 1611 (1963). Duncan, Donald A. South Carolina Department of Helath and Environmental Control, Columbia. Personal communication, periodically. Fujishiro, Ken. Berkeley-Charleston-Dorchester Council Of Governments, South Carolina. Personal communication, August 1975. Georgia Department of Natural Resources. The Value and Vulnerability of Coastal Resources, Background Papers for Review and Discussion. Atlanta, Georgia: Resource Planning Section, DNR, (1975). pp. 137-170. Gill, Harold. United States Geological Survey, Atlanta. Personal communication, August 1975. Glowacz, Michael E. South Carolia Department of Health and Environmental Control, Columbia. Personal communication, periodically. Hewitt, George. Georgetown Waterworks, South Carolina. Personal communication, July 1975. McCollum, M. J. and H. B. Counts. "Relation of Salt-Water Encroachment to the Major Aquifer Zones Savannah Area, Georgia and South Carolina." Geological survey Water-Supply Paper 1613-D (1964). Odum, Ole. United States Geological Survey, Savannah. Personal communication, August 1975. Siple, G. E. Progress Report on Ground Water Investigations in South Carolina, Bulletin No. 15 Columbia: Reserach Planning and Development Board and U.S.G.S., Department of the Interior, (1946). -Salt Water Encroachment of the Tertiary Limestones Along Coastal South Carolina. International Symposium of Dubrovnik, 1965. Spigner, B. C. South Carolian Water Resources Commission, Columbia. Personal communication, January 1976. South Carolina Water Resources Commission. South Carolina Tidelands Report Colunbia: South Carolina Water Resources Commission, 1971. South Carolina Water Resources Commission and South Carolina Society of Professional Engineers. The Proceedings of the Water Well Seminar for Professional Engineers. Columbia, South Carolina: 1972. Stock, G. W. and G. E. Siple. Ground Water Records of South Carolina, Miscellaneous Report No. 5 South Carolina State Development Board and United States Geological Survey, (1969). United States Geological Survey, U. S. Department of the Interior Water Resources Data for South Carolina. Columbia- Water Resources Divison, U.S.G.S., (1975). Zupan, Alan. Geology Division, State Development Board, Columbia, South Carolina. Personal Communication, August 1975. - .- -. , ---.. @- -:@ .I. @.. . --I. I@ 1, ..., -- 11 I @.-: @, I I-.. .--- -- [email protected] I -...--- - .@ -- -- --w - .....t@ @ ..,.-.-' - - -, @ ,:@ X@-@ @1. ., , ,.-@:@,@..1. II@ :I -.@-. @....- I...,. -@-- ,, .---,*,'.. @ .. .,,@. .:,- , --@ ..I..-.@ 1@ -e- I It'.. III-I. ..I., I@-@, @. - -: "-.@@-, _@1- , i- ,, @ --'@,: .,..-@ --,@... -.... ..--- , -, I . .-.11.I-- .1.II.I I. .. @@I..I.-I. ..I ..--,I-....I...-.@ . .I....@:- .. .-;, , - ..:,-@.:[email protected]@, .1 I .@@@--..- ."....-':@,.I@I.. [email protected] ...I@@II..@..... [email protected]. , - -,1-. ".. ......1..II...II@@ I . I-.@. .. ..-I-:-: -.,.;. ". -. ,. .I-I.. 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