Nature tourism managing for the environment

[From the U.S. Government Printing Office, www.gpo.gov]

Nature ourl

Alfa n aor I a f o r 7 ir o Ti t n

Edited bY Tenisie 4,"helan

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1991

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NATURE TOURISM

Managing for the Environment

EDITED By TENSIE WHELAN

NOV 25 1996

Foreword by Peter A. A. Berle,
President
National Audubon Society

Property of CSC Library
us Department of Commerce
N0AA coastal Services Center Library

2234 south Hobson Avenue

Charleston, sC 29405-2413

ISLAND PRESS
Washington, D.C. Covelo, California

C 1991 Island Press

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced in'
any form or by any means without permission in writing from
the publisher: Island Press, Suite 300, 1718 Connecticut Avenue
NW, Washington, D.C. 20009.
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Nature tourism : managing for the environment / edited by Ten-
sie Whelan : foreword by Peter A. A. Berle.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 1-55963-037-X (cloth).-ISBN 1-55963-036-1 (paper)
1. Tourist trade-Environmental aspects. 1. Whelan, Tensie.
G155.AIN39 1991
338.4'791-dc 91-2646
CIP

Printed on recycled, acid-free paper

Manufactured in the United States of America

10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

This book is dedicated to Johan Ashuvud,
whose vision sustained me throughout its
production, and Eric Wright, whose willing-
ness to help made it possible for me to com-
plete the book only two months after my
deadline. I also dedicate the book to my
daughter Lora-Faye, and hope that in twenty
years she will still be able to visit the unique
and wonderful places ecotourists visit today.
_T`W

CONTENTS

Foreword, Peter A. A. Berle xi

Part I A Visit to Key Destinations
Chapter 1 Ecotourism and Its Role in Sustainable
Development 3
Tensie Whelan
Chapter 2 The Old Man of Nature Tourism:
Kenya 23
Perez Olindo
Chapter 3 Private Reserves, Parks, and Ecotourism
in Costa Rica 39
Yanina Rovinski
Chapter 4 Tourism in Greater Yellowstone:
Maximizing the Good, Minimizing the
Bad, Eliminating the Ugly 58
Dennis Glick
Chapter 5 Ecotourism on Family Farms and
Ranches in the American West 75
Bill Bryan

Part 13 The Nuts and Bolts of Successful
Nature Tourism
Chapter 6 The Economics of Nature Tourism:
Determining If It Pays 89
Paul B. Sher?nan and John A. Dixon

x CONTENTS
Chapter 7 Local Participation in Ecotourism
Projects 132
Susan R Drake
Chapter 8 Marketing Ecotourism: Attracting the
Elusive Ecotourist 164
Richard Ryel and Tom Grasse
Chapter 9 Making Ecotourism Sustainable:
Recommendations for Planning,
Development, and Management 187
Elizabeth Boo
Chapter 10 Global Solutions: An Ecotourism
Society 200
Megan Epler Wood

About the Editor 207
About the Contributors 209
Index 211

Foreword

M
y family and I have long been outdoor enthusiasts. We
backpack, cross-country ski, canoe, fish, and climb
mountains large and small. We have never thought of our-
selves as "ecotourists ,' but in retrospect, we are. We have
traveled to some magnificent natural areas. Hopefully some
of the dollars spent in the process have contributed to pre-
serve these places, either directly, or through supporting lo-
cal communities. As competition for open spaces and
natural resources intensifies, ecotourism can provide the
economic rationale for preserving rather than destroying na-
ture's bounty.
This book, Nature Tourism: Managing for the Environment,
takes a tough and much-needed look at ecotourism-its
promise and its pitfalls. Editor Tensie Whelan has brought
together experts from around the world to make thoughtful
and well-researched contributions to the debate. Part One,
on ecotourism destinations, provides a clear and fascinating
introduction to the pros and cons of the industry. The reader
learns about government planning gone awry, ill-educated
tourists destroying the very resource they have come to visit,
and the fury of local inhabitants. who have not benefited
from the tourist visits..But we also learn about the quiet
beauty of a sunny Costa Rican destination, the major contri-
bution ecotourism has made to Kenya's economy, and the
new hope for ranchers struggling to survive in the Rocky
Mountain states.

Xii FOREWORD
Part Two, a framework for developing environmentally
beneficial ecotourism, will be extremely helpful for students
of the phenomenon, environmental organizations, the eco-
tourism industry, host governments, and local citizens. It
provides understandable guidelines on how to undertake a
cost-benefit analysis of a potential tourism site; invaluable
insight into how to market an ecotourism destination; and
useful suggestions on how to ensure local participation in a
project, among other fine chapters.
And for the reader who wants to take this in at a glance,
Tensie Whelan's overview provides a unique and carefully
researched introduction to ecotourism-what it is, what it
could be, and how to improve it.
The National Audubon Society was one of the first provid-
ers of ecotourism travel in the United States. As early as
1940, we were running trips in Florida, Texas, and Virginia.
Today, our tours to the tropics, the North and South Pole,
and unique ecosystems in the United States attract thou-
sands of Audubon members and other ecotourists. Partici-
pation in these trips provides travelers with a renewed
respect and appreciation for nature. I have often seen Audu-
bon ecotourists come home and ask what they can do to help
the places they have visited. "How can I ensure that habitat
and its wildlife will be here for my children and the children
of others across the world?" they ask.
At Audubon, ecotourism is part of a way of life. Our eco-
tourism principles, outlined in Chapter 1, ensure that both
our outfitters and our tourists develop the potential of eco-
tourism, while avoiding its pitfalls. Other organizations
have begun to do the same. I hope that this book, and others
like it, will help make environmentally sensitive ecotourism
a way of life for us all, sooner rather than later. We haven't
much time. Peter A. A. Berle, President
National Audubon Society

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CHAPTER 1

Ecotourism and Its Role in
Sustainable Development

TENSIE WHELAN

1
became fascinated with the potential of ecotourism while
working as a journalist in Central America. I was in the
region to write about sustainable development and its role
in the conservation of the region's unique and beautiful nat-
ural resources. Over and over again, I saw small chunks of
the environment being saved by people who had an eco-
nomic interest in doing so, whether it was villagers saving
rain forest habitat in order to raise iguanas for sale, or pri-
vate individuals preserving and maintaining virgin rain for-
est as an attraction for tourists.
There are intense economic pressures on the people of
Central America and elsewhere, including the developed
world, to overexploit their natural resources. Many coun-
tries have established protected areas to guard against this.
However, when the onlyway to obtain a meal is to mine the
resources of a protected area, the protected area is going to
lose. If we are to save any of our precious environment, we
must provide people with alternatives to destruction.

4 A VISIT To KEY DESTINATIONS
Ecotourism, done well, can be a sustainable and relatively
simple alternati 've. It promises employment and income to
local communities and needed foreign exchange to national
governments, while allowing the continued existence of the
natural resource base. In fact, it cannot survive unless the
resource on which it is based is protected. It can empower
local communities, giving them a sense of pride in their nat-
ural resources and control over their communities' develop-
ment. It can educate travelers about the importance of the
ecosystems they visit and actively involve them in conser-
vation efforts. In sum, it has the potential to maximize eco-
nomic benefits and minimize environmental costs.
Its potential is not always realized, however, and it can
destroy both the environment and local communities. My
goal in this book is to assess ecotourism's role in the sustain-
able development of natural areas and to answer the ques-
tion: How can ecotourism be planned so that it is both
ecologically sensitive and economically productive? Toward
that end, I have divided this book into two parts: the first
examines several case studies to see what has worked and
what hasn't; the second section provides more technical in-
formation on how to do ecotourism "right."

TOURISM IS BIG BUSINESS

According to the World Tourism Organization (WTO, a UN
affiliate), tourism is the second largest industry in the world,
comprising'7 percent of the world trade in goods and ser-
vices, and producing $195 billion annually in domestic and
international receipts. That was 390 million international
tourists in 1988 (up 20 million from 1987), creating 74 mil-
lion jobs in tourism (up from 65 million). In developing
countries, tourism comprises one-third of their trade in
goods and services. WTO projects that tourism will become
the world's largest industry by the year 2000 (WTO 1989).
WTO also found that adventure travel (which includes eco-
tourism in the WTO definition) enjoyed almost 10 percent of

Ecotourism and Its Role in Sustainable Develop m'ent 5
the market in 1989 and is increasing at the rate of 30 percent
a year (Kallen 1990).
In the United States, the U.S. Department of Commerce
estimates that by the year 2000, international tourism reve-
nues will reach $30 billion (Edgell 1987). While no formal
studies have been done, tour operators say that ecotourism
makes up a significant portion of the total.
Conversely, the editor of the U.S .-based Speciality Travel In-
dex estimates that special-interest travel by U.S. citizens to
sites outside the United States comprises 3 to 5 percent of
the total, and that ecotourism is responsible for up to half of
that figure.
The developing world currently is the recipient of some
$55 billion in tourism receipts (Westlake 1989), and a good
portion of those expenditures is related to ecotourism.
Kenya earns $350 million in tourism receipts annually, for
example, almost entirely due to wildlife tourism. In Costa
Rica, where 60 percent of visitors are interested in visiting
the national parks system (Boo 1990), tourism-related for-
eign exchange came to $138 million in 1986, and all the
signs point to a sizable increase since then. Ecuador, and
more specifically the Galdpagos Islands, brought $180 mil-
lion in foreign exchange in 1986, again mostly for ecotour-
ism (Healy 1988).

WHO IS THE INTREPID ECOTOURIST?

Most ecotourists are from Europe, North America, and Ja-
pan, as they have more money and more leisure time than
many of their counterparts in developing countries. The av-
erage U.S. ecotourist is a man or woman familiar with the
outdoors, a professional or retired, between thirty-one and
fifty years of age, who most likely has had previous experi-
ence traveling abroad. One-third of all ecotourists are re-
ported by tour operators to be repeat customers (Ingram and
Durst 1987)!
These ecotourists are relatively wealthy; a survey of U.S.
travelers to Ecuador found that approximately 25 percent of

6 A VISIT To KEY DESTINATIONS
FiLyure 1.1 Sarlska Tiger Resen,'e @zearJalpw@ bidia.

the group earned over $90,000 a year in family income, and
that another 27 percent earned between $30,000 and $60,000
(Wilson 1987). Another study showed that ecotourists are
likely to spend more money than other tourists, at least in
Latin America, where people who cited national parks as
their main reason for entering the country spent over $ 1,000
more in two weeks than did other tourists (Boo 1990).
The most popular activities for ecotourists are trekking/
hikina, bird watching, nature photography, wildlife safaris,
camping, mountain climbing, fishing, river rafting/canoe-
i
7!,kavaking, and botanical study. Nepal, Kenva, Tanzania,
ng
China, Mexico, Costa Rica, and Puerto Rico are the most
popular destinations (Ingram and Durst 1987).
Ecotourism. is popular also in the United States; in 1989,
there were 265 million recreational visits (both domestic
and international) to the national parks system alone

Ecotourism and Its Role in Sustainable Development 7
(deCourcy Hinds 1990). Wyoming estimates total expendi-
tures related to the consumptive and nonconsumptive use of
its unique wildlife resource at nearly $1 billion annually
(Kruckenberg 1988).
Whv has ecotourism become so popular? No comprehen-
sive s-tudies have been undertaken, but speculation is rife.
Many ecotourists come from urban or suburban settings;
they may feel the need to "get back in touch with nature."
others may feel bored with their nine-to-five routine, and
wish for the challenge and excitement to be found in an un-
tamed environment. The popular media bring sights and
sounds of exotic locales into everyone's living rooms, subtly
promoting natural areas, while the recent publicity sur-
rounding the loss of ecotourism sites due to deforestation
and other factors may provide people with an incentive to
see them before it's too late. Others may travel because they
have already developed an interest in birding or river rafting
in their own countries, and wish to see how it's done else-
where.

ECOTOURISM: WHAT WORKS,
WHAT DOESN'T

it is clear that ecotourism has the financial potential to pro-
vide a viable economic alternative to the exploitation of the
environment. The following is one example of an ecotourism
project that has lived up to its promise.
In Costa Rica, a unique, locally based ecotourism. project
called "Rara Avis" has been highly successful in saving
threatened rain forest, making money, getting the locals in-
volved, and educating visitors.
Rara Avis is a private reserve perched high in the moun-
tains and bordering the national park, Braulio Carrillo. Vis-
itors are brought by jeep from the capital of San Jos6 to the
closest village to the site, Horquetas. They are driven by vil-
lagers to a small local "soda," where they stop and have
lunch. They park in the dirt yard of the program manager.

8 A VISIT To KEY DESTINATIONS
Over lunch, they discover that he is a former Costa Rican
forest service employee who now believes that it is impor-
tant to keep the rain forest standing. Several locals stop by
and chat with the tourists while they are waiting for the
jeeps to be loaded with supplies-virtually all the food for
the trip is bought in the village of Horquetas. Once the jeeps
are loaded, they make their way up the mountain until they
come to a crude but comfortable bunkhouse (formerly a
prison barracks!), where local Costa Ricans welcome them
with a home-cooked dinner by lamplight.
Rara Avis has involved the local community in every as-
pect of its tours. In fact, ecotourism has now become the
third most important source of income for the inhabitants of
Horquetas. -Not surprisingly, all are favorably disposed to-
ward the project.
In the case of Rara Avis, ecotourism. was used as a tech-
nique to help save the rain forest right from the beginning.
However, in some cases, ecotourism can be developed after a
protected area has been created, if problems with local com-
munities require that economic alternatives to the exploita-
tion of the protected areas be created.
In India, "Project Tiger," a governmental plan to save the
tiger by creating national parks around its habitat, is threat-
ened by the lack of local support. Here, planners neglected
to involve the members of the community, to provide them
with incentives for conservation, or even to suggest alterna-
tives for fuelwood and grazing grounds. Consequently, some
55,000 cattle currently reside within the buffer zone of Ran-
thambhor National Park, one of the key protected areas in
the plan, often wandering into the core area, and competing
for fodder with the tiger's natural prey. People continue to
gather fuelwood from the forest.
The Antaeus Group, a nonprofit educational and research
institute, sees ecotourism as a way out of this problem. It
plans to bring tourists into the Ranthambhor and involve
them in local conservation efforts. The accommodations and
food for these travelers will be generated locally, and the An-
taeus Group will also make direct donations to community
development projects with each expedition.

Ecotourism and Its Role in Sustainable Development 9
This is the role ecotourism c ould play, but more often it
fails to attain its potential.

PROBLEMS OF LOCAL PARTICIPATION

one of the most egregious shortcomings of most ecotourism
projects is that the local people are not given any role in the
planning process or implementation and are forced off lands
that were traditionally theirs to use. Not surprisingly, they
become resentful of the "rich tourists" who supplant them,
but, more important, economic needs make it difficult for
them not to overexploit the resources of the protected area.
Firewood, meat, agricultural land, sale of exotic wildlife-
these means of subsistence have been removed, often with
no viable alternative. And a high population rate means that
they have an increasing number of mouths to feed.
In Costa Rica, the planning associated with the country's
spectacular parks system took place on a national, not a lo-
cal, level. People were moved off their lands and told they
would be compensated for the loss. Many have not yet been
paid. Occasionally, they were discouraged from entering the
parks at all, and in many cases, important sources of income
were suddenly no longer available. Not surprisingly, many
Costa Ricans living near the national parks are often respon-
sible for slash-and-burn, gold mining, and a host of other
activities within park boundaries. In recent years, govern-
ment agencies and conservation organizations have begun to
turn toward a more localized approach, with an emphasis
on sustainable development as a solution.
Another problem is that income generated by tourism is
very likely to almost completely bypass the local communi-
ties. In Nepal, for example, where local commu *nities pro-
vide shelter and hospitality to trekkers, only $0.20 of the $3
spent daily by the trekker stays in the villages (Puntenney
1990).
Foreign tour operators are a large part of the problem in
most countries. Very often, they bring in their own supplies
and staff and hire few natives to assist on their trips. A sur-

10 A VISIT To KEY DESTINATIONS
vey of thirty-two U.S.-based operators (41 percent of all U.S.
ecotour operators) found that while twenty used local guides
and interpreters, only eight employed focal managers or
tour operators, six used local cooks, and eight used local
drivers (Ingram and Durst 1987). And though twenty report
they use local guides, it is likely that most are brought in
from the larger cities and are not from the small communi-
ties where the tour takes place. The same survey found that
while 40 percent of U.S. ecotour operators use rural and vil-
lage accommodations, 21 percent use luxury hotels, 33 per-
cent use other hotels, and 27 percent camp out (operators
use more than one type of accommodation).
The national economy of the host country is likely to do
substantially better than the local economy; one study found
that at least 50 percent of tourist expenditures in developing
countries are likely to stay in the country (English 1986).
However, it is unusual to find those receipts (e.g., tourism
taxes) channeled back to local communities or even to the
management of the protected areas that generated the in-
come.

FUNDS FOR PROTECTED AREA'
MANAGEMENT

There are roughly 1,000 national parks in the world today,
mostly in the developed countries. Fewer than half of the
developing countries contain national parks. While most
countries do have some protected areas-there are 7,000
protected areas around the globe-the protection is often
only on paper, due to both a lack of funds and local support.
Yet the success of ecotourism. is dependent on the continued
existence of these protected areas.
Over and over again, we find parks in crisis because very
few funds are being dedicated to their management and pro-
tection. Often countries focus their attention on purchasing
lands, but then fail to follow up with adequate funds for in-
frastructure and management. This is true in Costa Rica,

Ecotourism and Its Role in Sustainable Development I I
where spending for parks (excluding acquisition) has re-
mained at the same level for ten years; in Kenya, where until
recently only $7 million of the $300 million generated by
parks was returned to them; and in the United States, where
park rangers have to supplement their salaries with food
stamps, and parks such as the Adirondack National Park
have become battlegrounds for developers. These economic
problems are sometimes compounded by the fact that parks
in developing countries charge woefully inadequate entry
fees to foreign visitors, who can afford to pay a great deal
more than the locals.
Private reserves also have emphasized acquisition at the
expense of management. The privately owned Monteverde
Cloud Forest Reserve in Costa Rica, for example, has
mounted a highly successful campaign to raise funds for
land acquisition. However, while the land can support the
number of current visitors, the current infrastructure can
not. In response, the reserve is currently conducting a feasi-
bility study on developing a visitor's center and new trails.

CARRYING CAPACITIES

Ironically, the survival of protected areas may be threatened
by the very thing that otherwise protects them-tourism. All
Frotected areas have limited ecological and aesthetic carry-
ing capacities. The ecological carrying capacity is reached
when the number of visitors and characteristics of visitor
use start to affect the wildlife and degrade the ecosystem
(e.g., disrupting mating habits and eroding soil). The aes-
thetic carrying capacity is reached when tourists encounter
so many other tourists, or see the impacts of other visitors
(e.g., lack of watchable wildlife, litter, erosion, deforesta-
tion), that their enjoyment of the site is marred.
A survey of visitors *to the Spanish Peaks Primitive Area in
the United States, for example, found that if the number of
trail encounters were to increase from three to four, people
would be less willing to pay, but enough would continue to
come so that the payoff in terms of increased revenues would

12 A VISIT To KEY DESTINATIONS
more than offset the loss. However, when the number of ex-
pected trail encounters increases to five, the willingness to
pay becomes so low that the aggregate drops off sharply and
the area begins to lose money (Lindberg 1990).
While establishing the ecological capacity for a protected
area seems essential, very few areas in the developing and
developed worlds alike have identified carrying capacities.
Nor have they determined how to avoid exceeding those car-
rying capacities.
In some areas, such as Antarctica, this is because no one
agency or organization is responsible for monitoring or
managing the environmental impacts of visitation. The
Bahia Paraiso, a supply ship carrying tourists to the Antarc-
tic, crashed upon uncharted rocks in 1989, leaking 200,000
gallons of diesel fuel, which killed thousands of seabirds and
marine mammals and disrupted migration patterns. The
ship was outside charted waters because the tourists had
wanted to try a different route. Tourist ships also dump gar-
bage directly into the ocean, and tourists wander into deli-
cate areas, removing "souvenirs" and disrupting ecosystems.
This occurs at least in part because there is no one respon-
sible for establishing or enforcing guidelines against envi-
ronmentally destructive behavior.
The rapid increase in the number of ecotourists has over-
loaded fragile areas. Nepal has seen the number of its tour-
ists increase fivefold, from 45,000 in 1970 to 223,000 in 1986.
Over the same period, the number of ecotourists (trekkers,
mostly) almost tripled, from 12,600 to 33,600. This has re-
sulted in the emergence virtually overnight of more than 200
mountain lodges and the clearing of large areas in order to
supply fuelwood for lodges and trekkers. The visitor use of
fuelwood for cooking, hot showers, and campfires is extrav-
agant-a typical two-month climbing expedition may use as
much as 8,000 kg of fuelwood, while a traditional hearth
bums 5,000 kg in one year (Puntenney 1990).
In the United States, many of the more accessible national
and state parks are overwhelmed during the peak summer
months. In Minnesota, where problems resemble those of
other states, visits to the state's sixty-four parks increased

Ecotourism and Its Role in Sustainable Development 13
from 6 million to 10 Million in three years. Ten of the parks
are subject to continual overcrowding. Increased visitation
to parks nationwide has resulted in more roads, more.park-
ing lots, and more concessions built in the protected areas,
frequently decreasing the aesthetic value of the park.
often, park managers, conservationists, and governments
determine to solve their carrying capacity problems by em-
phasizing quality rather than quantity. In other words, they
target fewer people who can pay more. This may make sense
from an environmental point of view, but it has elitist impli-
cations. In Rwanda, for example, visitors pay $170 a day to
see Dian Fossey's gorillas in their mountain reserve. In order
to keep the reserve accessible to Rwandans, the fee charged
to locals is minimal. However, the reserve is no longer acces-
sible to many foreign tourists. If this trend means that eco-
tourism becomes an industry only for the rich, then average
citizens will not be able to learn about other environments
and wildlife and will be less inclined to fund or support pro-
tection efforts.

NATIONAL AND INTERNATIONAL
ENVIRONMENTAL PRESSURES

Environmental problems in protected areas are not only
caused by tourism or local population pressures. The Adi-
rondack National Park in the United States is suffering from
acid rain produced thousands of miles away, for example.
Water diversion from the Everglades has severely disrupted
that system. The soil released by deforestation of Caribbean
isles is carried by rivers into the ocean, where it kills marine
life in underwater parks, and the chemical pollution in East
European rivers runs through refuges, killing plant and
aquatic life.
These issues are outside the scope of this book. Neverthe-
less, it is important to remember that the impact of ecotour-
ism and even local use of resources may be much less
harmful than these other environmental impacts in the long

14 A VISIT To KEY DESTINATIONS
term, and ecotourism planners must take them into account
as well.

CONFLICTING MANAGEMENT
OBJECTIVES

Protected areas supporting ecotourism often are managed
by a number of agencies with conflicting goals and objec-
tives. Nearly thirty agencies manage some aspect of the
Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem, for example, which makes
it virtually impossible to develop a coherent management or
ecotourism policy for the area. In other cases, some agencies
have a mandate to exploit the land, as in the Tongass Na-
tional Forest in Alaska, where the single-minded, and uneco-
nomic, pursuit of timber is causing severe problems for a
growing ecotourism industry. In Costa Rica, agencies often
have conflicting needs for natural areas, ranging from devel-
oping hydroelectricity to logging.
Conflicting goals and needs are not only the province of
governmental agencies. Government, conservationists, local
communities, tour operators, and development agencies all
need to resolve their differences and work together if eco-
tourism really is to be sustainable. This needs to occur on
both a national and an international level.
Governments ought to develop national ecotourism.
boards composed of representatives from every related in-
dustry and concern. These boards would be responsible for
weighing different alternatives, based on all pertinent infor-
mation, rather than focusing on the specific factors that con-
cern a particular party. They would be given a mandate by
the government to develop economically and environmen-
tally sustainable ecotourism.
Some of the constraints of ecotourism are due to the fact
that it is an international activity. Many tourists are from
other countries, as are eco"tour operators and major carriers.
All would benefit from an international forum for discus-
sion. In addition, many countries do not have the resources

Ecotourism and Its Role in Sustainable Development 15
they need to manage the development of ecotourism wisely.
Access to an international body that provides needed tech-
nicat and financial assistance, as well as access to informa-
tion and others experiencing similar concerns, would be
invaluable. However, no international organization focusing
specifically on ecotourism currently exists.

THE ECOTOURIST AS ACTIVIST

The ecotourist will be a key player in the success or failure
of ecotourism. In Monteverde, the nesting of quetzals occa-
sionally is disrupted by tourists who rap on their nests and
then stand poised with a video camera to capture their
flight. In Yellowstone, visitors feed the bears, encouraging
them to accost people for food and making them extremely
dangerous. In the Caribbean, tourists buy jewelry made
from black coral and other rare reef marine life. In Bot-
swana, tourists treat natives with a rude curiosity, not
asking for permission to enter their villages and take photo-
graphs. Trekkers in Nepal and elsewhere leave behind the
litter from the food and other items they have carried in.
Ecotour operators must instill a conservation ethic for en-
vironmentally sensitive travel in their clients if they are to
continue bringing visitors to fragile sites. The National Au-
dubon Society, which conducts ecotourism tours in many
countries, has developed a travel ethic that must be adhered
to by all its tour operators. The basic guidelines are as fol-
lows:

1. Wildlife and their habitats must not be disturbed.
2. Audubon tourism to natural areas will be sustainable.
3. Waste disposal must have neither environmental nor
aesthetic impacts.
4. The experience a tourist gains in traveling with Audu-
bon must enrich his or her appreciation of nature, con-
servation, and the environment.
5. Audubon tours must strengthen the conservation effort
and enhance the natural integrity of places visited.

16 A VISIT To KEY DESTINATIONS
6. Traffic in products that threaten wildlife and plant pop-
ulations must not occur.
7. The sensibilities of other cultures must be respected.

Audubon tour operators are required to sign a contract stat-
ing that they agree to abide by these strictures. Audubon
passengers receive a copy of the guidelines and are asked by
questionnaire at the end of the trip if the tour operator fol-
lowed the ethic. So far, Audubon has not received negative
feedback.
The ecotourist can do more than learn from the experi-
ence. He or she can get involved. Some tour operators are
running tours to areas that have suffered from overuse;
clients help clean up the mess left behind by previous visi-
tors and work to restore endangered habitats. Some organi-
zations such as Earthwatch involve tourists in "citizen
scientist" activities: counting turtle eggs on the beaches of
Costa Rica, for example. On returning home, quite a few
tourists become involved with such issues as tropical de-
forestation and illegal traffic in endangered species.
Ecotour operators and conservation organizations both in
the destination country and in the home country need to
work harder to get the ecotourist actively involved in sus-
tainable development. Ecotourists represent a potential
army of recruits with free time and money to spend on sus-
tainable development efforts.

THE ECOTOURISM DEBATE:
WHERE DO WE GO FROM HERE?

The types of issues covered in this chapter are just beginning
to be discussed seriously by academics, development assis-
tance agencies, conservation organizations, and government
planners. This book differs from previous studies in that it
analyzes each of the major components that make ecotour-
ism successful or unsuccessful and provides guidelines on
how to make ecotourism work. The first part of the book, "A

Ecotourism and Its Role in Sustainable Development 17
Visit to Key Destinations," provides a description and anal-
vsis of the ecotourism destinations- Kenya, Costa Rica,'and
the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem in the United States.
Here we see what has worked and what hasn't, as described
by experts in each country.
The second part, "The Nuts and Bolts of Successful Nature
Tourism," is more technical in nature; it covers each of the
major components of ecotourism-planning an ecotourism
development strategy, performing an economic analysis of
the alternatives, developing local participation, preparing a
marketing strategy-and presents new ideas about how eco-
tourism can be supported internationally.
Following are brief summaries of each of the chapters.
The former director of the Kenya Wildlife Department,
Perez Olindo, takes us through the history of ecotourisrn in
Kenya-how huntingp which had been the first form of tour-
ism in Kenya, was banned in 1978, due to the severe decline
of Kenyan wildlife. The tourism infrastructure that had de-
veloped to service the hunters was without any tourists.
Ingeniously, Kenyans reached out to a new audience-eco-
tourists-who would come to Kenya to shoot with their
cameras. Within a few years, ecotourism was a booming
business, in part due to a major marketing effort on the part
of the government. However, problems emerged. The mis-
management of the relationship of ecotourism to the locals
precipitated unnecessary conflict. A lack of funding for parks
management, as well as inadequate information about car-
rying capacities, is threatening the long-term viability of the
parks. Fortunately, the Kenyan government has taken steps
to improve the management of the parks and is trying to get
the locals involved. International cooperation on ivory has
led to a marked decline in the number of elephants slaugh-
tered illegally, while direct payments to local communities
have also decreased local poaching.
Yanina Rovinski, a Costa Rican writer specializing in en-
vironment and development issues and a consultant on eco-
tourism, documents how science-based tourism-in which
scientists came to Costa Rica to study tropical biology, bot-
any, and wildlife-developed into more broad-based eco-

18 A VISIT To KEY DESTINATIONS
tourism. Both are rooted in Costa Rica's extensive system of
protected areas. In the early days of the parks, locals were
not included in planning, nor were they allowed to use the
natural resources of the parks. However, in recent years, the
emphasis has shifted to stress more local involvement, with
particular emphasis on ecotourism. Ecotourism is neverthe-
less hampered by the fact that the National Parks Service
lacks funds for building infrastructure and management.
And the government tourism authority refuses to put money
into promoting Costa Rica as a ecotourism destination, pre-
ferring instead to focus on beach tourism and large-scale re-
sort schemes.
In the United States, the oldest park in the world, Yellow-
stone, is under attack by neighboring development schemes
and poorly managed ecotourism. Dennis Glick, a wildland
planner and analyst with the Greater Yellowstone Coalition,
describes the history of the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem
and the problems it currently faces. He shows that ecotour-
ism is making a strong contribution to the economies of the
host states and local communities. However, it is being de-
veloped helter-skelter, without the benefit of a master plan,
often resulting in negative social and environmental im-
pacts.
Bill Bryan describes an exciting new form of ecotourism
that is developing in the Yellowstone area-ranch and farm
hospitality operations. Working family farms and ranches,
facing severe economic problems, have begun to supplement
their income with tourist dollars. They offer accommoda-
tions and the opportunity to experience the "great outdoors"
to urban dwellers. In the states of Wyoming, Montana, and
Idaho, these types of endeavors are popping up every day-
in 1985, there were five in operation; today there are more
than seventy.
Paul Sherman and John Dixon, both environmental econ-
omists, explain how to analyze a potential ecotourism proj-
ect from two angles: finiancial and social. Ecotourism needs
to be looked at as a business and as a type of resource use
that helps ensure other, long-term social goals. The net fi-

Ecotourism and Its Role in Sustainable Development 19
nancial and social benefits of ecotourism must be better
than the next best alternative if the land under dispute is to
be used to its best capacity. Sherman and Dixon then explain
how to undertake a cost-benefit analysis for this particular
tvpe of project, as well as how to maximize both financial
and social benefits. They present several case studies that
show how the process works in real life.
Susan Drake, United Nations officer (and formerly local
wetlands coordinator) at the U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency, defines different levels of local participation and re-
views various approaches in the United States and abroad.
Her nine-phase local participation plan is based on lessons
learned from these other approaches and requires extensive
consultation with local communities during planning, im-
plementation, and follow-up in order to address their needs
and concerns.
Richard Ryel, president of the largest American ecotour
organization, International Expeditions, and his colleague,
Tom Grasse, discuss what they have learned about market-
ing ecotourism during ten years in the business. First, they
say, a tour operator must develop a conservation ethic on
which the organization should base its activities. Other
steps include determining a site's marketability, defining the
market,, identifying marketing vehicles, crafting the mes-
sage, getting it out, and developing a mailing list. They em-
phasize that the ecotourism operator must always consider
issues broader than pure monetary concerns, though, of
course, making a profit is essential.
Liz Boo, ecotourism program officer at World Wildlife
Fund-U.S., puts the problems associated with ecotourism
into perspective with her recommendations on how to plan
a nature tourism development strategy. She stresses the
need for a national ecotourism board, which will help over-
see and coordinate the planning of the various government
agencies, park managers, tour operators, local conservation
organizations, and '*International conservation and develop-
ment organizations. She provides specific recommendations
for action by each of these sectors in three phases: planning,

20 A VISIT To KEY DESTINATIONS
development, and management. The emphasis is on maxi-
mizing the economic benefits of ecotourism, while minimiz-
ing negative environmental and social impacts.
Megan Wood, president of Ecoventures (an environmental
communications company), contends that ecotourism will
need an international forum if it is to succeed. She suggests
the creation of an Ecotourism Society, to be composed of
specialists in many different fields: tour operators and
guides, government representatives, protected area manag-
ers, representatives from local communities, conservation-
ists, and development agencies. The society would offer its
members the opportunity to develop a global initiative for
the sustainable development of ecotourism areas. It would
focus on issues such as obtaining technical and financial as-
sistance from the development community, developing en-
vironmental principles and guidelines, ensuring local.
participation, and providing a clearinghouse for informa-
tion on ecotourism.

CONCLUSION

Ecotourism will not on its own save disappearing ecosys-
tems. Nor will it alone liberate rural communities from the
shackles of poverty. In fact, unless it is planned to minimize
environmental damage, maximize economic outcomes, and
involve the local communities, then it may actually harm
the environment and local peoples.
But when ecotourism is planned as a tool for sustainable
development, one that includes the type of safeguards dis-
cussed in this book, it can indeed make an important contri-
bution to the welfare of both the visited and the visitors and
every aspect of the environment. The challenge is to make
sure that ecotourism doesn't occur willy-nilly wherever
there is a demand for, it, but that governments, tour opera-
tors, conservation groups, and local communities, among
others, plan together where ecotourism sites should be es-
tablished and how they should be managed. Then, fifty years
from now, it will be possible for our grandchildren to enjoy

Ecotourism and Its Role in Sustainable Development 21
the natural beauty and benefits associated with natural
areas near their homes and farther afi.eld.

REFERENCES

Boo, Elizabeth. 1990. Ecotourism: The Potentials and Pitfalls.
Washington, D.C.: World Wildlife Fund-U.S.
deCourcy Hinds, M. 1990. "Anxious Armies of Vacationers
Are Demanding More from Nature." New York Times (July
8).
Edgell, D. 1987. International Tourism Prospects 1987-2000.
Washington, D.C.: U.S. Dept. of Commerce.
English, P 1986. The Great Escape? An Examination of North-
South Tourism. Ottawa, Canada: The North-South Insti-
tute.
Healy, R. G. 1988. Economic Consideration in Nature-
Oriented Tourism: The Case of Tropical Forest Tourism. FPEI
Working Paper, no. 39. Research Triangle Park, North Car-
olina: Forest Private Enterprise Initiative.
Ingram, C. D. and P B. Durst. 1987. Nature-Oriented Travel to
Developing Countries. FPEI Working Paper, no. 28. Re-
search Triangle Park, North Carolina: Forestry Private En-
terprise Initiative.
Kallen, C. 1990. "Ecotourism: The Light at the End of the
Terminal." E Magazine (July/August).
Kruckenberg, L. 1988. "Wyoming's Wildlife-Worth the
Watching: Management in Transition." In Transactions of
the Fifty-third North American Wildlife and Natural Re-
sources Conference. Reprint.
Lindberg, K. 1990. "Tourism as a Conservation Tool." Work-
ing paper. Washington, D.C.: World Resources Institute.
Puntenney, P J. 1990. "Defining Solutions: The Annapurna
Experience." Cultural Survival Monthly 14, no. 2.
Westlake, M. 1989. "Riding the Tourist Boom." South (Au-
gust).
Wilson, M. 1987. Nature-Oriented Tourism in Ecuador. Assess-

22 A VISIT To KEY DESTINATIONS
ment of Industry Structure and Development Needs. Forestrv
Private Enterprise Initiative Working Paper No. 20. Ra-
leigh, N.C.: North Carolina State UniversitV.
World Tourism Organization (WTO). 1989. Policy and Activ-
ities for Tourism and the Environment. Madrid: WTO.

CHAPTER 2

The Old Man of Nature Tourism:
Kenya

PEREZ OLINDO

l
n the flatlands of Kenya's Amboseli Game Reserve, a lion-
essIlies resting. Every few minutes, a minivan or bus drives
up and the crowd of tourists inside snap their camera shut-
ters. The animal may remain for twohours. In that time,
twenty-five vehicles might stop and stare.
Kenya is the world's foremost ecotourist attraction. Some
650 thousand people visit Kenya's parks and protected areas
each year, spending about $350 million. Wildlife is the mag-
net. One estimate holds that an elephant is worth about
$14,375 a year, or $900,000 over the course of its life, in tour-
ist expenditures.
This financial success hides a multitude of problems, how-
ever. Kenya's colonial legacy, combined with a low level of
local community support for the parks, inadequate funding
and enforcement powers for the ministry in charge of the
parks, and poaching for ivory, has led to a dramatic decline
in the elephant population, as well as the degradation of
public lands. In response, the Kenyan government has

24 A VISIT To KEY DESTINATIONS
launched recently a series of innovative techniques and pro-
grams it hopes will ensure ecotourism's continued success.

HISTORY OF ECOTOURISM IN KENYA
At the turn of the twentieth century, Kenya was teeming
with a wide array of wildlife. The various ethnic groups of
African peoples moved freely across the land, fishing, hunt-
ing, or gathering roots and fruits for a living. They killed
game only as needed for food and rituals, and never for plea-
sure.
Then the European explorers disembarked on the shores
of the African continent. With their arrival, the first wild an-
imals were captured and killed for sport and other nonessen-
tial uses. In the late nineteenth century, the "great white
hunters" descended on Africa. They made fortunes by selling
ivory, killing hundreds of thousands of elephants. By World
War I, elephant herds in Kenya and the rest of East Africa
were beginning to show serious signs of decline.
Following the war, environmental degradation in the re-
gion began, through bush clearing, tilling the land, and
shooting wild animals. The colonial powers, having carved
Africa into areas of influence, encouraged their citizens to
settle there, and tried to turn the "empty" continent into an
agricultural giant.
The attempt was initially unsuccessful due to a basic ig-
norance on the part of the settlers of tropical conditions and
constraints. Imported dairy and beef cattle died by the thou-
sands, unable to adapt to tropical heat and diseases. Crops
were decimated by the forays of African wildlife.
in response, the colonial governments embarked on a
scheme that called for the large-scale elimination of African
wildlife as a means of opening up the country to develop-
ment. European soldiers who had elected to remain in Africa
after the war were deployed as game wardens -
These game wardens licensed and supervised the activi-
ties of the white hunting fraternity. They also hunted them-
selves. But at the same time, they prevented the African

The Old Man of Nature Tourism: Kenya 25
people from hunting on the pretext that their bows and ar-
rows and spears were not suitable tools for the task.
Big game hunting by Europeans and Americans emerged
as an important source of revenue for Kenya. The business
was dominated by white hunters, however; whites were tour
operators and guides, Africans were porters, gun bearers,
and skinners. A variety of rules and regulations was devel-
oped to make it extremely difficult for Africans to cross these
divisions, a state of affairs that lasted into the early 1960s.
Resentment of this unfair relationship was further fueled
by a decree that outlawed traditional hunting in 1946, bring-
ing the African way of life to an abrupt halt. Local commu-
nities had no choice but to continue to engage in some
traditional hunting, giving rise to the poaching phenomenon
that is rife today.
By the 1970s, it became evident that the combined effect
of licensed hunting and poaching was to threaten the sur-
vival of the big game species such as elephants, rhinos, and
leopards. In 1977, Kenyans from all walks of life and of every
shade of color forced the government to declare a complete
ban on hunting. In 1978, the commercial trade in wildlife
trophies and products was outlawed. Unfortunately, the
worldwide demand for African wildlife products continued,
and therefore so did poaching.
When hunting was banned, many Kenyans, white and
black, found themselves without jobs. The more enterprising
of the ex-guides and trackers began to develop another type
of tourism-ecotourism. They coined the phrase "Come
shooting to Kenya with your camera." Black Kenyans were
able to move away from the less important jobs into man-
agement and owning their own companies. They promoted
the natural beauty of the country-its biodiversity, wild-
life, unique ecosystems, breathtaking scenery, and sunny
beaches. Specialized tours were developed for bird lovers,
botanical expeditions, and many other groups.
Within five years of the ban on hunting, ecotourism was a
booming business. It was able to expand so rapidly, in part,
because the wildlife tourism infrastructure that had been
built up for sports hunting was easily adapted to an infra-

2) 6 A VISIT To KEY DESTINATIONS
Fi2ure2.1 Travelers encozaaeranAtricall bullelephant cool'n, off-
(it Zbnbabive@,Vatzisczdona Gaine Resen-e on the shores ol'Lake
Kariska.

ONO'

structure for nonconsumptive ecotourism. Thousands, then
tens of thousands, then, in 1989, 650,000 ecotourists, found
Kenya a major wildlife attraction. They spent their money
freelv-on accommodat ions, safari clothes and equipment,
in-countrv transport, tour guides, food, and film.
In 1988, tourism became the country's top foreign ex-
Ye earner, beating out coffee and tea for the first time.
chanL
Since agriculture requires substantially greater capital in-
vestments than ecotourism, the "gross national benefit"
(subtract capital investment from gross income) of ecotour-
ism will continue to be greater in the years to come.
For several vears now, Kenva has been earning in excess of
USD 350 million in direct and indirect revenues a vear from
tourism. Kenva plans an aggressive strategy of growth
aimed at increasing the number of tourists from current lev-
els of 650,000 to I million annuallv in five years.
This development strategy has the potential to undermine

The'01d Man of Nature Tourism: Kenya 27
the very resource on which it is based, however, unless man-
aged carefully. Experience in Kenya and elsewhere has
shown that it may be better to focus more on increasing the
quality of the ecotourism experience (and thus the amount
of money charged for it) rather than increasing the total
number of visitors, and perhaps stretching the carrying ca-
pacities of fragile ecosystems beyond their limits.

KENYAN ECOTOURISM: HOW IT WORKS

The success of Kenya's tourism efforts,.first for sports hunt-
ing, and now for ecotourism, has been based on several fac-
tors: a unique wildlife resource, an extensive system of
national parks and game reserves, and an intensive promo-
tion and investment effort'. The sometimes severe problems
associated with its efforts, such as environmental degrada-
tion and a dwindling wildlife resource, will be discussed in
detail later.
In order to protect its unique wildlife resources, a system
of wildlife conservation areas was established by the Kenya
National Parks Service soon after World War II and
strengthened considerably after Kenya became independent
in 1963. Some 17,000 square miles, or 8 percent of the na-
tional territory, are protected by fifty-two national parks and
reserves. A further 3, percent of the country is designated as
forest reserve. These protected areas were selected based on
how well they represented a cross-section of habitat and
wildlife. The ranges currently under protection stretch from
the highest mountains in the country (17,000 feet above sea
level) to the mangrove forests of the Indian Ocean and
marine environments reaching a maximum depth of sixty
fathoms.
Most of the protected areas are in the Great Rift Valley,
which starts north of the Jordan River and extends as far
south as Mozambique and is one of the world's most spectac-
ular natural wonders. Dense wet forests inhabited by majes-
tic crowned eagles, sweeping savannah grasslands, and
sparkling inland lakes: these diverse ecosystems are the her-

28 A VISIT To KEY DESTINATIONS
itage of the Great Rift Valley, and the Kenya national parks
svstem.
Several vears after Kenya made the transition to ecotour-
ism, mainly through the efforts of private individuals, the
government saw that it would be in its national interest to
experiment with promoting and providing incentives for
ecotourism. In 1965, a special department of tourism was
created as part of the Ministry of Tourism and Wildlife; its
task was to develop a blueprint for the popularization of
Kenva as an attractive tourist destination.
Toward that end, it set in motion a highly successful pro-
motional effort that focused on Kenya's exotic scenery and
wildlife. Writers and photographers were commissioned to
prepare alluring brochures for distribution around the
world. Beautiful calendars and postcards depicting Kenya's
colorful wildlife were produced and sold in large quantities.
Public relations representatives in- key sites such as the
United States, Canada, Great Britain, and Western Europe
were retained to promote Kenya Is image in those areas.
Later, representatives were hired in Japan, Southeast Asia,
Australia, and New Zealand. Tourist officers were posted at
Kenyan embassies and trade missions around the world and
continue to be today.
The government entered into a dialogue with tour opera-
tors and travel agents in an attempt to address divisive is-
sues such as delays of visitors at entry points and visa
problems. A Kenya Tourist Advisory Committee was formed
to meet regularly on issues that appeared to be threatening
the success of ecotourism efforts. Through this process, po-
tential problems were identified and addressed. Immigra-
tion matters were discussed openly and steps taken to
streamline the process. Financial issues such as tax rebates,
export promotion gratuities, and duty-free imports of equip-
ment were also tackled. No subject was deemed too big or
too trivial.
Kenya also decided to provide fiscal incentives for the de-
velopment of ecotourism and an ecotourism. infrastructure.
In order to finance its efforts, it raised funds and received

The 012- Man of Nature Tourism: Kenya 29
technical assistance from development agencies in countries
such as Great Britain, West Germany, Switzerland, and Italy,
in addition to spending funds held in its own treasurv. Al-
though ultimately rejected, the idea of nationalizing the in-
dustry was considered; instead, they established the Kenya
Tourist Development Corporation (KTDC) in 1966.
The new body was given a mandate to finance up-and-
coming Kenyan tour operators, travel agents, and hotel own-
ers, and to make money doing so. In the process, the KTDC
embarked on a program of buying shares in foreign-owned
firms, with the aim of selling them to promising Kenyan en-
trepreneurs on special terms. This innovative approach to
localizing the tourist industry has made it virtually impos-
sible to distinguish between foreign and locally owned tour-
ism firms.
The government continues to offer incentives to foreign
investors, however, through the Foreign Investments Act,
which guarantees them repatriation of capital and profits.
The potential to attract large sums of "bad" money (i.e., that
earned from gambling, drugs, prostitution, etc.) is addressed
through an investment vetting system that prohibits it.
Major airlines have also been wooed. Practical incentives
are offered in the form of tax exemptions for capital invest-
ments and taxes only on income (to date, they do not even
pay property taxes), to encourage their involvement with
game lodge and hotel development, enabling airlines to earn
money on two fronts, plane tickets and accommodations.

While ecotourism in Kenya has been a success, the very
attraction on which it is based-wildlife-is severely threat-
ened. Mismanagement of the protected areas, illegal hunt-
ing, and a low level of local participation and support for
conservation are among the reasons why. Since indepen-
dence, the Kenyan government has launched several major
initiatives to tackleffiese problems. The jury is still out on
what the future will bring, but many of the changes appear
promising.

30 A VISIT To KEY DESTINATIONS

MANAGEMENT OF KENYAPS PARKS
AND RESERVES

Despite the fact that nature tourism has been a big foreign
exchange earner, until recently very little of that money ($7
million of $350 million) was put back into the resource that
supports it-the parks system. Parks personnel and guards
were underpaid and worked long hours, equipment was
lacking, and poaching was rife-in short, the Department of
Wildlife Conservation and Management was unable to man-
age the areas it was charged to protect due to a lack of
funding.
In 1989, President Daniel arap Moi moved to address that
problem by establishing the parastatal Kenyan Wildlife Ser-
vice (KWS), which replaced the Department of Wildlife Con-
servation and Management. The primary role of KWS is to
ensure the protection and management of wildlife both in-
side and outside the protected areas-and to make that
wildlife accessible for viewing by tourists and so promote
ecotourism. Under the new system, the income and assets
.associated with the national parks and game reserves are
under the jurisdiction of the KWS, and thus can be plowed
back into management and conservation. In addition, the
KWS can now set the prices charged for park admissions,
accommodations, and so forth. (It has raised the rate 125
percent, to Ksh 200 for foreign nationals. Kenyans continue
to pay the relatively low rate of Ksh 40, as they otherwise
support KWS through taxes.)
The organization is autonomous and is managed by a
board of trustees, which is composed of Kenyan nationals
from different sectors of the economy. The budget, however,
remains subject to public and parliamentary scrutiny, in or-
der to discourage potential abuses.
Each park and reserve is now run as a separate corporate
division, responsible for its own income and expenditures.
Some will be developed for high-density (minibus) tourism,
others will target the high-income individual who wishes to'
camp in the midst of nature away from crowds, others will

The Old Man of Nature Tourism: Kenya 31
be set aside for as little human impact as possible, while still
others will serve as multiple-use sites (research, wildlife
management, education, etc.). The effect of increased in-
come for the parks can be seen already in the purchase of
modern arms and new communications equipment for park
guards, along with higher salaries and other benefits.
Parks personnel now receive nine months of paramilitary
training and one year of educL;I:ion in wildlife management,
and thus are better equipped to deal with the pressures, such
as well-armed ivory poachers, on the areas they protect.
Few other parks management agencies, either in Africa or
in the rest of the world, enjoy such autonomy and control as
the newly created KWS. If managed wisely, success is guar-
anteed. However, if the new freedoms are abused or poorly
managed, the KWS could. find itself at loggerheads with
other sectors of the economy.
The scars of the neglect inflicted on the parks system in
earlier years through lack of financing will take substantial
investment, innovation, and time to heal. KWS has been op-
erating for less than a year and has not yet made public its
long-term plans. It will have many important issues to ad-
dress.
One such issue is determining the carrying capacities for
Kenya's parks and reserves. The task is complicated by the
fact that the carrying capacity of a given area varies from
season to season'or year to year depending on the amount of
rainfall, and the migration habits of wildlife. In addition,
the need to maintain Kenya's democratic traditions makes
it difficult to deny access or development opportunities to
Kenyan nationals. Nevertheless, a determination of the car-
rying capacities for humans, vehicles, wildlife, domestic an-
imals, and the like must be made and enforced if the
protected areas are to be viable over the long term.
Another, even more critical, issue, is stopping the illegal
hunting of wildlife. The solutions must address both the
poaching by the local communities and the slaughter of ele-
phants and rhinos for ivory by professional black marke-
teers. Fortunately, the KWS will be aided greatly in its work
with the latter by the fact that in 1989, the international

32 A VISIT To KEY DESTINATIONS
community of nations signed an agreement to ban ivory im-
ports (CITES). Poaching of elephants has since scaled down
drama tical ly- park wardens are not finding as many car-
casses, and many once-thriving ivory shops have close@ their
doors. However, other southern African nations with thriv-
ing elephant populations (e.g., South Africa, Zimbabwe)
continue to sell ivory, which provides incentives for poachers
to kill elephants in Kenya and smuggle the ivory into these
other countries, where it can be sold legally. Consequently,
poaching still occurs. The next meeting on this issue will
take place in 1992, at which time it is hoped that a solution
for the problem will be presented, and the ban implemented
in full measure; if this occurs, poaching for ivory should no
longer be a problem.
KWS has also greatly strengthened enforcement. In 1988,
the rangers were authorized to shoot poachers on sight, and
more than seventy poachers have been killed since. Not one
has been a Kenyan, however, which implies that poaching is
fueled by forces outside Kenya.

LOCAL PARTICIPATION

The Kenyan government has also moved to address the
problems associated with the interaction of neighboring lo-
cal communities with the protected areas.
Many of the local people are so disgruntled with decades
of being ignored that today they are the enemies of the parks
and national forests. Their anger has its roots in colonialism
and the ban on traditional hunting, and in the fact that the
wild game living in the parks are allowed to range freely
over private lands, competing with domestic animals, using
up essential water supplies, and sometimes contributing to
soil erosion and degradation. Until recently, the private
landowner saw very little monetary return from this public
use of his lands.
Local landowners began to feel that their interests were
being treated as less important than those of the animals,
and that their good-naturedness was being abused. Some be-

The Old Man of Nature Tourism: Kenya 33
gan to put up fences to keep wildlife off their property and
others used innovative methods to deny water to migrating
wildlife. As a result, the number of wild animals declined
noticeably in the reserves, and migration patterns were dis-
rupted.
in response, the government recently developed a number
of policies aimed at increasing local participation in the de-
velopment of tourism, providing financial incentives to local
communities to protect the neighboring tourism sites, and
encouraging domestic tourism in order to build Kenyan sup-
port for the parks
The Kenyan government is providing fiscal incentives to
the local communities through a variety of mechanisms.
First, it attempts to ensure that local goods and services, as
well as local labor, are used by the tourism industry, through
a series of specific requirements. Kenyans must be employed
on a preferential basis, with the exception of the most senior
personnel, whom the investor may appoint as desired. Ho-
tels and lodges are required to keep imported foodstuffs to a
minimum, using Kenyan products wherever possible. The
visitors are charged a government hotel tax, a training levy
charge, and a service charge, all of which accrue to the Ken-
yan government (a portion trickles down to the local popu-
lations) and are in addition to the normal corporate taxes
levied by the government each year on the gross trading in-
come.
Local participation and involvement are the keystone of a
policy implemented in 1988 after being negotiated with lo-
cal communities. Following lengthy discussions, it was
agreed that each visitor staying in a game lodge overnight
would be charged an extra USD 5 that would be allocated to
the local peoples. This money is placed into a trust fund to
be. used by the private land owners in the area. Some tour-
ists visit reserves that do not have game lodges nearby; in
this case, a portion of the entry fee will be deposited into the
trust fund.
The trust funds are managed by the people themselves
under the neutral chairmanship of the district commissioner
or the local game warden. In the case of wrongdoing such as
misappropriation of funds, or favoritism, an appeal process

34 A VISIT To KEY DESTINATIONS
has been established. If this is also unfruitful, the aggrieved
person may take the case to a court of law. No such problems
have yet emerged, however. The money in these trust funds
is first distributed for community needs such as schools,
cattle dips (where cattle are cleaned of ticks and other par-
asites), and hospitals. Any money that remains is distributed
on a pro rata basis among the affected landowners, based on
how much land is involved in the program.
This program is still new and as yet has been implemented
only in Amboseli and Masai Mara national parks. There are
no real data as yet on how well the system is functioning,
though local communities now seem more positive about
the parks and local poaching appears to be declining. KWS
currently is conducting negotiations for similar programs
with communities surrounding other reserves.
Domestic tourism is encouraged through substantially re-
duced pricing, particularly during the rainy season and
school holidays. Educational hostels have been built in stra-
tegic locations across the country for schoolchildren and
members of the popular Kenyan wildlife clubs. Their main-
tenance and administration are heavily subsidized by the
government. Public buses are available for organized local
groups, such as schools, churches, or civic groups, to provide
inexpensive transportation to these sites.

PRIVATE RESERVES

In some countries, private reserves play a large role in both
preserving wildlife and distributing some of the benefits of
ecotourism back to the local communities. There are at pres-
ent relatively few private reserves in existence in Kenya,
however. The best known number six in total. The owners of
these areas are mainly wealthy foreigners. The reserves are
usually part of a working ranch, located on marginal lands
used primarily for cattle grazing. Portions of the ranch are
devoted to the protection of wildlife, -and the cattle are not
allowed in those regions. Some of the more sophisticated of
the reserves have built high-priced accommodations for the

The Old Man of Nature Tourism: Kenya 35
tourist. They all appeal to the well-heeled visitor who wants
to avoid the mass tourism found on the state reserves.
In many cases, the operators of these sites claim they are
losing money and that they should be supported by the gov-
ernment and exempted from income taxes. However, if they
are truly losing money, why do they wish to continue the
operation? And if it were trulv nonprofitable, why are more
and more people opting for tl@is type of land use)
There are no hard data available on tourism at private re-
serves. There is no government oversight, either, except that
wildlife is legally a national asset, so the KWS theoretically
could become involved in the management of the wildlife (if
hunting were to occur, for example). Currently, the govern-
ment has no plans to review the issue. The KWS is, however,
planning for that eventuality.

CASE STUDY: MASAI MARA/SERENGETi EcosYSTEM
The spectacular savannah woodlands of the Mara/Serengeti
are what many people envision when they think of Africa.
This tropical paradise for wildlife straddles the borders of
Kenya and Tanzania (see figure 2.2) and is home to zebras,
wildebeests, lions, antelopes, hyenas, jackals, African hunt-
ing dogs, giraffes, buffaloes, elephants, and many birds of
prey. It is also' home to several hundred families of Masai, a
nomadic people who base their livelihoods on maintaining
large herds of cattle.
Many of the 650,000 visitors to Kenya each year feel their
tour is incomplete without a trip to see the Mara/Serengeti.
However, the ever-increasing numbers of tourists visiting
the site have led to a host of environmental problems. Pre-
vious mismanagement of the relationship of the Masai to the
reserve has also led to environmental damage by Masai-
owned livestock and poaching.
Until 1960, when the 750-square-mile Masai Mara County
Council Game Reserve was established, the local Masai had
access to all the land in the district, and were free to move
southward into Tanzania in search of water and grazing
when necessary. The creation of the reserve, together with

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The Old Man of Nature Tourism: Kenya 37
the adjacent Serengeti National Park, which was established
a decade earlier, greatlv restricted their options without pro-
viding any alternatives. In addition, during certain months
of the vear, the wild game animals forage on the Masai's pri-
vate lands, competing with Masai livestock and decreasing
the productivity of the domestic animals.
In order to aadress this problem, the government and the
Masai agreed on a revenue-sharing scheme (described in
greater detail earlier). Each visitor staying in or around the
reserve overnight (six lodges are located inside the reserve,
seven outside) is charged an extra USD 10 per day, half of
which goes to the county council (a local administrative au-
thority). The other half is paid into a trust fund for the local
Masai, and managed by them with the help of a locally ap-
pointed district commissioner.
As soon as the system was implemented, the shift in com-
munity attitudes 'was immediate and dramatic. The com-
munity began to earn a handsome income in excess of nearly
USD I million a year, and now views wildlife as an asset
rather than a liability. Poaching, which had accounted for
the loss of tens of thousands of animals annually, dropped to
virtually nothing.
Thus, one threat to the future of the reserve has been elim-
inated-permanently, one hopes. The impact of a virtual
avalanche of tourists, however, has yet to be addressed ade-
quately.
The sensitive soils of the savannah are crisscrossed with
tire tracks where tourists in search of wildlife have offered
drivers large tips to go off the roads. Balloonists swoop over
herds of elephants, buffalo, and other animals, causing them
to scurry this way and that. (On the other hand, each indi-
vidual on the balloon pays $250 for a forty-five-minute ride,
which makes a strong economic argument in terms of short-
term investment criteria for continuing the practice in some
form.) The feeding and mating habits of the region's wildlife
have been disrupted as ani .mals react to large numbers of
viewers. Some animals, such as the cheetahs, become so dis-
turbed that they frequently fail to feed, mate, or raise their
young.

38 A VISIT To KEY DESTINATIONS
The local county council is the richest in the country, but
as yet it has not invested enough funds in the development
of mechanisms to better control the viewing habits of visi-
tors to the reserves and so alleviate pressures on environ-
mentally sensitive lands. Such an investment would suit its
best interests.
Several actions are planned by the Kenyan Wildlife Ser-
vice that should address the worst of these problems in the
Masai Mara and other parks. A first priority is the construc-
tion of primary, secondary, and tertiary roads; their use will
be mandatory. Road construction is tough on the environ-
ment, but the current free-for-all is much worse. A complete
ban on the development of additional tourist accommoda-
tions or expansion of existing ones is being contemplated.
Casual camping will be illegal. Minimum flight levels for
balloons, and fixed take-off and landing sites, will be estab-
lished. Finally, tourists will be asked to be sensitive to the
ecological needs of the areas they visit. Without their partic-
ipation, the environment of the Mara/Serengeti ecosystem
will continue to be degraded.

CONCLUSION

Tourism in Kenya has had a stormy history@ However, it ap-
pears that the government, and to some degree the local
communities, has decided that ecotourism. is critical to the
well-being of the nation and is moving to make it sustain-
able. The changes in governmental attitudes toward the lo-
cal people, the increased financial and executive support for
the protection of the parks, and the complete ban on the
ivory trade have been important steps forward. The future
will demonstrate if ecotourism in Kenya will indeed be sus-
tainable, and if it can continue to provide protection for the
parks and wildlife of Kenya.

CHAPTER 3

Private Reserves, Parks, and
Ecotourism in Costa Rica

YANINA ROVINSKI

P
erched on top of the rugged Tilaran Mountain Range in
the north of Costa Rica lies Monteverde Cloud Forest Re-
serve, one of the country's main attractions for natural his-
tory lovers (see figure 3.1). This 10,000-hectare private
nature reserve hosts a growing flood of tourists who come
year after year seeking a glimpse of Monteverde's natural
treasures.
The reserve, owned and managed by the Tropical Science
Center, is becoming increasingly well known for its wealth
of wildlife, its lush green wildlands, and the resplendent
quetzal, symbol of freedom and sacred bird of the Mayas.
The reserve is also the only home of the brightly colored
golden toad. These endangered species, and many other for-
est dwellers, have turned Monteverde into the tourist attrac-
tion it is today. But it was not always this way.

40 A VISIT To KEY DESTINATIONS

Figure 3.1 Major nature tourism sites in Costa Rica.

NICARAGUA
Caribbean
Sea

Monte Verde . Puerto La Selva
Cloud Forest Viejo Biological Station
Reserve
C 0 #S T A
Bralulio
Carrillo
San Jose National Par
R I C A

Barra Honda <
National Park

Guanacaste, National Park
z
Corcova( <
'0
National Park
Pacific U rate
Ocean

kilometers0 20
miles0 204

Costa
AREA OF MAP Rica

16& Mao 0 1991 Gr"I Dlvo* GraPhes Halo". MT

Private Reserves, Parks, and Ecotourism in Costa Rica' 41
In the early 1950s, Monteverde was mostly untouched pri-
mary forest. The cultivated lands ended at the edge of the
mountains. The agricultural frontier moved farther up the
slopes with time, however, as population increased and laws
that favored agricultural expansion were promulgated.
A small community of North American Quakers, seeking
peace and a nonviolent way of life, came to settle in these
peaceful and isolated Costa Rican mountains in the late
1950s. They bought 1,400 hectares of land, divided it among
themselves, and set aside 554 hectares for watershed conser-
vation on the steep slopes of the mountain.
In the 1960s, biologists and students (mostly fro 'm the
United States) began to visit the protected area, attracted by
its rich cloud forest, which was still quite unaltered. They
found each tree to be a tropical garden and were able to ob-
serve species that were endangered elsewhere. Their re-
search led to the discovery of the golden toad, whose entire
habitat lies within a few hectares of Monteverde's dwarf
forest.
Interest in preserving this biological wealth against slash-
and-burn agriculture began to grow among both the original
Quaker settlers, who formed a conservation group called
Bosque Eterno, and the Tropical Science Center, a San Josi@-
based scientific organization. In 1972, they agreed to found
the Monteverde Cloud Forest Reserve.
The number of scientists visiting Monteverde kept increas-
ing. They came to this misty forest, where rain is almost per-
petual, to study the habits of bellbirds or photograph
umbrella birds. They observed macaws, quetzals, tinamous,
agoutis, kinkajous, jaguars, and ocelots. Palms, ferns,
mosses, bromeliads, immense oaks, and tiny mushrooms
were, also studied. Their accounts in technical journals
brought other visitors to the area and their studies served as
a base for more research. Articles then began to appear in
the popular media, attracting visitors who were interested
in the beauty of the land or fascinated by its unusual inhab-
itants.
The number of visitors increased from 300 in 1973 to
15,000 in 1989. The reserve also grew, from 2,000 hectares to
10,000 hectares in 1990.

42 A VISIT To KEY DESTINATIONS
The large number of visitors has resulted in noticeable
changes in the neighboring communities. First, a shelter was
built near the reserve. Then, a "pension" and a "soda," which
is a type of coffee shop. Today, there are two modern hotels,
several guesthouses, a local network of @ tour guides, a souve-
nirs and crafts store (which brings in a respectable $50,000
a year), horse rentals, a "cantina' "and a disco bar (appro-
priately called "The Golden Toad").
Changes are also evident within the reserve itself. On the
positive side, visitors are bringing substantial income to the
reserve, which is used to buy new lands and pay for manage-
ment of the area. The reserve more than pays for its mainte-
nance with the money from entrance fees (about $2.75 per
person) and T-shirt sales. The local economy also benefits
from the reserve-tourism is the second largest source of
earnings after dairy-which has made Monteverde popular
with the local community. -
New trails have been built inside, some mainly for tour-
ists, others for research. Unfortunately, erosion on the tour-
ist trails is a growing problem. During the rainy season, the
tree roots that border the trails are washed clean and tram-
pled on by the visitors as they walk by. Locals say the habits
of the animals are changing and much of the wildlife now
stays away from the tourist trails during the high season.
In response, the Monteverde Cloud Forest Reserve group
undertook a study of the carrying capacity of the reserve.
They found that while the reserve can handle more visitors,
the current visitor facilities within the reserve cannot. Their
solution is to build a "Monteverde Conservation Center,"
which will help to educate the ecotourists and groups of
Costa Rican students, as well as train Costa Ricans and
other Latin Americans as guides. They also plan to build
new trails, which will help them better manage the flow of
visitors.
Will the increase in tourists mean a decrease in wildlife?
Dr. George Powell, one of the founding members of the re-
serve, thinks not. He has seen a substantial increase in wild-
life, especially large mammals, over the last few years. One
of his current research projects is examining the impact of
tourism on quetzals. His preliminary findings are that the

Private Reserves, Parks, and Ecotourism in Costa Rica 43
tourists are not disturbing quetzals, unless they molest their
nests. This problem can be addressed,.he says, by rerouting
trails around nests so that tourists will be una@le to touch
them.
other questions of overuse related to socioeconomic con-
cerns are also being raised. Visitors wandering onto private
lands, changes in the habits of young people who are being
influenced by the steadily increasing numbers of tourists, in-
creased costs of living for locals, and the growing pressures
on a fragile infrastructure are some of the problems that
have emerged.
Monteverde is one of the earliest and best developed ex-
amples of a new and thriving industry in Costa Rica: eco-
tourism -

THE DEVELOPMENT OF ECOTOURISM
IN COSTA RICA

The popularity and rapid emergence of ecotourism in Costa
Rica is the result of a mixture of circumstances: an astound-
ing and extensively studied biological diversity, sites of ex-
Areme natural beauty and easy access, stable political
conditions 'and an extensive system of protected areas.
The story of ecotourism in Costa Rica is linked closely to
that of the national parks. And that story is not very old.
In 1969, some natural resource experts began to lobby for
the creation of a system of protected areas in the country.
They argued that because most of the forest that originally
covered 99.8 percent of Costa Rica had been destroyed, seri-
ous steps needed to be taken to preserve at least a small part
of that unique heritage. They argued that action needed to
be taken right away because every year another I percent of
the remainder was being cleared by land-hungry farmers
and settlers. Resources were disappearing at an alarming
rate.
The classic causes of deforestation were responsible: agri-
cultural expansion, timber exploitation, and cattle ranch-
ing.. At that time, Costa Rica's laws favored agricultural

44 A VISIT To KEY DESTINATIONS
expansion and by the earlV 1960s, most of the country's ex-
ploitable land had an owner. Very often, it was a large land-
owner. Three-quarters of the agricultural land belonged to
10 percent of the farms. And the big landowners-farmers,
ranchers, and loggers-were a powerful lobbying force
against the parks.
Costa Rica's conservationists, on the other hand, had com-
pelling arguments and the strong personalities to make
them heard. One of the parks' advocates, Mario Boza, fresh
out of forestry school, defended his ideas with strong words.
Those who opposed the creation of the parks were fools, "ab-
surd people who think forests are meant for logging and
nothing else." Confronted with a critical situation, conser-
vationists demanded speedy action. They said that endan-
gered habitats, representative zones, and rich forests had to
be protected immediately. There was no time for discussion,
no time for philosophical questions. If it was endangered, it
needed to be protected.
Park defenders got their way, and the National Parks Ser-
vice was created in 1970. Twenty years later, almost all the
country's natural habitats, from lowland wet forests to high
mountain paramos, and from seaside mangroves and
swamps to deciduous dry forest, are represented in Costa Ri-
ca's thirty-four parks and reserves. The parks now occupy I I
percent of the territory, and most of the dry tropical forests
left in the New World are in Costa Rica's protected lands.
The government also has been supportive of the establish-
ment of privately owned reserves for both research and tour-
ism. Monteverde was one of the first, but since then, scores
of organizations and individuals have created their own na-
ture reserves. Many border the national parks, which helps
them maintain biological diversity, as wildlife can pass be-
tween the park and the private reserve. Some actually act' as
buffer zones for the national parks, diverting both visitor
and development pressure.
Unfortunately, deforestation in the rest of Costa Rica con-
tinues at a nonsustainable rate, and forestry experts esti-
mate that in less than 10 years, the only exploitable forests
remaining will be within the parks and private reserves.

Private Reserves, Parks, and Ecotourism in Costa Rica 45
Soon, Costa Rica will see pressure to cut down the protected
areas. In response, a new approach to conservation has been
adopted in Costa Rica, one that holds much promise for the
continued well-being of its wilderness areas.
When the parks were first created, the main priority of the
National Parks Service was to preserve habitat. This ap-
proach earned enemies among farmers, ranchers, and log-
gers who wanted to expand their properties and among park
dwellers who were relocated and who previously had used
the forests as hunting grounds or agricultural land.
The situation grew tense, as the National Parks Service
promised future accomplishments and international re-
nown, while the people and other sectors of the government
asked for tangible results-meaning income.
In 1986, the government switched responsibility for the
National Parks Service and the parks from the Ministry of
Agriculture to the recently created Ministry of Natural Re-
sources. The new management had some fresh ideas for the
nation's protected areas.
Alvaro Umafta, then minister of natural resources, began
to promote a new concept to solve the conservation-versus-
development dilemma: sustainable development. Umana in-
troduced alternative schemes for development that would
not deplete the country's natural resource base. He refused
to accept that, being a country of forest and rivers, Costa
Rica would have to suffer from water shortages and defores-
tation.
And thus began the talk of development schemes within a
conservationist framework. More intensive production tech-
niques for farming were called for to lower the need for
agricultural expansion. Parks and reserves were to be man-
aged for sustainable development and grouped in regional
megaparks, with the neighboring communities viewed as
id areas of influence" The use of protected areas for lucrative
and nondestructive* activities, such as ecotourism, became a
priority.
That is how a small number of private entrepreneurs who
had already put their money on ecotourism found support
among conservationists.

46 A VISIT To KEY DESTINATIONS
It was not a bad idea, conservationists said, to convince
private investors. to put their money into conservation.
People would be more likely to protect the areas where their
financial interests were at stake. And a campaign was
launched to convince investors that conservation could be a
lucrative business. The war-horse of this campaign was eco-
tourism.

HOW PRIVATE ENTERPRISE MET
NATURE TOURISM

The Costa Rican government, while it had the best of inten-
tions, lacked the funds to develop national parks and pro-
tected areas for ecotourism. There was no money for visitor
facilities, no money for training guides and interpreters, and
very little money for basic management. If ecotourists were
to be satisfied with their trips to Costa Rica, these had to be
provided. So the private sector was presented with a unique
opportunity-the government would provide the natural re-
sources if the private sector would provide the services; and
the private sector would reap most of the financial benefits.

COSTA RICA EXPEDITIONS
Michael Kaye arrived in Costa Rica in 1978 with plans to
open a travel agency that specialized in river rafting. On his
first visit to Costa Rica several years before, he had found
good rafting rivers, rough, exciting, and unspoiled, and as a
river-rafting enthusiast, he thought there would be a market
for selling river-rafting tours to North Americans.
He was right. Clients came in droves for the rivers. What
he hadn't foreseen is that they would return for the wilder-
ness. Kaye saw requests for wilderness excursions piling up
on his desk and slowly began to shift from rafting to "off-the-
beaten-track" excursions, as his Costa Rica Expeditions
Travel Agency now advertises.
Today, 75 percent of Kaye's clients come for natural his-
tory tours and excursions. He brings in about 20,OW clients

Private Reserves, Parks, and Ecotourism in Costa Rica 47
a year, and each one spends an average of $148 a day His
ecotourism agency is currently the largest ecotourism
agency in the country, but others are hot on its-trail * Kaye
employs Costa Ricans as managers and guides, though most
are not from the rural communities near where he runs
tours

COSTA RICAN ECOTOUR OPERATORS PROLIFERATE
While Kaye, an American, was the first - in-coun try operator
to focus exclusively on ecotourism, the ecotourism business
is now dominated by Costa Ricans. Shortly after Kaye
opened his doors. Tikal, which had already established itself
as a general tourism agency, decided that the natural history
market held great promise, and coined the term "ecotour-
ism" in its brightly illustrated brochures of Costa Rica's nat-
ural attractions. And Horizontes, the brainchild of two
young Costa Rican entrepreneurs, was created to cater to
scientists, students, and other nature lovers.
Tamara Budowski and Margarita Forero, owners of Hori-
zontes, carefully planned the enterprise to serve the purpose
of leading naturalists to the country's most attractive wil-
dernesses. Budowski (a native Costa Rican) grew up in
Switzerland, where she became accustomed to beautiful
landscapes but was astonished by its lack of wildlife when
she returned to Costa Rica as a teenager: she had never seen
fish in the rivers -of Switzerland, nor the variety of wildlife
she found in the unspoiled tropical lands.
Budowski and Forero financed their idea by selling tickets
for trips abroad to Costa Ricans. The profit went to fund an
agency that organized nature tours. As the agency grew, it
moved away from ticket sales and is now solely dedicated to
its original purpose: ecotourism in Costa Rica.
In two or three years, over a dozen new agencies were cre-
ated. Coming from diverse backgrounds, businessmen, biol-
ogists, conservationists, and traditional tour operators
began to make their way toward the ecotourism market.
As these agencies promoted their country's attractions, the
growing flow of visitors began to create a need for simple

48 A VISIT To KEY DESTINATIONS

Figure 3.2 Biologists and students were the main visitors to nature
reserves during the early -years. They still come in considerable
numbers.

Private Reserves, Parks, and Ecotourism in Costa Rica 49
accommodations near such parks as Corcovado, Braulio
Carrillo, and Monteverde. In just a few years, operators and
other investors created lodges and shelters for ecotourists
around the countrv. This basic infrastructure allowed tour
operators to lead groups to some of the country's most beau-
tiful protected lands, providing visitors comfort or at least
the opportunity to sleep on dry, clean sheets after a day's
adventurous trekking through the forest.
Sergio Miranda and his family own a plot of land at the
edge of the Corcovado National Park. During weekends
spent at their farm, Miranda met scientists who complained
about the harsh living conditions at Corcovado's shelters
and the difficulties of obtaining transportation to and from
the area.
He thought he could provide a new means of trabsporta-
tion and some basic accommodations on the farm as a
hobby, but during a market research tour in the United
States, Miranda discovered that instead of attracting scien-
tists, he aroused the interest of travel agents. Thus was cre-
ated Marenco, today one of Costa Rica's best-known
ecotourism resorts.
Almost at the same time, Am 'os Bien, a tropical biologist
who had been working with the Organization for Tropical
Studies (OTS) and other research institutions in Costa Rica,
decided attention needed to be focused on the 90 percent of
the country's lands that were not under legal protection as
national parks.
Bien believed that deforestation occurred due to economic
needs, and therefore the solutions needed to be financial. He
then purchased a natural area he named Rara Avis, an ex-
periment on "rain forest conservation for profit."
Ecotourism is the foremost activity of the private reserve,
though sustainable forestry and alternative forest crops such
as ornamental plants are also under way. Bien's tourism ac-
tivities at the edge of Braulio Carrillo National Park cause
about $80,000 to accrue to the local community annually,
which makes ecotourism one of the most important sources
of income and employment for the neighboring settlement
of Horquetas.

50 A VISIT To KEY DESTINATIONS

A CASE STUDY: PLACING COSTA RICA
ON THE NATURALIST'S MAP

The growth of ecotourism in Costa Rica has been greatly fa-
cilitated by the presence of the Organization for Tropical
Studies. Although OTS was neither a commercial travel
agency nor a conservation organization, it was responsible
for helping to create Costa Rica's image abroad as a tropical
paradise through bringing tens of thousands of visitors to
the country.
Created in 1963, the North Carolina-based international
consortium of universities and research institutions owns
three research sites in Costa Rica: the La Selva and Palo
Verde Biological Field Stations and the Robert and Cather-
ine Wilson Botanical Garden. These function as open-air
classrooms and laboratories for tropical science students
and professionals, providing hands-on experience for mem-
bers of OTS's forty-eight member institutions.
More than 2,500 biology students have embarked on their
first studies of tropical ecology at one of OTS's field stations;
many have written and published papers resulting from
their research wotk there; and most tropical scientists work-
ing in the New World today have at some point studied or
worked at OTS.
When space permits, groups of nonacademic visitors also
visit La Selva to see birds, frogs, and insects, as well as its
unique vegetation.
Were OTS a profit-making institution, it would be Costa
Rica's most successful travel agency, with La Selva its main
resort. All the students and scientists OTS brings to the
country need to be housed, fed, and provided with guides.
And the number arriving each year keeps increasing, sur-
passing 20,000 person-days at La Selva in 1989 (a combined
measure of number of visitors and time spent in the place).
But the direct financial impact of OTS-related ecotourism
only represents a small part of the organization's overall ef-
fect on the industry. It is the research and publications gen-
erated through OTS that has put Costa Rica on the map of

Private Reserves, Parks, and Ecotourism in Costa Rica 51
the ecotourist-especially scientists, but many other types
of nature lovers as well.

LA SELVA BIOLOGICAL STATION

La Selva Biological Field Station is near Puerto Viejo in Sar-
apiqui, a two-hour drive from San Jos6. The newly paved
road crosses the central mountain range, then drops
abruptly toward the Atlantic lowlands of northeastern Costa
Rica. The vegetation change is dramatic. In less than fifteen
minutes, mountain cypresses and moss-covered oaks with
more orchids and bromeliads than a fancy flower shop are
replaced by white-flowered lilies and tree ferns, and by
achiote shrubs and African and peach palm trees a little far-
ther on. Its long-term viability and diversity is assured by
the fact that it abuts the immense Braulio Carrillo National
Park, allowing wildlife to travel to and from the station.
At first sight, the station does not appear to be a tropical
jungle, as its Spanish name, La Selva (The Jungle), indicates.
The entrance leads to a recently acquired pasture with mod-
ern barracks, housing cabins, a dining room, and a laundry
room. Each room is a tidy cabin with bunk beds, bathroom,
running water, and electricity. Visitors are greeted with
clean sheets and instruction leaflets, a map of the station,
and registration forms.
But on crossing the hanging bridge that separates the pas-
ture from the old La Selva, and walking past the modern
laboratories that house sophisticated equipment for chemi-
cal analysis, geographical information systems, and biolog-
ical research, one suddenly reaches the real La Selva: 2,000
acres of virgin forest, swamps, and abandoned plantations.
Until 1968, La Selva belonged to ecologist Leslie Holdrige,
who had planned to turn it into a commercial forest and
fruit farm. He planted cacao and pejibaye (peach palm) for
fruits, and laurel for wood, but more than 85 percent of the
land was preserved as virgin forest.
When OTS bought the farm, the plantations were aban-
doned. A small plot was transformed into an arboretum that

52 A VISIT To KEY DESTINATIONS
bears Holdrige's name. The plot includes more than 1,000
trees with 240 species represented- two-thirds of La Selva's
total. The farm also includes secondary forest, pastures, and
experimental plots. But most of it is virgin forest: a real
jungle with swamps and caymans, lianas and strangler
vines, innumerable dwarf palms, and endless varieties of
birds.
During its early years, La Selva's visitors were mostly
North American students, and most research remained the
property of "ivory tower" scientists. This changed with time.
Courses in Spanish attracted and trained national and re-
gional biologists and naturalists. Publications in both En-
glish and Spanish began to increase La Selva's popularity as
a research station. The wild beauty of the station became
apparent as less technical articles were published, and inter-
est began to grow among nonspecialists as well-bird-
watchers in particular.
About 60 percent of OTS visitors return, and some 69 per-
cent persuade others to visit as well. The expenditures that
have accrued to Costa Rica because of OTS return travel (up
through 1987) are about $7.51 million (Laarman 1987). To-
day, 13,000 nature tourists visit La Selva each year, spending
$291,000 in 1989.

REGULATION OF ECOTOURISM

The spectacular growth in the ecotourism industry has had
a downside. Conservationists and operators, to a lesser de-
gree, are concerned that uncontrolled'ecotourism will de-
stroy the very resource upon which it is based. One of the
most popular beachfront parks, Manuel Antonio, is experi-
encing overcrowding, water pollution, trail erosion, and dis-
rupted wildlife behavior. Monteverde, which has received
the most international press, is virtually overwhelmed with
visitors at the peak season. Wildlife at the Carrara National
Park has been molested by tourists who walk in unaccom-
panied by a guide, even though theyare required to have
one.

Private Reserves, Parks, and Ecotourism in Costa Rica 53
Misuse of the park's resources by the neighboring com-
munities is another problem, one that has not vet been ade-
quately addressed by tour operators or the government. It is
common to see small homesteads carved into the sides of the
national parks, trees cut down within park limits, and exotic
wildlife poached for sale to the North or for food on the
table. Each national park includes an environmental educa-
tion component in its management plan that is supposed to
engender community support.
However, with a few exceptions such as Braulio Carrillo
National Park and Guanacaste National Park, these pro-
grams have not been very successful. In Braulio Carrillo,
park managers have organized local communities to take ad-
vantage of the income possibilities presented by ecotourism,
in Guanacaste, managers have hired local citizens to
help manage the park, as well as initiated extensive environ-
mental education programs.
In response to abuses by operators and tourists, informal
regulations regarding the conduct of tours have started to
emerge. Nature-oriented tours are to be led by biologists or
other natural history experts. Groups must be kept small
and manageable. Carrying capacity has to be respected for
protected areas. Accommodations should be built at a con-
siderable distance from parks and reserves, and money has
to be spent as close to the wildlands as possible, in order to
engender local support.
Some of these regulations are being respected. But for the
most part, compliance is self-monitored. And ecotourism
continues to grow without planning or oversight.
General tourism in Costa Rica is regulated by the legal
arm of the National Tourism Board UCT), itself a part of the
Ministry of Industry and Commerce. ICT is a mammoth in-
stitution, dealing with such varied tourism issues as trans-
portation, infrastructure, foreign investment, advertising,
zoning, and regulation.. On first glance, it would seem clear
that ICT should provide regulations for nature tourism, as
part of its other tourism activities.
On closer look, the issue becomes more complicated. Na-
tional legislation has put the regulation of all activities deal-

54 A VISIT To KEY DESTINATIONS
ing with protected areas under the responsibility of the
Ministry of Natural Resources, Energy, and Mines.
The ministry acknowledges the need to regulate parks vis-
itation, but states that each area must define its own regu-
lations in its management plan, taking into consideration
such variables as carrying capacity and work priorities.
Such management plans exist in only a few parks, and are
being implemented in just a handful. Visitor regulations, if
they exist, generally address simple issues, such as alcohol
consumption, entrance of pets, use of portable stereos and
footballs, and extraction of plants and wildlife. The carrying
capacity of the sites is seldom determined.
Visitor services (which could help control the negative im-
pacts of visitation) are also lacking. Parks personnel are
rarely trained, even to the extent of providing basic guid-
ance and information services. Interpretation trails exist in
only a few of the most developed parks. Information for the
visitor is next to nonexistent, and the Parks Service has a
budget that barely pays survival salaries to the existing per-
sonnel. This budget has not been increased in nearly ten
years due to the freeze imposed on governmental growth by
international financing institutions, and to the fact that park
entrance fees, which are kept extremely low for Costa Ri-
cans, are not raised for the foreign visitor who can afford to
pay a good deal more.
The National Tourism Board sees clearly that the growing
number of visitors attracted by protected areas presents an
opportunity for economic growth. Tourism in general is the
third largest foreign exchange earner in the country (after
coffee and bananas) and brought in $132.7 million in 1986.
According to recent visitor surveys, about 36 percent specif-
ically cite ecotourism as among their main reasons for vis-
iting Costa Rica (Boo 1990).
Yet ecotourism is not a priority in ICT's budget. Tourism
officials assume that through promoting the country as a
general tourism destination (emphasizing beaches, hotels,
etc.), ecotourism will indirectly benefit. Encouraging large-
scale tourism, huge beach developments, and providing for-
eign investment packages are the board's main priorities.
Incentives provided for tourism investment by ICT rarely

Private Reserves, Parks, and Ecotourism in Costa Rica 55
apply to the small kinds of development needed for nature
tourism. Paperwork is sometimes so complicated that small
investors shy away. And regulations on guides and transpor-
tation services are generally not appropriate for ecotourism.
Tourism officials claim the main responsibility for regula-
tion lies with conservationists and that development should
be conducted by the private sector. They have not yet clari-
fied what ICT's role should be, but it appears clear that it
will remain on the sidelines.
Private entrepreneurs consider this a mistake, since the
number of visitors coming to the country for nature-oriented
activities has been growing steadily, to reach almost 40 per-
cent of all tourists (the total number of tourists in 1989 was
375,951). Such numbers, they argue, make it clear that na-
ture tourism should be a priority of the Tourism Board.
Conservation officials also state that much of nature tour-
ism should be regulated by the Tourism Board, though they
have developed some minor regulations related to usage of
trails, extraction of natural resources, and hours of visita-
tion. On issues such as appropriately trained guides and in-
vestment and regulation for tourism infrastructure near the
parks, neither the National Parks Service nor the National
Tourism Board is willing to take responsibility.
In an attempt to address this problem, a special coopera-
tive board on ecotourism was founded in March of 1990. Its
members included representatives from private enterprise,
the Parks Service, the National Tourism Board, and other
institutions. No action was taken at the meeting, however,
and the next meeting has yet to be called. Most were agreed
that if the new board were to function, funds would have to
be found to hire someone to coordinate the effort.

THE BOOM: PRESENT STATE
OF THE INDUSTRY

By 1990, ten years after the first ecotourismagency was cre-
ated in Costa Rica, the number of enterprises dealing with
nature-oriented visitors had reached unexpected propor-

56 A VISIT To KEY DESTINATIONS
tions. More than twenty specialized agencies were function-
ing, nature shelters and resorts had opened throughout the
country, and guide-training facilities were being developed.
The real "boom," according to private entrepreneurs, has
occurred in the last three years, after the image of Costa Rica
was projected around the world by two events: the Seven-
teenth General Assembly of the World Conservation Union,
held in San Jos6 in 1988, where the country's record of ac-
complishment in conservation was made public; and the
award of the Nobel Peace Prize to Costa Rica's president Os-
car Arias in 1987 for his efforts to create peace in Central
America, thereby ridding the country of the widespread im-
age of Central American "banana republics," haunted by
wars and dictatorships.
Since then, the number of visitors coming to Costa Rica
has been on a steady incline. The need for such facilities as
shelters, guides, transportation, interpreters, equipment
rentals, tourism operators, and managers is also increasing.
Hotels are now full most of the year. Hot spots such as Mon-
teverde do not have a low tourism season anymore.
Ecological tourism centers are sprouting up everywhere,
and those already in existence are considering expansion
and diversification.
A graduate course on ecotourism has been created by a
private university to prepare naturalist guides, tour opera-
tion managers, and supervisors for entrance into this grow-
ing field.
Souvenir shops have filled up with nature books, posters,
and maps. Colorful ceramic birds are replacing the typical
painted oxcarts as favorite souvenirs. Postcards feature na-
ture instead of churches. And the prefix "eco" is featured in
almost any ad dealing with tourism these days. When Costa
Ricans want to sell something, they paint it green.
International funding agencies, both those interested in
development and those dealing with conservation, are
studying and funding nature tourism activities.
This enthusiasm is mostly considered positive by conser-
vationists, yet some warnings are already being heard. Fore-
most is the fact that carrying capacity should not be

Private Reserves, Parks, and Ecotourism in Costa Rica 57
surpassed. Conservationists point out that a park is like a
movie theater: if its capacity is 150, visitor 151 will not fit in
and will endanger the security of the others. Yet the carrying
capacities of most parks have yet to be determined.
Another important consideration is the distribution of the
benefits. One of conservationists' basic reasons to support
nature tourism is the need to provide alternative sources of
income to park neighbors, to avoid their coveting the land
for agriculture, hunting, logging, or other such activities. If
economic benefits do not reach local populations, the battle
for conservation will be lost.
The need for well-trained personnel, to provide both secu-
rity and information to the visitors, is also growing among
those in charge of protected areas.
Tourism infrastructure near the parks has been expand-
ing, although regulations and proper incentives do not yet
exist. This development could get out of hand unless speedy
measures are taken.
Ecotourism is based on a fragile and limited resource: pro-
tected natural ecosystems. Unregulated and excessive eco-
tourism ultimately will destroy itself. Yet efforts to plan and
manage ecotourism in Costa Rica are still in the early stages.
More research and regulation are needed soon if this new
industry is to achieve its potential.

REFERENCES

Boo, Elizabeth. 1990. Ecotourism: The Potentials and Pitfalls.
Vol. 2. Washington, D.C.: World Wildlife Fund-U.S.
Laarman, Jan. 1987. "A Survey of Return Visits to Costa Rica
by OTS Participants and Associates." Working paper. Ra-
leigh: North Carolina State University.

CHAPTER 4

Tourism in Greater Yellowstone:
Maximizing the Good,
Minimizing the Bad,
Eliminating the Ugly

DENNis GLICK

S
ome hail tourism as a panacea that will cure the eco-
nomic woes of the sprawling 14-million-acre Greater Yel-
lowstone Ecosystem. Others warn tourism could be a Trojan
horse that will disgorge all manner of ecological and social
chaos on this spectacular region. Yet despite these varied
opinions, nearly everyone agrees that tourism in Greater Yel-
lowstone will exert increasing influence on the area's eco-
nomic, environmental, and social systems. Concerned
conservationists are taking a hard look at this emerging in-
dustry and its impacts on Greater Yellowstone, and are plan-
ning for its future.

Tourism in Greater Yellowstone 59

AN ECOSYSTEM PROFILE

From outer space, the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem ap-
pears on a satellite image as a vast island of mountains and
plateaus, rising from the high plains to form one of the most
extensive tracts of wildlands in the lower forty-eight states
(see figure 4.1). Straddling the tri-state area of Wyoming,
Montana, and Idaho, the Ecosystem encompasses two na-
tional parks (Yellowstone and Grand Teton), portions of
seven national forests, three national wildlife refuges, Bu-
reau of Land Management lands, and state and private prop-
erties.
The region boasts the world's most extensive array of gey-
sers and geothermal features, some of North America's larg-
est herds of elk, bison, and bighorn sheep, over 300 species
of birds (nearly half of those found in the United States), and
several threatened and endangered plants and animals rang-
ing from the diminutive Yellow Spring Beauty to the majes-
tic grizzly bear.
Perhaps even more significant, Greater Yellowstone rep-
resents one of the largest, essentially intact temperate zone
ecosystems on earth. It is a resource of national and inter-
national importance. Created in 1872, Yellowstone National
Park was both the birthplace of the national park movement
and one of the first areas listed on the United Nations' regis-
try of World Heritage Sites.
This combination of spectacular scenery; readily visible
big game, wondrous geothermal features, nearly unsur-
passed outdoor recreation opportunities, and unique history
draws nearly 10 million tourists annually to the public lands
of the Ecosystem. The majority of these visitors are "nature
tourists,' that is, they are touring relatively undisturbed nat-
ural areas with the specific objective of admiring, studying,
and enjoying the scenery and its flora and fauna. Indeed, a
survey by the Montana Department of Tourism revealed that
over three-quarters of all out-of-state tourists reportedly
visit national parks while vacationing, and that over 90 per-

60 A VISIT To KEY DESTINATIONS
Figure 4.1 Recreation sites in the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem.

Al Recreation Sites
A A in the
A Greater Yellowstone
A AEcosystem
A
A A A
A A A
A A
A AA A A A
A & A "i A A
E-s A
AL GALLATIN NATIONAL A
A AL CUSTER AA
A FOREST Red
A A NATIONAL Mg.
A Ga@e, FOREST

BEAVERMEA AA
NATIONAL A A A
FOREST
A YELLOWSTONE A
REO ROC A Ali& SHOSHT
LAKES A A
NWR Ow"t A
jYWk"@
A A 0 Cody
A TAROHEI

NATIONAL
A A ST NATIONAL PARK
r A A A
0 AsrdW
Grand Teton
St A@0,,y 0 National
Park FOREST A
A A
D, s A A
A A
A& A A
O,W. AL ENATiON-L A ou"s WIND RIVER
LK REFUGE BRIOGER
A Jackw@
CARIBOU I INDIAN
Boundary of A A A& TETON
Greater NATIONAL A A
Yellowstone GRAYS
LAKE
Ecosystem LAKE
MWA FOREST AA NATIONAL & FOREST RESERV<ATION
A

A
A A A
A A

A Public Campgrounas
A
0- Downhill Ski Areas
A A Large Retain CorV*xes
010

a10
A

Tourism in Greater Yellowstone 61
cent of those rated Montana as a "good" or "excellent" place
to enjoy outdoor recreation (Brock et al. 1990).
Nature-oriented tourists, however, are not only from out-
side the region. In 1985, the percentage of Idaho, Montana,
and Wyoming residents who participated in "nonconsump-
tive" wildlife-related activities (observing or photographing)
was nearly the highest in the nation. Yellowstone Park, for
instance, reported that 19 percent of its visitors in July of
1989 were from Wyoming, Idaho, and Montana and ihat
during the off-season, the percentage of regional visitors
doubled (Brandt 1990). The Wyoming Recreation Commis-
sion found that "the most active participants in backpacking
[in Wyoming] are typically lifelong residents of Wyoming"
(Wyoming Recreation Commission 1985).
Greater Yellowstone tourism statistics compiled by gov-
ernment agencies seem to indicate a general leveling off of
annual visitation, though a significant shift in seasonality
has been observed. In 1967, for example, around 5,200 trav-
elers braved the harsh winter weather of Yellowstone Park
to explore the region during this formerly tranquil "off-
season." By 1988, that number had skyrocketed to 71,000
(Yellowstone National Park 1990). The implications of this
shift affect not only the local economies, but also the health
of wildlife and natural habitats.
The accuracy of these visitor counts are, however, some-
what suspect, particularly when one considers the finding
that the overall number of visitors has remained stable. One
researcher described a recreation estimation procedure
commonly used by the Forest Service in the Pacific North-
west as the "SWAG" Method-" Scientific Wild Ass Guess"
(Kocis 1986). Research methodologies vary widely among
the 'resource management agencies due to a lack of commu-
nication and coordination, though some agencies are start-
ing to increase cooperation on research and investigations.
It is difficult to project just what the future holds for the
tourism industry in the region. Projections of trends in tour-
ism generally are based on four fueling factors: population,
income, travel patterns, and amount of leisure time. How-

62 A VISIT To KEY DESTINATIONS
ever, in the case of nature tourism, a fifth factor, the ecologi-
cal condition of the wildland resource, should be added.
Nature tourists want to see nature, not degraded land-
scapes or depleted wildlife populations. As the cumulative
impacts of a host of development activities, such as logging,
mining, oil and gas development, and urbanization, whittle
away at Greater Yellowstone's natural attractions, the pos-
sibility for increasing or even maintaining tourism numbers
could be in jeopardy. Already forests and natural habitats
have been fragmented, wildlife migratory routes -disrupted,
and important ecosystem processes and components elimi-
nated or severely altered.
Further complicating the situation is the fact that this vast
region with its complex ecological interrelationships is
managed by twenty-seven different agencies, including the
National Park Service, the Fish and Wildlife Service, the
Forest Service, the Bureau of Land Management, and three
state fish and wildlife services. These agencies often have
conflicting management objectives-the Park Service wants
to manage the area for preservation, the Forest Service for
timber, for example.
Resource protection in Greater Yellowstone is required
not only to maintain biodiversity, but also to protect the nat-
ural features that attract tourists. Nations around the world
are accelerating efforts to establish and develop parks and
opportunities for the nature tourist. With increasing mobil-
ity and affluence, the choices for travelers interested in nat-
ural history continue to expand. Older, well-established
parks and reserves must now compete with the more
recently protected natural wonders of other regions and
nations. The tourism market is a global market, with nature-
tourism-related opportunities and activities in one region
affecting those in another. But as long as its unique combi-
nation of biological and geological features is preserved,
Greater Yellowstone can be expected to continue to receive
large numbers of regional, national, and international visi-
tors.
What will be the impact of this flow of humanity on both
the environmental and socioeconomic characteristics of

Tourism in Greater Yellowstone 63
Greater Yellowstone? A 1985 report prepared for the Wvo-
ming Futures Project-which was an attempt to plan for an
economically viable future for Wyoming-stated that "this
industry [tourism] can have significant economic and cul-
tural advantages for Wyoming, it must be further developed
[through improved marketing]" (Public Policy Center 1985).
But there is, as the saying goes, no such thing as a free lunch.
How much will such a banquet cost the environment and the
people of Greater Yellowstone?

THE GOOD

There is no doubt that the direct and indirect benefits of
tourism have been impressive and far-reaching in the case of
Greater Yellowstone. In fact, Joseph Sax, author of Moun-
tains Without Handrails, cites evidence that the impetus for
the establishment of Yellowstone and several other national
parks came from the lobbying efforts of early tourism pro-
moters. Sax notes that while the popular account of the
founding of Yellowstone "holds that the idea for the park was
conceived by one of the early exploratory parties," in fact,
idan agent for the Northern Pacific Railroad Company,
passed on to Washington a suggestion . . .'Let Congress pass
a bill reserving the Great Geyser Basin as a public park for-
ever'. . . Subsequently the Northern Pacific became the prin-
cipal means of access to Yellowstone and its first
concessionaire providing services for tourists."
Tourism officials today, concerned about maintaining the
natural attractions that are drawing tourists, are encourag-
ing other state and federal agencies to preserve wildland
areas. Sandra Guedes, of the "Travel Montana' office in Mon-
tana's Department of Commerce, foresees "increasing coop-
eration between tourism promoters and organizations
whose mandate is the protection of natural resources." This
seems only appropriate for an agency that has adopted the
slogan "Montana: Unspoiled, unforgettable."
Yellowstone National Park is on the short list of natural
icons considered a "must see" by the American public, and

64 A VISIT To KEY DESTINATIONS
is one of the most heavily visited parks in the system. Past
and present visitors to Greater Yellowstone have become the
Ecosystem's staunchest defenders and many have become
active conservationists. Thus, ecotourism to the park plays
an important educational role and is largely responsible for
the fact that there is a sizable national and even interna-
tional constituency lobbying for its protection.
Nature tourism is not only important due to its educa-
tional and conservation potential, of course. The associated
economic benefits provide incentive for people to manage
the resource for nature tourism.
In Greater Yellowstone, direct economic impacts at the re-
gional level are difficult to assess. Indirect impacts-goods
and services purchased by businesses serving the tourism
market-are even more problematic. Still, increasingly so-
phisticated studies are providing some measure of tourist
expenditures and contribution to local economies.
In the state of Montana, for example, nonresident' travelers
spent approximately $658 million in direct expenditures
(lodging, travel, food, etc.) in 1989, according to the Institute
for Tourism and Recreation Research. Travelers to Wyoming
spent $700 million in 1982 (Public Policy Center 1985).
In a report prepared for Congress, the U.S. Congressional
Research Service found that 44recreation supports more em-
ployment than any other activity in the National Forests of
Greater Yellowstone, and except for phosphate mining in the
Caribou National Forest, is responsible for two thirds of the
jobs resulting from all activities in the National Forests." In
the Montana portion of the Ecosystem, the estimated ex-
penditures of nonresident travelers in 1988 was $140 million
and total economic impact generated was nearly $250 mil-
lion, according to the University of Montana. The same re-
port stated that regional tourism generated 5,800 jobs (Insti-
tute for Tourism and Recreation Research 1989).
In Wyoming, the county that had the lowest unemploy-
ment rate in 1988 was Teton, gateway to Grand Teton Na-
tional Park and considered by some as the "tourism mecca"
of the Ecosystem. The economic impact of tourism in the
Idaho portion of the Ecosystem is considerably less (its por-

Tourism in Greater Yellowstone 65
tion of the ecosystem is smaller, and the area around it more
degraded), but, according to the Idaho Department of Com-
merce, "the communities of Fremont and Teton counties pos-
sess a tremendous opportunity to enhance tourism services
and destinations that will add to the attractions of the Yel-
lowstone/Grand Teton Complex" (Idaho Department of Com-
merce 1989). The development of tourism in eastern Idaho
will undoubtedly increase visitation and length of stay in
this corner of the Ecosystem.
Tourism-related jobs are often stereotyped as low-paying
and of short duration. Tourism promoters argue that these
jobs provide entry-level opportunities for new additions to
the work force and for people in need of employment. In ad-
dition, the work is often sought after by students and others
wishing part-time positions, due to their seasonal nature.
Tourism proponents point out that many of these jobs are,
in fact, well-paying 'professional positions. The industry re-
quires a host of skilled personnel, ranging from managers
and administrators to computer specialists and account-
ants. In addition, a large percentage of tourism expenditures
(28 percent in Montana in 1989) goes directly to retail sales,
and not only restaurants and lodging (Institute for Tourism
and Recreation Research 1989).

THE BAD AND THE UGLY

P
"Tourism destroys tourism ,' reported the Organization for
Economic Cooperation and Development in 1980 (Boo 1990).
In the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem, the actions of tourists
have degraded fragile resources and, in some cases, caused
irreparable environmental damage. Minute and Ebony gey-
sers, at the Norris Geyser Basin in Yellowstone Park, have
ceased erupting because of litter carelessly tossed in their
mouths. Near Old Faithful, the brilliant colors of the Morn-
ing Glory pool have faded due to a lowering of water temper-
attire after garbage plugged its vent.
Other site-specific impacts of tourism include the tram-
pling of vegetation, noise pollution, litter, and water pollu-

66 A VISIT To KEY DESTINATIONS

Figure 4.2 Bison and snowmobilers interact in Yellowstone
National Park.

Its.

Mao%%

tie

tion. Giardia has become rampant throughout the waters of
the ecosystem, solely due to the activities of outdoor recrea-
tionists. Forest fires have been started by careless campers
who have also stripped areas of firewood, disrupting natural
processes. Some poaching is attributed to tourists, and the
introduction of exotic species for fishermen and hunters,
such as eastern brook trout, has wreaked havoc on native
animal populations. Clearly, these actions are Iplacing a
heavv burden on the resources of Greater Yellowstone.
In addition to these obvious problems, other, more subtle
environmental modifications are also having a significant
cumulative impact. For example, in January of 1990, a lone
cross-country skier was attacked by a coyote near Old Faith-
ful. This was the climax of several episodes of emboldened
covotes threatening park visitors. Upon closer investigation,
it was discovered that tourists had been accustoming coy-
otes to human handouts, inadvertently signing the coyotes'
death warrants (they were shot by the Park Service). Unin-
formed tourists continue to feed the coyotes, however, and
` N

Tourism in Greater Yellowstone 67
the animals have now replaced bears as Yellowstone's most
common roadside beggars.
In 1978, Congress required that the National Park Service
establish a visitor carrying capacity for each unit of the na-
tional park system. The National Parks and Conservation
Foundation, which has been assisting the Park Service in de-
veloping a management process for evaluating and manag-
ing visitor use in the parks, reports that "the National Park
Service's response to these calls for controls has been scat-
tered and inconsistent" (National Parks and Conservation
Foundation 1988).
Many national parks, including Yellowstone, are being
managed according to outdated management plans that do
not take into account new stresses on the ecosystem. For ex-
ample, the Park Service developed a detailed plan for winter
use in Yellowstone, through upgrading visitor facilities, be-
fore they prepared an environmental impact assessment.
A recently released "Winter Use Plan Environmental As-
sessment" does nothing of the sort, but is a general policy
document that says the Service will develop a "visitor use
management process" (Yellowstone National Park 1990).
Though the era of blatant commercialization of the parks
seems to be on the wane, a significant portion of the area has
been developed for hotels and other types of concessions.
The construction of this infrastructure has had major envi-
ronmental impacts, as has the increased visitor use due to
their presence.
Tourism is also changing the nature of many communities
bordering the Ecosystem. In some cases, the impact has been
positive. Efforts to develop a thriving tourism industry were
responsible for impressive restoration of buildings and in-
frastructure improvements in West Yellowstone and the de-
velopment of the widely acclaimed Buffalo Bill museum in
Cody. But efforts to capture tourist dollars have also resulted
in numerous ill-planned and environmentally unsound de-
velopments. Billboards, garish signs, and other tourist
"lures" increasingly clutter the otherwise magnificent land-
scapes of Paradise Valley in Montana and Jackson Hole,
Wyoming, among other sites.

68 A VISIT To KEY DESTINATIONS
Research on the negative socioeconomic impacts of tour-
ism generally focuses on so-called fragile or exotic cultures,
especially those of the Third World. But it is evident that the
social, cultural, and economic makeup of rural American
communities can also be turned topsy-turvy by poorly man-
aged tourism - Traffic jams in former one-horse to%k@ _i, soar-
ing land prices, sprawling development gobbling up
precious greenery, deteriorating air quality, these are the all-
too-common trappings of the modern "tourist town."
While these problems relate directly to the activities of
tourists, it is often the indirect impacts of tourism-the con-
struction of visitor facilities, roads, parking lots, trails, and
other tourism-related infrastructure- that cause the most
damage to supposedly "protected wildlands." Termed "in-
dustrial tourism" by writer Edward Abbey, and a "recreation
trap" by conservationist Joyce Kelley (Kutay 1989), many
believe that tourism threatens to swap many of the nation's
crown jewels for dime store baubles.
The saga of the Fishing Bridge Campground and Visitor's
Center in Yellowstone National Park is one of the most ob-
vious examples of a tourism facility that has had a devastat-
ing impact on a precious living resource, the grizzly bear. As
its name would imply, Fishing Bridge is a favorite fishing site
for both humans and bears. The inevitable conflicts between
the two breeds of fishermen have resulted in the death or
removal of more grizzlies than in any other site in the Eco-
system.
In an effort to resolve the problem, it was proposed that a
new recreational facility be developed in West Thumb on
Yellowstone Lake, where grizzlies are less common, and
Fishing Bridge be closed to humans. However, some local
residents, concerned about the possible diversion of tourist
traffic from their city to other gateway communities, lobbied
against its closure. Fishing Bridge is still operating, albeit
with some new, bear-related restrictions, and a new, sprawl-
ing complex of stores, restaurants, lodging, and other struc-
tures has been built. Fortunately, improved management
has led to less conflict with the grizzlies, and the situation
appears to be improving.

Tourism in Greater Yellowstone 69

MAXIMIZING THE GOOD,
MINIMIZING THE BAD

It is possible to maximize the positive economic, environ-
mental, and social impacts of tourism in Greater Yellow-
stone, and reduce or eliminate the negative. Tourism
projects, especially those with a "nature tourism" orienta-
tion, are becoming a standard component of efforts to estab-
lish sustainable economies in areas adjacent to protected
wildlands around the world. "We see the possibility for a
much stronger alliance between tourism and conservation:'
says Jim Thorsell, director of the Parks Commission of the
International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN)
(Kutay 1989).
In Greater Yellowstone, the economic contribution of the
service-oriented sector of the economy, which includes tour-
ism, has far surpassed that of the extractive industries (tim-
ber, mining, oil and gas development). However, there is
growing concern that the rapid expansion of tourism could
threaten the conservation gains associated with the curtail-
ment of the more blatantly destructive land use practices.
"Proactive" efforts to plan tourism so that it meets both
economic and conservation goals are under way in the Eco-
system. These are being carried out by federal, state, and
local government agencies, as well as by private organiza-
tions and concerned citizens.
The Greater Yellowstone Coalition, a conservation group
dedicated to protecting the ecological integrity of the region
and promoting an "ecosystem approach" to resource man-
agement, has launched an ambitious effort to develop a blue-
print for the long-term protection of the Ecosystem. Part of
the first phase of this project, titled "Greater Yellowstone
Tomorrow," is taking a close look at the environmental and
economic impacts of tourism. In the second phase, recom-
mendations for environmentally sensitive development in
the region, including nature-based tourism, will be pre-
sented. These will form part of a comprehensive set of re-
source management guidelines that must be implemented if

70 A VISIT To KEY DESTINATIONS
the wilderness qualities of Greater Yellowstone are to be pre-
served. An important component of the project is a collabo-
rative effort with several Ecosystem communities to begin
to build economies that are based on a sustainable approach
to development.
The federal government's Greater Yellowstone Coordinat-
ing Committee (GYCC), which is formulating an Ecosystem-
wide set of management goals and "implementing criteria"
to govern National Park Service and Forest Service activi-
ties, has included several goals that relate directly to out-
door recreation and tourism. For example, the committee's
philosophy statement calls for protecting "the sense of nat-
uralness," and explains that the achievement of this goal
"implies that management recognizes the worth of this eco-
logically unified area as a source of education, recreation
and inspiration" (GYCC 1989).
At the site-specific level, the Park Service has initiated
work on a winter use plan and environmental assessment for
Yellowstone Park. This long overdue study will detail plans
for developing and managing the increasing winter use in
the park and will assess the environmental impacts of these
proposed activities. While to some degree it is being written
after the fact," it is nevertheless a step in the right direction.
The National Forest Service is also carrying out some in-
novative tourism-related activities. An ambitious wilderness
education program has reduced substantially the impacts of
backcountry use in the popular Absaroka Beartooth Wilder-
ness. Participants in the program learn low-impact camping
techniques such as how to manage horses, use stoves (versus
fuelwood), and minimize trail use/erosion.
The governor of Montana and the state Department of
Fish, Wildlife and Parks recently embarked on a vision quest
of their own. A State Parks Futures Committee, composed of
legislators, conservationists, businessmen, and government
representatives, was formed to find permanent solutions to
the financial and management problems plaguing the state
park system. They are preparing a report outlining the com-
ponents of a well-managed system, the status of the current
system, and how changes can be made. The report will in-

Tourism In Greater Yellowstone 71
clude feedback from local citizens: fifteen workshops were
held around the state, and local residents were invited to
comment on related economic, social, and environmental is-

sues.
The town of Dubois, Wyoming, together with the Wvo-
ming Department of Fish and Game, the Forest Service and
the Bureau of Land Management, has initiated work on an
interpretive center that will focus on the natural history of
the Rockv Mountain bighorn sheep, which are common1v
seen bv motorists passing through this scenic area. This is
just one element of the "Dubois 2000" project, a community-
organized effort to develop a shared vision for the future of
the town. "Tourism," according to Pam Connally of the 2000
Committee, "will definitely play an important role in gener-
ating the revenue needed to make this vision a realitv."
Education can often be an effective management tool for
reducing visitor impacts on natural resources. It is also a
prerequisite for catalyzing interest and active involvement
in conservation activities. Recognizing this, a symbiotic re-
lationship has developed between two important education-
oriented facilities and the Yellowstone and Grand Teton
national parks. The Teton Science School near Jackson Hole,
Wyoming, and the Yellowstone Institute, located within Yel-
lowstone Park, are nonprofit learning centers offering a wide
array of field courses and hands-on natural history experi-
ences. Both have played an important role in increasing en-
vironmental knowledge and awareness of park visitors, and
certainly neither facility would exist if it were not for the
spectacular open-air classrooms offered by the adjacent
parks.
In August of 1990, over 100 city, county, and state planners
from around the West descended on Bozeman, Montana, for
the Tenth Annual Western Planners Conference. The theme
focused on sustainable community development. The disad-
vantages and benefits of tourism, as well as how to plan for
it and protect the natural resources that sustain it, were a
principal focus of discussion.
Many other public and private entities are gearing up for
involvement in the planning and implementation of tourism

72 A VISIT To KEY DESTINATIONS
in the region. Motives for this flurry of activity range from
maximizing profits to minimizing destruction. But, without
doubt, linking tourism development with good planning,
thorough impact assessment, a strong education orienta-
tion, identification of carrying capacity, and appropriate re-
source management will help to ensure local economic
benefits with minimal disruption of environmental and so-
cial systems.
Conservationists have found that tourism is a double-
edged sword-able to save the day if skillfully wielded, but
liable to cut one's leg off if handled carelessly. In response,
the, Greater Yellowstone Coalition is in the process of devel-
oping a series of recommendations aimed at maximizing
tourism's potentialto save the day, while minimizing its de-
structive aspects. Though still in the formulation stage, pre-
liminary recommendations follow.

RECOMMENDATIONS FOR LOW-IMPACT
ECOTOURISM IN GREATER
YELLOWSTONE

The following list of recommendations for minimizing neg-
ative tourism impacts in Greater Yellowstone is based upon
the characteristics of tourism in the region, the natural and
socioeconomic features affected, and the existing and pro-
jected opportunities for improving tourism management.

1. Proposed recreation and tourism activities and devel-
ellow-
opment should not in any way degrade Greater Y
stone's wildland resources.
2. Environmental impact assessments should be carried
out for all tourism development projects that have the
potential to degrade natural and cultural resources.
3. Planning for tourism development must be well inte-
grated with other planning efforts, particularly those
related to environmental protection.
4. Visitor management should be thoroughly addressed in

Tourism in Greater Yellowstone 73
the management plans for federal and state resource
agencies, and in the development and master plans of
cities and counties.
5. Before initiating tourism and recreational develop-
ments, the carrying capacity of the natural resources
that will be impacted should be assessed. After project
implementation, sites should be continually moni-
tored, impacts identified, and measures taken to elimi-
nate environmental degradation.
6. Tourism programs should include a strong environ-
mental education component that provides guidelines
for "low-impact tourism '" stimulates an ecosystem
awareness, and provides for direct participation in con-
servation efforts.
7. Communities developing tourism based upon natural
resources should work with resource managers to en-
sure that the tourism resource is well protected and
managed.
8. Information- and data-gathering efforts related to tour-
ists and tourism should be improved and standardized.
Trends in tourism and its impact on resource manage-
ment and protection should be closely monitored.

REFERENCES

Abbey, E. 1968. Desert Solitaire. New York: Ballantine.
Boo, E. 1990. Ecotourism: The Potential and Pitfalls. Wash-
ington, D.C.: World Wildlife Fund-U.S.
Brandt, K. 1990. Assistant to the superintendent, Yellow-
stone National Park, personal communication.
Brock, I et al. 1990. Montana Tourism Marketing Research
Project. Bozeman, Montana: Montana State University.
Congressional Research Service. 1987. Greater Yellowstone
Ecosystem, An Analysis of Data Submitted by Federal and
State Agencies. Washington, D.C.: Library of Congress.
Connally, P 1990. Member of the Dubois 2000 Committee,
Dubois, Wyoming, personal communication.

74 A VISIT To KEY DESTINATIONS
D'Alesandro, N. 1985. Concessions in Our National Parks-
Are They Necessary and Appropriate? Salt Lake City: Uni-
versity of Utah, College of Law.
Greater Yellowstone Coordinating Committee (GYCC). 1989.
Vision for the Future of the Greater Yellowstone Area. Bill-
ings, Montana: GYCC.
Idaho Department of Commerce. 1989. Fremont-Teton Tour-
ism Diversification Project. Boise: Idaho Department of
Commerce.
Institute for Tourism and Recreation Research. 1989. 1988
Non-Resident Travel in Montana, An Economic Report. Mis-
soula, Montana: University of Montana.
Kocis, S. 1986. "The Adoption and Diffusion of Methods for
Estimating Recreation Use in the Pacific Northwest Re-
gion of the U.S. Forest Service." Doctoral thesis. University
of Idaho, Moscow, Idaho.
Kutay, K. 1989. "A New Ethic in Adventure Travel." Buzz-
worm 1, no. 4.
National Parks and Conservation Association (NPCA). 1988.
Parks and People: A Natural Relationship. Washington,
D.C.: NPCA.
National Park Service. 1990. Joint Winter Use Plan for Yellow-
stone National Park. Draft. Denver, Colorado: Denver Ser-
vice Center.
Public Policy Center. 1985. Building a Stronger Wyoming.
Menlo Park, California: Wyoming Futures Project, Public
Policy Center.
Sax, J. 1980. Mountains Without Handrails. Ann Arbor, Mich-
igan: University of Michigan Press.
Wyoming Recreation Commission. 1985. State Comprehen-
sive Outdoor Recreation Plan. Cheyenne, Wyoming: State
of Wyoming.
Yellowstone National Park. 1990. Winter Use Statistics. Yel-
lowstone National Park.

CHAPTER 5

Ecotourism on Family Farms and
Ranches in the American West

BILL BRYAN

Q et at the foot of the spectacular Big Horn Mountains, the
%J Z Bar 0 Ranch boasts 12,000 acres of rich bottomlands,
riparian habitat, and high drylands covered with native
grasses. The Tongue River runs through the property, creat-
ing natural wetlands that attract birds and large mammals
from miles away.
Dick and Jean Masters, together with four generations of
Masterses, live and, work on the ranch, which was home-
steaded by Dick's grandfather in 1884. Their primary source
of income is cattle, though they grow alfalfa hay, corn, oats,
barley, and soy grass, and experiment with other crops.
Several years ago, the Masterses underwent a financial cri-
sis such that they had to find other sources of income or fold.
There were several vacant guesthouses on their property,
and they often had friends and family come by on visits.
In reviewing alternatives, they came up with the idea of
supplementing their income with a bed-and-breakfast
operation.

76 A VISIT To KEY DESTINATIONS
Today, they host upwards of 100 guests during the season
(May I to mid-October), and about 25 percent of their total
income comes from visitors. They charge between $45 and
$125 per night per couple, and estimate that easily half their
take is profit.
Jean Masters cautions, however, that their strong earnings
reflect the fact that they incurred virtually no start-up or
capital costs. Guests stay in rooms that had been built'for
previous generations of Masterses and that had been unused.
Friends in the community donated the extra household
items that the Masterses needed to start out. They have hired
no staff for the venture, doing everything themselves, or call-
ing on family to help out occasionally. Their largest expend-
iture was producing a brochure about the ranch, and the
time they spent writing letters to potential clients.
Z Bar 0 Ranch was the first hospitality operation in Wyo-
ming. Today, it is one of the most successful. This is in part
due to the fact that the Masterses practice sustainable agri-
culture and sustainable ecotourism. While much of the
bottomland has been turned to irrigated farmland, the Mas-
terses have kept the riparian habitat and wetlands un-
touched, in order to keep the waters of the river clean, and
the wildlife abundant. They rotate their cattle to avoid plac-
ing too much pressure on the grasslands. They also rotate
their crops, and use other natural alternatives before they
use pesticides and chemical fertilizers. They allow hunting
and fishing on their lands, but keep a strict count of what
gets taken and shut their doors once the limit has been
reached. Some seasons they don't allow hunting at all if they
feel that there is no need for it. And they work closely with
their guests, educating them about farm life, western wild-
life and habitat, and the environment.
They are also well thought of in the community. They send
their guests into town to sample the local restaurants and to
buy souvenirs and clothes. Local schoolchildren come out to
the ranch on school outings, in order to learn about how a
ranch works. And the locals are not forbidden access to the
Masters ranch during hunting season (which does occur at

Ecotouris m@ on Family Farms and Ranches in the W@st 77
some other hospitality operations), as long as they observe
certain rules of behavior and limits on game.

FARM AND RANCH HOSPITALITY:
A NEW FORM OF ECOTOURISM

The Z Bar 0 ranch is an example of an entirely new form of
ecotourism in the West that has emerged in the last five
years-the ranch, or farm, hospitality business. The owners
of these types of operations are real farmers and ranchers
who have decided to supplement their income with money
from visitors who are interested in experiencing life on a
working ranch or farm, observing wildlife and wildlife hab-
itat, and fishing and hunting on private lands. And while
this chapter describes the phenomenon in the United States,
it is a development that holds promise for other countries as
well.
In the tri-state area of Wyoming, Montana, and Idaho,
ranch and farm hospitality operations (excluding those that
only offer hunting opportunities) have increased from a
handful in 1985 to between seventy and ninety today. And
while estimates are very rough as yet, it seems likely that
they generate at least $750 million in tourist expenditures
each year.
This phenomenon has its roots in the fact that the western
family farm and ranch is experiencing troubled times, and
that many Americans are looking for ways to "get back to
the land.'
The economic woes in the agricultural industry have
caused many small ranchers and farmers to go out of busi-
ness, liquidating their assets, and abandoning their land.
Others have tried to diversify their income. Some have
plunged into the ecotourism business. They are learning that
there is a market for their product: people who like to spend
their leisure time enjoying nature, taking advantage of pho-
tographic opportunities,' learning the historical lore of the
area, doing farm and ranch chores such as haying and fence

78 A VISIT To KEY DESTINATIONS
mending, or just talking about the future of agriculture and
other social and economic issues of the day.
The Wyoming Cooperative Extension Service has spon-
sored a program to actively promote farm and ranch recre-
ation in the state. The state's Travel Commission, Health,
and Economic Development departments have changed ad-
ministrative procedures so that farm and ranch recreation
can develop without becoming bogged down in red tape.
Farm and ranch recreation enterprises in the state have set
up their own trade and marketing association called the
Wyoming Homestay and Outdoor Adventure Association
(WHOA).
The concept has caught on in neighboring states. Colo-
rado, Nebraska, the Dakotas, and Montana have all recog-
nized farm/ranch recreation as a viable tourism enterprise
and an excellent way to supplement farm and ranch income.
Idaho is aggressively pursuing ecotourism as well, and re-
cently sponsored a conference on farmJranch recreation.
The Northern Rockies states-Idaho, Wyoming, and Mon-
tana-identify tourism as one of the most important sources
of income for the region. The numbers of tourists are up and
are continuing to rise. Ecotourists staying at farm and ranch
hospitality operations represent a growing percentage of the
total. Again, estimates are rough, but some put the number
of annual visitors at about 3,000, and the number of visitor-
days at about 11,500. This does not sound like a lot of people.
And hospitality operations can net as little as $1,000 for
their - efforts, with the most, successful seldom topping
$25,000 per year. But these funds are what makes the dif-
ference for the ranch. Without this money, many family
operations are sold to agribusiness, often with negative con-
sequences for the environment. Why are people visiting
these hospitality operations? The standard answer is: more
people, more free time, a more mobile society, and a deval-
ued dollar abroad.
That is part of it. But -the phenomenon also has its roots in
the fact that more and more people want to experience
something genuine in their vacation, a "real" adventure, not
a passive experience like lying on a beach. Travel specialist

Ecotourism on Family Farms and Ranches in the West 79
Arthur Frommer, who has just published The Future of Tour-
ism, writes that people want recreational experiences that
challenge the mind, expand horizons, and- test beliefs about
their lifestyles.
Many of these people want to spend their vacations out-
doors, fishing, hiking, camping, riding, bicycling, etc. They
are looking for a mild climate, clear and clean air, and beau-
tiful scenery.
Others, often firs t-generation urbanites, want to "return to
their roots" and have a nature-oriented leisure-time experi-
ence reminiscent of the days they spent as a youth, either on
the family farm or a relative's ranch or farm. Some want to
meet people who have different lifestyles and make their liv-
ing in ways closel related to the land.
I y

APPROPRIATE ECOTOURISM

Ecotourism on farms and ranches can be a wonderful eco-
nomic opportunity, with positive and wide-ranging social,
political, and environmental benefits. However, it should not
be viewed solely as an avenue for short-term financial gain.
There are a number of prerequisites to making ecotourism
profitable and beneficial over the long term. First, would-be
operators must decide whether offering the service is an ap-
propriate endeavor for them, given personal traits, economic
needs, state of facilities, and so forth. Second, the site must
provide appropriate recreational and educational opportu-
nities for visitors. And, third, ecotourism must be practiced
in a manner appropriate to the land and overall natural en-
vironment in which the enterprise takes place.
Tourism in the Northern Rockies and other areas has
sometimes been pushed in the direction of economic devel-
opment for its own sake. Most published data on tourism,
for example, are based on the volume of people who visit the
region,. Data on who spends what amount of money and for
which services and commodities are known but not ac-
corded much importance. Yet it is essential to ask which type
of tourist should be targeted, given economic needs and the

80 A VISIT To KEY DESTINATIONS
limitations of a fragile and delicate environment. Thus,
planning for ecotourism in the West needs to address the im-
pacts of the demand and what the appropriate response
should be.

CHARACTERISTICS OF THE PROVIDER

The ecotourism industry is not a resource-based industrial
endeavor producing a cash crop, but an economic activity in
the service sector. The operator packages his or her own ex-
periences on the farm or ranch in ways that will generate
revenues. The success of this packaging is very much depen-
dent on the personality of the provider. This must be clearly
understood by the would-be provider if his or her business is
to be enjoyable and successful.
In deciding whether a hospitality operation is appropriate
for him or her, the potential provider should also consider
whether the new economic activity will complement exist-
ing farm and ranch operations or hinder them. What might
the potential conflicts be? Will the family recreation season
conflict with the haying or grain harvest? Does the usual
cattle roundup conflict with the hunting season? Will the
sincere nalvet6 on the part of the urban visitor conflict with
the highly opinionated farmer or rancher?
Customers probably will have certain perspectives and
opinions on issues such as meat, pesticides, animals, hunt-
ing, basic farming and ranching practices, and the environ-
ment. It will be essential for providers to understand and
acknowledge these perspectives.
What about the neighbors-how will they feel about the
venture next door and will they be involved? What about the
surrounding community-how will they view such an en-
deavor? Do all family members want to be involved in the
new business?
These are the kinds of tough questions that must be asked
before setting up a hospitality operation. Farm and ranch
recreation should be an educational as well as a pleasurable
experience. The best form of education is when both parties

Ecotourism on Family Farms and Ranches in the West 81
learn from each other. Providers must ask themselves how
well they can listen to both sides of an issue, share facts ver-
sus opinions, and take constructive criticism. They must as-
sess frankly their personalities in the area of communication
and the handling of people. If strong, positive interaction
with strangers is not a forte, then would-be providers should
reconsider entering into the business.

QUALITY OF THE LOCATION

To be successful, a ranch or farm recreational provider must
first invest time and money learning about what the nature
tourist wants and expects on his or her visit, and then make
sure he or she can meet those expectations.
In most cases, tourists will come from urban areas. They
will require basic amenities, including clean water, electric-
ity, heat, cleanliness, privacy, and good beds. They will ex-
pect an accessible location, but one that is sufficiently rural.
The yard, lawn, and buildings must be in good repair.
They will also expect to see wildlife and beautiful scenery,
as well as have the opportunity to hike, ride, and partake in
other recreational activities. The location of the ranch or
farm should be able to meet these expectations.
Proximity to historical sites, natural areas, or cultural at-
tractions is also important to visitors.

APPROPRIATENESS OF LAND USE
PRACTICES

Many nature tourists are likely to view ranchers and farmers
as land stewards-that their land should be managed based
on the underlying principle that it is being held in trust for
generations to come. It is therefore particularly important
for those who want to be involved in farm/ranch recreation
to practice sustainable and environmentally sound agricul-
tural activities. Farmers should carefully assess how they

82 A VISIT To KEY DESTINATIONS
currently utilize the land and how those practices as well as
family beliefs fit into an overall land ethic. Providers must
consider issues such as the role of toxins, the concept of car-
rying capacity, increasing soil productivity organically, and
soil conservation.
Many nature tourists see themselves as environmentalists.
This is also the case for most farmers and ranchers. But, in
practice, each applies their version of environmentalism dif-
ferently. On the surface, there may be conflict and disagree-
ment. As environmental issues become an even larger
concern in the future, farm and ranch recreation can have
enormous educational value. As never before, there is a need
for people who work directly with the land to communicate
with those who benefit from such efforts but are a step or
two removed from the land base. Such conversations and the
education that results for both parties is critical to the future
of agriculture and for the future of the planet. Therefore,
farm and ranch recreation is an extremely appropriate ven-
ture for the long-term health of the land resource base.

CONCLUSION

Farm and ranch recreation can provide economic, educa-
tional, and environmental benefits: however, it is not a quick
economic fix and can dash just as many hopes and dreams
in implementation as it creates in concept. Nevertheless, it
is an exciting new trend that can contribute to the sustain-
able development of rural communities, and offset pressure
toward less environmentally sensitive alternatives such as
agribusiness.

Appendix

Farm/Ranch Hospitality Operation Checklist

In order for a farm/ranch hospitality and/or recreation op-
eration to prosper, it is essential for entrepreneurs to ap-
proach the endeavor as a business. A great deal of work
needs to be done prior to and after "hanging out a shingle"
to ensure that the effort to supplement farm/ranch income
will be successful.
Following is a checklist that should provide some guid-
ance for those who are just beginning to set up a business.
The list is based on field research and interviews with sev-
eral farmers and ranchers currently receiving guests.

I . Assess human and physical assets.
2. Discuss realistic revenue expectations. Interview oth-
ers in the business to determine how much you might
expect to net.
3. Prepare a business plan. This plan should include a
goal statement, expected revenues and expenses, and
a marketing plan. You will need to develop a rate
schedule, and,determine seasons and days of opera-
tion.
4. Prepare a marketing plan and begin promoting your
business to potential clients. Identify the target audi-
ence, prepare sales materials, and work to attract cus-
tomers.
5. Research zoning restrictions. Although zoning should
not. pose a problem for rural property owners, you'll

84 A VISIT To KEY DESTINATIONS
want to be sure your property is properly zoned for
farm/ranch recreations. You may. need to request a
variance, which can take extra time.
6. Contact key advisers. This list might include an attor-
ney, an accountant, and state travel officials. The pur-
pose of making these contacts is both to inform and to
solicit information and advice.
7. Contact your state health administrator. Rules and
regulations vis-A-vis farm/ranch recreation vary from
state to state. You will need to know at the outset what
is required in your state.
8. Research insurance. No industry standard exists;
therefore, it is essential to "comparison shop" for rea-
sonable insurance rates.
9. Learn tax procedures. Obtain a sales tax number (if
applicable in your state), learn lodging tax require-
ments.
10. Register your business name with the secretary of
state in your state.
11. Obtain a business license. The procedure and price
vary by state and county.
12. Set house rules and develop guest procedures on the
following: reservation procedures, check-in hours,
checkout time, smoking policies, use of bathrooms,
use of other areas in house or on ranch, fire exit plan,
safety measures on the farm/ranch, use of alcohol,
meal hours, pets, behavior of children.
Guests should be informed of all pertinent policies
either when a deposit request is sent out or upon ar-
rival. A typed copy should be available in each guest
room or cabin.
13. In-house policies. Just as there are rules for guests,
there should also be in-house rules for family, de-
signed to make guests comfortable and afford maxi-
mum privacy. An examplemight be: "Family is not
allowed to use the upstairs bathroom from 7:00 A.M.
to 10:00 A.M." Other issues may include mealtime
manners, household duties, attitude toward and rela-
tionships with guests.

Ecotourism on Family Farms and Ranches in the West 85
14. Prepare menus. Because food and the presentation of
meals are so important to any hospitality operation,
care should be taken to develop a number of whole-
some, nutritious menus. Guests will not expect to be
served leftovers.
15. Identify activities, recreational and otherwise, for
guests. Implicit in the farm/ranch recreation business
is the opportunity for guests to take part in some form
of activity. It will be helpful, in this initial phase, to
list every kind of activity available, from helping to
can vegetables to overnight horseback trips. You can
use this list to design a "guest activities calendar."
Such a calendar might change weekly, monthly, and
seasonally.

I
I
I
I PART 11
I
I The Nuts and Bolts of
I Successful Nature Tourism
I
I
1.
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I

CHAPTER 6

The Economics of Nature Tourism:
Determining If It Pays

PAUL B. SHERMAN AND JO HN A. DixoN

C
onsider a tropical rain forest somewhere in Central
America. Though it is presently inaccessible, an exten-
sion of a national highway will soon open up the area. Vari-
ous potential users of the resource become in terested in the
possibilities. A campesino considers the areas potential for
agricultural development and sees dollar signs. A logger
looks at the timber resources and also sees money to be
-Tnade. A nature tourism operator reaches the same conclu-
sion. The government, on the other hand, sees a major quan-
dary.
Each potential user of this previously inaccessible re-
source seeks monetary benefits from its exploitation and use.
Their different visions, however, are likely to conflict. Some
uses will preclude others, though ce rtain combinations of
uses can coexist.
Governments face the difficult decision of how best to use
these natural areas. Should they be preserved intact?
Should they be exploited for short-term profits? Should they

90 THE NUTS AND BOLTS OF SUCCESSFUL NATURE TOURISM
be converted to another use such as agriculture? Should
tourism be encouraged? How should decisions be made?
Keeping the natural area relatively intact, thus ensuring
the survival of the plants and animals it contains, providing
opportunities for recreation and tourism, and maintaining
the other benefits such as watershed protection may sound
reasonable to someone who has no economic stake in the
alternatives.
However, as mentioned earlier, the campesino or logger
may also have plans for the same site. These alternative uses
of natural areas often appear extremely attractive in the
short term. Many tropical forests, for example, contain large
amounts of valuable timber. Other areas can be converted to
uses such as agriculture, grazing, or tree crops. In many
cases, a traditional economic analysis would find that some
form of development would provide greater financial returns
than the modest direct returns from maintaining an area in
its natural state, even if the latter supports ecological func-
tions and a small-scale nature tourism industry. As a result,
there is often substantial pressure to convert and exploit
natural areas.
In addition to pressure on natural areas from proposed de-
velopment, projects, in many countries an even greater
threat is gradual encroachment and resource extraction by
nearby residents. These patterns of resource use, whether
nonsustainable (a campesino clearing steep slopes for annual
crop production) or sustainable (collection of various minor
forest products in wooded areas), are not easily stopped by
the mere creation of a protected area. The economic pres-
sures on the resource users continue and, barring use of ex-
treme regulatory measures, must be taken into account if
effective protection is to be provided.
Thus economics, and the quest for financial returns, will
most likely drive decision-making about the use of natural
areas (though politics may also be a factor). The government
must arbitrate and make decisions that will allow some uses
and prohibit others. When deciding whether to allow the for-
est or other natural resources to be used for nature tourism,
the government should ask the following type of economi-
cally driven questions.

The Economics of Nature Tourism 91
1 .Does nature tourism pay? That is, are the benefits from
nature tourism greater than the costs?
2. Which benefits are forgone if the site is not developed
for alternative uses? What are the total costs of protect-
ing a site for nature tourism?
3. Who owns the resource? Is it publicly or privately
owned?
4. What approach should be taken in carrying out an eco-
nomic analysis? Should the decision-making criterion
emphasize public gain or private financial benefit?
5. What are the total benefits from nature tourism, in-
cluding benefits that may not be translated directly
into tourist revenue dollars. Can these benefits be iden-
tified and quantified?
6. Is nature tourism an economically efficient way to gen-
erate income and help maintain and conserve natural
areas?

In reality, these economic questions must be framed at two
levels: financial and social. We need to know if nature tour-
ism will pay as a business venture, and if it will pay as a
social investment, particularly if governments must protect
natural areas to support it.
A financial analysis of the various alternative uses of an
undeveloped natural area alone is often misleading. Such an
analysis is designed only to examine costs and benefits as
measured by market prices-it leaves out many important
factors that are not bought or sold. Many of the benefits of
conserving natural areas are difficult to measure (e.g., bio-
diversity, watershed protection, filtering of pollutants).
These benefits are not exchanged in markets and, conse-
quently, the value of conserving, rather than developing, an
area is often underestimated in a financial analysis. This
leads to a bias toward development and exploitive use of an
area, with the end result being that fewer natural areas are
protected than would be the case if all of the benefits of con-
servation were acknowledged.
A social welfare analysis, on the other hand, will account
for the social and intangible benefits and costs of an area,
including conservation. This type of analysis can distinguish

92 THE NUTS AND BOLTS OF SUCCESSFUL NATURE TOURISM
between private, financial benefits accruing to individuals
or firms and public, social benefits (what economists call
(d social welfare benefits"). It facilitates the decision-making
process by providing three categories that describe the na-
ture and scale of the economic benefits of the site and who
receives them. The three categories are: privately beneficial,
socially beneficial, or undetermined benefits.

PRIVATELY BENEFICIAL

In some areas, the economic benefits directly obtainable by
individuals, groups, or firms are larger than the associated
costs or the benefits of alternative uses. In these cases, the
individual will provide the "service" (i.e., recreation and
protection of a natural area) without government interven-
tion. Examples of such cases are not uncommon, but the
areas tend to be small and the nature of the service provided
rather specific.
Privately run recreational areas such as campgrounds, ski
resorts, or game reserves, for example, often keep limited
portions of an area in its natural state, in order to keep cus-
tomers. Outstanding areas such as the Gala'pagos Islands or
Yosemite National Park, though currently administered by
national governments, are also examples of privately bene-
ficial areas.
Some natural areas, currently unprotected, may be con-
sidered so important that private individuals or groups feel
strongly enough to purchase them from their current own-
ers. Conservation groups such as the Nature Conservancy in
the United States have begun acquiring important natural
areas threatened by development. These groups pool dona-
tions from their members to acquire development rights or
to buy areas that might not be protected otherwise. The con-
tributors to such private conservation efforts perceive the
benefits to outweigh the costs. In addition, the sites often
become nature tourism destinations for the group's mem-
bers.

The Economics of Nature Tourism 93
SOCIALLY BENEFICIAL
In this more common scenario, the net benefits to society at
large are positive, but one individual or privately owned
concern cannot capture all the benefits effectively and there-
fore is not willing to provide protection or preservation. Pro-
tection of upper watershed areas, for example, may be
justified by their effects on the water supply and water qual-
ity for a downstream area, more than for their tourism re-
ceipts. In East Africa, government support of wildlife parks
is usually socially beneficial in terms of attracting tourists
and the wide range of associated tourist expenditures both
within and outside protected areas.
Many nature tourism destinations fall in the socially ben-
eficial category. Since these areas may not be capable of gen-
erating direct revenues greater than their costs, some
government support may be needed to maintain them.

UNDETERMINED BENEFITS

In some cases, it may be difficult to determine whether the
net benefits of maintaining a natural area for tourism and
other uses are positive or negative. The costs of protection
may be known, but the benefits may be diffuse or difficult to
measure. This is especially true of wilderness areas or re-
mote locations where nature tourism may be sporadic or of
very low intensity. Governments may well decide to protect
some of these areas, but at what cost and to what extent?
These are issues that need to be addressed.
Let us return to our initial scenario, where@ the campesino,
the logger, and the nature tourism operator are eyeing the
same piece of real estate. They will assess the economic ben-
efits and costs differently, but will use a typical financial
analysis model. It is the government's responsibility to con-
duct a social welfare analysis that includes impacts of alter-
native development options, regardless of whether or not
these impacts occur on-site or elsewhere in the economy.

94 THE NUTS AND BOLTS OF SUCCESSFUL NATURE TOURISM
In this chapter, we will demonstrate how to perform and
implement a social welfare analysis for ecotourism projects.
Our thesis is that ecotourism needs to be considered both as
a business (and therefore subject to a financial profit/loss
analysis) and as a type of resource use that helps ensure
other, long-term social goals (such as protection of natural
areas, biodiversity, or retaining options for the future).

BENEFITS AND COSTS OF
NATURE TOURISM

In performing a social welfare analysis of nature tourism, we
will need to weigh its costs and benefits. If the net benefits
to society (total benefits minus total costs) are greater than
zero, then nature tourism is a potentially desirable form of
land use. However, even if these net benefits are positive, this
does not imply that nature tourism is the best use; the net
benefits of nature tourism must then be compared with the
net benefits of other alternative forms of land use. Ideally,
each piece of land should be used according to its "highest
and best use," that is, the use that generates the greatest net
benefits to society. In broad terms, there are three additional
alternatives that should normally be considered: leaving the
land in its natural state but not allowing nature tourism;
developing resort tourism; or developing the land for other
uses such as agriculture or housing that would normally pre-
clude tourism.

BENEFITS
Table 6.1 shows the types of benefits that may accompany
nature tourism: watershed protection, ecosystem preserva-
tion, biodiversity, education and research, consumption,
nonconsumptive benefits, and future values.
While some benefits of nature tourism may be relatively
easy to value (e.g., tourist receipts), others such as biodivers-
ity, nonconsumptive benefits, and future values are more dif-
ficult to analyze (Conrad 1980). Still, much can be done

The Economics of Nature Tourism 95
TABLE 6. 1. Benefits That Accompany Nature Tourism

1. Watershed values
Erosion control
Local flood reduction
Regulation of stream flows
2. Ecological processes
Fixing and cycling of nutrients
Soil formation
Circulation and cleansing of air and water
Global life support
3. Biodiversity
Gene resources
Species protection
Ecosystem diversity
Evolutionary processes
4. Education and research
5. Consumptive benefits
Timber
Wildlife products
Nontimber forest products (e.g., edible plants, herbs,
medicines, rattan, building materials, rubber)
6. Nonconsumptive benefits
Aesthetic
Spiritual
Cultural/historical
Existence value

7. Future values
Option value
Quasi-option value

Source: Dixon and Sherman 1990.

either to directly value. these benefits or at least to provide a
framework where choices can be made that explicitly con-
sider qualitative benefits.
Benefits from nature tourism can be analyzed in several
ways. Specific examples follow:

96 THE NUTS AND BOLTS OF SUCCESSFUL NATURE TOURISM
Spatial dimension. Benefits can be divided into local, re-
gional, national, or global benefits. Local benefits accrue to
the immediate area. They may include employment oppor-
tunities, new markets for locally produced goods, and indi-
rect benefits such as improved infrastructure associated
with tourism development.
Regional benefits fall into the same categories, though
their overall importance may be less due to the larger size of
the region as compared with the local area. For example,
creation of fifty jobs may be significant locally but relatively
unimportant from a regional perspective.
The national benefits of tourism may include tax revenues
collected from visitors, the additional foreign exchange
earnings from international visitors to the country, and any
capital investment from either domestic or foreign sources
that might otherwise have been spent outside the country's
borders. They may be larger or smaller than the local/re-
gional benefits. If a new nature tourism development serves
as a substitute for another, preexisting site within the coun-
try, there may be no additional net benefits for the nation
associated with the new site. Only to the extent that the new
site attracts new visitors or increases the average length of
stay will the benefits associated with the new site truly add
to national benefits.
The global benefits of nature tourism stem from benefits
such as watershed protection, ecosystem support, biodiver-
sity, and consumption. Since nature tourism frequently re-
quires the preservation of an area in a relatively pristine
state, other benefits associated with this protection arise.
For example, nature tourism may be consistent with species
and habitat protection (though not necessarily so). There
may also be existence and option values generated through-
out the world. One problem with these global benefits, how-
ever, is that they are freely provided-there is no obligation
on the part of recipients to compensate the country of origin.

Advate versus social benefits. The broad range of benefits
associated with nature tourism can be divided further into
private and social benefits. The private benefits associated

The Economics of Nature Tourism 97
with nature tourism are the financial returns received by
those providing tourism services. Tour operators, transpor-
tation companies, lodging operators, foo 'd and equipment
suppliers-all these groups receive financial remuneration
for services provided. These profits are what drive private
sector interest in nature tourism.
Social benefits can be described broadly as any gains in
social welfare, either direct or indirect, associated with na-
ture tourism. Such gains may be either financial in nature
or nonmonetary, such as ecological benefits. A number of
the benefits listed in table 6.1, for example, are primarily
social benefits: ecological processes, biodiversity, noncon-
sumptive benefits, and future values. Other benefits such as
watershed protection and education/research are partly pri-
vate, partly social benefits.
While government officials may be primarily interested in
the amount of expenditures and employment opportunities
generated, they also should be aware of the larger picture-
that is, the social benefits associated with nature tourism.
Most private sector interests will be interested only in finan-
cial aspects and specifically the profits they are able to earn.
Nonprofit organizations and educational groups often fall in
between-they may seek to earn at least a nominal profit but
also may consider other social benefits associated with na-
ture tourism.

Primazy versus secondazy benefits. Benefits can be divided
into primary and secondary tourism-related expenditures.
Primary expenditures are direct purchases by tourists of
goods and services. Secondary expenditures (sometimes
called "indirect benefits") occur when the recipients of the
primary expenditures spend the money they receive from
tourists. For example, when a native tour guide is paid and
then spends his salary on food and housing, these expendi-
tures are secondary expenditures. These secondary expendi-
tures often work their way through the system many timest
creating what is termed a "multiplier effect "-the initial pri-
mary expenditures are multiplied as the money is spent and
then spent again.

98 THE NUTS AND BOLTS OF SUCCESSFUL NATURE TOURISM
The extent of the multiplier effect depends on who is the
recipient of, the direct expenditures. If the bulk of the pri-
mary expenditures is for imported goods or services pro-
vided by foreigners, who then take the money out of the
country, then little of the money is respent and the multi-
plier will be small. If the primary expenditures go to local
entrepreneurs, who spend the money locally, and which then
gets spent again locally, the multiplier will be much larger.
In each round of expenditures, the money respent is less
than the amount spent in the previous round-some of the
money will be saved, some will go to pay taxes, some will
leave the area. The money that is not respent is known as
"leakage"-it leaks out of the local economy.
The multiplier effect can also be applied to employment.
The employment multiplier looks at how many jobs are in-
directly created for each job directly created by the tourist
operation.

COSTS
As with benefits, costs can be categorized in a number of
ways and will be viewed differently from different perspec-
tives. The following presents one potentially useful catego-
rization of costs.

Direct costs. Direct costs are financial outlays associated
with the establishment and maintenance of a nature tourism
site. These costs may be borne either by the government sec-
tor, the tour operator, or, as is often the case, split between
the two. In many cases, the highest single cost is developing
access to the site. By its very nature, most forms of nature
tourism take place off the beaten path. While remoteness is
a draw for many people, access must be easy enough not to
discourage potential visitors. Depending on the site and the
activity involved, access may require upgrading or develop-
ment of roads, airstrips, or boat docking facilities. Since
these facilities may provide benefits in addition to access to
nature tourism sites, governments may be willing to contrib-
ute to their cost.

The Economics of Nature Tourism 99
Other facilities for tourists can be developed and provided
either by governments or private operators. Lodging and
food service are more amenable to private development than
multipurpose items such as roads. Regardless of who devel-
ops the facilities, however, it is critical that ample attention
be paid to handling the wastes such as trash and sewage.
The full costs of dealing with these items must be considered
at the development stage. Similarly, the costs of maintaining
and- repairing all facilities must be accounted for.

Indirect costs. Certain types of nature tourism may be as-
sociated with damages indirectly caused by the existence of
the nature tourism industry. The most common example of
these indirect costs are damages caused by wildlife, either
inside or beyond the boundary of the tourist enterprise.
These damages may include crops trampled or eaten, as well
as harm to people, livestock, or materials. Examples include
damages to crops by elephants in Indonesia and Sri Lanka,
predation of livestock by lions in Africa, and problems with
tigers in India. These indirect costs can create local resent-
ment of plans to expand protected areas and associated na-
ture tourism activities.
Private operators usually will not consider these indirect
costs in their financial analysis of nature tourism. Govern-
ments, on the other hand, should anticipate such problems
and develop means of compensating those adversely af-
fected. Though not compelled to compensate for such dam-
ages, governments should realize that community attitudes
toward the success of nature tourism will be much more pos-
itive if nearby residents are reimbursed for any damages
they suffer. The costs of such compensation programs should
be considered a cost of doing business, and included in a
social welfare analysis.

Opportunity costs. The opportunity costs of nature tour-
ism are the benefits that society or individuals must give up
if nature tourism precludes other uses of an area. They may
include forgone resources from the area (such as timber, an-
imals, edible plants), as well as any resources that could

100 THE NUTS AND BOLTS OF SUCCEMFUL NATURE TOURISM
have been developed through more intensive exploitation or
conversion to.some alternative use. The magnitude of the op-
portunity costs will depend on the type of nature tourism
and the potential alternative uses of the area. If no profitable
alternative exists for the area, then the opportunity costs
may be very low or even nonexistent.
Not all opportunity costs will be apparent in a standard
financial analysis. Nature tourism may involve restrictions
on local use of resources; for example, hunting is banned in
many national parks, which means that local residents can
no longer count on those resources for sustenance or liveli-
hood. The value of products no longer available is also an
opportunity cost and should be included in the analysis. As
with the case of indirect costs, local residents should be com-
pensated for any losses they suffer as a result of establishing
a nature tourism site.

COMPARING COSTS AND BENEFITS
Comparing costs and benefits differs depending on whether
one is using a financial or social welfare analysis. In the first
case, it may try to determine the profitability of a nature
tourism enterprise. Alternatively, a social welfare analysis
may seek to determine whether nature tourism is socially
desirable. The latter is much broader in scope, and often
more difficult. While there are well-established methods of
financial analysis based on market prices, social welfare
analysis must consider a broader range of benefits than just
financial returns. All e'ffects on individuals-whether mone-
tary; environmental, cultural, or otherwise-must be in-
cluded. Since many of these effects have no market prices,
the task of placing values on them is a complex one, too com-
plex to develop here. interested readers can find details on
valuing environmental effects in Dixon et al. (1988), Huf-
schmidt et al. (1983), or Dixon and Sherman (1990).

Financial analysis. A private operator considering devel-
opment of a nature tourism site or coordinating trips to an
established site should perform a financial analysis to deter-

The Economics of Nature Tourism 101
mine the profitability of the proposed inves tment. The finan-
cial analysis begins with a list of the expected costs and
benefits that will occur in each year. Capital costs can be
entered in the year they are spent, spread over the life of the
project (amortized) if internal funds are used, or spread over
the loan period if costs are to be financed through debt. . In
addition to the initial capital costs, annual operating and
maintenance costs are included, along with expected
changes over time. The interest rate used will be either the
market rate of interest (if funds are borrowed) or if internal
funds are used, the opportunity cost of capital (the returns
that these funds could generate if invested in another proj-
ect). Revenues will be based on projections of number of vis-
itors multiplied by the revenue per visitor.
Governments may also choose to perform a financial anal-
ysis when considering nature tourism as a form of land use.
This will show whether nature tourism will pay for itself, or
whether a subsidy will be needed. In some situations, subsi-
dies may be warranted-if, for example, nature tourism will
achieve other national goals, such as increasing foreign ex-
change receipts or developing employment opportunities in
low-income regions.

Social wellaz-e analysis. From a national perspective, the
economic analysis should consider the social benefits, and
social costs, of the proposed activity. The most common form
of social welfare analysis is benefit-cost analysis (BCA). Like
financial analysis, BCA involves the evaluation of a stream
of benefits and costs over some chosen period of time. Here,
however, the focus is not just on financial costs and benefits
but on the social welfare of the community as well. The
prices used are not always market prices; instead, what
might be called "economic efficiency prices" are used. Dis-
tortions such as those caused by taxes, subsidies, or regula-
tory effects are removed so that prices reflect true resource
commitments to society.
BCA may also include effects that are ignored in a finan-
cial analysis. If tourism is accompanied by some undesirable
environmental effects, the value of these effects is also con-

102 THE NUTS AND BOLTS OF SUCCESSFUL NATURE TOURISM
sidered. This is true whether these effects occur at the tour-
ism site or some distance away from it.
overall, there are a number of differences between a social
BCA (sometimes referred to as a SBCA) and a financial anal-
ysis (see table 6.2). Whereas a financial analysis includes
subsidies, taxes, and interest payments, an SBCA considers
these as transfer payments. A transfer payment is simply a
transfer of resources between two different units within the
economy; for example, income tax is a transfer from an in-
dividual to the government. Transfer payments change the
distribution of income but do not change the overall amount
of income. Hence, a BCA does not include them in evaluat-
ing overall social welfare changes.
A financial analysis usually uses market borrowing rates
to determine the discount rate; a SBCA uses a social dis-
count rate that is usually lower and reflects a number of so-
cietal decisions. Prices may be similarly adjusted. Details of
the differences between financial and SBCA can be found in
Hufschmidt et al. (1983) and Dixon and Hufschmidt (1986).
These references also discuss decision criteria such as net
present value (NPV), internal rate of return (IRR), and
benefit-cost ratio (BCR).
While relatively straightforward in theory, preparing a
BCA for a proposed nature tourism project is often difficult
in practice. Evaluating the environmental and cultural ef-
fects, both positive and negative, associated with nature
tourism is particularly problematic. In most cases, at least a
portion of these effects will remain unquantified. Therefore,
the quantified net benefits will often be less than the actual
total benefits from nature tourism.
if the quantifiable benefits alone are greater than the mea-
sured costs (and also greater than the net benefits from al-
ternative uses of the site), nature tourism is a viable option.
When the quantifiable benefits associated with tourism are
less than the costs, however, or when the net benefits are pos-
itive but less than the" benefits associated with another alter-
native use, the decision-making process becomes more
difficult. In both these cases, governments must decide
whether the nonquantified benefits associated with nature

The Economics of Nature Tourism 103
TABLE 6.2 A Compatison of Financial and
Social Benefit-Cost Analysis

Financial SBCA
Focus Net returns to equity capital Net returns to society
or to private group or indi-
vidual
Purpose Indication of incentive to Determine if government in-
adopt or implement vestment is justified on eco-
nomic efficiency basis
Prices Markevor administered (may May require "shadow prices"
assume that markets are per- (e.g., adjustments for monop-
fect or that administered oly in markets, external ef-
prices have compensated for fects, unemployed or
imperfections) underemployed factors, over-
valued currency)
Taxes Cost of production Transfer payments to govern-
ments-deducted from costs
of project inputs and outputs
Subsidies Source of revenue Transfer payments from gov-
ernments-value of subsidies
added to project costs of in-
puts and outputs
Loans Increase capital resources A transfer payment; transfer
available a claim to resource flow
Interest or A financial cost; decreases A transfer payment
loan repay- capital resources available
ment
Discount rate Marginal cost of money; Opportunity cost of capital;
market borrowing rate social time preference rate
Income dis- Can be measured by net re- Is not considered in standard
tribution turns to individual factors of economic efficiency analysis;
production such as land, la- can be done as separate anal-
bor, and capital ysis or as weighted efficiency
analysis

SOURCE:. Dixon, James and Sherman 1989; adapted from Hitzhusen 1982.

104 THE NUTS AND BOLTS OF SUCCESSFUL NATURE TOURISM
tourism justify either a subsidy or forgoing the additional
benefits associated with the alternative land uses.
The siting of major infrastructure facilities, such as dams,
ports, or airports, may have potential direct or indirect im-
pacts on areas used for or suitable for nature tourism. The
social BCA of such projects must examine all the impacts as
well as other possible alternatives. (The suggested project is
assumed to pass a financial analysis-e.g., positive net ben-
efits-or else it would not have been proposed.)
A classic case in the United States occurred in Hell's Can-
yon (Krutilla and Fisher 1985). In this case, a series of dams
would have flooded Hell's Canyon and disrupted the last
wild river in the area, a popular recreation site for residents
and visitors. In an innovative study, Krutilla and Fisher ex-
amined a number of aspects of the preservation-versus-
development alternatives. In the end, the dams were not
built and the canyon was left intact. This type of analysis is
sometimes referred to as "opportunity cost analysis." Here,
the analyst compares the net economic benefits of alterna-
tive uses. While the net economic benefits of development
usually can be monetized relatively precisely (in the case of
Hell's Canyon, these were power generation benefits), nature
tourism and the associated ecological protection often in-
volve many nonquantifiable benefits. The net monetary ben-
efits of development are first compared with the quantifiable
benefits from nature tourism. If the former are larger than
the latter, then the analyst looks at how large the nonquan-
tifiable benefits would have to be to outweigh the total ben-
efits of development. If it appears that the nonquantified
benefits will be at least this large, then nature tourism
would be the preferred option.
In addition to environmental and cultural effects, other
nonquantifiable effects include job creation and foreign ex-
change impacts. While these may be desirable, they are not
easily converted to dollar terms. Moreover, these effects
must be compared with other possibilities for the area-
while creation of twenty jobs in a nature tourism enterprise
might seem beneficial, it is not truly so if some alternative
development would provide forty jobs. As discussed earlier,

The Economics of Nature Tourism 105
the benefits of nature tourism must be weighed against the
best alternative use-only the difference between the two al-
ternatives is actually a benefit.
In some cases, a natural area may have been given pro-
tected status already, and the analysis is being performed
only to determine whether or not nature tourism should be
allowed. In this case, the analysis is simpler, since develop-
ment alternatives need not be evaluated. First, the financial
costs and benefits of nature tourism are estimated. The net
financial benefits are then compared with other effects, such
as environmental impacts (which should also be monetized
to the extent possible). All of this information is then used to
determine if social welfare will be improved by allowing
tourism.

DISTRIBUTION OF BENEFITS AND COSTS
The potential profitability of a nature tourism enterprise is
only one of many factors used to determine whether or not
it is desirable. While profitability may be the most impor-
tant factor in a private operator's decision, governments
may be more interested in how the benefits and costs will be
distributed. If nature tourism will provide large profits to a
foreign-owned company but adversely affect local residents,
it may not be in the country's best interests to allow it. On
the other hand, a locally owned company that makes an ef-
fort to include nearby residents may be much more desir-
able, even if the enterprise generates little or no profit.
Consider a publicly owned site suitable for outdoor recre-
ation and believed to be capable of supporting a profitable
tourism operation. Three alternatives exist: selling the
site to a private operator; leasing the use of the site to a
private operator; or establishing a government-owned
and -operated enterprise.
If the government sells .the site, it loses a great deal of con-
trol over what type of development and management occurs.
The buyer will probably attempt to maximize profits, possi-
bly at the expense of social benefits. On the other hand, if the
government leases the rights to use the site, it can establish

106 THE NUTS AND BOLTS OF SUCCESSFUL NATURE TOURISM
conditions under which the leaseholder must operate. Under
this setup, the government can mandate conditions that are
more socially beneficial by, for example, establishing a min-
imum percentage of jobs that must go to local residents or
limiting the allowable number of visitors per year.
Governments can also choose to operate the tourism en-
terprise alone. While governments often may be less efficient
than the private sector, this option gives the government the
greatest leeway in operating the tourism enterprise in a
manner that maximizes local benefits. Such a policy may,
however, be at the expense of profits. Governments must
make a policy decision on this issue-does the increase in
local benefits outweigh the reduction in profits?
Private ownership of nature tourism sites may be a viable
option in some cases. While governments may have less over-
sight authority, a private owner will recognize that it is in
his own self-interest to maintain the site to ensure its contin-
ued attraction to visitors. Monteverde Reserve in Costa Rica
and the Community Baboon Sanctuary in Belize are but two
examples of successful privately owned nature tourism des-
tinations (Boo 1990).
Ideally, nature tourism should be beneficial for everyone
involved- tourism operators receive profits, governments
receive tax revenues and foreign exchange, visitors enjoy
their experience, and local residents receive jobs and in-
creased income from visitor expenditures. Too often, how-
ever, this is not the case for the latter. Unlike everyone else
whose participation is voluntary, local residents may be un-
willing participants and are the ones who lose.
Opening an area to tourism often means a dramatic
change in lifestyle for local residents. Depending on their
previous level of isolation, village life may be totally dis-
rupted by drastic cultural changes. The introduction of rel-
atively wealthy visitors may cause large price increases and
shortages of certain goods in local markets. While this may
mean profits for a few, the general population often suffers
ill effects. In some cases, markets in drugs and prostitution,
and adoption of other undesirable practices, may develop.

The Economics of Nature Tourism 107
Such negative impacts need not always occur, however.
With proper foresight', many can be avoided or minimized.
Given the importance of this issue, special attention must be
given to ways of maximizing local benefits; this topic is dis-
cussed more fully in the next section.
In addition to the effects on local people, the effects on the
local environment must also be considered. These can arise
either directly, as a result of tourism and the additional
people using the area, or indirectly, from increased access
associated with tourism development. Erosion from hiking
trails, deforestation for firewood, increased trash and sew-
age, clearing for accommodation facilities- these conse-
quences and others can be severe in the absence of adequate
regulatory and enforcement efforts by the authority respon-
sible. And if a new road is built to ease access for tourists,
for example, it also may make it easier for people to move
into the area, with subsequent clearing of forests for farm-
land. Governments should take measures to ensure that this
secondary development does not unduly threaten the area.
The adverse effects of these impacts are often felt hardest
at the local level. If tourism is not to "destroy" itself, proper
planning and management are critical at an early stage.
Nature tourism can also bring about positive influences on
the environment. Revenues collected through entrance fees,
hotel taxes, sales tax, or other means can provide much
needed funds for natural area protection and management.
Properly allocated, these funds can be used to improve an
area and minimize any negative environmental effects asso-
ciiated with tourism.
The distribution of benefits and costs can be considered
within an economic analysis in two ways. The analysis could
include only those benefits and costs that remain in the
country (or region or village). This would eliminate opera-
tions that primarily benefit outside interests at the expense
of local residents. Alternatively, weights can be placed on
benefits and costs that a ccrue to different groups. For ex-
ample, benefits that accrue to local residents in poor villages
might be multiplied by a factor of two, while benefits to

108 THE NUTS AND BOLTS OF SUCCESSFUL NATURE TOURISM
wealthy developers might be weighted by only a fraction.
Similarly, costs that adversely affect local residents might be
given greater weight than those affecting the wealthy. (Use
of weights in BCA is discussed extensively in sources such as
Ray 1984 and Squire and van der Tak 1975).
It is also possible to set a constraint on the allowable dis-
tribution of benefits. This involves setting targets that estab-
lish a minimum acceptable distribution of benefits among a
designated low-income group or area. Only projects that
will provide a certain percentage of benefits to members of
this group are given consideration under this scenario.

NATURE TOURISM AND
ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT

Properly implemented, nature tourism can integrate conser-
vation and rural development by helping to protect valuable
natural areas by providing revenues for planning and man-
agement, stimulating economic development through tour-
ism expenditures, and providing jobs and markets for local
goods.
Nature tourism has the potential to help economic devel-
opment at both the local and the national level. Depending
on the scale of the nature tourism industry relative to the
size of the local economy, the effect on the local level can be
anywhere from minimal to substantial. At the national level,
nature tourism is likely to have less impact, but it still may
have significant influence in countries with small economies
or where the potential size of the industry is very large. In
Kenya, for example, the safari industry generates foreign ex-
change earnings of some $350 million to $400 million per
year and is Kenya's largest source of foreign exchange.
In this section, we will first look at how national and local
governments can maximize the revenues they receive from
nature tourism. Then we will discuss how to maximize ben-
efits for local residents.

The Economics of Nature Tourism 109

MAXIMIZING GoVERNMENT REVENUES
While nature tourism has the potential to provide substan-
tIial benefits to countries with outstanding nature tourism
sites, this will not always be the case. Too often the majority
of benefits accrue to the tour operator and little remainsin-
country. Boo (1990) cites a World Bank study (Frueh 1988)
that estimates that over one-half of gross tourism revenues
in the developing countries leak back to developed countries.
This is hypothesized to be even higher in the least-developed
countries, where most of the goods used by tourists are im-
ported (Mathieson and Wall 1982). Nevertheless, there are
a number of mechanisms governments can put in place to
increase the benefits their country receives from nature tour-
ism.

User fees. The easiest method of capturing benefits from
nature tourism is to charge a fee to use the area. Though
many countries already charge small fees at cultural sites
and in national parks, few countries have instituted fed
schedules that reflect consumers' willingness to pay. While a
small, token payment is clearly better than no fee at all
there is no reason for a country, especially a developing
country, to subsidize the cost of foreigners' visits.
Developing countries should consider adopting a two-tier
fee system, with a lower charge for domestic residents and a
higher charge for international visitors. Some countries
have already instituted such a system; China, for example,
uges a two-tiered fee structure for most cultural and historic
sites. Given the expense of international travel, even a rela-
tively high fee of US $10 or more per day would probably
have a negligible effect on the total number of visitors. This
is especially true for unique areas that can handle only a
limited number of visitors. In the Mountain Gorilla Project
(MGP) in Rwanda, for example, foreigners are charged an
entrance fee of $170 per day and yet demand has remained
strong. It has been noted that this is among the highest such
fee charged anywhere in the world and may be near the UP-
per limit of visitor willingness-to-pay (Lindberg 1989).

110 THE NUTS AND BOLTS OF SUCCESSFUL NATURE ToL RISM
Figure 6.1 Mountain bi Rwwzda,

7W
J__

1A
W&C

User fees help to support the Saba Marine Park in the
Netherland Antilles. Since the main attraction of the park is
its scuba diving and snorkeling, divers are charged S1 per
dive, paid through the dive boat operators, to support con-
servation activities. This modest fee provides valuable reve-
nue and is unnoticed in the overall costs of divin2 (van't Hof
1989).
Fees for government-owned accommodations near nature
tourism sites should be priced at levels comparable to pri-
vatelv owned accommodations. Camping fees could also be
set on a two-tier system as suggested for entrance fees. At
present, manv national parks charge very low accommoda-
tion or camping fees, resulting in excess demand for these
facilities and insufficient funds for operation and mainte-
nance. Businesslike behavior can be as beneficial to public
operations as It is to private ones.

Concession fees. In addition to charging fees directl-v to
visitors, fees can also be charged to individuals or firms who
provide services to these visitors. This would include licens-

The Economics of Nature Tourism III
ing of concessions for food, lodging, transportation, guide
services, and retail stores. By auctioning or leasing the
rights to operate such concessions, governments can control
the types of development in and nearby nature tourism sites
and simultaneously raise revenues to help maintain the
area. Governments also can impose conditions on conces-
sion leases to address other objectives such as hiring local
employees or selling locally produced goods.

Royalties. Establishment of royalty systems on activities
and products in tourist areas is another potential source of
revenue. For example, permission for books, photos, or films
to be made at tourism sites could be exchanged for some
percentage of the revenues made on these items. In the Saba
Marine Park, sales of T-shirts and guidebooks are a major
source of revenue. Such souvenir sales, either direct or via
licensing, can be major revenue producers.

Tax policies. Governments can enact tax policies to in-
crease the revenues they receive from nature tourism. Per-
haps the most common type of tax is a hotel room tax, which
is also relatively popular among residents since it falls pri-
marily on visitors. Hotel room taxes of 5 to 10 percent are
found in many areas.
Special taxes also can be enacted near popular tourist
sites. In prewar Cambodia, for example, the famous complex
of ruins associated with Angkor Wat was maintained by the
government but was completely open to visitors without any
formal payment. This enhanced the visitors' enjoyment of
the site and allowed casual exploration. The government,
however, collected a special tax on all hotel rooms in the
nearby town of Siemr6ap to support its conservation and
preservation efforts. Since virtually all visitors to Angkor
stayed in these hotels (*and the ruins were the main reason
for people coming to the town), this was an effective and un-
obtrusive means of revenue collection.
Other forms of taxes include sales or excise taxes on

112 THE NUTS AND BOLTS OF SUCCESSFUL NATURE TOURISM
tourist-related goods and services. These might be levied on
food bought in restaurants, specialized equipment, and tour
guide services.

Donation programs. Governments can take advantage of
the increasing international awareness of the problems
faced by important natural areas by establishing and pro-
moting donation programs. Such programs can be geared
toward both tourists and nontourists. For tourists, guides
can point out the problems of protecting the area, and en-
courage donations to help alleviate these pressures. To reach
nontourists (and potential tourists), governments might join
with conservation groups in a campaign to raise funds from
interested individuals.

MAXIMIZING LOCAL BENEFITS
One of the critical issues concerning nature tourism is its
impact on local residents, and especially rural villagers, in
developing countries. Since much of the growth in nature
tourism will take place in such areas, it is important that
steps are taken at an early stage to ensure that local resi-
dents benefit from the tourist industry.
The most direct way of benefiting local communities is to
employ as many residents as possible in tourism-related ser-
vices. This includes jobs in restaurants, accommodation fa-
cilities, and as guides. Other employment possibilities
include construction activities, helping to build trails, pro-
viding daily maintenance, and retail sales. If local workers
do not possess the skills needed, training programs should
be considered before bringing in workers from other areas.
Use of locally produced goods will also benefit the com-
munity. Governments and/or NGOs can help farmers grow
crops and livestock to supply tourist facilities. Promotion of
local handicrafts also provides income-earning opportuni-
ties.
Local residents also will benefit if a portion of fees col-

The Economics of Nature Tourism 113
lected from nature tourism is earmarked for them. This is
especially important if local residents have had to give up
use of an area to ensure its continued existence for tourism.
For example, in many countries, collection of firewood, food,
timber, or other products is not allowed in national parks.
This loss of income may be devastating to people already
living at or near subsistence levels.
Using a portion of the fees collected to compensate local
residents provides a means of offsetting these losses. In the
Chitwan National Park in Nepal, for example, conservation
of this important rhino habitat is promoted by allowing vil-
lagers to harvest elephant grass periodically, thereby help-
ing to meet their needs for income from this valuable thatch
material while discouraging illegal harvest of park resources
(MacKinnon et al. 1986).
Compensation can be provided in a number of ways. One
possibility is to develop alternative supplies of the resource
outside the tourist destination, Woodlots for firewood, cap-
tive breeding for wildlife, and farms or plantations for plant
species are examples.
Developing a substitute for the lost resource is another
form of compensation. If the resource was used for food, for
example, a different food crop could be substituted. If it was
used to generate income, other types of income-generating
activities can be used to offset losses to local residents.
Fees collected from nature tourism also can be used for
community development activities. Construction of schools,
sanitation facilities, electricity, water systems, and health
clinics are potential forms of compensation. Residents must
be made aware, however, that the provision of these facili-
ties are, at least in part, compensation for losses associated
with tourism.
Compensation. is also warranted in cases where there are
indirect costs to local residents from nature tourism, for ex-
ample, damage from wi *Idlife. One example of compensation
is the case of traditional Masai herders and Kenya's Ambo-
seli National Park. Both the Masai cattle and the area's wild-
life depend on water and pasturelands located within and

114 THE NUTS AND BOLTS OF SUCCESSFUL NATURE TOURISM
outside the park; the needs and range of both cattle and
wildlife change during the year depending on the amount of
rainfall and pasture availability. Restricting wildlife to the
park's boundaries and excluding all cattle would result in a
decreased population of both.
A compromise solution between the local Masai and the
park authorities resulted in substantial economic gains to
both parties. The solution included payment of a grazing
compensation to the Masai to cover their livestock losses to
wildlife migrants. According to Western (1984), the net mon-
etary gain to the park from use of Masai lands is about
$500,000 per year and the benefits from the park to the Ma-
sai result in an income 85 percent greater than from cattle
herding alone. (There remain, however, significant conflicts
between the park and the Masai; see chapter 2.)
Schemes such as those described in this section are vital if
nature tourism is to benefit, rather than hurt, local commu-
nities. They also help to discourage activities that may dam-
age tourism by providing alternatives. An International
Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN) report dis-
cusses a number of such schemes that have been successful
at both benefiting local communities and protecting natural
resources (McNeely 1988).

EXAMPLES OF ECONOMIC ANALYSES OF
NATURE TOURISM

KHAO YAI NATIONALPARK, THAILAND
Khao Yai, Thailand's first national park, is located about 160
kilometers northeast of Bangkok (see figure 6.2). Covering
2,168 square kilometers, Khao Yai has been one of Thai-
land's most popular parks since its establishment in 1962
and is one of ten ASEIAN Heritage Parks and Reserves (NPD
1986). the sur-
Khao Yai provides a number of benefits both to
rounding region and to the nation. It is a premier tourist

The Economics of Nature Tourism 115
Figure 6.2 Khao Yai National Park, Thailand.

Psk Chong

2 tftsk Lek

som sun

KhaoYel

Aywth rhay.

Odayok
33
K" T
33
Pmehi. aud
Ofth

............

0
30

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Bangkok roll

Source: Dixon and Sherman 1990.

destination in the region, with between 250,000 and 400,000
visits per year. Since it contains most of the remaining forest
in the area, it is of critical importance for wildlife and also
profoundly affects the hydrology of the region. Four river ba-
sins have their headwaters in Khao Yai, and two major res-
eiFvoirs are dependent on water from the park.
In addition to being the oldest national park in Thailand,
Khao Yai is also one of the most popular and well-developed
parks for recreation. Located approximately three hours
away from Bangkok by car, Khao Yai attracts large numbers
of both Thais and foreigners. Visits to Khao Yai more than
tripled between 1977 and 1987.
A recent survey of Khao Yai visitors designed by the au-
thors and members of the World Wide Fund for Nature Ben-
eficial Use Project, and undertaken by the latter group

116 THE NUTS AND BOLTS OF SUCCESSFUL NATURE TOURISM
between March and May 1988, found that the site was vis-
ited mainly as a nature tourism destination. For foreigners
visiting the park, more than 62 percent stated that wildlife
viewing was one of their three main reasons for coming to
Khao Yai. This was followed by scenery (58 percent), relax-
ation (43 percent), and hiking (41 percent).
Thai nationals overwhelmingly said that enjoying the sce-
nery (54 percent) was their main reason for visiting Khao
Yai. (Note that relaxation was not given as a separate choice
in the Thai-language version of the survey, so percentages
are not directly comparable.) Adding the percentage of
people indicating any specific ac 'tivity as one of their top
three reasons for coming to Khao Yai showed that viewing
scenery was still number one (86 percent), followed by
seeing the waterfalls (58 percent), wildlife viewing (36 per-
cent), picnicking (29 percent), and overnight camping (25
percent). (More detailed responses from this survey can be
found in Dobias et al. 1988).

Financial benefits. Both the National Parks Division (NPD)
and Tourist Authority of Thailand (TAT) operate lodging
facilities in Khao Yai. Revenues from NPD-operated accom-
modations were almost 1.5 million baht in 1987 (approxi-
mately 26 baht equals US $0. Dobias et al. (1988) report
that the TAT income from lodging in 1987 was almost 5 mil-
lion baht, while TAT-run restaurants received 4.2 million
baht in income. TAT also received 400,000. baht from golf
course fees, 318,000 baht from their souvenir shop, and
230,000 baht from nighttime excursions to view wildlife
with spotlights. Thus, TAT's gross income was more than 10
million baht in 1987, while its expenditures during that year
were approximately 3.3 million baht. While these figures do
not include prior capital expenditures to build facilities, it
is nonetheless clear that TAT's operations are profitable. Un-
fortunately, all profits from TAT's operations go to TAT and
not to the NPD and', therefore, they do not contribute to the
management and preservation of the park.
Gate fees from admission to the park in recent years
ranged from 1.6 to 2.4 million baht per year. Adding the gate

The Economics of Nature Tourism 117
fees and NPD-operated accommodation charges, tourism di-
-rectly contributed approximately 3 million baht in 1987. In
addition, NPD received 150,000 baht in concession fees from
the four restaurants/food stalls within park boundaries.
The Beneficial Use Project (Dobias 1988; Dobias et al.
1988) has generated some interesting data on the expendi-
tures of both Thai and foreign visitors to the park. In gen-
eral, foreign visitors spend more per person than do Thai
visitors. Based on data from organized bus tours, average
daily per person expenses for foreign visitors range from 500
to 800 baht, of which the formal admission fee is less than I
percent. Clearly, gate receipts are only a very small fraction
of people's willingness-to-pay to visit Khao, Yai.
With more than 400,000 visitors per year, the total expend-
itures generated by Khao Yai tourism are large-from 40
million to 200 million baht ($1.5 to $7.7 million) if per capita
expenditures are 100 to 500 baht. These expenditures, of
course, are not an economic measure of the value of the park.
To determine the true economic (i.e., social welfare) gain
from visiting Khao Yai, we would need to measure consum-
er's surplus, that is, the maximum willingness-to-pay over
and above the actual cash costs of visiting Khao Yai. This
amount could be estimated by carrying out a travel-cost
study, an approach widely used to value the nonpriced ben-
efits enjoyed by visitors to parks and other recreational
areas. By carefully controlling for origin, visitor back-
ground, and other variables, the pattern of recreational use
of a park provides the data from which a demand curve and,
in turn, consumer's surplus can be estimated (see Huf-
schmidt et al. 1983 for a more detailed description).
In sum, the financial contribution of tourism is already
substantial and can be expected to increase in the future.
Bangkok is near Khao Yai and as incomes rise and fewer al-
ternative open areas remain, Khao Yai will become increas-
ingly valuable. Foreign tourism could also increase with
improved facilities and- promotion. Furthermore, virtually
All Khao Yai tourism activities are restricted to a very- small
part of the park accessible from the one north-south road.
More than 90 percent of the park is completely undeveloped

118 THE NUTS AND BOLTS OF SUCCESSFUL NATURE TOURISM
and inaccessible, other than on foot. Future expansion of fa-
cilities is likely. VALUE: Tourism-related expenditures are 100
to 200 million baht (roughly US $4 to $8 million) per year,
and estimates of consumer's surplus (an economic measure)
are from 10 to 25 million baht per year.

Blodiversitylecological benefits. Maintaining Khao Yai as
a national park for nature tourism and other uses provides
benefits by protecting biological diversity and maintaining
ecological processes. Khao Yai's rich diversity of plants and
animals makes it an important reserve for many species. Al-
though most famous for its elephants, numerous other spe-
cies contribute to its biological diversity. In addition to the
pure "existence value" of species diversity, it also provides a
powerful pull for tourists. We are not able, however, to place
a monetary value on many aspects of the current and future
values of the benefits of maintaining biodiversity.VALUE: Un-
determined. Expenditures on research and education re-
lated to species in Khao Yai total I to 2 million baht per year.
Option/existence value based on Khao Yai's role as an ele-
phant sanctuary is estimated at more than 120 million baht
per year (see Dixon and Sherman 1990 for more information
on how this figure was determined).

Watershed protection. Khao Yai provides important water-
shed benefits in terms of the quantity, quality, and timing of
water flows. The reservoirs located downstream depend on
Khao Yai's watershed protection function. Maintaining
Khao Yai in its current state for nature tourism and other
uses will preserve these benefits as Well. VALUE: Can be cal-
culated but undetermined at present.

Management costs. The present annual management bud-
get for Khao Yai is about 3.4 million baht. Implementation
of the Khao Yai Management Plan (NPD 1986) to meet pro-
tection, interpretation, and development goals will result in
increased annual budgets and large capital expenditures in
the next few years. With its large area and closely settled
borders, greater effort is needed to support programs that
help improve the standard 'of living of nearby residents,

The Economics of Nature Tourism 119
thereby reducing their dependence on illegal and unsustain-
able uses of the park. COST: Current government manage-
ment costs are 3 to 4 million baht per year but will rise
significantly over the next few years.

opportunity costs. A variety of development benefits are
lost because of protection. Foremost are water resource de-
velopment, timber harvesting, and agriculture. The poten-
tial economic benefits from agriculture appear to be
relatively small and high extraction costs for timber limit
its profitability. Precise estimates of these opportunity costs
require more data. Impacts on tourism, biodiversity, and
ecological processes, if these activities were allowed, may be
large.
Another major category of opportunity costs is the loss of
income to local villagers due to prohibitions on the gather-
ing and harvesting of plants and animals in the park. Note
that the two categories are not cumulative since develop-
ment of park resources would also result in a loss of oppor-
tunity to collect plants and animals. VALUE: A rough
"guesstimate" of the reduction in villager-derived income
from park resources is 27 million baht per year, though this
amount would probably not be sustainable and would result
in significant damage to highly valued species (Dixon and
Sherman 1990).
Overall, Khao Yai is a good example of a protected area
that fits the socially beneficial category. It provides recrea-
tional, wildlife habitat, and watershed benefits that are
quantifiable in physical, and in some cases economic, terms.
It also provides less tangible benefits in terms of preserva-
tion of forest cover and associated biological diversity. With-
out government intervention, however, such a large area
could not exist. The benefits are too diffuse and the financial
returns from preservation would be outweighed by the di-
rect benefits from exploitation of Khao Yai's timber, land,
and animal resources. ,

Management Issues. Many areas just inside the park are
heavily degraded. These areas should be made into buffer
zones and managed to provide benefits to nearby villagers.

120 THE NUTS AND BOLTS OF SUCCESSFUL NATURE TOURISM
Programs should be developed in these areas to promote
production of plants that are currently being poached
within the park or to establish other opportunities to supple-
ment villager incomes. These programs could be paid for, at
least partially, with a percentage of tourism revenues. Once
established, penalties for poaching beyond the buffer zone
should be strictly enforced. However, limited hunting of cer-
tain species could be allowed in the buffer zones. Such a pol-
icy would have to be accompanied by a clear demarcation of
park boundaries -
Certain tourist development activities could also have sec-
ondary benefits. Development of organized multiday hikes
could provide employment opportunities for local villagers
as guides and support staff. One program of this type has
already begun at Ban Sap Tai village under the auspices of a
WWF project (Dobias et al. 1988). These hikes could also be
accompanied by guards who would help patrol forest areas
currently not guarded effectively.
In 1987, fees from concessions, accommodations, and en-
trance were almost equal to the budget allocated to Khao
Yai (3.18 million baht versus 3.38 million baht respectively).
If the NPD were allowed to take over facilities currently run
by the Tourist Authority of Thailand (TAT), it is likely that
Khao Yai could more than pay for itself with direct revenues
from tourism.
The NPD should also consider establishing a two-tier fee
system. Current entrance fees, though reasonable for Thais,
are extremely low by foreign standards. Fees probably could
be raised to ten times their current levels without signifi-
cantly reducing the number of foreign visitors.

WILDLIFE PARKS INEAST AFwCA
The wildlife parks of East Africa, particularly in Kenya and
Tanzania, are extremely popular nature tourism destina-
tions. Although both countries have spectacular scenery fea-
turing mountains (Kilimanjaro, Mount Kenya), the Great
Rift Valley, and a tropical coast, it is the game parks that
attract visitors from around the world.

The Economics of Nature Tourism 121
Nature tourism in Kenya is big business-worth an esti-
mated $350 to $400 million per year. It also provides a sub-
stantial indirect demand for goods and services produced by
the local economy and job opportunities for local residents.
in addition, the foreign exchange brought in by visitors is
important to the national economy. While these benefits are
necessarilv strict financial benefits (large amounts do not ac-
crue to inaividuals), they are important social benefits. As a
result, these game parks can be considered to fit in the "so-
cially beneficial" category.
Wildlife parks require large amounts of area but often oc-
cupy land that is semiarid and has only limited alternative
uses-usually grazing of livestock. A number of studies have
compared the benefits from protection and its associated
tourism with extensive agricultural use (grazing or crops).
In one study, the estimated tourism value of protecting an
area to maintain a big-animal population (e.g., lions, ele-
phants) was over $40 per hectare versus $0.80 per hectare
under "optimistic" agricultural returns from livestock graz-
ing (Western and Thresher 1973). Even if these numbers are
somewhat questionable from a technical economic view-
point, it is clear that many areas yield much more revenue
when managed for protection and nature tourism than they
would under marginal agricultural development.
Western and Henry (1979) estimated the gross worth of
lions in Amboseli National Park in Kenya, in terms of gen-
erating tourism revenues, to be $27,000 each per year; an
elephant herd was estimated to be worth $610,000 per year.
These are social returns from tourism. Yet a poacher is not
interested in the larger social benefits and will kill an animal
to earn a few hundred dollars.
Thresher (198 1) also considered the economics of lions in
Amboseli National Park in Kenya. Based on survey results,
it was determined that the average visitor to Amboseli spent
seventy minutes looking for and then viewing lions, or 30
percent of the average'four hours spent on wildlife viewing
per visit. Through a series of assumptions about Amboseli's
lion population, the number of adult-maned lions, and av-
erage success rate in viewing one, Thresher determined that

122 THE NUTS AND BOLTS OF SUCCESSFUL NATURE TOURISM
an individual lion will draw $515,000 in foreign exchange
receipts over a fifteen-year period (with a 10 percent dis-
count rate). This social measure of the value of a lion as a
tourist attraction can be compared with the private returns
of a lion as a hunting resource: a twenty-one-day lion hunt
will cost a nonresident hunter about $8,500. The lowest
value for a lion is the retail price for a well-cured skin: some-
where between $960 and $1,325.
This example illustrates one approach to estimating the
varying direct values (both economic and financial) of the
lion as a natural resource. Tourism is clearly the most effi-
cient use of the lion-it generates a very large amount of
foreign exchange over time and does not require the death
of the animal. The lion is much less valuable as quarry or as
a cured skin (in many cases, the two are added: lion hunts
often result in lion skins).
The parallels with elephants are very close-they are
much more valuable as a tourism attraction than for their
ivory. Yet in the past decade, Africa's elephant population
has decreased by 50 percent from 1.2 million to just over
600,000 Wastri 1989). Kenya and Tanzania, both major na-
ture tourism destinations, have suffered major losses to
poachers-since 1981, Kenya has lost two-thirds of its ele-
phant population, with fewer than 20,000 remaining. The re-
cent ban on all international trade in elephant products
(including ivory) and enhanced antipoaching measures ap-
pear to be having some positive effect.
In a 1989 study, Brown and Henry surveyed tourists and
tour operators in Kenya to estimate the monetary value as-
signable to elephant viewing within the safari industry.
Using two different approaches, they estimated that ele-
phants contributed a consumer's surplus (an economic mea-
sure) of from $25 to $30 million annually. This was about 13
percent of the total consumer's surplus of $182 to $218 mil-
lion of the 300,000 or. so adults who went on safari.
The social benefits of nature tourism in these areas are
large. However, actions by individuals, either poachers or
farmers/pastoralists who are using the park's resources for
personal gain, threaten to destroy the nature tourism indus-

The Economics of Nature Tourism 123
try. A remote semiarid landscape without animals will have
little appeal in the international nature tourism market.
A major management challenge, therefore, is to find ways
to include the individuals who live adjacent to the parks in
the economic benefits generated by tourism. The Amboseli/
Masai case cited earlier in this chapter is one example. Com-
munity involvement and support for developmen 't are essen-
tial if the resource degradation presently found in many
game parks is to be reduced.
Controlling poachers may be a bigger challenge. Animal
poachers frequently come from some distance outside the
area and are difficult to regulate. Efforts are needed both on
the demand side (reducing worldwide demand for and trade
in poached products, thereby reducing their value) and on
the supply side (controlled harvesting of desired products on
a sustainable basis). In many cases, regulation and police
enforcement are also needed to control the killing of these
animals.

NATURE TouRism IN THE CARIBBEAN
Tourism is the 'largest single industry in the Caribbean.
Some countries are almost entirely dependent on tourism
revenues while others have more mixed economies. One
small but rapidly growing segment of the tourism industry
is nature tourism.
Nature tourism is receiving increased attention now as a
result of two important trends. One is the growing demand
for " off- the-beaten-track " destinations within the interna-
tional tourism industry. The second trend is the new empha-
sis by park managers on increasing support (both political
and financial) for protected area management through inte-
grating economic components into conservation activities.
As economic growth and development proceed, the number
of "wild places" will decrease and their attractiveness will
increase. As part of a mixed bundle of attractions, nature
tourism can play an increasingly useful role as various coun-
tries seek to differentiate their "product" in the world
market..

124 THE NUTS AND BOLTS OF SUCCESSFUL NATURE TouRism
Figure 6.3. Saba Marine Park, Netherlands Antilles.

Saba Madne Park 43 14

so@

to
-VA

Diamond

P nt
Torrwis Point
Cove fty
-7. Welt's Day

swing say @Qj

7 39-
Leddaw Say
Corme Gut Bay F.

CarrW Point

Tent Bay

d"
Fort go Q1
Q; ?
N,
%bi
Ci
Q2
Anoxwep

%cremicrai dl zone. no a
001-ni.aZ@
14'

SOURCE: Saba Conservation Foundation.

The small island of Saba, part of the Netherland Antilles,
is a well-known nature tourism destination. Located in the
Leeward Islands of the Lesser Antilles (see figure 6.3), Saba
is a high volcanic island, with a population of some 1,200
people on its twelve and a half square kilometers.
The Saba Marine Park, established in June 1987, includes
the entire coastal environment. The primary emphasis is
marine tourism, in particular scuba diving and snorkeling
(van't Hof 1989). The park has used an innovative combina-
tion of user fees, donations, and souvenir sales to support its
activities.

The Economics of Nature Tourism 125
In 1989, for example, the operating budget for the park
amounted to $42,000, of which the park will raise about
$27,500, or 65 percent of the total, from fees, donations, and
sales. User fees of $1 per dive are collected from scuba tour
operators and are a major source of revenue. Present projec-
tions are that the park will be self-sufficient by 1991, three
years earlier than initially expected.
The Saba Marine Park is an excellent example of a mu-
tually beneficial interaction of nature tourism and ecosys-
tem protection. The revenues from tourism will soon be
sufficient to cover management costs. Maximum carrying
capacity is based more on spatial considerations than envi-
ronmental concerns; crowding is likely to become a problem
sooner than serious environmental impacts from visitation.
Although van't Hof estimates the carrying capacity for div-
ing in Saba Marine Park waters at about 80,000 dives per
year (representing about 13,000 divers), financial self-suffi-
ciency is reached at about 40,000 dives per year.
The Saba example is clearly a special case. With total
Caribbean tourism counts of almost 10 million visitors a
year (including both island and mainland destinations), this
form of low-impact, nature tourism is not the solution to the
economic development goals of many Caribbean Basin
countries. Nevertheless, the lessons from Saba and other na-
ture tourism (or scuba diving) destinations indicate how
tourism and conservation can serve mutually complemen-
tary purposes.

LOGGING AND NATuRE TouRism IN THE PHILIPPINES

Sometimes the threats to nature tourism are direct and
readily measured-poaching of elephants for their ivory or
encroachment of agricultural fields into protected areas are
two examples. In other cases, a nature tourism industry may
be harmed by actions that take place at some distance but
have effects that are transmitted through the environment.
These types of impacts can be just as costly.
One example of the latter, ecosystem-linked impact is oc-
curring in the Bacuit Bay area of northern Palawan, an is-

126 THE NUTS AND BOLTS OF SUCCESSFUL NATURE TOURISM
Figure 6.4. Bacuit Bay, Palawan, and Surrounding Drainage
Basin.

vw.

10 PALAWAN[

Palawan
N
El @V;
.+
`0
Nido

;t t
9

AIS
eik Aii,
T'
'A Manlag
River.f
V
Bacuit
Bay
SOUTH
CHINA SEA

V
IYM
0 5 Krn
L J
4W.-W.- -

Logging concession A Diving resort

Drainage basin Coral reef

r mv
16 . J Logging

Source: Hodgson and Dixon 1988.

land in the Philippines (see figure 6.4). Long famous for its
beautiful scenery, abundant fish life, and clear water, Bacuit
Bay and the small town of El Nido were largely undeveloped
until recently. Access was difficult and costly.
Prior to 1979, there was little organized tourism in the
Bacuit Bay/El Nido region. Then a Philippine-Japanese joint
venture set up a scuba diving resort on a small island at the
mouth of the bay. This first resort catered to groups of Japa-
nese divers with smaller numbers of other local and foreign
divers. The success of this operation led to the establishment

The Economics of Nature Tourism 127
of a second resort, located on an adjacent island, in 1984.
Both resorts are selling a fragile, rare commodity: clear,
warm waters, abundant coral and fish life, and spectacular
scenery. The resorts charge top dollar for their services and
have a major interest in preserving the bay's ecosystem.
Local artisanal fishermen share these concerns. The two
groups have been working together to protect the bay's coral
and fish population to their mutual benefit. Both groups also
had an incentive to cooperate with the marine police to en-
force the trawler ban in nearshore'areas.
-A third industry in the area, however, has caused a major
resource use conflict. Most of the Bacuit Bay watershed is
forested and a portion falls within a concession granted to a
major logging firm. In this steep watershed with highly ero-
sive soils, logging results in substantial erosion of that soil,
which is deposited directly into the bay. The sediment kills
the coral, thereby reducing biomass production and the de-
pendent fishery, and clouds the water. Both the diving and
fishing industry suffer as a result and incur major economic
losses.
A detailed ecological-economic analysis of the three indus-
tries examined the financial implications of continued log-
ging versus a logging ban. Continued logging would result
in a loss of a substantial part of the bay's coral ecosystem
and the eventual closing of the dive resorts. Fish catch would
also be reduced. A logging ban would avoid these costs but
would deprive the firm of income from the timber located in
the bay's watershed.
Gross revenues were examined for all three industries. A
logging ban was estimated to produce over $75 million in
revenues over a ten-year period from a thriving tourism ($47
million) and fishing ($28 million) industry. Logging revenue
would be zero. Continued logging, on the other hand, would
generate $13 million in logging revenues over the same ten
years but would result in major decreases in tourism reve-
nue (to $8 million) and. fishery income (to $13 million). The
"cost" of continued logging, therefore, was about $40 million
in gross revenue over the ten-year period. Details of the anal-
ysis are presented in Hodgson and Dixon (1988).
The biggest loser would be the nature tourism diving busi-

128 THE NUTS AND BOLTS OF SUCCESSFUL NATURE TOURISM
ness-not only would planned expansion plans be dropped,
but the major resorts would close. Divers would not want to
incur the expense and inconvenience of coming to El Nido if
the diving were not superb-other sites are available in the
Philippines and elsewhere.
The Bacuit Bay/El Nido case is still evolving. Because of
political factors, attempts to ban logging have failed to date,
but a marine park is being set up in the bay. Whether or not
less erosive logging practices can be introduced remains to
be seen. In the meantime, the bay ecosystem suffers and
tourism is hurt.

THE BOTTOM LINE

We began this chapter with a series of questions about the
economics of nature tourism and posed a leading question
about "determining if it pays." We believe the answer is that
nature tourism is potentially privately profitable as well as
socially beneficial. It has the desirable attribute of allowing
both conservation and economic development objectives to
be met simultaneously.
Nature tourism is not, however, the solution to all conser-
vation problems. Some protected areas cannot sustain any
direct use; others may yield larger social benefits when de-
veloped for other forms of tourism. Nature tourism will usu-
ally be most suitable when areas fall between these two
extremes. This includes fragile ecosystems that can accom-
modate limited numbers of visitors but cannot sustain high
use levels; for example, certain coral reef ecosystems or
moist tropical forests may not be able to sustain intensive
visitor use. This so-called low-impact tourism has important
conservation and protection benefits as compared with re-
sort tourism, which is usually more intrusive, even if it
yields greater financial benefits.
In other cases, demand, not carrying capacity, may be the
limiting factor. Nature tourism is suitable for places that are
very remote or difficult to reach, a characteristic that often

The Economics of Nature Tourism 129
translates into fairly high costs per visit. Safaris in Africa, or
cruises to Alaska or the Galdpagos, come to mind.
INature tourism may also be a desirable alternative when
investment funds are limited. Nature tourism frequently
uses simpler facilities and has less expensive and less intru-
sive infrastructure. Thus, it may be practical in cases where
funds for large-scale development are not available.
Economic analysis of alternatives is helpful in identifying
likely benefits and costs, both private and social, of devel-
opment options. In some cases, large-scale resort tourism
will be the preferred option, in others, nature tourism, with
its associated environmental and conservation benefits, may
be better. In still other cases, more traditional development
or strict protection with no tourism will be the optimal
choice -An economic analysis as outlined in this chapter can
help clarify the issues, and help determine the potential ef-
fects of different alternatives.

REFERENCES

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ington, D.C.: World Wildlife Fund.
Brown, G., and W Henry. 1989. The Economic Value of Ele-
phants. LEEC Discussion Paper 89-12. London: London
Environmental Economics Centre.
Cicchetti, C. J., and A.M. Freeman 111. 1971. "Option De-
mand and Consumer Surplus: Further Comment Quar-
terly Journal of Economics 85.
Conrad, J. 1980. "Quasi-option Value and the Expected Value
of Information." Quarterly Journal of Economics 94.
Dixon, J. A., R. A. Carpenter, L. A. Fallon, P B. Sherman, and
S. Manopimoke. 1988. Economic Analysis of the Environ-
mental Impacts of Development Projects. London: Earths-
can Publications.
Dixon, J. A., and M. M. Hufschmidt, eds. 1986. Economic Val-
uation Techniques for the Environment: A Case Study Work-
book. Baltimore, Maryland: Johns Hopkins University
Press.

130 THE NUTS AND BOLTS OF SUCCESSFUL NATURE TOURISM
Dixon, J. A., D. E. James, and R B. Sherman. 1989. The Eco-
nomics of Dryland Management. London: Earthscan Pub-
lications.
Dixon, J. A., and R B. Sherman. 1990. Economics of Protected
Areas: A New Look at Benefits and Costs. Covelo, California:
Island Press.
Dobias, R. J. 1988. WWF Contract 3757: Influencing Decision
Makers About Providing Enhanced Support for Protected
Areas in Thailand (Beneficial Use Project). Interim report.
Mimeo.
Dobias, R. J., V Wangwacharakul, and N. Sangswang. 1988.
Beneficial Use Quantifications of Khao Yai National Park:
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Frueh, S. 1988. "Report to WWF on Tourism to Protected
Areas." Mimeo. Washington, D.C World Wildlife Fund-
U.S.
Hitzhusen, J. F. 1982. "The Economics of Biomass for En-
ergy." Mimeo. Ohio State University
Hodgson, G., and J. A. Dixon. 1988. Logging versus Fisheries
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Analysis. EAPI Occasional Paper No. 7. Honolulu, Hawaii:
East-West Center.
Hufschmidt, M. M., D. E. James, A. D. Meister, B. T. Bower,
and J. A. Dixon. 1983. Environment, Natural Systems and
Development: An Economic Valuation Guide. Baltimore,
Maryland: Johns Hopkins University Press.
Krutilla, J. V, and A. C. Fisher. 1985. The Economics of Nat-
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and Amenity Resources. 2nd ed. Washington, D.C.: Re-
sources for the Future.
Lindberg, K. 1989. "Tourism as a Conservation Tool." Mimeo.
Washington, D.C.: Johns Hopkins University (SAIS).
MacKinnon, J., K. MacKinnon, G. Child, and J. Thorsell.
1986. Managing Protected Areas in the Tropics. Gland,
Switzerland: International Union for the Conservation of
Nature.
McNeely, J. A. 1988. Economics and Biological Diversity: De-
veloping and Using Incentives to Conserve Biological Re-

The Economics of Nature Tourism 131
sources. Gland, Switzerland: International Union for the
Conservation of Nature.
Mastri, M. 1989. "Dissension Looming over CITES Ban on
Elephant Products." Environment Bulletin 1, no. 5.
Mathieson, A., and G. Wall. 1982. Tourism: Economic, Physi-
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Management Plan 1987-1991. Bangkok: National Parks Di-
vision, Royal Forest Department.
Posner, B., C. Cuthbertson, E. Towle, and C. Reeder. 198 1.
Economic Impact Analysis for the Virgin Islands National
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Ray, A. 1984. Cost-Benefit Analysis: Issues and Methodologies.
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Touche Ross Services. 1984. Kangaroo Island National Parks
Cost-Benefit Study. Adelaide: Touche Ross Services.
van't Hof, T. 1989. "Making Marine Parks Self-Sufficient: The
Case of Saba." Paper presented at the Conference on Eco-
nomics and the Environment, November 6-8, Barbados.
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Western, D., and P Thresher. 1973. Development Plans for Am-
boseli. Nairobi: World Bank.

CHAPTER 7

Local Participation in
Ecotourism Projects

SUSANP. DRAKE

L
ocal participation is a necessary component of sustain-
able development generally (meeting the needs of pre-
sent and future generations while protecting the natural
resource base) and ecotourism specifically. The term "local
participation," as defined here, is the ability of local com-
munities to influence the outcome of development projects
such as ecotourism that have an impact on them.
There has been a gradual shift in attitudes of planners and
decision-makers over the past two decades toward local
participation in the development process. Governments,
multilateral development banks, and nongovernmental or-
ganizations are beginning to recognize that environmentally
sustainable development, of which ecotourism is an ex-
ample, rests on gaining local support for the project. The
capacity of national and local governments to manage effec-
tively the rapidly growing number of development projects
and programs will be limited unless functions are decen-
tralized and communities involved. It will be difficult for

132

Local Participation in Ecotourism Projects 133
multilateral development banks and nongovernmental or-
ganizations to sustain projects and effectively channel ben-
efits to the local population without the latter's involvement
and support. And environmentalists will find it next to im-
possible to conserve a resource without the commitment of
the local population. Finally, pragmatic considerations
aside, planners have a moral obligation to listen to the
people whom their projects will affect.
There are few, if any, clearly defined approaches to plan-
ning local participation for ecotourism projects. However,
planners for national parks, wetlands, and river corridor
management projects, among others, have obtained local in-
put with varying degrees of success. We will look at a few of
these case studies abroad and in the United States and then
present a local participation plan for ecotourism projects.

DEFINITION OF LOCAL PARTICIPATION

Local communities can participate in ecotourism projects at
the planning stage, during implementation, and can share
the benefits. Participation in the planning process includes
such tasks as identifying problems, formulating alterna-
tives, planning activities, and allocating resources. Partici-
pation in the implementation stage may include actions
such as managing and operating a program. Sharing bene-
fits means that the local communities will receive economic,
social, political, cultural, and/or other benefits from the
project either individually or collectively.
Sam Paul (1987), a World Bank expert on community par-
ticipation, makes a useful distinction between four levels of
intensity in local participation. Information sharing-proj-
ect designers and managers share information with the pub-
lic in order to facilitate collective or individual action-is
the first level. The next level of participation is consulta-
tion-the public is not only informed, but consulted on key
issues at some or all stages in a project cycle. Decision-mak-
ing is the third level-the public is involved in making deci-
sions about project design and implementation. The highest

134 THE NUTS AND BOLTS OF SUCCESSFUL NATURE TOURISM
level of intensity is called initiating action. This occurs when
the public takes the initiative in terms of actions and deci-
sions pertaining to the project.

ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES

The advantages to incorporating local participation in an
ecotourism project are many. First, local participation func-
tions as an early warning system, helping managers to avoid
or plan for decisions that might otherwise cause conflict
with the local population. Also, including a participation
program in the design stage of a project provides the oppor-
tunity for the local community to become educated about
the purpose and benefits of the project, thereby increasing
support for the effort. When managers take the time to lis-
ten, they can enlist confidence, trust, and support from the
local population. In most cases, people will support a project
they understand directly benefits them.
Second, local involvement fosters better planning and
decision-making. Conflicts are brought out in the open and
resolved during the planning process, additional informa-
tion is provided that may quantify environmental values,
persons previously unrecognized are given a chance to voice
their opinion, a wider array of alternatives may be devel-
oped from public opinions, and issues, impacts, and man-
agement alternatives are better identified.
Third, ensuring local input legitimizes the decision-
making process. Accountability of project managers (gov-
ernment or nongovernmental) is reinforced, and local
involvement is secured. Other benefits would include pos-
sible cost sharing of projects, benefits channeled to the com-
munity, and the protection of cultural norms (Hudspeth
1982).
Sam Paul categor *izes the benefits associated with local
participation as follows:

1. Increasing project efficiency through consultation with
people during project planning or involving the public

Local Participation in Ecotourism Projects 135
in mana gement of project implementation or opera-
tion.
2. Increasing project effectiveness through greater local
involvement to help ensure that the project achieves its
objectives and that benefits go to the intended group.
3. Building beneficiary capacity to understand sustain-
able development by ensuring that participants are
actively involved in project planning and implementa-
tion and through formal or informal training and con-
sciousness-raising activities.
4. Increasing empowerment by seeking to give the under-
privileged sectors of society controfover the resources
and decisions affecting their lives. It also means ensur-
ing that they receive benefits from the use of the re-
sources.
5. Sharing costs by facilitating a collective understanding
and agreement on cost sharing and its enforcement.
The public may contribute to labor, financing, or main-
tenance of the project.

Local participation should not be seen as a panacea for all
the socioeconomic costs of ecotourism projects, however. Ac-
cording to Goddard and Cotter (1986) (employees of the U.S.
Agency of International Development who have had exten-
sive experience with I 'ocal participation in development
projects), participatory approaches have several disadvan-
tages.
Managing local participation frequently increases the
number of managerial and administrative staff required.
Pressure is often exerted by the community to increase the
level or widen the range of services beyond those originally
planned, with consequent increases in project costs. Plan-
ners may lose control of a project to opposing forces who
seek to use the community organization to wrest control of
the project from the implementing agency. Benefits do not
always reach the intended target group. Informing local
people about a project could increase their frustration or
dissatisfaction if the project is delayed or delivers fewer ser-
vices than planned. In politically volatile areas, the attempt

136 T14E NUTS AND BOLTS OF SUCCESSFUL NATURE TOURISM
to involve community organizations may create conflicts
that either paralyze the project or create much wider prob-
lems.
Despite these potential disadvantages, however, the risk of
creating an unsustainable ecotourism project-one not sup-
ported by the local people, and perhaps destroyed by them-
is great if there in no local participation in the project.
The following are examples of different approaches to in-
cluding public participation in project development.

LOCAL PARTICIPATION IN AMBOSELI
NATIONAL PARK IN KENYA

Kenya's Amboseli National Park was one of the first to at-
tempt to incorporate local participation into the implemen-
tation of the project. The indigenous population of Masai
was represented by the Kajiado District Council. The Coun-
cil functioned as a channel for the disbursement of tourist
revenues generated by the park to the Masai. The benefits to
the Masai were to be in the form of management projects
such as water wells.
When the scheme was implemented, however, only some
of the originally intended benefits from the park reached the
Masai. Park revenues went directly to the national govern-
ment. Funds were then allocated by the Kenyan government
to the District Council for management and maintenance of
the national reserve facilities. However, the allocated funds
never met the amount originally agreed to by the District
Council. The projects, therefore, were never funded. This
problem could have been resolved, at least partially, by in-
vestigating the national political and administrative struc-
ture early on in the project as part of the local participation
plan.
Sociological and cultural issues such as the Masai's strat-
egies for managing range resources were not thoroughly in-
vestigated. In the early management stage of the project, it

Local Participation in Ecotourism Projects 137
was discovered @hat during periods of seasonal drought, the
only area with water and therefore wildlife was the area des-
ignated to be the reserve. The Masai tired of not receiving
benefits promised to them if they stayed o ff the reserve, and
therefore defiantly and purposefully encroached on the re-
serve in order to @unt its wildlife and let their cattle drink.
other factors, such as the almost exclusive use of non-
Masai as project staff and a perception of the project mission
as reforming the cantankerous Masai, exacerbated the situ-
ation (Honadle 1985).
Had the Masai been directly involved in the early stages
of project planning, and a survey conducted on the social,
political, and economic situation of the area, certain as-
sumptions and decisions that negatively affected project
management could have been avoided.

COMMUNITY INVOLVEMENT IN
GUANACASTE NATIONAL PARK IN
COSTA RICA

Costa Rica's dry tropical forests are being restored at the
75,000-hectare Guanacaste National Park (GNP) in the
northwest region of the country. One of the primary goals of
the project is to promote local involvement in the expansion
of the park in order to ensure its long-term viability.
This "enlightened" approach is at least partially due to les-
sons learned while establishing the Corcovado National
Park farther, down the coast. People who lived in or around
Corcovado were not involved in the formation of the park.
Subsequently, gold miners illegally invaded the park, cut-
ting trees, altering watercourses, and dumping sand wastes.
They were found to lack awareness that they were destroy-
ing the environment. The same people even stated that they
supported a strong national park system for Costa Rica.
In Guanacaste National Park, the idea of integrating the
local population into the park management system was de-

138 THE NUTS AND BOLTS OF SUCCESSFUL NATURE TOURISM
veloped and promoted by Dr. Dan Janzen, the park's found-
ing father. According to Janzen, "It is simply not enough to
raise the funds, put a fence around the forest, and call it pre-
served. The economicand social pressures will inevitably
unpreserve it. The challenge isn't what is going to be pre-
served of tropical forests now, that has already been deter-
mined, the challenge is what will be left of tropical forests
100 years from now. It does not matter how much money is
put into it, if the people do not understand it and want it,
there will not be- any national parks 100 years from now. The
survival of the forests can be realized only if the soil and its
denizens become embedded in the consciousness of the hu-
man inhabitants."
Janzen's concept of local participation emphasizes paid or
volunteer jobs in park management for local citizens. People
from nearby towns live on the outer edges of the park on
homesteads owned by the GNP where they can have their
own gardens and cows. They are paid park managers and
help to fight fires, stop poaching, and plant seeds. Local car-
penters are also used to build any infrastructure needed
(e.g., bunkhouses for visitors).
Another form of local participation is locally oriented and
generated forum discussions about the park and its impact
on the local community. These forums are mainly atte 'nded
by local businessmen and farmers. One, for example, fo-
cused on the actions they would take to accommodate the
expansion of the park.
Also being pursued is the idea of using local biology teach-
ers as liaisons between park managers and the fishermen on
the village civic committees in order to improve the flow of
information on relevant issues such as coastal degradation.
Along with environmental restoration, Janzen promotes
what he terms "biocultural restoration." The thrust is to
embed biological understanding in the local culture by en-
couraging interaction between the park and its nearly
40,000 neighbors. His gbal is to "put biology back into the
people's cultural repertoire-back on the same status with
music, art, and religion." Toward this end, the regenerated
forest is viewed as a library or museum. Plans are in the

Local Participation in Ecotourism Projects 139
works to develop educational activities ranging from field
trips for local schoolchildren to international symposia. Ac-
tivities have included hiring a marine biologist to teach
schoolchildren in the nearby fishing village about coastal is-
sues, and drawing local people into the park by offer, i non-
paying research technician apprenticeships for forest
restoration and inventory projects.
The political, economic, and social environment in Costa
Rica and in the Guanacaste region has been very supportive
of this participatory approach. Politically, the project has
been supported by all levels of government, including the
president of Costa Rica and the National Parks Service di-
rector.
Economically, few farmers and landholders in the area
have resisted selling their land, since most of the farmland
in the park is of poor quality. The population is literate, with
a diverse lifestyle that includes farming, ranching, fishing,
timber extraction, civil service, and small business. The lo-
cal people are knowledgeable about aspects of park manage-
ment such as fighting fires, maintaining trails and buildings,
herding cattle, identifying and understanding vegetation
and trees, and dealing with biotic challenges such as snakes.
According to Janzen, the following elements are essential
to the success of sustainable development and ecotourism
projects:

I .Base the development of the park on the kinds of habi-
tats that will make the park the most user-friendly
(community involvement value, recreational value,
interest-generating value, tourist income value, etc.).
2. Restore a tropical national park, because the process
itself facilitates community participation in the plan-
ning of the park and in the mechanics of its growth,
thereby engendering a desire to preserve it aside from
its innate or taught attractiveness.
3. Conservation must be based in education. Put natural
history back into the human repertoire.
4. Assist the intellectual development of the local people

140 THE NUTS AND BOLTS OF SUCCESSFUL NATURE TOURISM
and, increase their understanding of the biological
world beyond fields and pastures.

LOCAL PARTICIPATION APPROACHES
FOR ENVIRONMENTAL PROJECTS IN
THE UNITED STATES

Local participation plans in the developing world will vary
from those in the United States due to different relationships
with government institutions, nongovernmental organiza-
tions, and citizens. Nevertheless, the following approaches
to local participation used in United States environmental
planning can provide useful guidance in the development of
a participation process for ecotourism projects around the
world.

LOCAL PARTICIPATION PROGRAM FOR WETLAND
PROJECTS
The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), in conjunction
with federal, state, and local agencies, conducts an Ad-
vanced Identification of wetlands (ADID) process when it
designates wetland areas as suitable or unsuitable for fill
material. As part of the planning process, each ADID project
manager is encouraged to develop a local participation plan.
A guidance document on how to develop a community re-
lations program for advanced identification efforts was de-
veloped by EPA's Office of Wetlands Protection for use by
EPA regional offices and local governments.
The objectives of the Advanced Identification Community
Relations Program are to: (1) gather information about the
community in which the wetlands are located; (2) give citi-
zens the opportunity- to comment on and provide their
knowledge on aspects of the project; (3) channel discussion
or conflict into a forum; and (4) involve other federal, state,

Local Participation in Ecotourism Projects 141
and local agencies in joint communications and education
efforts -
There are three initial questions considered when an ADID
community relations effort is launched. These are: (1) What
is the community for the particular ADID project? (2) What
are the best ways for learning more about these communi-
ties? (3) What are the best routes for reaching the commu-
nities with information and/or requests for assistance?
The diversity of communities, interests, ecosystems, and
development patterns at different places around the country
requires individual evaluations of appropriate community
relations strategies for each new ADID project. No single ap-
proach is appropriate to all regions, or even to all circum-
stances in a single region.
There are three major tasks in developing an ADID plan
that are closely related to the questions asked above: (1)
identifying appropriate agencies, officials, and staff to serve
on a coordinating committee for an interagency community
relations effort; (2) learning about the community; and (3)
identifying appropriate community relations activities and
coordinating them with the expected steps in the project.
The program sets forth ways to identify appropriate agen-
cies and officials, including querying state and local gov-
ernment directories, universities, associations, business
representatives, and following local press coverage of eco-
nomic/development issues in the area.
The program recommends the development of a local
needs-and-wants survey. Using the lists of identified agencies
and individuals and information from the survey, activities
and approaches to ensure good community relations are
identified. The nature of community concern and the extent
of community involvement in the past are also taken into
account.
Community relations activities conducted under ADID
projects range from briefing state and local officials during
the project design stage, developing fact sheets describing
the area, known values of the area, history of threats, and
benefits from the project, conducting educational presenta-

142 THE NUTS AND BOLTS OF SUCCESSFUL NATURF_ TouRism
tions, developing and distributing press releases, conducting
news conferences to more participatory activities such as
holding public hearings, conducting small group meetings,
and establishing informal advisory groups.

ADVANCED IDENTIFICATION PROCESS FOR
WEST KENTUCKY COALFIELD WETLANDS
In 1989, EPA decided to conduct an Advanced Identification
(ADID) study and related Public Involvement Plan for a four-
county area in west Kentucky. The ADID was initiated due
to the significant impact of coal mining on wetlands in the
area. The project goals were to promote public and industry
awareness of wetland values through public information
dissemination and local participation in the ADID process.
The ADID study team collected information on wetlands in
the study area - Their preliminary findings were circulated to
federal, state, and local agencies for their comments and rec-
ommendations.
EPA then developed a public participation and informa-
tion process that began with a series of one-on-one meetings
with key players such as the Kentucky Coal Association and
political representatives. Here the parties discussed their
concerns and needs, and a preliminary approach was nego-
tiated. These discussions formed the basis for a larger com-
munity meeting, which was publicized through the media.
Key individuals were sent letters of invitation. At the meet-
ing, the EPA informed the public of the initiation of the
ADID study, and explained the ADID analysis and how it
would affect the community.
The Kentucky Coal Association helped EPA explain its
goals to the community. This helped defuse the potential for
individuals to be concerned that wetlands protection might
decrease income related to coal.
Some organization representatives gave prepared remarks
and then answered questions. EPA responded to some ques-
tions orally and others in writing at a later date. The entire
meeting was videotaped to ensure all comments were incor-
porated into the planning process.

Local Participation in Ecotourism Projects 143
EPA distributed three fact sheets: (1) general information
on wetlands, and the ADID process, (2) specific wetlands site
information, and (3) information aimed at the community
affected by wetlands regulation, explaining why wetlands
need to be protected. EPA and the Corps of Engineers pre-
sented information on the values of wetlands and the ADID
process. Both agencies conveyed what they were doing, what
and who were going to be involved, and how the community
was going to be affected by the effort.

RIVER CORRIDOR MANAGEMENT

The Wild and Scenic Rivers Act authorizes the National Park
Service (NPS) to protect free-flowing river 's in their natural
state. As an outgrowth of this effort, the NPS has developed
the riverwork process, which facilitates local planning and
implementation for the conservation of rivers. The public is
made a part of the planning process. The effort is initiated
by local citizens, nongovernmental or governmental organi-
zations, or by the National Park Service in conjunction with
the local or state government. A "greenway plan" or "river
corridor management plan" is created as a guide for achiev-
ing a desired future, indicating community recommenda-
tions for land and water use management within the river
area. It identifies the most important features of a corridor,
describes the ways in which it can be maintained, and as-
signs responsibility for its protection and use.
According to Glen Eugster (1988), director of the mid-
Atlantic region of the National Park Service, there are nine
elements or steps in the planning process:

I .Define the role and function of the river corridor. Bring
interests together to discuss the existing and future use
of the corridor. Build public and private support, help
obtain appropriate state and federal government funds,
and coordinate public and private interests.
2. Determine project goals. Seek public input to further
develop and refine the goals and objectives of the effort.
Public, support is seen as critical to the project's suc-

144 THE NUTS AND BOLTS OF SUCCESSFUL NATURE ToURISM
cess. The manager is required to inform the community
and build public consensus as early as possible.
3. Initiate the greenway project. Enlist all constituencies
in an effort to garner support for the project. Develop a
project proposal and establish a project agreement de-
scribing project roles, tasks, products, time schedules,
and financial arrangements.
4. involve the public. This step of the local participation
plan is designed to build support and develop a constit-
uency for the river project. By involving key area lead-
ers and a broad cross-section of interested individuals
and organizations, the manager can ensure that the
project goals are relevant to local needs.
5. Assess resources and land use. Place a qualitative value
on resources in order to establish priorities for conser-
vation.
6. Analyze local issues and concerns. Identify potential
conflicts and work to address local needs and concerns.
7. Explore regulatory and administrative alternatives.
identify governmental programs and resources that
can be used to help protect the river corridors.
8. Recruit community leaders. Identify key community
leaders such as elected public officials and civic groups
and get them involved in the project.
9. Develop an implementation strategy. Using the above
information and contacts as a base, develop an action-
oriented strategy that will provide specific recommen-
dations on what needs to be done and how.

THE RiVERWORK PUBLIC INVOLVEMENT PLAN
The riverwork approach recommends a two-step process in
developing a public involvement plan. The first step is to ad-
dress the following questions: Who is the public? What do
you want from the public? What will you give the public?
How much do you want'to involve the public? When is pub-
lic involvement appropriate or most effective?
There are several ways in which the public and other in-
terested groups can be identified (Hudspeth 1982): self-

Local Participation in Ecotourism Projects 145
identification, where plavers introduce themselves on
hearing about the project; @hird-party identification through
local citizen committees, environmental groups, or local
government agencies identify groups and individuals who
should be involved in planning or who are affected by the
proposed project; and staff identification through the anal-
ysis of associations, general lists, field interviews, affected
publics, and geographical information.
The second step in developing a public involvement plan
is to choose appropriate techniques for obtaining citizen
participation. The riverwork process approach recommends
the following techniques (other techniques that may be use-
ful are described in the Appendix):

I .Form an advisory committee or citizens' task force to
participate in and oversee the development of a river
conservation effort. All interested parties should be in-
cluded. Its role is to provide direction and information
to other. local groups and provide technical and politi-
cal expertise.
2. Conduct meetings (public hearings, workshops, for-
ums, committee meetings) to convey information, re-
port results, share and develop ideas, and help people
make decisions.
3. Conduct surveys to elicit ideas and concerns about the
river's resources.
4. Conduct personal interviews where issues are complex
and where many open-ended questions need to be
asked. Personal interviews are some of the best infor-
mation-gathering tools available, but they taketime.
5. Inform mass media of project.
6. Develop newsletters, posters, and other informational
materials .

After the key issues. and goals are identified and the public
involvement program initiated, the public is asked for input
on a spectrum of alternatives for resolving resource issues
and achieving their goals. Then they are involved in creating
an action agenda that determines who is responsible for ini-

146 THE NUTS AND BOLTS OF SUCCESSFUL NATURE TOURISM
tiating and implementing each action, how each action will
be taken, and when it will be taken.

RiVERWORK CASE STUDY: THE LACKAWANNA RiVER
CITIZENS'MASTER PLAN
In 1989, the Lackawanna River Corridor Association
(LRCA), founded by Len Altier, set out to restore the Lacka-
wanna River by improving the management of its habitat
and recreational opportunities. Altier discussed his board's
goals with the National Park Service and decided that they
should prepare a citizens'plan using the riverwork planning
process.
Prior to the development of the master plan, Altier effected
an informal media plan of action in order to build public
consensus on the need to restore the river. He met with the
managing editor of the largest newspaper in his area and
explained the association's objective. The editor agreed to
write an editorial on the subject. During the first year of the
effort, the paper printed Altier's articles on the issue, Altier
also organized weekly status meetings with the newspaper
staff. It took one year for the public to become excited about
the idea of restoring the river and for dialogue to begin
among local citizens.
At that point, Altier sent advertisements to newspapers,
TV and radio stations, requesting citizen attendance at a
public meeting to discuss the future of the river. The meeting
was held in a building close to the river (parking was avail-
able!). An outside consultant, recommended by the National
Park Service, attended the meeting to explain the value of
the river and the need for a plan of action to restore it. Based
on the riverwork process, citizens discussed issues such as
water quality, habitat loss, and so forth. The National Park
Service compiled all the comments into a document that
was later used to develop the master plan.
Regular monthly public meetings were established and at-
tended by key leaders from the community. Through this
forum, it was decided to develop a citizens' master plan. The
National Park Service sent in a professional outsider to as-
sist with its development. After five months of meetings, the

Local Participation in Ecotourism Projects 147
Lackawanna River Association was formally established
under Internal Revenue Service (IRS) rules. Following ad-
vice from professional river planners, the board of directors
of the LRCA recruited two lawyers, two real estate brokers,
two corporate executives, and a municipal representative for
a formal citizens' committee.
The Lackawanna River Citizens Master Plan was devel-
oped with a great deal of local participation. Several data-
gathering techniques were used to build an information base
for the master plan. The LRCA personnel and area volun-
teers organized focus groups, conducted individual inter-
views, played an integral role in public meetings, and
reviewed and approved all facets of the project.
LRCA also helped prepare a river and shoreline assess-
ment. The assessment divided the river into sections, each of
which was reviewed by a volunteer assessment team. Hun-
dreds of citizens from the community participated on these
teams. Each had a specific research responsibility.
Six months were spent conducting a series of focus groups
attended by teams of experts and citizens to discuss the is-
sue. These groups included representatives from organiza-
tions concerned with land use management, recreation and
open space, economic redevelopment, fish and wildlife,
water pollution and quality, education, and training. Ex-
perts were asked to identify the most important problems
facing the river valley and to recommend the most effective
programs for overcoming them. Consultants facilitated
group discussions, all of which were videotaped. A report on
the focus groups was compiled and sent to the press. Subse-
quently, several sections of the report were printed. It was
later used to develop the master plan.
The LCRA solicited additional comments and ideas from
the public by conducting a series of individual interviews
and holding a series of public meetings at three locations in
the river valley. The group presented its study plan and some
of its research findings to state and county officials as well
as bank presidents, union and commerce officials, and reli-
gious and civic groups. Many officials were skeptical of the
cost of implementing such a plan.
In response to the skepticism, Altier contacted a key offi-

148 THE NUTS AND BOLTS OF SUCCESSFUL NATURE TOURISM
cial in the State Department of Community Affairs. The re-
gional director of the department became an adviser to the
LRCA. He provided the association with information on
available sources of funds for river projects. The association
then prepared applications for funding activities along the
river.
In order to create public awareness and to continue to
build consensus, the association produced a series of public
service announcements for TV and radio. They also devel-
oped a series of news shows on the river for their CBS affili-
ate. In addition, they held a town meeting on the river at
which experts discussed the issues. It was made into a one-
hour live broadcast. The association also developed a
twenty-two-minute video of a flyover of the river. This tape
is used for on-the-road presentations to special- interest
groups.
The master plan is in the process of being implemented
with the full support of almost every interest group in the
surrounding community.

PLANNING LOCAL PARTICIPATION IN
ECOTOURISM PROJECTS

As we have seen, local participation in environment and de-
velopment projects can help to contribute to the success of
the projects. Ecotourism projects are no exception. Eco-
tourism is based on the conservation of natural resources,
resources that are often utilized by the surrounding com-
munities. In order for an ecotourism project to be successful,
the local citizens must be made a part of it. They need to
help preserve the natural resource for the tourist, and must
see a benefit for themselves in doing so.
Following is a new Approach to planning for local partici-
pation in ecotourism projects. It is based on previously suc-
cessful and nonsuccessful local participation projects and
research into the field as outlined earlier in this chapter.

Loc al Participation in Ecotourism Projects 149

PHASE 1: DETERMINE ROLE OF LOCAL PARTICIPATION
IN PROJECT
Examine the goals of the ecotourism project to determine
how local participation can best assist the attainment of
those goals through improving project efficiency, increasing
project effectiveness, building beneficiary capacity, and
sharing project costs. Identify local participation goals.

PHASE II: CHOOSE RESEARCH TEAM
A research team for the local participation component of the
project should include people who have expertise in sociol-
ogy and anthropology and who have experience in partici-
patory approaches, as well as those with experience in
media and survey research.

PHASE III: CONDUCT PRELIMINARY STUDIES
(PREDESIGN STAGE)
Using existing documents, conduct preliminary studies of
the political, economic, and social situation of the commu-
nity and its surrounding environment. This can then be fol-
lowed by surveys, interviews with families and community
leaders, and discussion groups. A political analysis should
determine whether there is political support for the demo-
cratic principles upon which local participation is based.
The analysis could include any or all of the following com-
ponents:

I .Assessment of the needs and wants of the community.
2. Identification of the key local leaders and key organi-
zations or groups (industry, environmental groups,
unions, etc.). Determine which groups are most pow-
erful within the community. Determine who can best
speak for the local citizens and who could be possible
participants, facilitators, or managers (of money and
land) in the participation process.

150 THE NUTS AND BOLTS OF SUCCESSFUL NATURE TOURISM
3. Identification of major newspapers, TV and radio sta-
tions.
4. Assessment of the local community's view of partici-
pation in the project. (Is there a history of participa-
tion? If so, was the experience positive?)
5. Determination of the capacity and constraints of the
local government, village, and nongovernmental insti-
tutions in supporting local participation. Identify ex-
isting grass roots organizations and determine if there
is a need to strengthen existing institutions or to de-
velop new ones.
6. Assessment of the co 'mmunity's traditions (hunting,
etc.), including its view on the conservation and use of
natural resources, land use principles, water rights,
and management of the resources.
7. Identification of the type of people who are likely to
participate and why.
8. Assessment of the role of women in the community.
Determinations should be made about, for example,
their workload, whether they are able to be in leader-
ship positions, and if there is a stigma against men
and women being in the same room during an inter-
view.
9. Assessment of who manages the finances.
10. Assessment of who owns land. Distinguish between
landowners and squatters, rich and poor.
11. Assessment of cultural values. Determine what incen-
tives could be used to change attitudes about the en-
vironment, if necessary.

PHASE IV: DETERMINE LEVEL OF LOCAL
PARTICIPATION
This phase should begin with a careful review of the infor-
mation obtained about the political environment in which
local participation will occur. If the local or national govern-
ment is not supportive of local participation, then the proj-
ect manager may wish to develop an alternative method to
obtain public input, such as the use of intermediaries. This

Local Participation in Ecotourism Projects 151
could mean using existing nongovernmental organizations
to facilitate local participation or creating new ones.
Where there exists a political and social environment that
encourages public participation, the project manager or
team should determine the level of intensity needed, and at
what stage within the project it should occur.
If the team decides that participation should occur at the
lowest level of intensity, where participation is confined to
information sharing, then the team need only proceed
through phases V and VI as outlined below.
If consultation is the level to be used, where local people
will provide feedback on key issues at some or all stages in a
project cycle, again, phases V and VI need to be attained.
If the team decides that the local people should have a
decision-making role in matters of project design and imple-
mentation, the team would continue through all nine phases
of this plan.

PHASE V: DETERMINE APPROPRIATE PARTICIPATION
MECHANISM
The most appropriate participation mechanism will be de-
termined by the level of intensity of the participation, the
nature of existing institutions (governmental organizations,
nongovernmental organizations, grass roots citizens'/user
groups, district councils), and characteristics of local people
(the degree to which they are accustomed to voicing their
opinions, educational background, etc.).

INFORMATION SHARING AND CONSULTATION
If it is decided to promote information sharing or consulta-
tion, and there does not already exist a participation mech-
anism, the team could develop a citizens' committee,
conduct public meetings, form discussion groups, or hold an
educational workshop.'
The composition and role of a citizens' advisory commit-
tee will differ depending on the project. In many cases, ad-
visory committees will include representatives from all

152 THE NUTS AND BOLTS OF SUCCESSFUL NATURE TOURISM
groups interested in the project and not just those directly
affected. Its tasks may include the following: establishing
and/or commenting on project goals and objectives to ensure
they are realistic and provide adequate direction; rec-
ommending the type of benefits accruing to the community;
educating the local population about the project; and pro-
viding technical and political expertise.
Other methods of participation, especially for the consul-
tative level and with an illiterate population, include the for-
mation of small discussion groups in which visual methods
such as problem trees (graphic representations of problems
with the project) and community maps (a map of the com-
munity's cultural, economic, political, and social situation)
are used.
At the - information-sharing level, popular theater and
video presentations can provide a dramatic representation
of the project, raising public awareness about the issues.

INVOLVEMENT IN DECISION-MAKING
In projects affecting indigenous people and/or an illiterate
population, the participation mechanisms chosen for the
"decision-making level" of participation could include using
an existing organization headed by a local representative, or
if one does not exist, creating one. The functions performed
by local councils vary, but they'usually include one or more
of the following: representing community concerns and pro-
viding input on cultural traditions (in the project design
stage), enforcing rules (in the implementation and manage-
ment stage), and distributing or implementing benefits on
behalf of the community (in the management stage).
Some project managers choose to develop a tiered partic-
ipation mechanism for fairly educated communities, such as
an advisory committee with a reporting citizens' sub-
committee. When this type of participation mechanism is
chosen, it is important to work with the appropriate orga-
nizations and appropriate levels within the organizations,
and ensure that local representatives are able to communi-

Local Participation in Ecotourism Projects 153
cate their concerns to the upper-level committee decision-
makers.
If a new mechanism is being developed, the team will need
to identify local leaders who can represent the various con-
stituencies in the community. Nongovernmental organiza-
tions can be used as a source of identifying local leaders,
officials, and agency representatives. They also can be used
as external investigators who can support the participa-
tion process by facilitating discussion, helping to link the pro-
ject to local needs, and providing knowledge at the local
level.

PHASE VI: INITIATING DIALOGUE AND
EDUCATIONAL EFFORTS
Before meeting with community leaders, a dialogue with the
press should be initiated. As discussed earlier, building con-
sensus requires a high degree of public awareness. Soliciting
support from the press is therefore essential to the success of
the ecotourism project, especially if there is no history of
local participation.
Interviews with key community representatives should be
conducted prior to larger meetings with the general public
in order to prepare all parties for their contact with the pub-
lic, and to work out any problems that may exist.
When interacting with key leaders, the press, or the gen-
eral public, the ecotourism team should explain the reason
for their presence, the goals and objectives of the ecotourism
project, and the ways the project will affect the community.
Fact sheets should be prepared that describe the project, the
known values of the area, the history of threats, and the ben-
efits from the project to the locality, region, and nation. In
addition, films, videos, popular theater and other techniques
described above and in the Appendix can be effective in
building public consensus for the project.
Facilitated by a project team or team leader, workshops or
public meetings should be held to identify and prioritize po-
tential problems associated with the ecotourism project, as

154 THE NUTS AND BOLTS OF SUCCESSFUL NATURE TOURISM
well as to identify the community's economic and sociocul-
tural needs.
The facilitators would then write a report on lessons
learned and recommendations of the meeting and return it
to the community for further discussion.

PHASE VII: COLLECTIVE DECISION-MAKING
This is the phase at which participation takes place at its
highest level of intensity. All necessary research has been
conducted, and the local people have voiced their concerns
and wants. The team then presents the findings of the re-
search and the possible recommendations for action and
asks the local community for their reactions. If necessary, a
negotiating process would begin in which the people and the
team would come to a consensus on actions taken in re-
sponse to the impacts of the ecotourism project.

PHASE VIII: DEVELOPMENT OF AN ACTION PLAN AND
IMPLEMENTATION SCHEME
In this phase, the ecotourism team, together with the local
community, develops an action plan for implementing solu-
tions for the problems and needs identified by the commu-
nity.
For example, the needs identified by the community may
include increasing standards of living, alleviating cultural
impacts, and educating communities about the value of
their resources and their culture. Offers made by the team to
address these needs might include: (1) purchasing agricul-
tural produce from villages at market rates or on a contrac-
tual basis; (2) developing rewards for villagers who donate
or lend artifacts to museums developed for the project; (3)
developing gift shops, which would be managed by village
cooperatives; (4) developing other employment opportuni-
ties for local people (e.g., park managers, tour guides, re-
searchers); and (5) developing cultural guides to the host
culture. Other actions could include local people developing
rules for tourist visits to their village.

Local Participation in Ecotourism Projects 155
The actions determined by consensus could become indi-
vidual action plans or one action plan. These should then be
integrated into the overall master plan for the ecotourism
project.
A plan may be needed to strengthen existing institutions
or to create new ones for the purpose of implementing proj-
ects, such as channeling funds from the ecotourism project
to the beneficiaries. Such organizations should begin small
and should act on behalf of the local community. The people
who make up the organization should support a single style
of accountability (financial and otherwise). One financial
management style used by development organizations and
applicable to local organizations channeling funds for eco-
tourism projects is the "open management" style. All ex-
penditures, income, receipts, and accounts are routinely
published and posted before the community. The commu-
nity is trained to understand the proceedings and records of
the organization so that it can ensure the accountability of
its representatives.

PHASE IX: MONITORING AND EVALUATION
Monitoring and evaluation, the final stage of the local par-
ticipation plan, are often neglected and yet are very impor-
tant to the success of an ecotourism project. Teams should
monitor the implementation of the project and evaluate the
effectiveness of its operation. An assessment should be made
of how well objectives are being met, and the degree of par-
ticipation of all groups, among other factors. Using these
findings, adjustments can be made to address unforeseen
problems or circumstances.

156 THE NUTS AND BOLTS OF SUCCESSFUL NATURE TOURISM
Model Local Participation Plan

I. Determine local participation goals
II. Choose research team
111. Conduct preliminary studies
IV Determine level of local participation
If information sharing (go to V and VI and stop)
If consultation (go to V and VI and stop)
If decision-making (do all steps)
V Determine appropriate participation mechanism
VI. Initiate dialogue with press/local community
VII. Collective decision-making
VIII. Develop action plan and implementation mechanism
IX. Monitoring and evaluation of the project

Appendix

Techniques for Ensuring Community,Parficipation

COMMUNITY MAPS
Participants from various parts of the community prepare a
graphic representation of the community or of specific as-
pects of it, such as the economy (production, marketing, con-
sumption, employment, etc.), health, housing, education,
recreation, religion, and culture. The goal is to uncover the
community's self-perceptions. The results can be used in the
planning process or to help evaluate the project. Because
participants do not need to be literate, the process can build
self-confidence and nurture the creativity of those who uti-
lize it, particularly if they are from the lower socioeconomic
end of the scale.

PROBLEM TREES
Especially appropriate with illiterate participants. Make a
list of principal problems identified with the project by the
community. Then choose a problem whose solution has been
identified as a top priority, and place it in the center of the
trunk of the tree. Through group discussion, identify the
most immediate causes of this problem and related short-
term impacts. Place the immediate causes in the shallow
roots of the tree and the short-term impacts in the first
branches. Then, identify the deeper causes of the problem
and place them at the bottom of the roots of tree and place
the longer-term consequences of the problem in the second-

157

158 THE NUTS AND BOLTS OF SUCCESSFUL NATURE TOURISM
ary branches. Make a list of elements that should be taken
into account in preparing a plan of action to solve the prob-
lems identified.

GROUP DISCUSSION
Bring small groups of people together for the general pur-
pose of solving problems by sharing experiences, informa-
tion, and support. The facilitator should help the group to
pose problems, identify causes, discuss possible solutions,
and evaluate actions.
The discussions will be most effective if the facilitator does
the following: creates a situation in which people feel com-
fortable and free to speak, sing, draw, or perform; builds a
sense of trust, support, and solidarity among people who
previously had no idea that they shared similar concerns
and needs; records the discussion in notes, audiotape, or
videotape; and breaks down large groups into small com-
mittees that are responsible for specific tasks.

PUBLIC MEETINGS
Open meetings to which all members of a constituency are
invited. They vary in terms of depth of discussion and the
scope of involvement in decision-making.
This mechanism is useful for the following reasons: it in-
forms the constituency at various stages in the project; it
provides an opportunity for all members of the constituency
to contribute to the design and implementation of the proj-
ect; it can obtain and maintain constituency approval and
support; and it can interest more constituency members in
playing an active role in the research project (encouraging
them to join small group discussions, to interview and be
interviewed, and to contribute labor and know-how to par-
ticular activities).

RESEARCH TEAms
Local representatives can participate in the research process
by joining the research team. They can then ensure that the

Local Participation in Ecotourism Proiects 159
local citizens are included in planning and that research is
carried out democratically.

OPEN-ENDED SURVEYS
Open-ended surveys allow researchers to interview a fairly
large number of people using a flexible format that allows
the interview to follow the interests of the person being in-
terviewed. The interview may also be conducted with small
groups. These surveys help paint a picture of how a large
number of people feel about the project and related prob-
lems.

COMMUNITY SEMINARS
These are intensive study sessions held among members
of one or several communities, and often including repre-
sentatives from outside institutions such as government
agencies, universities, and private community development
organizations.
During these sessions, the participants can discuss and
analyze the information obtained by the project's research-
ers in order to plan the next steps. They are able to share
information and plan research and action strategies with
outside groups.

FACT-FINDING MISSIONS
Group of people from one constituency visit other groups or
communities that have been working on similar projects or
problems. They can learn about possible funding sources,
what can be accomplished, what kind of political, social,
and economic obstacles they are likely to face, and what
type of time, financial, and community commitments will be
needed to make the' project a success. In addition, they can
exchange information and resources, building a support net-
work across a region.or country or even internationally for
future activities and for political action.

160 THE NUTS AND BOLTS OF SUCCESSFUL NATURE TOURISM

COLLECTIVE PRODUCT ION OF AUDIOVISUAL
MATERIALS
Groups produce audiovisual materials such as drawings,
photo essays, videotapes, and slide shows that explain and/
or analyze one or more aspects of the project or problem.
This approach provides a form of expression other than
words when participants are uncomfortable with words, or
when words do not seem to be advancing the research pro-
cess. Participants learn that audiovisual skills can be ac-
quired by and used by anybody, taking the ability to
communicate to a broad audience out of exclusive domain
of the mass media.
The shared work experience will often strengthen the
group. Most important, it helps to develop a common under-
standing of the problem through the planning, discussion,
and production of a shared statement. Finally, it produces
educational materials that can be used to reach out to a
larger group

POPULAR THEATER
Popular theater can speak to people in their own language
and deal with problems of direct relevance to their situation.
It is an inexpensive method for raising public awareness and
is accessible to all socioeconomic classes. As a collective
expression and communal activity, it creates an environ-
ment for cooperation rather than individual thinking and
action. Participants learn from each other rather than from
an expert.

REFERENCES

Allen, William. 1986. "'Biocultural Restoration of a Tropical
Forest Bioscience 38, no. 3.
Amaah-Ofosu, Waafas. 1989. "Hearings on the Food-
Population Equation. ' U.S. House Committee on Science

Local Participation in Ecotourism Projects 161
and Technology, Subcommittee on Natural Resources, Ag-
ricultural Research and the Environment (February 28).
Anderson, D., and R. Grove. 1987. Conservation in Africa:
People, Policies, and Practice. Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge
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Bamberger, Michael. 1986a. "The Role of Community Partic-
ipation in Development Planning and Project Manage-
ment." Washington, D.C.: World Bank.
. 1986b. "Readings in Community Participation." Pa-
pers presented at an international workshop organized by
the Economic Development Institute at the World Bank,
World Bank, Washington, D.C.
Bell, R. H. V "Conservation with a Human Face: Conflict
and Reconciliation in African Land Use Planning." In Con-
servation in Africa: People, Policies and Practice, edited by
Anderson and. Grove. Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge Uni-
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Corbeth, Margene. 1983. GreenLine Parks: Land Conservation
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Erickson, D. L., and A. C. Davis. 1976. "Public Involvement
in Recreation Resource Decision Making." In Proceedings
of the Southern States Recreation Research Applications
Workshop. USDA Forest Service, Asheville, N.C.
Eugster, J. Glen. 1988. "Steps in State and Local Greenway
Planning." National Wetlands Newsletter New York: Na-
tional Association of Wetlands Managers.
Goddard, Paula, and Jim Cotter. 1986. "USAID's Experience
with Community Participation. " In Readings in Commu-
nity Participation, compiled by Michael Bamberger. Wash-
ington, D.C.: World Bank.
Holden, Constance. 1986. "Regrowing a Dry Tropical Forest.
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Honadle, George, and VanSant, Jerry. 1985. "Enhancing Lo-
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from Integrated Rural Development. West Hartford, Con-
necticut: Kumarian Press.
Hudspeth, Thomas R. 1982. "Visual Preference as a Tool for
Citizen Participation: A Case Study of Urban Revitaliza-

162 THE NUTS AND BOLTS OF SUCCESSFUL NATURE TOURISM
tion in Burlington, Vermont." Dissertation thesis, Univer-
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Janzen, Daniel. 1986. "Guanacaste National Park: Tropical
Ecological and Cultural Restoration," Editorial Universi-
dad Estatal a Distancia, San Jose, Costa Rica.
Lackawanna River Corridor Association. 1990. "Lacka-
wanna River: Citizens Master Plan." Prepared by Hoffman,
Williams, Lafen, and Fletcher Consultants, Silver Spring,
Maryland.
Lamberton, D. M. 1981. "Communication in Development
Planning." In Bruce R. Crouch and Shankariah Chamala,
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Little, Peter D., and D. W Brokensha. 1987. "Local Institu-
tions, Tenure and Resource Management in East Africa."
In Conservation In Africa: People, Policies, and Practice.
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Cooperation in Developing Countries." KIDMA, Israel Jour-
nal of Development 10, no. 39.
Maslow, Jonathan. 1987. "A Dream of Trees:' Philadelphia
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Moser, Caroline. 1989. "Approaches to Community Partici-
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National Park Service. 1988. Rivenvork Book. Philadelphia:
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Paul, Samuel. 1987. "Community Participation in Develop-
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American Health Organization, Health Services Develop-

Local Participation in Ecotourism Projects 163
ment Program, Health Services Development Series No.
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. 1988b. "Social Participation in Local Health Sys-
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U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Wetlands
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U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Marine and
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CHAPTER 8

Marketing Ecotourism: Attracting
the Elusive Ecotourist

RiCHARD RYEL ANDTom GRASSE

I
n the travel industry, we define ecotourism as purposeful
travel that creates an understanding of cultural and natu-
ral history, while safeguarding the integrity of the ecosystem
and producing economic benefits that encourage conserva-
tion.
The long-term survival of this special type of travel is inex-
tricably linked to the existence of the natural resources that
support it. Consequently, the travel companies that design,
plan, and coordinate ecotourism programs, and the land op-
erators and guides who control activities in the destinations,
must share a conservation ethic. This shared ethic provides
the framework within which all marketing and traveling
should take place and includes several basic components:
increasing public awareness of the environment, maximiz-
ing economic benefits for local communities, fostering cul-
tural sensitivity, and minimizing the negative impacts of
travel on the environment.
Once the conservation ethic is internalized, an effective

164

Marketing Ecotourism 165
nature tour operator will develop a marketing plan that
identifies potential clients and how best to reach them. At
International Expeditions, we have had ten years of experi-
ence in marketing ecotourism. Following are some of the
highlights of the strategies and techniques we have found to
be effective.

A CONSERVATION ETHIC

The key components of an ecotourism conservation ethic are
as follows:

1. Increase awareness of nature. Ecotourism should stim-
ulate among travelers and among the inhabitants of the des-
tination an awareness, appreciation, and understanding of
the ecosystem and the need for preservation. Many nature-
oriented travel programs tend to emphasize the overt spec-
tacles of nature, such as a half-million wildebeest migrating
across the Serengeti Plains, plunging cataracts fed by
mighty rivers like the Zambezi and Iguassu, or a skin-
cutting ceremony of the Ambonwari tribe of Papua New
Guinea.
But what of the less apparent, equally fascinating wonders
of nature? Can a traveler fully appreciate the interdependent
relationships in nature, including man's own vulnerable
niche, without examining the environment more com-
pletely? If the subtle beauty and balance of nature are not
revealed to travelers, how can their experience in the wilder-
ness promote understanding and appreciation of wildlife?
Ecotourism should redefine for the traveler what is sensa-
tional. Colonies of 'leaf-cutter ants marching across the
jungle floor holding high their leaf fragment as though it
were a green parasol, an unfolding drama in a spider's web,
or a flowering epiphyte precariously suspended from a tow-
ering mahogany tree should command equal time with vast
herds of large mammals and thundering waterfalls.
Ecotourism also should aim to stimulate an appreciation
of nature among the local people - They may take for granted

166 THE NUTS AND BOLTS OF SUCCESSFUL NATURE ToURIS.M
FiLyure 8.1 Ecotourists on an expedition to Autarctica ivatch a
oroup ot pe@zoubis march across the dramatic landscape ol'the pilal-
habitat.

--WA gin

7::
0

the marvels of nature that have been a part of their dalk
lives, yet the preservation of these vital habitats ultimatelv
rests i-n their hands.

2. Maximize economic benefits for local people. The prefix
il eco" should refer to economics as well as ecology. One of the
greatest incentives for conservation among local peoples is
to establish tourism as a primary revenue source for the
countrv and local economv, through utilizing the services
provided bv the host country whenever possible.
At the local level, direct financial awards to the individu-
als xho provide food and accommodations, who share their
knowledge of local flora and fauna, and who produce souve-
nirs and handicrafts are essential. If their livelihoods are
based on, or to some degree dependent on, the preservation
of habitat, thev will be able to avoid other, less sustainable
forms of support.
At the national level, government needs to be convinced

Marketing Ecotourism 167
that ecotourism will supply a significant amount of foreign
exchange in order for them to provide technical and finan-
cial support for the protection of parks and reserves. The use
of host country airlines, goods, and'services will help in this
regard.

3. Encourage cultural sensitivity- The preservation of a na-
tion's cultural heritage, appreciation for the customs and
traditions of native peoples and respect for their privacy and
dignity, are also essential fundamentals of ecotourism. The
presence of tourists is inevitably intrusive to local inhabi-
tants. Fortunately, travelers visiting remote communities
are almost always greeted by the warm smiles and the
friendly curiosity of the residents. Nevertheless, travelers
should be encouraged to be mindful of their status as inter-
lopers. If a group of Masai came wandering down the street
of a typical American neighborhood, stopping frequently to
stare in awe at people mowing their lawns, washing their
cars, playing badminton with their kids ... how might these
residents react?
Ecotourism strives to make travelers aware that trade
with local inhabitants represents an opportunity to learn
about their traditions and creative skills. Straw market
barter may be fun and harmless in Cancun or Freeport, but
it is not productive in undeveloped areas or those less fre-
quented by tourists. Ecotourism should endeavor to control
the spirit in which the trade of goods is handled by educat-
ing tourists regarding the potentially corrupting impact
pure barter can have on traditional economies that are
based in communal sharing.

4. Minimize negative Impacts on the environment. Though
the intended outcome of ecotourism is the development of
tourism as a sustainable economic resource for the destina-
tion, it has a negative impact on the immediate environ-
ment. Tourism support facilities translate into hotels and
lodges, airports, roads, and waste disposal. Even the seem-
ingly harmless observation of wildlife can have grave impli-

168 THE NUTS AND BOLTS OF SUCCESSFUL NATURE TOURISM
cations and must be approached with care by tour operators
and their travelers.
Ecotourism must minimize negative impacts on the envi-
ronment visited while enlightening travelers regarding each
habitat's vital role in the balance of nature. For instance,
tour operators should not blaze a new trail in the wilderness
in order to provide access to an interesting or rare occur-
rence of nature when existing paths already allow travelers
to observe a broad spectrum of wildlife elsewhere.
Many tour operators realize the effects visitation can have
on the ecosystem. They know how to minimize the detrimen-
tal impact tourism has on wildlife and they maintain rigor-
ous standards as a result of their love and respect for nature;
if they do not, they should not operate tours in these areas.
Ecotourism operators often are learned naturalists either
through formal education or through field experience. It
does not require a great deal of insight on their part to real-
ize that their immediate prosperity and future rely on the
preservation of the natural wonders that lure travelers in the
first place.
The travel company contemplating an exceptionally deli-
cate area as a destination may determine that a particularly
fragile condition exists either in terms of the wildlife popu-
lation or the indigenous human population that would make
visitation too harmful or corruptive. Regardless of accessi-
bility for tourism and its potential value to a travel company
or local economy, attracting travelers to such a destination
would be irresponsible.

MARKETING ECOTOURISM

DETERMINING MARKETABILITY
What makes a potential. ecotourism destination marketable?
Destinations can be evaluated on two basic levels: the at-
traction for travelers and the tourism infrastructure.
Biodiversity is the most important attribute of an ecotour-
ism destination in terms of its attraction for travelers. Areas
with an abundance and variety of flora and fauna are allur-

Marketing Ecotourism 169
ing subjects for prospective ecotourists. Environments such
as the tropical jungles of the Amazon hold the promise of an
unforgettable adventure. Prolific biodiversity is not limited
to the tropics, however. It can also be discovered in the ex-
treme northern and southern latitudes from Alaska to Pata-
gonia.
Unique geography can also attract tourism to remote and
delicate environments. Amid the breathtaking Himalaya
Mountains, Nepal beckons tens of thousands of travelers
each year. Aver's Rock, the mammoth sandstone monolith in
Australia's @esert outback, has been an object of admiration
since first encountered by aborigines some 40,000 years ago.
Cultural history is an important factor in a destination's
marketability. The opportunity for travelers to experience
cultural traditions will increase greatly their enjoyment of
the destination. In Papua New Guinea, for example, the vis-
itor will find a myriad of tribal cultures, customs, and arti-
facts, in addition to the island's beautiful rain forests and
wildlife. The Pet4@n in Guatemala boasts a treasure trove of
ancient Mayan ruins, and rich Indian culture, amid a unique
tropical environment.
A tourism infrastructure must be in place, or put into
place, if visitation is to occur. A destination cannot be mar-
keted by an environmentally conscious travel company
unless it has adequate accommodations and ground trans-
portation, guides who are able to interpret natural and cul-
tural history, proper access to natural habitats, and
cooperative local or national governments. The area must
also have tour operators who are receptive to the fundamen-
tals of ecotourism.

A MARKETING STRATEGY
A deep understanding and acceptance of the conservation
ethic described earlier is essential when developing market-
ing initiatives such as those that follow.

Group travel. Most ecotourism expeditions are conducted
in small groups consisting of five to thirty participants. This
type of travel allows operators to establish an annual travel

170 THE NUTS AND BOLTS OF SUCCESSFUL NATURE TOURISM
calendar through negotiations with airlines and hotels to
block space for the tour dates. This provides prospective
travelers with a varied choice of guaranteed departure dates
and reasonablv priced packages. A predetermined schedule
of trip departures permits the operator to offer complete trip
packages at set, all-inclusive prices and arrange outstanding
itineraries designed to address the fundamentals of ecotour-
ism. Thus, from the standpoint of both the traveler and the
ecotourism operator, this represents the best approach to of-
fering a superior nature travel product.
The advantages of marketing ecotourism in the format of
group travel positively outweigh any alternative, despite the
rare but inevitable displeasure experienced by the mis-
placed traveler who becomes uncomfortable amid the en-
chanting rusticity and unpredictability of an ideal nature
travel destination.

Defining the market. Because ecotourism programs are
conducted in small groups, it is important to attract people
who will enjoy the product after it is purchased. The attitude
of one traveler in a small group can significantly influence
its other members, and repeat travelers are an important
source of income.
Who are these so-called right people? Are these key pros-
pects for ecotourism "born" or "made"?
The answer is both. To narrow the target only to those
people predisposed to nature travel ("born" ecotourists)
would not be fully productive. These individuals already
have a strong interest in exploring the natural wonders of
the world. They possess a built-in appreciation for natural
history and the desire to preserve wildlife and traditional
culture. Certainly, a nature travel experience would serve to
nurture this attitude and further the aim of ecotourism. But,
in order to fulfill its mission and to achieve business success,
ecotourism must also reach out to potential consumers un-
familiar with the conce pt. Therefore, the ecotourist must be
made as well as born.
Potential ecotourists are identified and wooed through a
marketing strategy that limits the advertising and commu-
nications to a qualified target market in order to achieve

Marketing Ecotourism 171
cost effectiveness and profitability. Travel companies cannot
waste scarce dollars and valuable time communicating the
benefits of ecotourism to unqualified consumers.
First, the ecotourism company will 'need to identify the
demographic, psychographic, and geographic characteris-
tics of the desired group. Demographics are factors such as
age, sex, race, household income, education, occupation, and
familv size. Psvchographics are lifestyles, beliefs, and other
cultural varia@les. The geographic characteristics of the tar-
get market refer to the areas of the country in which there
are concentrations of qualified prospects.
Demographically, the key prospects for ecotourism are
men and women forty-five to sixty-five years of age; some 58
million Americans age fifty-plus dominate pleasure travel
and tourism. They travel more frequently, go longer dis-
tances, and stay longer than other groups. The majority have
obtained a college degree and many have a postgraduate de-
gree. The occupations of these key prospects range greatly,
though most are professional, and their household income
and buying power is high. The amount of leisure time at
their disposal is great, as many are financially independent
and retired.
The vast majority of international ecotourism consumers
are North American, European, and Japanese. However, the
correlation between ethnic origin and the propensity toward
environmentally sensitive travel is more a function of econ-
omy than anything else. Citizens of the modern industrial-
ized world have more time, money, and freedom to travel
than other cultures.
Psychographic descriptions of purchasers are useful be-
cause demographic descriptions do not discriminate well
enough between consumers. For example, an electrician
may be reported in the same income class as a college pro-
fessor, but their lives and purchasing habits may be vastly
different. Therefore, it is important to go beyond demo-
graphics, especially when' it comes to making marketing de-
cisions. I
The psychographic characteristics among the target mar-
ket for ecotourism are quite distinctive. The Axiom Market
Research Bureau, Inc., has developed a series of twenty ad-

172 THE NUTS AND BOLTS OF SUCCESSFUL NATURF_ TOURISM
jectives designed to elicit the self-conceptions of respondents
in surveys, which can be helpful when identifying a mar-
ket. Those adjectives that describe the ecotourist include
dd amicable" (amiable, affable, and benevolent), "broad-
minded" (open-minded, liberal, and tolerant), "intelligent"
(smart, bright, well-informed), "self-assured" (confident,
self-sufficient, secure), and "sociable" (friendly, cheerful,
likable). By now, anyone reading this who has ever parti-
cipated in an ecotourism expedition should be sufficiently
flattered!
Though more and more magazines, newspapers, and
broadcast media are providing prospective advertisers with
psychographic profiles of their audiences in addition to de-
tailed demographic information, the marketers of ecotour-
ism must often rely on experience and intuition when
making a decision to purchase advertising space in a previ-
ously untried medium.
Geographically, concentrations of key nature travel pros-
pects are found in the northeast United States (New York,
Boston, Washington, D.C., etc.) the West Coast (Seattle, San
Francisco, Los Angeles, etc.), and in major cities elsewhere
like Chicago, Dallas, and Denver. These are prosperous areas
that attract and support the greatest number of professional
occupations. They also support educational institutions
such as colleges and universities, museums, zoos, aquari-
ums, planetariums, botanical gardens, and libraries that
nurture a curiosity about the natural and cultural history of
the world.

Advertising: getting the message out. Once the demo-
graphics, psychographics, and geography of the target audi-
ence are defined, the company should determine which
advertising media to utilize. A company and its product will
immediately inherit a measurable degree of trust and ac-
ceptance among consumers simply by virtue of their pres-
ence in the right advertising medium.
Specialized magazines that are well established and affil-
iated with highly respected, internationally recognized or-
ganizations such as the National Audubon Society, the

Marketing Ecotourism 173
Sierra Club, American Museum of Natural History, the
Smithsonian Institution, and the Archaeological Institute of
America are a prime source of advertising. Other magazines
such as E Magazine, Buzzworm, and Geo, which are not affil-
iated with special institutions, can also target ecotourism
prospects effectively. Upscale travel magazines like The Na-
tional Geographic Traveler or Con& Nast's Traveler can be
useful if the budget allows. The newspapers of most major
cities publish special travel supplements each spring and
fall; these too should be considered.
Identifying a key interest common to most ecotourism
prospects can help a travel company find effective advertis-
ing channels. For example, most nature tourists are active
amateur photographers. Therefore, a publication such as
Outdoor Travel & Photography could prove worthwhile.
In addition to the primary advertising vehicles described
above positive results also can be obtained through the use
of supplemental media. Special travel itineraries offered by
the company may require targeting advertising to special-
interest magazines, for example. A coral reef diving expedi-
tion to Belize could be effectively advertised in Skin Diver
magazine. A different itinerary to Belize, coinciding with
Garifuna Day (celebrating a specific ethnic group and its his-
tory), could solicit response if advertised in Native Peoples
magazine. Exploring the archaeological sites of Cuzco and
Machu Picchu would certainly appeal to readers of Archae-
ology magazine, while attending the Pushkar camel fair in
India might excite the readers of the New York Times Sophis-
ticated Traveler
Ecotourism companies realize maximum results by main-
taining a constant presence in the primary media they use.
Frequency leads to recognition and top-of-mind awareness.
Nature travel companies should therefore invest in repeated
advertising with their most productive advertising media.
Frequency contracts with media earn special discount rates.
However, an ecotourism operator can rarely afford a
schedule of full-page ads in national magazines, which, even
in specialized publications having a circulation of only
400,000 to 500,000, can cost more than $ 10,000 an issue.

174 THE NUTS AND BOLTS OF SUCCESSFUL NATURE TOURISM
There are certain months of the year when people are less
likely to travel and response to advertising drops dramati-
cally. During these "down" periods, ecotourism advertisers
might consider taking a brief hiatus from advertising in one
or two of their primary media.
Ecotourism operators do not always have to carry the full
burden of advertising costs. Most airlines and manv of the
more established lodge operators will provide coop @dvertis-
ing funds to travel companies that feature their services in
the ad.
Advertising that complements editorial content also en-
hances the effectiveness of advertising. Many of the maga-
zines used by nature travel advertisers feature natural
history or travel subjects. Operators can thereby reach pros-
pects while their interest is piqued. Ecotourism companies
should keep abreast of upcoming editorial coverage in order
to take advantage of special features that focus on their des-
tinations. Newspaper travel supplements, magazines, and
other media can provide advertisers with editorial calen-
dars.

Crafting the message. Financial constraints often limit na-
ture travel companies to a relatively subtle presence in ad-
vertising media. In order to capture attention and induce
action, they must ensure that their advertisements are stra-
tegically placed both within the magazine and on the page,
and that it is creatively designed and written. They should
try to maintain a consistent positioning strategy, ad design,
use of color, and photographic or illustrative mood in order
to draw attention and establish recognition.
The most difficult challenge of advertising ecotourism is
the development of effective copy. This is difficult to do
within the confines of a tiny display ad, particularly because
the inclusion of mandatory information such as the com-
pany name, address, and telephone number, the destination
or destinations being promoted, the trip price and items not
included in that price, often leave little room for enticing
prose.
Consequently, the primary advertising objective of most

Marketing Ecotourism 175
nature travel companies is to encourage their audience to
request additional information about the featured destina-
tion by telephone. If the ad successfully accomplishes that
objective, captivating brochures describing the destination
in detail, projecting vivid images of the wildlife and culture
of the habitat, and expressly or implicitly addressing the
concept of ecotourism can be-mailed to the inquirer.

Creating a mailing list. A valuable outcome of well-
targeted, direct response advertising is the creation of a
strong mailing list. Mailing lists generated from response to
the ecotourism company's own advertising generally means
the names and addresses obtained are those of qualified eco-
tourism prospects. The respondents read the publication in
which the company advertises, so the likelihood is great that
their demographic and psychographic profiles complement
those of the company's target market. They are at least con-
templating a nature travel vacation. And if the ad was clas-
sified, or positioned in the travel section of the publication,
the respondent might be actively planning a trip. Finally, the
price of the trip, if it was advertised, did not discourage re-
sponse.
The resulting mailing list becomes a powerful marketing
tool. It allows the company to provide key prospects and
past travelers with brochures, newsletters, updates on new
destinations, even Christmas cards, the vast majority of
which will be examined thoroughly and appreciatively by
the recipients. A high-quality assortment of travel brochures
provides the operator with an important competitive advan-
tage.
Most traditional travel brochures are designed to fanta-
size, romanticize, and aggrandize to the point where the
reader is mesmerized and hypnotized. They'can be bril-
liantly contrived fables of lavish detail depicting opulent
quarters, omnipresent. valets, sumptuous feasts, breathtak-
ing panoramas, torrid love affairs, and deep-brown tans.
Ecotourism takes a very different angle toward promo-
tion. To appeal to their most desired prospects, ecotourism
marketers present the inherently astounding facts about the

176 T14E NUTS AND BOLTS OF SUCCESSFUL NATURE TOURISM
destinations they offer. The visual images within the bro-
chures are never meticulously staged shots featuring volup-
tuous models and caviar molds; instead, they are peeps at
nature frozen in time, such as a newly hatched lotus bird
testing its gangling legs for the first time or a traveler on an
elephant's back within a few feet of a grazing rhinoceros.
Ecotourism operators use brochures in a variety of ways.
The most effective method is to offer travel prospects a visu-
ally attractive annual travel catalog or digest supplemented
by more detailed, destination-specific brochures. The cata-
log features all of the company's current destinations with a
broad description of sights and activities. Prices and a cal-
endar of departure dates are included in the digest. Often, it
is produced in an elaborate magazine format with a capti-
vating photographic cover design. A catalog that earns a
place on someone's coffee table or an equally accessible and
conspicuous place is infinitely more effective than a bro-
chure placed in the trash after a cursory examination.
Brochures specific to each destination offered by the eco-
tourism operator can greatly enhance and supplement the
annual catalog. Smaller operators may use these more de-
scriptive brochures exclusively. The travel brochure often
represents the first opportunity the ecotourism operator has
to educate the prospective traveler. It is here that the travel
company enjoys an ample quantity of time and space to
communicate its purpose and the unique qualities of its des-
tinations. In the following excerpt from an ecotourism bro-
chure for Venezuela, it is an inspired naturalist who
promises an unforgettable experience in this South Ameri-
can paradise.

Crossing the heart of Venezuela from the Orinoco Delta to
the Andes Mountains is a vast grassland prairie known as
the Llanos. Representing about one-third of the total area
of Venezuela, this region abounds with the most spectac-
ular wildlife found in South America. Geologically, the
Llanos is the bed of an ancient inland sea. The soils are
relatively poor and support little vegetation other than
grasses-except along the many streams and rivers where

Marketing Ecotourism 177
a distinctive type of growth, known as gallery forest, forms
dense thickets. Traditionally used as grazing land, the
Llanos has a very low population density that contributes
to the incredible abundance of wildlif@. During the dry
season (November-May), the shrinking waterholes attract
thousands of animals, including those normally difficult
to observe like the Capybara, Giant Anteater and Spec-
tacled Caiman. The number of birds is simply mind-
boggling. Within one's field of view it is possible to see,
simultaneously, all three New World Storks, eight species
of Ibis, Rufescent Tiger Heron, White-faced Whistling
Duck and Black-collared Hawk, while smaller birds flit in
and out of the scene....

It does not matter whether or not the reader has ever
heard of a white-faced whistling duck or a spectacled cai-
man, only that he or she becomes interested in the prospect
of traveling to this remarkable habitat to see such wonders.
This ecotourism brochure describes the trip, beginning with
an introductory paragraph on the country. It proceeds to dis-
cuss each unique habitat to be encountered on the expedi-
tion; the Caribbean coastal region, the Llanos, the Guayana
Highlands, the Andes Mountains, and the Orinoco Basin.
Conspicuously positioned on the back cover is the company P s
long-standing purpose: "to stimulate an interest in, develop
an understanding of, and create an appreciation for the
great natural wonders of our Earth.'
Dominating the visual aspect of the brochure is a pictorial
of Venezuela that includes a wedge-headed capuchin mon-
key perched on a high limb, a close-up of an exotic rat's tail
orchid, and an almost surreal wide-angle view of La Gran
Sabana.
Details regarding meals and accommodations are seldom
given in these brochures (unlike more traditional tourism
materials), although such information is covered thoroughly
in other predeparture materials. Lodging on ecotourism ex-
peditions is usually simple and always pleasantly adven-
turesome. Meals are almost exclusively of the local cuisine.
The travel company- wants to prepare travelers fully for

178 THE NUTS AND BOLTS OF SUCCESSFUL NATURE TOURISM
the ecotourism experience, in part because a dissatisfied
traveler is bad for business. To this end, the operator will
supply a great deal of additional information beyond the
destination brochure.

A HYPOTHETICAL EXAMPLE
In order to understand the sequence of events leading to the
selling of the nature travel product, let us examine the pro-
cess through a light-hearted, hypothetical example.
Winston DeBardelben is a forty-eight-year-old lawyer who
lives in Albuquerque, New Mexico. One of his hobbies is
bird-watching; he even owns a pair of Bausch & Lomb 8 X
42 Black Armored binoculars that he stores under the seat of
the Jeep Wagoneer he bought before the kids went off to col-
lege. He keeps a stack of magazines on his bedside table and
browses through one or two every night before going to
sleep. One of his favorite magazines is Audubon. While flip-
ping its pages one evening, he notices an attractive, four-
color ad with the headline "World Leader in Nature Travel."
The long, skinny ad on the left-hand column of the left-hand
page features an intriguing photograph-the silhouette of
an exotic creature with spiraling antlers, set against a strik-
ing orange sunset. "Isn't that a black buck?" he asks himself,
recalling a program on India he had seen recently on public
television.
As Winston gazed over the dozen or so destinations listed
in the ad, he realized that a few of the trips cost about the
same as his binoculars. Then he began to imagine himself
somewhere in India, peering at a distant stork rookery.
Glancing at his sleeping wife, he remembered that she had
threatened to take a week's vacation to the Sierra Nevadas
with her friends if he didn't come up with a better alterna-
tive. She even figured out how much it would cost; all he
could recall was that it was four figures. "That 'settles it:' he
decided silently. "I'm going to look into this."
The next morning, he called the toll-free number in the ad.
His first conversation with the travel company representa-
tive was brief. She took his name, address, work and home

Marketing Ecotourism 179
phone number. She asked where he had seen the ad and
whether or not he had ever requested information from the
company before. When he replied "No, I haven't," she told
him he would be sent a complete catalog of all the destina-
tions available, as well as a brochure on the India expedi-
tion.
Less than a week later, Winston received the materials.
The fifty-two-page catalog reminded him of some of the mag-
azines he received. With great yearning, he studied the cat-
alog page by page. Then he picked up the eighteen-page,
four-color brochure devoted entirely to the company's India
expedition. It provided him with facts about the country
that piqued his interest and the vivid wildlife photographs
appealed to more than just his sense of sight. A day-to-day
itinerary, general information and conditions, and a reser-
vation certificate were included as well. The impressive ma-
terials gave him a sense that he had contacted a very able
company.
When his wife reminded him that it was 7:00 and they
were to meet their friends at a local bistro at 7:30, Winston
realized that he had spent the better part of an hour gazing
at the brochures and daydreaming about a trip to India.
Finding it impossible to contain his excitement any longer,
he walked over to his closet, hung up his suit, put on a pair
of khaki trousers, slipped on his beloved but abused eleven-
year-old Sperry Topsiders, walked out into the bedroom,
stood before his wife, and announced "Honey, we're going
to India this fall!" They celebrated with champagne at the
bistro.
As soon as they got home, Winston filled out the reserva-
tion certificate and stuck it in an envelope with a deposit
check to reserve space on the departure date he had selected.
The next day, Winston called the travel company with a
few specific questions. He was impressed by the young
woman with whom he spoke. She was a "destination coor-
dinator," and India wa's her specialty. He was struck by the
breadth of her knowledge regarding the natural and cultural
history of the country and the fact that she had done archae-
ology fieldwork in Central America. She recommended that

180 THE NUTS AND BOLTS OF SUCCESSFUL NATURE TOURISM
he read a few books on India, particularly one on *India's ti-
ger preserves written by a renowned Indian naturalist with
whom, he was told, he would meet on his trip. The destina-
tion coordinator described some of the remote lodges where
he and his wife would stay and what to expect in general.
On receipt of his reservation form, the company mailed
Winston a confirmation package consisting of a welcome let-
ter from the company founders and a booklet on the desti-
nation featuring historic background, customs, description
of habitats, geography and wildlife, information about local
currency, shopping tips, and more. The package contained
visa applications and a personal health form. There was also
a form for him to complete regarding his special interests
and a list of suggested readings. Next, Winston received his
invoice for the trip. Approximately thirty days prior to leav-
ing for India, the DeBardelbens received their predeparture
package. It contained a personal letter telling wh 'o would
greet them at the destination and other final details. Their
airplane tickets were enclosed along with a brief itinerary,.
customs information, and the names, addresses, and phone
listing of their fellow passengers (some of whom would be-
come close friends). An embossed suede passport holder,
ticket holder, and leather luggage tags were included, the
latter so their bags could be easily identified by porters.

ADDITIONAL ELEMENTS IN A MARKETING STRATEGY
This example has demonstrated that good advertising, effec-
tive collateral material, expert personal communication,
and thorough procedures can go a long way toward making
a marketing effort successful. However, there are additional
factors in the total marketing "mix" that contribute to
awareness and promote participation in ecotourism.

Special gz-oup travel. Ecotourism has a special appeal for
zoos, museums, aquariums, nature centers, and environ-
mental organizations. These institutions have begun to rec-
ognize the potential for educating their members about
conservation issues through nature travel, and many of them

Marketing Ecotourism 181
have full-time travel coordinators on staff. The National Au-
dubon Society, for example, employs a staff of professionals
that works closely with nature travel companies in arrang-
ing trips for their membership. They use the travel opportu-
nities to educate their members about environmental issues
worldwide, and have produced a 'set of guidelines for envi-
ronmentally sensitive travel.
The trave@l company can best demonstrate its overall qual-
ity and its commitment to environmentally sensitive
ecotourism by offering familiarization tours to group repre-
sentatives, with the hope that their institutions will choose
to travel with the company in the future.
Once a group and an ecotourism operator agree to work
together, the operator can provide many forms of marketing
support, such as high-quality audiovisual presentations for
the group's members and the public. People are encouraged
to attend these previews through announcements in the or-
ganization's newsletter, special invitation, or a brief note in
the local newspaper, perhaps in a calendar of upcoming cul-
tural events. The ecotourism operator may also produce di-
rect mail fliers for the institution to mail to its membership
list. Some groups manage to realize additional financial
benefits by structuring donations into the price of the trip.

Media coverage. The 1990s have been dubbed "The Decade
of the Environment," and there is growing interest among
media in conservation issues. The subject of nature travel
alone has an enormous degree of human interest; combined
with public concern for the global environment, ecotourism
has extraordinarily strong media appeal. Ecotourism oper-
ators must treat opportunities for editorial exposure with
careful thought and preparedness.
Publicity can result in valuable commercial exposure at
little or no cost. But the ecotourism operator must be able
to communicate to the media a precise meaning of ecotour-
ism. Reporters are human and may misconstrue ideas if not
presented in a clear and concise fashion. To assure that the
ecotourism "story" is communicated with accuracy, a public
relations plan is essential.

182 THE NUTS AND BOLTS OF SUCCESSFUL NATURE TOURISM
The formulation of a purpose statement is the first step.
The purpose statement upon which International Expedi-
tions, Inc., was founded has played an important role in its
initial decade of operating ecotourism programs, and has
helped it attain a credible image with the news media. Its
purpose "is to stimulate an interest in, develop an under-
standing of, and create an appreciation for the great natural
wonders of our Earth."
Travel to exotic locales is a powerful leveraging tool with
the media and prospective promotion partners. Trading
trips for valuable media can gain exposure for the ecotour-
ism operator that it might otherwise be unable to afford.

Special promotional events. Promotions such as radio-
thons, workshops, and competitions are a unique, cost-
effective way to generate consumer excitement and expand
the message of ecotourism to a wider audience. Ecotourism
operators should select high-profile partners that have
clients with similar demographics (for instance, a popular
sport optics manufacturer). Through this cooperation, the
ecotourism operator can gain credibility, enhance its image,
and broaden awareness for its travel products.
For example, an ecotourism operator and a major rain for-
est conservation organization recently launched a - produc-
tive promotional effort in the form of a radio raffle. The top
prizes were free expeditions to the Amazon rain forest. An
investment of trip costs on the part of the nature travel op-
erator translated into print and broadcast exposure in five
major cities and donations in excess of $400,000 for rain for-
est ecology.
Conscientious support of environmental causes almost al-
wavs enhances a travel company's image. While profit is not
the primary motive, this support sometimes results in im-
mediate response and increased sales.
International Expeditions has been involved with a coop-
erative promotional effort entitled the "International Rain-
forest Workshop." Participants in the workshop will travel to
the Amazon and Napo rivers, where some of the foremost
experts on rain forest ecology guide travelers through an in-

Marketing Ecotourism 183
tensive, week-long exploration of the forest. The tour 'com-
pany's partners include the Peruvian Foundation for the
Conservation of Nature (FPCN), the Nature Conservancy,
and Exploraciones Amazonicas, an environmentally sensi-
tive lodging operator that will host the annual event. There
are no prerequisites for participation besides a love and
enthusiasm for the rain forest. A major portion of the
funds generated will be used for the development of the
Amazon Center for Environmental Education and Research
(ACEER). The center will provide environmental education
and a study area for researchers, who will in turn share their
knowledge and experience with visitors.
Special projects like this accomplish many objectives.
First, the experience will change the lives of over 100 partic-
ipants to some degree. Appreciation and understanding even
beyond that normally associated with an ecotourism expe-
rience will be realized among these travelers.
The local community will benefit as well. They will learn
more about their environment and nature tourism. Money
will be generated by the event, profiting local interests and
leading to the development of the research center, which will
be utilized by many scientists and ecotourists who will
spend money in the community.

BELIZE: A CASE STUDY
In 1980, the year International Expeditions was founded, the
Caribbean country of Belize situated on the northeast coast
of Central America was mostly virgin territory. Only its out-
lying coral islands supported tourism, attracting divers and
sport fishermen. Soon after International Expeditions began
operations, Belize was selected as a potential ecotourism
destination for the company. Steve Cox, one of the com-
pany's founders, traveled to Belize in order to evaluate the
tourism infrastructure. and examine the marketing viability
of the destination, particularly the country's interior.
At that time, roads were bad and Land Rovers were
needed to access most areas. Ecotourism lodging on the
mainland was extremely limited and unable to accommo-

184 THE NUTS AND BOLTS OF SUCCESSFUL NATURE TOURISM
date more than a few dozen intrepid travelers. There were
few trained guides. Yet the essential elements of a wonderful
nature travel destination 'were there- biodi versi ty and the
potential to develop an acceptable tourism infrastructure. It
also seemed apparent that ecotourism would be able to safe-
guard this unspoiled paradise.
International Expeditions set out to improve or help es-
tablish adequate infrastructure in such ecologically diverse
areas as Crooked Tree and Mountain Pine Ridge in the north-
western and central parts of Belize. Gradually, more travel-
ers were brought to natural history sites in Belize, but only
as many as the current tourist infrastructure could comfort-
ably support.
As the few existing lodge owners realized the great reve-
nue potential represented by International Expeditions and
nature travel in general, plans were set into motion for the
expansion of existing accommodations, construction of new
lodges, and the advancement of environmentally sensitive
tourism. Chaa Creek, located on the Macal River in the foot-
hills of Mountain Pine Ridge, was just a simple two-room
facility in 1980. Today, it has grown to become a prosperous
resort of fourteen thatched-roof cabanas, a relaxing open-air
bar, a quaint little gift shop featuring local arts and crafts,
and a spacious dining terrace serving local cuisine.
Once a one-dimensional travel destination that focused on
diving and fishing, Belize has become recognized as a mul-
tifaceted paradise, and the tourism industry is growing rap-
idly. The government has recognized the importance of this
revenue source through establishing a Ministry of Tourism
and the Environment, which is promulgating a policy of
conservation and controlled tourism development.
In addition to governmental support of ecotourism, local
inhabitants are beginning to realize benefits from nature
travel. The population of Belize is small, approximately
170,000, so even the relatively modest revenue that ecotour-
ism currently represents is felt among all levels of society.
The Community Baboon Sanctuary ("baboon" is the local
name for the black howler monkey) is an inspiring example
of how ecotourism. can work to the benefit of nature, local

Marketing Ecotourism 185
communities, and private interests. The black howler mon-
key has been threatened by loss of its forest habitat to slash-
and-burn agriculture. To combat this problem, local farmers
and landowners started a grass roots conservation effort in
the form of a Community Baboon Sanctuary at Bermudian
Landing, with help from the Belize Audubon Society, the
World Wildlife Fund, and others. The sanctuary attracts a
significant volume of travelers, and the monetary benefits
accrue to both the sanctuary and the community. For ex-
ample, a group of local women is paid to prepare meals for
travelers visiting the banctuary by companies like Interna-
tional Expeditions.
Belizians see ecotourism as the wave of the future. Meb
Cutlack, editor of the Belize Review, wrote this about it:

The key word for Belize's future is ECOTOURism because
not only is ecotourism the world's fastest growing area of
the tourism industry but it is essentially the way in which
Belize can earn enormous revenue from her natural re-
sources and simultaneously husband and care for those re-
sources ... her reef, cays, rain forest, rivers, streams,
Mayan ruins, wildlands and wildlife. There are times
when infrastructure development, the building of hotels,
roads, boat docks, and other essentials for tourism will
challenge the concept of pure conservation-just as essen-
tial agricultural development will at times present a chal-
lenge. But such conflicts are surmountable with wisdom
and goodwill. It is not a matter of "development at any
cost" but "sustainable development which respects man
and nature." (Cutlack 1990)

CONCLUSION

The marketing of ecotourism is a complex challenge. Suc-
cess is not measured simply by company profits. It relies on
a much greater efficiency of resource use. The ecotourism
operator must consider variables that transcend purely
monetary concerns.

186 THE NUTS AND BOLTS OF SUCCESSFUL NATURE TOURISM
Education of travelers by both instruction and example
is as critical to success as providing a comfortable, fun, and
hassle-free experience. Generating revenues for the country
and local communities is also essential. And, finally, the
highest goal must be the conservation of the fragile ecosys-
tems that comprise the nature tour experience.

REFERENCE

Cutlack, M. 1990. Belize Review (May).

CHAPTER 9

Making Ecotourism Sustainable:
Recommendations for Planning,
Development, and Management

ELIZABETH Boo

W orld Wildlife Fund (WWF) recently completed an eval-
uation of the current status of ecotourism worldwide,
and its economic and environmental impacts (Boo 1990).
The research focused on Latin America and the Caribbean,
with case studies in Belize, Costa Rica, Dominica, Ecuador,
and Mexico, though the findings are likely to be applicable
elsewhere.
The study confirmed the presence of a growing demand for
ecotourism. Where data were available, records of visitor
counts were collected at case study sites. Almost invariably,
numbers of domestic and international ecotourists were
seen to be rising rapidly., Tour operators and travel agents
were interviewed about travel trends. All reported a great
shift in client demand toward nature tours, despite a mini-
mum of marketing and promotion. In addition, surveys con-

187

188 THE NUTS AND BOLTS OF SUCCESSFUL NATURE TOURISM
ducted at airports showed a large percentage of randomly
interviewed tourists were there for the nature. Some 46 per-
cent cited natural areas as the primary or very impor-
tant reason for their decision to travel. Six in ten (57 per-
cent) stated that they visited at least one park during their
stay.
We concluded, however, that the potential benefits of eco-
tourism, both economic and environmental, are yet to be re-
alized. The vast majority of parks are not in a position to
gain financially from tourism because they do not provide
adequate means for tourists to spend mone .y. Most parks lack
trained guides, interpretive information, entrance fee sys-
tems, and basic infrastructure such as visitor centers. Sig-
nificant opportunities to bring money into the park and to
provide employment for local populations are missed.
Another lost opportunity is the education of visitors. Tour-
ists experiencing a natural area directly are more apt to be-
come involved in conservation if informed about the issues.
Unfortunately, most parks do not have the personnel or pro-
grams available to educate tourists.
At the same time that the benefits of ecotourism are un-
tapped, the potential economic and environmental costs
have not been fully understood or monitored. Most interna-
tional travel agents and tour operators have yet to establish
relations with local counterparts, and there is no assurance
that a portion of the financial gains from ecotourism benefits
the local community. Also, mechanisms are not in place to
thoroughly evaluate the environmental consequences of
tourism. Few studies have been done to monitor changes and
to determine carrying capacities for parks. Yet this informa-
tion is critical to the healthy growth of the ecotourism busi-
ness.
The study clearly highlights the importance of including
local people in the planning, development, and management
of ecotourism. Many of the parks and reserves in developing
countries being discovered by nature travelers are sur-
rounded by native populations who are dependent on the
natural resources of the area for their livelihood. In order to

Making Ecotourism Sustainable 189
stem the growing pressure from development activities and
conserve the natural resources, the native populations must.
be offered viable alternatives to use the resources in sustain-
able wavs. Ecotourism is one such option.
The process of involving local communities in ecotourism
projects and simultaneously protecting natural resources is
not easy. Local people are often widely distributed over a
large geographic area and- are not part of any established
organization. They are therefore difficult to reach. Local res-
idents also need to be given a great deal of information
about proposed tourism development so they can evaluate
tourism among their other employment options and decide
how they want to interact with tourists. This evaluation may
take time, but it is essential to the process.
Aside from ethical or moral considerations, it is important
to incorporate local communities into ecotourism planning
because not doing so may prove disastrous for the tourism
industry. If local populations do not participate actively in
all aspects of developing and managing natural resources for
tourism and benefit from this enterprise, they may choose to
use the natural resources in other, perhaps less sustainable
ways. These alternative land uses, such as logging, mining,
slash-and-burn agriculture, or poaching may threaten the
integrity of the resources, and thereby the ecotourism
product.
The ecotourism business is in its infancy. Individuals,
agencies, and organizations across the public and private
sectors are analyzing, promoting, controlling, and investing
in this industry. They must be encouraged to work together
if ecotourism is to be beneficial for both conservation and
economic development. Otherwise, the current wave of en-
thusiasm for ecotourism. will die for lack of beautiful places
to visit.
A comprehensive framework for planning ecotourism
needs to be put in place to both maximize potential benefits
and minimize the potential costs for people and the environ-
ment. Following is a description of the framework we devel-
oped based on the study.

190 THE NUTS AND BOLTS OF SUCCESSFUL NATURE TOURISM
FRAMEWORK FOR PLANNING,
.DEVELOP 'ING, AND MANAGING
ECOTOURISM

PREPLANNING
Before the planning process begins, representatives from
various governmental ministries (planning, public works, fi-
nance, budget, tourism, agriculture, forestry, parks, environ-
ment, education) should meet to discuss how ecotourism fits
into the nation's development goals. This judgment is based
on a preliminary assessment of the country's ecotourism
product, specifically the attractiveness and special features
of its natural areas and carrying capacities, and the demand
for ecotourism. Input should be solicited from park manag-
ers, the private sector, international funding agencies, local
conservation groups, and native communities. If the govern-
ment representatives agree that ecotourism ought to be in-
cluded as a component of the national development plan, an
Ecotourism Board should be created to further investigate
the status and potential of nature tourism. The board should
consist of members from government, park managers, tour
operators, the private sector, local conservation organiza-
tions, and native co mmunities. International development
and conservation organizations may be invited to provide
financial and technical assistance.
The role of the Ecotourism Board is to create a strategy for
ecotourism growth. The board will oversee planning, devel-
opment, and management functions.

EcOTOURISM PLANNING, DEVELOPMENT9 AND
MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES
Environmentally sound ecotourism growth must be seen as
a long-term activity. While many natural areas already
attract tourists and need to respond immediately with a
short-term plan, it is essential that every natural area have
a documented strategy of how tourism will be promoted and
controlled over the long term.

Making Ecotourism Sustainable 191
In the following recommendations, native communities
are recognized as a key component to success. However,
given the difficulties of identifying each group, they are not
singled out as.a target group. @he responsibility for includ-
ing native communities in ecotourism growth is placed with
local conservation organizations. These organizations are
generally familiar with native groups in the areas where
thev work and can solicit representation or interaction as
needed.
Many of the recommendations are repeated under several
target groups. These groups need to work together on a par-
ticular task or step. Collaboration among all groups is criti-
cal at each stage.

PLANNING
At this stage in the process, the current and projected status
of the country's natural resources and ecotourism industry
is assessed. It is important to remember that most ecotour-
ism so far has occurred spontaneously with little encourage-
ment; however, with proper planning, the benefits of
ecotourism can be maximized and the drawbacks mini-
mized.

Recommendations for Ministzles
Ministry of Tourism
- Allocate a portion of the budget for nature tourism de-
velopment.
- Work with other ministries to develop an entrance fee
system for parks and reserves. Use differential fee struc-
tures for foreigners and nationals when appropriate.
- Work with other ministries to design a financial mecha-
nism to channel a portion of entrance fee revenue back
into the maintenance and protection of the protected
area.
Change tourism laws and policies as needed to include
environmental protection clauses for natural areas.

192 THE NUTS AND BOLTS OF SUCCESSFUL NATURE TOURISM
� Design visitor surveys to collect statistical information
on current status of tourists.
� Develop visitor count mechanisms to record tourist data
at park sites.

Ministrv of Planning, Public Works
Evaluate nature tourism development within context of
other development plans for the country.

Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry, Parks, Environment
These ministries are listed together because in most coun-
tries several are responsible for the management of natural
areas.
� In the national protected area system plan, identify
those wildland units where nature tourism will be de-
veloped and those where it will be discouraged.
� Create management plans for each protected area. In-
clude tourism components for those areas with visitors
(present or potential).
� In individual park budgets, take into consideration
those parks that have tourists and need additional funds
to cover personnel and tourist management training.
� Change protected area legislation as necessary to reflect
ecotourism. requirements.
� Work with park managers to create a data base of natu-
ral resources for each protected area.

Ministry of Budget, Finance
� Increase budgets of protected areas attracting tourists to
enable these sites to control and provide for visitors.
� Participate in establishing the entrance fee collection
scheme and rechanneling money back into parks.
� Design self-financing mechanisms for parks and reserves
based on tourism revenues.
� Create tax and import exemptions to encourage private
sector involvement in tourism development.

Making Ecotourism Sustainable 193
Recommendations for Park Managers
Conduct full inventory of each protected area that re-
ceives tourists now or in the future. Inventory should in-
clude biological information about natural resources,
statistics on current level of tourism, the present level of
infrastructure development, the level of interaction be-
tween local residents and park facilities, the fragility of
the ecosystem, and the ecological constraints to tourism
development.
Include nature tourism plans in operational, manage-
ment, or master plans for individual protected areas.
Ensure that nature tourism plans comply with park
management objectives, guidelines, and zoning.
Work with other ministries to develop mechanisms for
entrance fees and for channeling money back to the
parks

Recommendations for Tour Operators and the FWvate
Sector
- Evaluate the current and potential tourism market
through surveys and other information sources.
- Design mechanisms for channeling a portion of nature
tourism profits back into park maintenance.
- Participate in design of guidelines for "environmentally
sound" tour operators and tourists.

Recommendations for Local Conservation Organizations
� Decide if tourism development and management is part
of the organization's mission and how this fits with the
other objectives of the organization.
� Solicit the participation of native communities sur-
rounding natural areas to determine the extent to which
they want to becom 'e involved with tourism develop-
ment and management.
- Select local representatives to be included in every step
of tourism planning.

194 THE NUTS AND BOLTS OF SUCCESSFUL NATURE TOURISM
- Solicit financial and technical assistance from interna-
tional conservation and funding organizations for tour-
ism development and management as necessary.

Recommendations for International Development and Con.
servation Organizations
�Develop a roster of international nature tourism con-
sultants with expertise in various angles of tourism
development and management, such as ecological archi-
tecture, community participation in tourism, wildland
management and tourism, etc.
� Develop a set of guidelines for "environmentally sound"
tour operators and tourists.

DEVELOPMENT

Recommendations for Ministiles
Ministry of Tourism
-Work with private sector and international funding
agencies to develop appropriate tourism infrastructure
at each site. Keep in mind the importance of offering op-
portunities for tourists to spend money so that there is a
benefit to the park and local people.
-Work with the park service and tour operators to create
training programs for park personnel and tour guides.
Training should include natural resource education and
tourism management skills.
Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry, Parks, Environment
�Develop environmental impact studies and mechanisms
to determine carrying capacity limits for each protected
area.
�Hire adequate park personnel to maintain parks and to
control tourists.
�Work with the Ministry of Education to develop environ-
mental education materials for park sites and to create

Making Ecotourism Sustainable 195
information about ecotourism for schools.
Set up mechanisms for entrance fee collections and for
channeling the income back to parks.

Ministry of Budget, Finance
I
Set up mechanisms for channeling income from tourism
revenues into park maintenance.

Ministry of Education
I
- Create a training program for local guides that covers
natural history, special features of the area and country,
tourism management and languages.
- Develop environmental education materials for tourists
and materials about ecotourism as it relates to natural
resource conservation for local schools.
Provide training for environmental education adminis-
trators who will distribute the above materials.

Recommendations for Park Managers
- Assist in development of park infrastructure to ensure it
is environmentally sound. This may include a visitors'
center, snack bar/restaurant, restrooms, gift shop, and
other facilities that would enhance a tourist experience
and generate funds. Use local labor and products when
possible.
- Create effective trail system and interpretive programs
for parks.
- Provide necessary training for park personnel.
- Give preference to local residents in hiring park person-
nel and offering concessions within the park.
- Collect baseline data on natural and cultural resources
before and during promotion of tourism.
- Conduct environmental impact studies and establish
tolerable levels of visitation."
- Set up data collection system to gather visitor statistics.
Select national and international tour companies that

196 THE NUTS AND BOLTS OF SUCCESSFUL NATURE TOURISM
will bring groups to the park.
- Develop guidelines for tourists to follow while in the
park.

Recommendations for Tour Operators and the MIvate
Sector
� Establish pretrip environmental education programs for
tourists and work with park managers to develop on-site
educational materials.
� Select and train local guides.
� Use local products in all nature tourism services.
� Work with tourism planners to create tourism packages
that include a variety of natural resource attractions.
These packages could be for groups or individuals. These
may include nature-only tours or "add-on" nature exten-
sions to other tours.
� Investigate the range of communication channels for
publicizing ecotourism sites and activities.
� Some tour operators may choose to specialize in nature
tours to enhance the diversity and quality of service they
provide to nature tourists.
� Develop policy statements regarding "environmentally
. sound" tourism services.

Recommendations for Local Conservation Organizations
Ensure that local communities remain actively involved
with tourism development.
Assist in coordinating activities between international
funding agencies and park managers.

Recommendations for International Development and Con-
servation Organizations
� Facilitate public and private cooperation in developing
tourism infrastructure as needed.
� Provide assistance for training programs for guides,
park managers, environmental educators, and others.
� Fund and support technical assistance for parks, includ-

Making Ecotourism Sustainable 197
ing inventory studies, carrying capacity studies, zoning
and land use plans, revision or elaboration of park man-
agement plans to integrate tourism needs, and tourism
monitoring mechanisms.
- Fund and support studies of sociocultural impacts and
considerations in nature tourism development.
- Fund and support case studies of tourism development
at selected parks to use as models for other parks.

MANAGEMENT

Recommendations for Ministiles
Ministry of Tourism
- Monitor the quality of nature tourism services and facil-
ities.
* Create promotion and marketing schemes for parks that
want more tourists or want to regulate tourist arrivals,
eliminating crowded peak seasons and dull low seasons.
Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry, Parks, and Environment
Continue to monitor the economic and environmental
impacts of tourism and evaluate whether the costs. of
tourism are outweighing the benefits in any natural
areas. Take appropriate steps to remedy this problem if
it emerges.
Evaluate whether the system of wildlands is adequate
for the tourism demand or if more areas need to be cre-
ated as tourism destinations.
Ministry of Budget,Tinance
Ensure that parks that have the most visitors are being
compensated to cover additional costs of personnel and
training.
Ministry of Education
Continue to create educational programs about tourism
and the environment. Conduct surveys of students and
tourists to determine the impacts of these programs.

198 THE NUTS AND BOLTS OF SUCCESSFUL NATURE TOURISM
Recommendations for Park Managers
�Monitor tourism at sites to see that tourists comply with
park guidelines.
�Conduct economic and environmental impact studies
and publicize any essential information.
�Evaluate the effectiveness of interpretative materials
and adjust them if necessary.
�Periodically survey tourists' characteristics, motives,
and activities for use in developing future tourism poli-
cies and promotional plans.
�Monitor park personnel and guide training programs to
make sure they are keeping up with tourism demand.

Recommendations for Tour Operators and the ftivate
Sector
�Work with public sector to ensure that ecotourism ser-
vices meet international standards.
�Offer continuing education for guides to diversify their
expertise.
�Work with park managers to redistribute tourism during
high season and in areas with high levels of visitation
through marketing and promotion schemes.
�Continue to make a financial contribution to parks and
encourage other tour operators to do so.

Recommendations for Loca I Conservation Organizations
� Ensure that native groups are involved with tourism to
the extent they want and that they receive proper train-
ing for their work in tourism.
� Ensure that natives have access to adequate markets for
their handicraft goods and other products.

Recommendations for International Development and Con-
servation Organizations
Fund and support seminars on creative financing and
policy forums for nature tourism.

Making Ecotourism Sustainable 199
Fund and support case studies of tourism management
at selected parks to use as models for other parks.

REFERENCE

Boo, E. 1990. Ecotourism: The Potentials and Pitfalls. Wash-
ington, D.C.: World Wildlife Fund-U.S.

CHAPTER 10

Global Solutions:
An Ecotourism Society

MEGANEPLER WOOD

T
our operators and ecotourists have begun to make the
conservation of natural areas a priority. A number of op-
erators now feature tours on which clients clean up tourism
sites that have suffered negative impacts from overuse by
visitors. More and more tour operators are allocating a por-
tion of their client fees to conservation groups at home or
abroad. Some travel groups even have their own nonprofit
foundations that fund conservation projects in destination
countries.
For the most part, these steps have been taken without co-
ordination. Working together, tour operators, conservation
groups, local communities, and host governments could
have a far greater impact on the conservation of natural
areas. We therefore propose to found an Ecotourism Society,
offering the opportunity for specialists in tourism and con-
servation to learn from each other and develop a global ini-
tiative for the conservation of ecotourism areas.
Developing the initial focus and agenda of the Ecotourism
Society wi 11 be a challenge. The society must bring together

200

Global Solutions: An Ecotourism Societ1v 201
specialists from many different fields-sociology, anthropol-
ogy, biology, ecology, international studies, economics, de-
velopment, and others. It must recruit and win the support
of travel professionals and natural resource managers. Rep-
resentatives from government and local communities must
be included. Whether ecotourism is only a fad or a genuine
conservation tool will depend, in large part, on the ability of
these diverse constituencies to work together.
The first task is to reach agreement on what ecotourism is,
and what it is not. Our definition embraces both environ-
ment and economics: ecotourism is purposeful travel to nat-
ural areas to understand the cultural and natural history of
the environment, taking care not to alter the integrity of the
ecosystem while producing economic opportunities that
make the conservation of natural resources financially ben-
eficial to local citizens.
The society's main focus will be to build ecotourism's po-
tential as a tool for sustainable development. The market for
environmental tourism has grown so rapidly that it has be-
come an important source of foreign exchange in countries
such as Ecuador, Kenya, and Costa Rica. The Ecotourism
Society can formulate models and guidelines for govern-
ments, nongovernmental organizations (NGOs), and private
entrepreneurs that will help them develop ecotourism
projects that are both economically and environmentally
sound.
There are many natural areas that desperately need the
economic contribution that a well-managed ecotourism pro-
gram can offer. The Ecotourism Society can provide techni-
cal assistance and promotion for the regions that most need
ecotourism to help them conserve their natural areas. It will
recommend site planning and management techniques to
ensure that ecotourism development does not place undue
stress on the environment and that the economic contribu-
tion makes its way to the host country and local communi-
ties. Ultimately, the Ecotourism Society will develop and
promote model ecotourism programs that will identify new
destinations, thereby alleviating the pressures on today's
most popular destinations.
In addition, the society can play a leading role in devel-

202 THE NUTS AND BOLTS OF SUCCESSFUL NATURE TOURISM
oping regional ecotourism action plans that identify solu-
tions for ecotourism sites suffering from stress caused bv
overuse. Destinations in countries such as Kenya, Nepai,
and Peru are already having serious trouble with excess gar-
bage, off-the-road driving, wildlife harassment, and water
pollution. And Antarctica, with no governing body in place
to oversee and limit visitation, is in serious jeopardy of los-
ing its pristine character due to its increasing popularity as
an ecotourism destination.
While the Ecotourism Society will work toward develop-
ing "clean" ecotourism and appropriate ethics among travel
organizations, it will not endorse specific operators. This
would limit participation and ultimately hinder cooperation
within the travel community
As a first step in developing and gaining support for the
Ecotourism Society, we circulated a list of objectives for
comment among travel operators and conservation organi-
zations. The following is an annotated version of that docu-
ment.

ECOTOURISM AND INTERNATIONAL
DEVELOPMENT ASSISTANCE

The Ecotourism Society should help put ecotourism at the
top of the agenda of multilateral development and financial
institutions. Currently, large tourism developments with
large profit potential due to high volume receive the most
favorable treatment. Ecotourism will never generate as
much revenue as "mass tourism." Nevertheless, new criteria
need to be established that place a value on the preservation
of rain forests, watersheds, biological diversity, and other
economic intangibles. The Ecotourism Society should:
� Develop and implement alternate models of economic
analysis that place a value on the conservation of natu-
ral resources, specifically as related to ecotourism devel-
opments.
� Propose management strategies that channel tourism

Global Solutions: An Ecotourism Society 203
revenues into community development and environmen-
tal protection.
� Coordinate feasibility studies in specific countries with
potential for ecotourism development.
� Build a database of economic and natural resource data
for ecotourism developments in specific regions and
countries worldwide.

RESEARCH AND PUBLICATIONS

Until very recently, no school in the United States devoted a
full course of study to tourism and its impact on natural re-
sources. Yet, a quickly expanding group of students and pro-
fessionals are eager for further information on the manage-
ment of visitors in parks and natural areas. Tour profession-
als have all expressed a strong interest in environmental
guidelines. A number of organizations such as the National
Audubon Society and the American Birding Association
have adopted travel codes of ethics for their membership.
The time is right to generate a series of professional papers
on ecotourism that would be accessible to the general pub-
lic, tour agencies, conservation organizations, and the aca-
demic community.
In addition, the society ought to:

� Publish a series of papers, entitled "Principles of Eco-
tourism," that would review issues of concern to ecotour-
ism professionals, such as camping etiquette, waste
disposal in remote areas, environmental impacts of jet
skis, etc. These papers would be edited by the society.
� Encourage the study of visitor impacts in natural areas
by graduate environmental studies programs, in man-
agement plans of protected areas, and in ongoing re-
search programs in natural areas worldwide.
- Cooperate with the academic world, nongovernmental
organizations, and tour operators to develop guidelines
for carrying capacities in ecotourism sites.

204 THE NUTS AND BOLTS OF SUCCESSFUL NATURE TOURISM

LOCAL PARTICIPATION

The most important area for action is also the most daunt-
ing. If ecotourism is to make an important contribution to
sustainable development, projects must provide direct ben-
efits to local peoples. Conservation International, the Man
and Biosphere Program, and World Wildlife Fund, among
others, have recommended the establishment of ecotourism
programs as a way to provide economic incentives for con-
servation. Yet, there is no network in place to implement
these recommendations. In most countries, tourism officials
do not have a grasp of resource conservation management
issues, nor do they interact with the professionals who do.
Local conservation organizations generally are not prepared
to establish ecotourism programs since they lack business
acumen and expertise in the travel arena.
The Ecotourism Society proposes to introduce informed
and interested individuals into a worldwide network, using
the "in-bound tour operator" as liaisons. In-bound tour com-
panies run the ground operations for many of the foreign-
based ecotourism operators. They are highly knowledgeable
about nature tourism destinations in their countries. They
could be an effective core of support for the development of
sound ecotourism policies in each nation and could play an
important role with the society.
Other priorities of the Ecotourism Society include:

� Building grass roots networks of local tour operators, re-
gion by region.
� Forming regional committees, including tour operators,
local nongovernmental officials involved in tourism pol-
icy, tourism officials, natural resource managers, and
transportation specialists.
� Using this network to gather preliminary data on the re-
gional economic and social framework needed for the
successful development of ecotourism projects.
� Accessing preliminary data to create standardized re-
search instruments that will help identify the elements

Global Solutions: An Ecotourism Society 205
necessary to implement regional ecotourism programs
(e.g., training, infrastructure, financial resources, infor-
mation networks, and technical assistance). This infor-
mation will help the society formulate a series of
regional action plans recommending which projects to
target for investment and support in each area.

ECOTOURISM CLEARINGHOUSE

As the society develops its agenda, a wide variety of interest
groups will look to it for in-depth information: out-bound
tour operators (nature tour packagers in the United States);
in-bound operators (nature tour organizers in destination
countries); nongovernmental organizations (environmental
groups, universities, and associations involved in ecotour-
ism tours, policies, and projects); park management profes-
sionals involved in tourism; international and domestic
governmental officials concerned with setting policy related
to tourism and conservation of natural resources; retail
travel professionals; travel writers and communicators;
tourists seeking information on ecotourism.
Almost everyone working in the field of ecotourism feels
frustrated by the lack of centralized information available
on ecotourism projects. The society clearly needs to develop
databases and a reference service on people and institutions
actively working on ecotourism projects; background infor-
mation on existing programs, guidelines, and management
plans; and cutting-edge information on how to plan for the
economic and environmental impacts of ecotourism.

FINANCIAL SUPPORT

The society will look 'to membership contributions and
grants for its initial financial base. It will consult with major
financial institutions that need alternate methods to evalu-
ate the economics of ecotourism development based on the
value of sustained natural resources. Support will be sought

206 THE NUTS AND BOLTS OF SUCCESSFUL NATURE TOURISM
from the foundation and corporate communities. In addi-
tion, the organization will market its "Principles of Ecotour-
ism" series. The goal is to start small, build a strong project
base, and develop institutional supporters. This agenda will
ensure that the society becomes a recognized source of infor-
mation and policy initiatives on ecotourism.

CONCLUSION

Many professionals are struggling to find the delicate bal-
ance that will make ecotourism a positive force for sustain-
able development. Even the most responsible tour operators
have witnessed the nightmare of seeing destinations they
carefully opened to tourism destroyed by other companies
following in their tracks. Once destinations become popular,
there is often no way to control visitation. Some environ-
mentalists have suggested that moratoriums are needed for
areas that have suffered from too much tourism. Such a ban
could be implemented successfully only with the participa-
tion and planning assistance of the tourism community.
The Ecotourism Society will be the first organization to
bring together the people, institutions, and information nec-
essary to make informed recommendations on ecotourism
policies. We will provide a forum for discussion and ideas.
And we will provide critical information to tourism and
business communities seeking to make their operations en-
vironmentally sound.
As the battle over the earth's remaining natural resources
intensifies, the promise of tourism revenues will be a valu-
able bargaining chip for the' conservation cause. The
Ecotourism Society can help monitor and guide the devel-
opment of this promising new source of revenue and support
for conservation.

For more information write: Ecotourism Society
c/o Ecoventures LTD
PO. Box 755
N. Bennington, VT 05257

ABOUT THE EDITOR

Tensie Whelan is vice president for Conservation Informa-
tion at the National Audubon Society. She has worked as a
journalist in Central America and is a former editor of Am-
bio, the international environmental journal produced
under the auspices of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sci-
ences. A graduate of the School of International Service at
American University, Ms. Whelan holds a masters degree in
International Communication. She is currently on the
boards of the Rainforest Alliance and E Magazine.

207

ABOUT THE CONTRIBUTORS

Elizabeth Boo is assistant to the Director of the Latin Amer-
ican-Caribbean Program at the World Wildlife Fund-U.S.

Bill Bryan is president of Off-the-Beaten-Path travel agency
in Montana.

John A. Dixon is an environmental economist at the World
Bank.

Susan P Drake is the United Nations Representative for the
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Interna-
tional Activities.

Dennis Glick is director of the Greater Yellowstone Tomor-
row Project at the Greater Yellowstone Coalition.

Tom Grasse is Director of Marketing and Public Relations,
International Expeditions, Inc.

Perez Olindo is Senior Associate at the African Wildlife
Foundation in Kenya and was formerly director of the
Kenya Wildlife Department.

Yanina Rovinski is a communications and ecotourism spe-
cialist at the Central American Office of the International
Union for The Conservation of Nature and Natural Re-

sources.

209

210 ABOUT THE CONTRIBUTORS
Richard Rvel is president of International Expeditions, Inc.
Paul Sherman is an economist for the Hawaiian state gov-
ernment.
Megan Epler Wood is president of Ecoventures, a communi-
cations consulting firm specializing in the environment.

INDEX

A planning strategy recom-
Absaroka Beartooth Wilder- mendations"for, 192
ness, United States, 70 Alaska, Tongass National
ACEER (Amazon Center for Forest, 14
Environmental Educa- Alternative uses of natural
tion and Research), 183 areas, 89-90
Action plan, development of, Altier, Len, 146-148
154-155 Amazon Center for Environ-
Activist, ecotourist as, 15-16 mental Education and
ADID (Advanced Identifica- Research (ACEER), 183
tion of wetlands), 140- Amboseli Game Reserve,
143 Kenya,23
Adirondack National Park, Amboseli National Park,
United States, 11, 13 Kenya, 34, 121-123,
Advanced Identification 136-137
Community Relations Antaeus Group, 8
Program, 140-143 Antarctica, 12
Advertising copy, develop- Antonio, Manuel, 52
ment of, 174-175 Arias, Oscar, 56
Advisory committee, 145 Audiovisual materials, col-
Aesthetic carrying capacity, lective production of,
11 160
Agricultural expansion, in
Costa Rica, 43-44 B
Agriculture, ministry of Bacuit Bay/El Nido region,
development recommen- Philippines, 125-128
dations for, 194-195 Bahia Paraiso, 12
management recommen- BCA (benefit-cost analysis),
dations for, 197 101-102

211

212 Index
BCR (benefit-cost ratio), 102 for Kenya's parks and re-
Bed-and-breakfast opera- serves,31
tions, 75-77 for Monteverde Cloud For-
Belize, 183-185 est Reserve, 42
Benefit-cost analysis (BCA), Central America, economic
101-102 pressures in, 3
Benefit-cost ratio (BCR), China, 6
102 Chitwan National Park, Ne-
Benefits of nature tourism, pal, 113
94-98 Citizens' task force, 145
distribution of, 105-108 Clearinghouse, ecotourism,
undetermined, 93-94 205
vs. costs of nature tour- Collective production of
ism, 100-105 audiovisual materials,
Bien, Amos, 49 160
Big game hunting, in Kenya, Colorado, 78
25 Community Baboon Sanctu-
Biocultural restoration, ary, Belize, 184-185
138-139 Community maps, 157
Biodiversity/ecological bene- Community participation.
fits, Khao Yai National See Local participation
Park, Thailand, 118 Community seminars, 159
Bosque Eterno, 41 Compensation, of local
Boza, Mario, 44 people, 113 -114
Braulio Carrillo National Concession fees, I 10-111
Park, Costa Rica, 49, 53 Conservation
Brochures, 176-177 benefits of, 91
Budget, ministry of tourism and, 69
development recommen- Conservation ethic
dations for, 195 cultural sensitivity and,
management recommen- 167
dations for, 197 increased awareness of na-
planning strategy recom- ture and, 165-166
mendations for, 192 maximization of economic
benefits for local
C peopleand,166-167
Capital costs, 101 minimizing negative im-
Caribbean, nature tourism pacts on environment
in,123-125 and,167-168
Carrying capacity, 128-129 travel industry and, 164-
for diving in Saba Marine 165
Park,125 Consultation, 133, 151-152

Index 213
Coop advertising, 174 private enterprise with
Corcovado National Park, nature tourism, 46-
Costa Rica, 49 49
Costa Rica Rara Avis project, 7-8, 49
Braulio Carrillo National regulation of ecotourism,
Park,49,53 52-55
conflicting management Robert and Catherine Wil-
objectives, 14 son Botanical Garden,
Corcovado National Park, 50
49 sustainable development,
deforestation in, 43-45, 45
44-45,49 tourist-related foreign ex-
development of ecotour- change,5
ism in, 43-46 Costa Rica Expeditions
as ecotourism destination, Travel Agency, 46-47
6,16 Costs of nature tourism
ecotourism in, 17-18 direct, 98-99
ecotour operators in, 47- distribution of, 105-108
49 indirect, 99
funds for protected area opportunity, 99-100
management, 10-11 vs. benefits of nature tour-
general tourism in, 53 ism, 100-105
Guanacaste National Coyotes, 66-67
Park, 53, 137-140 Cultural history, 169
La Selva Biological Field Cultural sensitivity, conser-
Station, 50, 51-52 vation ethic and, 167
Ministry of Natural Re-
sources, Energy, and D
Mines,54 Decision-making
Monteverde Cloud Forest collective, 154
Reserve, 11, 39-43 local participation in, 133,
national park planning, 134,152-153
local people and, 9 Deforestation, in Costa Rica,
National Parks Service, 43-45,49
44,45 Demand for ecotourism,
National Tourism Board, 187-188
53-55 Demographics, of ecotour-
nature tourism sites in, 40 ists, 171
OTS-related ecotourism, Destination for ecotourism,
50-51 marketability of, 168-
present state of ecotour- 169. See also specific des-
ism industry, 55-57 tinations

214 Index

Developing world, tourism Ecotourism
in, 5 appropriate, 79-80
Development recommenda- constraints, 14
tions debate, 16-20
for international develop- definition of, 164, 201
ment and conserva- popularity in U.S., 6-7
tion organizations, potential of, 3-4
196-197 projects, elements for suc-
for local conservation or- cess, 139-140
ganizations, 196 projects, successful and
for ministries, 194-195 unsuccessful, 7-9
for park managers, 195- Ecotourism Board, role of,
196 190
for private sector, 196 Ecotourism clearinghouse,
for tour operators, 196 205
Direct costs of nature tour- Ecotourism Society, 20,
ism, 98-99 200-202
Domestic tourism, in Kenya, financial support for, 205.-
34 206
Donation programs, 112 information clearing-
Dubois 2000 project, 71 house,205
local participation and,
E 204-205
Earthwatch, 16 preservation and conser-
East Africa, wildlife parks vation criteria for,
in,120-123 202-203
Ecological capacity, for pro- research and publications,
tected area, 11-13 203
Economic analyses of nature Ecotourist(s)
tourism, examples of, as activists, 15-16
114-128 activities of, 6
Economic benefits, 91-92 characteristics of, 5-7
for local people, conserva- demographics of, 171
tion ethic and, 166- potential, 89-90, 170-172
167 psychographics of, 171-
private, 92 172
Economic development, na- Ecotour operators. See Tour
ture tourism and, 1.08- operators
114 Ecuador, 5
Economic efficiency prices, Education, 71, 186, 188
101 Education, ministry of
Economics of nature tour- development recommen-
ism, 128-129 dations for, 195

Index 215
management recommen- planning strategy recom-
dations for, 197 mendations for, 192
Elephant grass, 113 Financial analvsis, 91, 100-
Elephants, 122 101, 103
Elephants, poaching of, 31- Financial benefits, of Khao
32 Yai National Park, Thai-
Employment, 64, 112 land,116-118
Environment, minimizing Financial support, for Eco-
negative impacts on, tourism Society, 205-
167-168 206
Environment, ministry of Foreign exchange impacts,
development recommen- 104
dations for, 194-195 Foreign Investments Act, 29
management recommen- Foreign tour operators,
dations for, 197 problems with, 9-10
planning strategy recom- Forestry, ministry of
mendations for, 192 development recommen-
Environmental pressures, dations for, 194-195
national and interna- management recommen-
tional, 13-14 dations for, 197
Environmental projects in planning strategy recom-
United States, local par- mendations for, 192
ticipation, 140-148 Fossey, Dian, gorillas of, 13
Environmental Protection FPCN (Peruvian Foundation
Agency (EPA), 140,142- for the Conservation of,
143 Nature), 183
Erosion, 42 Funds, for protected area
Europe, chemical pollution management, 10-11
in, 13
Evaluation, of local partici- G
pation, 155 Galapagos Islands, 5, 92
Everglades, 13 Geographic concentrations,
of key nature travel
F prospects, 172
Fact-finding missions, 159 Geography, uniqueness of,
Farm/ranch hospitality op- 169
erations. See Hospitality Giardia, 66
businesses, farm/ranch Global benefits of nature
Finance, ministry of tourism, 96
development recommen- Gorillas, of Dian Fossey, 13
dations for, 195 Government(s)
management recommen- national ecotourism
dations for, 197 boards of, 14

216 Index

Government(s) (contd.) Horizontes, 47
revenues, maximization Hospitality businesses,
of, 109-112 farm/ranch, 75-79
Great Britain, 29 appropriate ecotourism,
Greater Yellowstone Coali- 79-80
tion, 69-70 appropriateness of land
Greater Yellowstone Coordi- use practices, 81-82
nating Committee checklist for, 83-85
(GYCC), 70 provider characteristics,
Greater Yellowstone Ecosys- 80-81
tem, 14, 18, 58 quality of the location,
benefits of tourism, 63-65 81
disadvantages of tourism., Host country, national econ-
65-69 omy of, 10
low-impact ecotourism, Hunting
recommendations for, ban, in Kenya, 25
72-73 for big game, in Kenya, 25
maximizing good aspects illegal, 25, 31-32, 37
of tourism while min-
imizing the bad, 69- 1
72 Idaho,61,65,78
neighboring communities, Implementation
67-68 development of scheme
profile of, 59-63 for, 154-155
recreation sites in, 60 local participation and,
resource protection in, 62 133
site-specific impacts of Incentives
tourism, 65-66 for conservation, 8
tourism industry in, 61-62 for foreign investment in
visitor carrying capacity, Kenya,29
67 for local participation in
Great Rift Valley, 27-28, 120 Kenya,33
Greenway plan, 143-144 for tourism, in Costa Rica,
Group discussion, 158 54-55
Group travel, 169-170, 180- Income, generated by tour-
181 ism, 9
Guanacaste National Park, Income level, of ecotourists,
Costa Rica, 53, 137-140 5-6
India, 8
H Indirect benefits, 97-98
Hell's Canyon, United Indirect costs of nature tour-
States, 104 ism, 99
Holdrige, Leslie, 51-52 Industrial tourism, 68

Index 217
Information sharing, 133, Amboseli National Park,
151-152 34,121-123,136-137
Initiating action, 134 domestic tourism, 34
Internal rate of return ecotourism in, 6, 17, 23,
(IRR), 102 27-29,121,202
International development fiscal incentives for eco-
and conservation orga- tourism, 28-29
nizations foreign exchange earn-
development recommen- ings,108
dations for, 196-197 Foreign Investments Act,
management recommen- 29
dations for, 198-199 funds for protected area
planning strategy recom- management, I I
mendations for, 194 history of ecotourism in,
International development 24-27
assistance, for ecotour- incentives for foreign
ism, 202-203 investors, 29
International ecotourism local participation, 32-34
consumers, 171 Masai Mara/Serengeti eco-
International Expeditions, system case study, 35-
19,182-184 38
Interviews, with community parks and reserves, man-
representatives, 153 agement of, 30-32
IRR (internal rate of return), private reserves, 34-35
102 wildlife conservation
Italy, 29 areas,27
Ivory imports, banning of, wildlife of, 29
31-32 wildlife parks in, 120-123
Kenyan ecotourism, promo-
tional effort, 28
Janzen, Dr. Dan, 138-139 Kenyan Wildlife Service
Japan,126-127 (KWS), 30-32, 35
Job creation, 104 Kenya Tourist Advisory
Jobs, tourism-related, 65 Committee, 28
Kenya Tourist Development
Corporation (KTDC),
K 29
Kaye, Michael, 46-47 Key leaders, interactions
Kentucky Coal Association, with, 153
142-143 Khao Yai National Park,
Kenya Thailand, 114-116
Amboseli Game Reserve, biodiversity/ecological
23 benefits, 118

218 Index
Khao Yai National Park definition of, 132-134
(cont'd.) disadvantages, 135-136
financial benefits of, 116- Ecotourism Societv and,
118 204-205
management costs, 118- for environmental pro-
119 jects in United States,
management issues, 119- 140-148
120 evaluation of, 155
watershed protection, 118 in Guanacaste National
KTDC (Kenya Tourist Devel- Park, Costa Rica, 137-
opment Corporation), 140
29 involvement in decision-
KWS (Kenyan Wildlife Ser- making, 152-153
vice), 30-32, 35 in Kenya,32-34
levels of, 133-134
L model plan, 156
Lackawanna River Citizens' monitoring of, 155
Master Plan, 146-148 planning phases for, 148-
Land development, 89-90 155
Land use practices, 81-82 problems of, 9-10
La Selva Biological Field techniques for ensuring
Station, 50, 51-52 community participa-
Lion, as natural resource, tion, 157-160
121-122 Local people
Local benefits of nature loss of income from park
tourism, 96 resources, 113, 119
maximizing, 112-114 maximizing economic
Local conservation organi- benefits for, 166-167
zations neighboring communities,
development recommen- Monteverde Cloud
.dations for, 196 Forest Reserve, Costa
management recommen- Rica, 42
dations for, 198 Logging, nature tourism in
planning strategy recom- Philippines and, 125-
mendations for, 193- 128
194 Low-impact tourism, 128
Local economy, 9-10
Local participation, 19., M
188-189 Magazine advertising, 172-
advantages, 134-136 174
in Amboseli National Mailing list, creation of,
Park, Kenya, 136-137 175-178

Index 219
Management costs, Khao planning strategy recom-
Yai National Park, Thai- mendations for, 191-
land,118-119 192
Management issues, Khao Minnesota, 12-13
Yai National Park, Thai- Miranda, Sergio, 49
land,119-120 Monitoring, of local partici-
Management recommenda- pation, 155
tions Montana, 61, 64, 78
for international develop- Monteverde Cloud Forest
ment and conserva- Reserve, Costa Rica, 11,
tion organizations, 15,39-43
198-199 Mountain Gorilla Project,
for local conservation or- Rwanda, 13, 109-110
ganizations, 198 Multiplier effect, 97-98
for ministries, 197-199
for park managers, 198
for private sector, 198 National Audubon Society,
for tour operators, 198 15-16,172-173,181
Marenco resort, 49 National benefits of tourism,
Market for ecotourism 96
defining, 170-172 National ecotourism boards,
growth of, 201 governments, 14
Marketing ecotourism National Forest Service,
determining marketabil- 70
ity, 168-169 National level, impact of na-
hypothetical example, ture tourism, 108
178-180 National Park Service
strategy for, 169-178 (NPS), 143
Masai, 136-137 Natural areas, decision-
Masai Mara national park, making about use, 89-
34 91
Masai Mara/Serengeti eco- Nature awareness, conserva-
system, Kenya, 35-38 tion ethic and, 165-166
Media coverage, 181-182 Nature tourism. See Eco-
Mexico, 6 tourism; specific aspects
Migration patterns, 12 of nature tourism
Ministries Nebraska, 78
development recommen- Negative impacts on envi-
dations for, 194- ronment, minimizing,
195 167-168
management recommen- Neighboring communities.
dations for, 197 See also Local people

220 Index
Neighboring communi ties Papua, New Guinea, 169
(cont'd.) Park managers
of Greater Yellowstone development recommen-
Ecosystem, 67-68 dations for, 195-196
misuse of park resources management recommen-
by, 53 dations for, 198
Nepal planning strategy recom-
Chitwan National Park, mendations for, 193
113 Parks, ministry of
disadvantages of ecotour- development recommen-
ism and, 15 dations for, 194-195
as ecotourism destination, management recommen-
6,202 dations for, 197
geography of, 169 planning strategy recom-
income generated by tour- mendations for, 192
ism, 9 Personal interviews, 145
numbers of ecotourists in, Peru,202
12 Peruvian Foundation for the
Netherlands Antilles, Saba Conservation of Nature
Marine Park, 124-125 (FPCN), 183
Net present value (NPV), 102 Philippines, logging and na-
New Guinea, 169 ture tourism in, 125-
Newspaper advertising, 174 128
North Dakota, 78 Planning
NPS (National Park Ser- local participation and,
vice), 143 148-155,188-189
NPV (net present value), 102 preplanning and, 190
process, tasks in, 133
0 for river corridor manage-
Open-ended surveys, 159 ment, 143-144
Opportunity cost analysis, Planning, ministry of
104 planning strategy recom-
of Khao Yai National mendations for, 192
Park, Thailand, 119 Planning strategy recom-
of nature tourism, 99-100 mendations
Organization for Tropical for international develop-
Studies (OTS), 49, 50- ment and conserva-
51 tion organizations,
194
P for local conservation or-
Palo Verde Biological Field ganizations, 193-194
Station, 50 for ministries, 191-192

Index 221
for park managers, 193 Public relations, 28
for tour operators and pri- Public Works ministry, plan-
vate sector, 193 ning strategy recom-
Poaching, 25, 31-32, 37 mendations for, 192
Popular theater, 160 Puerto Rico, 6
Predesign stage, 149-150
Preliminary studies, 149- Q
150 Quakers, 41
Primary benefits, vs. second- Quetzals, 15, 43
ary benefits, 97-98
Private benefits, 92
vs. social benefits, 95-97 R
Private reserves, in Kenya, Rain forest conservation for
34-35 profit (Rara Avis), 49
Private sector Ranch/farm hospitality op-
development recommen- erations. See Hospitality
dations for, 196 businesses, farm/ranch
management recommen- Ranthambhor National
dations for, 198 Park, India, 8
planning strategy recom- Rara Avis project, Costa
mendations for, Rica, 7-8, 49
193 Regional benefits of tour-
Problem trees, 157 ism, 96
Project Tiger, India, 8 Regulation of ecotourism, in
Promotional events, 182- Costa Rica, 52-55
183 Research, 203
Protected area management, Research team, 149, 158-
funds for, 10-11 159
Protected areas Rhino habitat, 113
conflicting management River corridor management
objectives, 14-15 plan, 143-144
ecological and aesthetic River rafting, 46-47
carrying capacities of, Riverwork case study, 146-
11-13 148
Psychographics, of ecotour- Riverwork public involve-
ists, 171-172 ment plan, 144-146
Publications, 203 Robert and Catherine Wil-
Public involvement plan, for son Botanical Garden,
riverwork approach, Costa Rica, 50
144-146 Royalties, I I I
Publicity, 181-182 Rwanda, Mountain Gorilla
Public meetings, 145, 158 Project, 13, 109-110

222 Index

S Tourism
Saba Marine Park, Nether- expenditures, at Khao Y@
lands Antilles, 110, 124- National Park, Thai-
125 land,117-118
Safari industry, 108 infrastructure, 169
Secondary benefits, vs. pri- socioeconomic impacts ot
mary benefits, 97-98 68
Secondarv expenditures, 97- Tourism industry, 4-5
98 Tourism ministry
Slash-and-burn agriculture, development recommen-
preservation of Montev- dations for, 194
erde and, 41 management recommen-
Social benefit-cost analysis dations for, 197
(SBCA), 101-102 planning strategy recom-
vs. financial analysis, 103 mendations for, 191-
Social benefits, 93, 97, 122- 192
123 Tourist ships, 12
Social welfare analysis, 91- Tour operators
92,94-98,101-105 cooperative efforts of,
South Dakota, 78 200
Spanish Peaks Primitive in Costa Rica, 47-49
Area, United States, I I- development recommen-
12 dations for, 196
Special-interest travel, by foreign, problems with, 9-
United States citizens, 10
5 in-bound, 204, 205
Sustainable development, management recommen-
45 dations for, 198
SWAG method, 61 minimizing negative im-
Switzerland, 29 pacts on environment,
168
T of National Audubon Soci-
Tanzania, 6, 35 ety, 15-16
Tax policies, I I 1- 112 out-bound, 205
Team leader, 153-154 planning strategy recom-
Teton Science School, 71 mendations for, 193
Thailand, Khao, Yai Na- travel ethic, 15-16
tional Park, 114-120 Travel industry, conservation
Tikal, 47 ethic and, 164-165
Timber exploitation, 43 Tropical Science Center, 41
Tongass National Forest, Trust funds, in Kenya, 33-
Alaska, 14 34

Index 223
U Wetland projects in United
Umana, Alvaro, 45 States, local participa-
United States tion program for, 140-
Absaroka Beartooth Wil- 142
derness,70 WHOA (Wvoming Homestay
Adirondack National and Outdoor Adventure
Park, 11, 13 Association), 78
environmental projects, Wild and Scenic Rivers Act,
local participation in, 143
140-148 Wildlife parks
Greater Yellowstone Eco- in East Africa, 120-123
system, 14 World Conservation Union,
Hell's Canyon, 104 Seventeenth General As-
national and state parks, sembly of, 56
12-13 World Tourism Organization
National Parks Service, 67 (WTO), 4-5
Spanish Peaks Primitive World Wildlife Fund (WWF),
Area, 11-12 187
special-interest travel by Wyoming, 7, 61, 63-65,
citizens, 5 78
User fees, 109-110 Wyoming Homestay and
Outdoor Adventure As-
V sociation (WHOA), 78
Venezuela, ecotourism bro-
chure for, 176-177 y
Yellowstone Institute, 71
W Yellowstone National Park,
Watershed protection, Khao 15, 68, 70. See also
Yai National Park, Thai- Greater Yellowstone
land, 118 Ecosystem
Western Planners Confer- Yosemite National Park,
ence, Tenth Annual, 71 92
West Germany, 29
West Kentucky Coalfield
Wetlands, ADID study Z
for, 142-143 Z Bar 0 ranch, 75-77

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Nature Tour1'Sm:.A1q-nagin'g for the Environment is the firs[ book to explore
the potential benefits and pitfalls of nature tourism, an innovative concept that links
nAtUral resource coffservacion with local economic development, providing a viable

-6 1 ion.
alternative to cri ronmental exploiiati
@:'Mburors To this authoritative collection include Perez Olindo, former direc-
,,)F Of [he Kenya Wildlife department; Yanina Rovinski, an IUCN tcocourism spe-
cialisc in Central America; and John Dixon, World Bank economist. A diverse
selection of case studies provides vivid, instructive examples. Chapters on planning,
economic evaluation, local participation, and marketing outline specific steps for
maximizing benefits and minimizing potential damage.

"This book takes a tough, and much-needed look at ecotourism-its promise
and its pitfalls. Editor Tensle Whelan has brought together experts from around the
world to make thoughtful and well-researched contributions to the debate."
--from the foreword, Peter A. A. Berle, President,
National Audubon Society
"The reader comes away with a keen appreciation of nature tourism as.a two-
edged sword to be managed more carefully than in the past, and with a tool kit of
approaches to help achieve such management."
-Jan G. Laarman, Professor of Forestry,
North Carolina State University
"Finally, there is a comprehensive and lively book that we can strongly recom-
mend to the hordes of people wanting to invest in responsible travel."
-Dan Katz, President, Rainforest Alliance

ISLAND PRESS
Washington, D.C. mco Covelo, California

5 1995

9 781559 630368

ISBN 1-55963-036-1
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