Archaeological investigations James Branch Watershed heritage study

[From the U.S. Government Printing Office, www.gpo.gov]

ARCHAEOLOGICAL INVESTIGATIONS

1988

CZIC COLLECTION
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Attachment D
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Final Benchmark
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(ARCHAEOLOGICAL INVESTIGATIONS

James Branch Watershed Heritage Study,

Cara L. Wise and Cherie Clark
1988

Technical Services Section

Division of Parks and Recreation

Department of Natural Resources and Environmental Control

Introduction-

Until recently, -very little was known about the

archaeological resources of the James Branch Watershed. Prior to

1987, no comprehensive archaeological survey had been conducted

in the project area, or even in adjoining areas of the Nanticoke

drainage, o+ which the James Branch Watershed is a part.

However, the increasing pace of development in Southwestern

Sussex County, Delaware, led the Delaware Division of Historical

and Cultural Affairs to make this a priority area for

archaeological survey under the Historic Preservation Grants-in-

Aid program. At the same time, the Division of Parks. and

Recreation:s Office of- Nature Preserves was making an effort to

strengthen the protection of the remaining bald cypress stands in

Delaware through the expansion of the James Branch Nature

Preserve. In an effort to expand our understanding of the

development of this threatened vegetational community and to

provide CUltural information which can help Lis to interpret it to

the general public, the Division of- Parks and Recreation applied

to the Division of Historical and Cultural Affairs -for an

Historic Preservation grant to survey Trap Pond State Park, which

is located in the James Branch Watershed, and to the Coastal

M
anagement Program, first for a grant.to produce an overview of

the prehistory and history of the study area @Wise 1987), and

then -for a orant to conduct an archaeological survey of parts of

the James Branch Watershed not covered under the Historic Preser-

vation grant. This orant has also been used to provide a preli-

minary pollen study of cores taken from two areas of the James

Branch floodplain and from one location in Cypress Swamp in order

to obtain paleo-environ.mental data to supplement the archaeolo-

gical data. Although this study is not yet complete, a prelimi-

nary report on the cores is attached as Appendix A. At the same

time,, the University of Delaware Center, for Archaeological

Research, under the direction of Dr. Jay F. Custer, received an

Historic Preservation grant to conduct a reconnai ,ssance survey of

much of the Nanticoke drainaqe, including the James Branch Water-

shed, and produce a prehistoric archaeological resources manage-

trient plan for the region. These studies have greatly increased

our Lin derst andi.nq_ of the ways in which human groups have lived in

the James Branch area in the past, although additional

environmental information is still needed in order to understand

to what extent these patterns were influenced by the presence of

the cypress swamps. Of particular significance foi- both archaeo-

logy and natural resource management is the fact that we can now

document that over the last 3000 to 4000 years, there has been an

accumulation of 50 to 60 cm. of soil in the zone bordering the

James Branch Watershed. Where cultivation has occurred, approxi-

matelv 50 to 60 cm. of soil has eroded.over the last 2100 vears.

In this report, we will outline the results of the

archaeological investigations undertaken by the Division of Parks

and Recreation in the James Branch Watershed over the last year.

The +ormat o+ the report is that of a standard archaeological

field report. Figure I is attached to provide a summary of

the periods of Delaware prehistory, a narrative discussion of

these periods is attached as Appendix B, and a glossary is

attached as Appendix C to explain the archaeolog ical terms. In

later phases of this project, we will conduct a more detailed

analysis of the cultural*material recovered, and revise the

prehistory prepared for the overview based on the new data.

ggCygy: Methods and Results

Surveys in the Delmarva coastal plain indicate that prehis-

toric sites are unlikely to be located in upland--'ar.eas away -from

water sources. A review of the preliminary results of a recent

surface survey of part of the James Branch drainage conducted by

the University of Delaware Center for Archaeological Research

in dicates that prehistoric settlement was strongly focused on the

major stream channels (Custer and Mellin 1988). Based on this

in-formation, the fieldwork -for this project was limited primarily

to the upland areas along the edges of James Branch and Trap

Pond, which occupies what was -formerly the floodplain of Hitch

Pond Branch, a tributary of James Branch. The fieldworkstrategy

consisted of two levels: survey and intensive testing.

The survey strategy consisted of the excavation of I meter X

1 meter test units placed along transect lines parallel to the

Figure 1

CULTURE COMPLEXES OF THE JAMES BRANCH WATERSHED*

Dates Period Culture Complex Ceramic Type

A.D. 1600 Woodland II Slaughter Creek Townsend
Complex Killens
A.D. 1000 -----------------------------------------------------------------------

Late Carey Prickly Pear
Complex Hell Island
Mockley

A.D. 500 ---------------------------- ------------------
Carey Complex Mockley

A.D. 0 Woodland I ----------------- 7 ----------------------------

Wolfe Neck/Delmarva Adena Coulbourne
Complex Wolfe Neck

500 B.C. ----------------------------------------------

Clyde Farm Experimental
Complex Marcey Creek

3000 B.C. ---------------------------------------------------------------------

Archaic (No Special Complexes)

6500 B,C* ---------------------------------------------------------------------

Paleo-Indian (No Special Complexes)

12,000 B.C.

*Based on Custer & Mellin 1988, Table 3.

bank of the drainage and not more than 30 meters inland. The

attached map (Figure 2) shows the location of these survey tran-

sects. Most often, this distance was 10 - 20 meters. At least

one test unit was placed on each landf,orm which had a high proba-

bility of having been Occupied during prehistoric times, and

additional units were excavated at intervals whith generally did

not exceed 100 meters. Each unit was excavated in 10 cm.

arbitrary levels, and the soil was screened through 1/4 inch

hardware cloth, Artifacts were kept separate by unit and level.

Profiles were recorded for selected excavation units, USing using

Munsell soil color designations. Each test unit is located with

respect to a lettered datum point, and designated by a number.

Because the letter and number designations were repeated on each

transect line, different catalog numbers were used to separate

the collections.

Excavations at Trap Eqng! Qtate Park

Excavations at Trap Pond State Park were Conducted between

January and July, 1986, and were funded primarily through an

Historic Preservation Grant from the National Park Service

through the Delaware Division ol' Historical end Cultural Affairs.

The excavations units were placed along two survey transects, one

on each side of the pond. In addition, a previously identified

site located on the east side of the pond, 7S----J-12, was

intensively tested. The first survey transect ran along the east

side of the pond in the campground area. Fourteen units were

excavated, and prehistoric cultural material was recovered from

TS-H-1 17

7$-H- 8

SITE LOCATION

SURVEY TRAHSeOT
st

PC a
7S-H-60

7
-J-22
S

7SwJ-23
7311-24
7S-J-12

8 25

7S-J-26

78-J-27 7S-J-

467--

Oigure 2
SURVEY TRANSECTS

five units. Two previously unreported sites were, i dent i f i ed.

site 7S-0-22 is located in the main campground area,

northwest of the confluence of a small stream with the pond.

Temporally diagnostic artifacts include a straight-stemmed point

and Townsend ceramics. No other stone tools were found@ and very

little debitage was recovered.

Site 7S--J--23 is located on what is now a small island, but

which was once a narrow neck of land projecting into the Hitch

Pond Branch -floodplain. Only one unit was excavated here, but

the density of artifacts was greater than at any other location

tested on the east side of the pond. Temporally diagnostic

material includes Wilgus, Mockley, and Townsend ceramics. No

projectile points were recovered and the only stone tool

recovered was a utilized flake, but there,was a much greater

density of debitaqe than at other sites in the park.

Only one site, 7S--J--12, was subjected to intensive testing.

A total of ten I meter X I meter test units were excavated, with

units designated in terms of an arbitrary grid. This grid is

oriented parallel to the pavillions and parking lot developed on

Cypress Point, and approximately parallel to the crest of the

ridge which forms the point. The 0,0 point is located northwest

of- Cypress Point so that all e>'ecavation units in this area will

fall within the southeast quadrant of- the grid.

Like the survey units, the intensive testing units were

excavated in 10 cm. levels, unless natural levels were apparent,

and the soil removed was sifted through 1/4 inch mesh screen.

All of 'the test units were concentrated in the area of the

swings, where prehistoric ceramics had been recovered in the

past. Seven of the test units were excavated by the Kent County

Archaeological Society, a chapter of the Archaeological Society

of Delaware. Five of these units showed clear evidence of Cut-

ting and filling on the north side o+.the ridge. No prehistoric

material in undisturbed contexts was recovered -from these five

un i t s.

The remaining five units all produced prehistoric cultural

material. Mockley, Hell Island, and Killens ceramics were

recovered -from four units,, one of which was onlv excavated to a

depth of - 26 cm.- A feature consisting of an outer ring of

charcoal and burned pebbles and a core of ashy soil was

encountered in this unit (S101/E160). This feature extends into

three adjoining units, so it was decided to cover the feature

with plastic and backfill the unit until a I ater time. Rhyolite

flakes were also recovered from the units containing Mockley and

Hell Island ceramics.

The second survey transect ran along the west side of the

pond. Sixty-eight test units were excavated, of which 47 con-

tained prehistoric cultural material and four contained historic

period Cultural material. Three units (#2, #10, and #11) were

abandoned after encounterina a -feature identified as a utility

line. Five previously unreported sites were identified on the

basis of this survey. In addition, a single core was found in

Unit #19. The location, however,, is topographically distinct

from the nearest defined site, and this unit has, there-fore, not

been included with it. Additional testing is needed to determine

whether a separate site number should be assigned.

Site 7S-J-24 extends along the edge of the pond between the

office and the swimming beach. A small amount of historic period

material dating to the first quarter of the nineteenth century

recovered from Units #1, #3, #5, and #10, located between

Datum A and Datum B. A small number of flakes were recovered

from, Unit #4, which has been included in this site designation,

although no other prehistoric material was recovered from this

area.

Site 7S-J-25 is located on a neck of land projecting into

the pond and is currently used as a "primitive" campground for

scouts and other groups. Prehistoric cultural material was

recovered from ten units. Temporally diagnostic material in-

ClUdes soapstone bowl -fragments, Mockley and Townsend ceramics,

and a corner-notched projectile point. Although several of the

excavation units showed that the site had been significantly

disturbed by the excavation of tent trenches,"fire pits, and

trash pits, vertical separation between the early Woodland I

soapstone bowl -fragments and the later Woodland I and Woodland II

Mockley and Townsend ceramics was noted. In addition to the

projectile , point, stone tools included a bifacial scraper, an

argillite preform base, and a tiny unifacial pebble scraper.

Very little debitage was recovered.

Sites 7S-J-26 and 7S-J-27 are both procurement sites with a

very low dentisty of Cultural Material. Site 7S-J-26 is located

north of a small stream near its confluence with Trap Pond, and

includes units #38, #39 and #40. Lithic artifacts included a

contracting stem projectile and a pebble core, both of heat-

treated jasper from levels 6 and 7. Site 7S-J-27 was a more

Site 7S-J-24 extends along the edge of the pond between the

office and the swimming beach. A small amount of historic period

material dating to the first quarter Of the nineteenth century

was recovered from Units #1, #3, #5, and #10, located between

Datum A and Datum D. A small number of flakes were recovered

from Unit #4, which has been included in this site designation,

although no other prehistoric material was recovered from this

area.

Site 7S-J-25 is located on a neck of land projecting into

the pond and is currently used as a "primitive" campground for

scouts and other groups. Prehistoric cultural material Was

recovered from ten units. Temporally diagnostic material in-

cludes soapstone bowl fragments, Mockley and Townsend ceramics,

and a corner-notched projectile point. Although several of the

excavation units showed that the site had been significantly

disturbed by the excavation of tent trenches, fire pits, and

trash pits, vertical separation between the early Woodland I

soapstone bowl fragments and the later Woodland I and Woodland II

Mockly and Townsend ceramics was noted. In addition to the

projectile point, stone tools included a bifacial scraper, an

argillite pre-form base, and a tiny unifacial pebble scraper.

Very little debitage was recovered.

Sites 7S-J-26 and 7S-J-27 are both procurement sites with a

very low dentisty of cultural material. Site 7S-J-26 is located

north of a small stream near its confluence with Trap Pond, and

includes units #38, #39, and #40. Lithic artifacts included a

contracting stem projectile and a pebble core, both of heat-

treated jasper from levels 6 and 7. Site 7S-J-27 was a more

dif f use occupation area wi th occassinal flake debris f ound in

units 44 to 48, with flake densities highest in unit 48. Arti-

facts -from this interval included a contracting stem. projectile

base and a pebble core, both from level 5. Additionally, 3

prehistoric sherds were found in the upper levels of unit 45.

One historic charcoal pit was also identified in unit 44.

lt contained a layer of cross-tied split logs intersecting hori-

zontally at right angles. This pattern extended down in a pit

from 40-80 cm below surface. At the base of the pit two charred

logs interesected vertically in a v-shaped pattern. This feature

was without -Further association. The significance of this feature

was not determined.

Site 7S-J-28 is located south of a small stream flowing into
Trap Pond and north of a borrow pit located along the edge of

Racoon Prong, including Units #49 through #68. Prehistoric cul-
tural material was recovered -from 16 of the 18 excavated units.

As at 7S-J-25, vertical separation of cultural periods was rioted.

Contracting stemmed points, steatite bowl fragments, Marcey Creek

pottery, and a fragment of a bannerstone, all associated with the

Clyde Farm Complex of the Woodland I Period, were found at the

bottom of level 4 (30 to 40 cm. below the surface) and in levels

5 and 6 (40 to 60 cm. below the surface.) Townsend, Ki11ens

Pont.. and Prickley Pear ceramics were found in levels I through 3

(0 to 30 cm. below the Surface.) Most of the ceramics were

concentrated in units 56, 57, 58 and 63, and occurred primarily

in levels 2 and 3. Lithic distributions did not conform to this

same pattern. Instead lithics occurred in units 60, 61, 62, 63,

and 68, and had their highest densities in level 5. They in-

included a side-notched projectile, a contracting stem point, an

ovate stemmed point, 4 tested pebbles, 3 preform fragments, 2

biface fragments, I end scraper, and 1 utilized flake. Lithic

tools, like the flake.dedebris, were most frequently from level 5.

Excavations at the Phillips Tract

James Branch Nature Preserve

The Phillips Tract is located on the south side of James

Branch approximately 1 km. northwest of its confluence with Hitch

Pond Branch (the stream on which Trap Pond is located.) Part of

the tract was recently purchased by the Department of Natural

Resources and Environmental Control from Mr. Eugene Phillips.

The remaining area is still owned by Mr. Phillips, although DNREC

is negoitiating to acquire this part of the tract as well. Mr.
Phillips graciously gave his permission for our work.

A total of 50 test units were placed along the surveyed

transect which ran northwest along James Branch from its

confluence with old. Forge Branch (locally known as Nancy Thompson

Branch.) Test intervals Averaged 20 m apart over a distance of

the units. Two sites (7S-H-117, and 7S-H-118) were identified

based on the distribution of Cultural material .

Site 7S-H-117 is located at the confluence of Old Force

Branch and James Branch. Ten test units (1-9, and 13) were exca-

vated and cultural material was found in all units except #3.

Two features and most of the cultural material were concentrated

Along the south terrace edge. At 20 to 30 cm. below the present

surface Qevel 3), evidence of a small late Woodland I occupation'

was recovered -from several units. The remains consisted of a

compacted surface associated with Hell Island ceramics, a

grinding stone, and biface fragments, an ashy silt deposit of

undetermined -function, and a triangular projectile point. An

occupation date of A.D. SOO to A.D. 1000 is indicated. A few

historic period artifacts dating to the early nineteenth century

were also recovered from the upper levels of some units.

North Of- unit #12 the survey transect turned to follow the

terrace ban-k northeast to unit #36, then curved back northwest to

unit #49. The site area (7S--H-11E3) identified along this tran-

sect spanned an interval of 400 m. Cultural material was

recovered from 35 of 37 units. Prehistoric cultural material

appeared to be concentrated in two zones. The upper 3 levels (0

to 30 cm. below the present surface) contained the greatest

density of ceramics including Prickley Pear, Killens, and

Townsend wares, as well as two triangle points. This indicates

an occupation dating to approximately A.D. BOO to A.D. 1500. The

second zone occurred between 40 and 70 cm. below the surface

(levels 5 through 7). These levels contained more than 60% of

the lithic material from the site. The presence of Experimental

ceramics,, soapstone fragments, contracting stemmed points, and a

-fragment of a.bannerstone in levels 5 and 6 indicates an occupa--

tion dating from about 3000 D.C. to 500 D.C. and perhaps earlier.

A number of features were found at the center of the

site where the terrace is closest to the channel of James Branch.

in Units 32, 33, 34.. 3', and 46. Three features were identifed

because sherds belonging to the same vessels occurred in

several. levels, even though no soil color change could be

identified. These features all originated in the upper CUltural

zone and contained Townsend, Killens. and/or Prickley Pear

ceramics. One feature was a smiall pit beginning at 45 cm. below

the present surface and extending to 70 cirt., with increased

amounts of b urned bone and charred wood at the base of the pit*

However, not all the features excavated appear to have beer, of

cultural origin. One feature, consisting of a concentration of

loose burned ash, was determined to be the remains of- a

thoroucihly burned tree when the ash deposit tapered to a charred

root.

Excavations at the Truitt Site

The Truitt Site (7S-H--60) was identified during a

reconnaissance survey conducted by the Universi,ty of Delaware

Center for Archaeological Research. The majority of sites identi-

fied alona James Branch as a result of this survey were classi-

fied as procurement sites. 7S-li-60, on the other hand, was

classi-fied as a base camp. We decided to excavate a limited

number of units in undisturbed wooded areas along the terrace

edge in order to obtain a sample from a known base camp that was

comparable, in terms of the technique of- recovery, to the sample

we had obtained from 7S-14-11B.. which we believed to be a base

camp.

Our -field examination showed that virtually the entire site

had been disturbed. The western end had been destroyed by a

borrow pit, and the remainder of the site had been culti vated to

1:3

the edge of the terracel so that no upland wooded frinae

remained. However, there was a narrow strip of woods between the

cultivated field and the borrow pit, and there was also a remnant

of a knoll at the north end of the borrow pit which was

undisturbed. Five units were excavated in the wooded strip and

three on the knoll. Sur-face collections were made in the plowed

fi,eld and along the sides of the borrow pit.

The surface collection in th e plowed -field indicated that

there were a number of concentrations of cultural material, with

a thin scatter over much of the rest of the site. Fire-cracked

rock and lithic debris were common. Ceramics included Dame's

Quarter Experimental, Mockley, Pricicley Pear, P'Allens Pond, and

Townsend wares,, representing a ranqe of about 3500 years. Flaked

stone tools were not -frequent, but several p lant processing tools

were -found, including a mot-tar and a muller, as well as several

battered stone tools whose function could not be determined.- A

fragment of worked slate was also found.

A similar range of ceramics was found in collections from

the edge-cf,-the borrow pit, including Dames Quarter Experimental

ceramics. In addition, two temporally diagnostic projectile

points were found: a contracting stemmed point, contemporary

with the Experimental ceramics, and a Fox Creek point,

contemporary with 11ockley ceramics.

Units in the test areas were excavated to at least 50 cm.

In'the wooded strip between the borrow pit and the plowed -field,

the, topsoil (approximately 15 - 25 cm. thick at undisturbed

sites) appeared to have been removed. No temporally diagnostic

artifacts were recovered -from either test location except Wolfe

Neck ceramics. In the wooded strip, sherds that appeared to be

from the same vessel were found in several levels, indicating the

presence of a feature. It should bq.noted that the Wolfe Neck

ceramics which were found buried below the surface in the

uncultivated parts of the site are later in date than the

E,,,peri mental ceramics found on the Surface in the plowed field.

Con clusions

Over the past seven yea rs., excavations in undisturbed wooded

areas at several state parks and nature preserves (Wise 196:3,

1984, 1985) have shown that cultural material could be found at

depths well below what was generally expected. However, none of

these excavations were able to demonstrate vertical

differentiation of cultural periods,, and it was thought possible

(even probable) that artifacts were carried to"such depths by

natural agenciez such as roots and burrowing animals. In the

excavations at Trap Pond State Park and the Phillips Tract of the

James Branch Nature Preserve, we have been able to demonstrate

clearly that earlier cultural material occurs vertically below

later cultural material. This means that although the soil

matrix appears to be homogeneous,, it has been accumulating over

the last 4000 to 5C)(.-)Cj vears.

At the Truitt site (7S-J+-60)jI artifacts have been found on

the surface which date to t he same time period (Woodland I/Clyde

Farm Complex) as those which are buried Linder approximately 50

CM. of soil at the Phillips Tract and Trap Pond sites. It is

unlikely that localities on the same drainage, with similar

topographic characteristics, and within a short distance of each

other would have distinctly different patterns of soil accumula-

tion without some evidence that different processes were at work.

indeed, the presence of Wolfe Neck ceramics (indicative of the

Woodland I/Wol-fe Neck Complex) at 20 to 310 cm. below the SLAr-face

in the less disturbed parts of the site indicates that at least

some accumulation has occurred at this location.. This in turn

suggests that some 40 to 60 cm. of soil have been removed -from

the site, most likely as a result Of cultivation, because this is

the one characteristic which differentiates the Truitt site from

the other sites studied.

It is difficult to judge, on the basis of information

currentlv available, how long it took for this amount of erosion

to occur. Certainly,, parts of 7S-11-60 have been under cultiva--

tion -for much of the last two centuries. However, large areas of

the site bordering James Branch have been cleared only recently.

In the past, farming practices have maintained wooded borders

along the streams, as well as hedgerows between fields. This not

only protected archaeological sites -from disturbance, but also

limited to some degree the extent of both wind and water erosion.

Today, both the hedgerows and the wooded borders arc- increasingly

being cleared to open new farmiland or to make mechanized -farming

more efficient. Not only does this pose a threat to

archaeological sites which contain all that remains of-past human

activities, but the soil which erod,es from the sites washes or is

blown into the streams and stream valleys,, altering the

ecological setting, This suggests that the protection of

undisturbed archaeological sites will also serve to protect the

natural resources in the stream valleys which served as the focus

for human settlement in the past.

References Cited

Custer, J. F. and G. R. Mellin

1988 Archaeologcal Survey in Southewestern Delaware.
1987-1988 University of Delaware Center for
Archaeological Research. Draft manuscript submit---
ted to the Delaware Bureau of Archaeology and
Historic Preservation.

Wise, C. L.

1983 Development of a Cultural Resources Management

Plan -for Lums Pond State Park. Delaware Division
of Parks and Recreation.

1984 Cultural Resources Management Plan for Killens
Pond State Park. Delaware Division of Parks and
Recreation.

1985 Archaeological Investigations at Barnes Woods
Nature Preserve. Delaware Division of Parks and
Recreation.

1987 Overview: James Watershed Heritage study.
Delaware Division of Parks and Recreation.

Appendix A
Report on Cores from Cedar Bog in Southtrn Delaware

Three cores were collected from different subdenvironments of bald cypress communities from
southern Delaware. The cores measured 164, 200, and 165 cm. in length. Bottom sediments
from each of the cores have been submitted for carbon 14 analyses. Additional carbon 14 dates
will be obtained, as the pollen analyses proceed.

Stratigraphy of the cores is as follows:

COTe CS- I
I - 18 cm: peat of a dark reddish brown color,,
18 - 20 cm: mud of a less fine texture than the overlying
sediment, containing plant fragments,
20 - 68 cm: black mud;
68 - 74 cm: transitional mud and sand;
74 -106 cm: finely uniform sand, gray to dark gray in color,
106-164 cm: marbled sand and mud mixture, with darker mud
Core HP- I bands from 162-164 cm.
0 - 36 cm: mud, with leaves and twigs; germinating seeds
at 1.5, 33, 35, 39 and 40 cm;
36 - 58 cm: light gray sand;
58 - 70 cm: mud as from 0 to 36 cm;
70- 75 cm: transition from mud to sand;
75 - 79 cm: sand;
79 - 83.5 cm: mud;
83.5 - 134 cm: sand with some marbling of organics;
134 - 195 cm: mud, with a chunk of wood from 100 to 103-5 cm;
195 - 200 cm: gravel and sand with mud.

Core TP- I

The bottom of this core was highly disturbed below 165 cm and not useful for pollen analyses.

0 - 30 cm: dark reddish brown to black peat with large stems;
( a 4 cm. gap occurs at this level due to coring
difficulties);
34 - 64 cm: mud with less peat;
64 - 89 cm: sand and mud with very large twigs, stems and wood
chips;
89 - 145 cm: sand with small amounts of gravel;
145 - 159 cm: sand with larger gravel; striations; and marbling
with darker bands, which may not be organic;
159-165 cm: white clay with yellow patches and bits of carbon.

Very large stems or wood chunks occur at 77 to 81 cm, 85 to 92 cm, and 100 to 104 cm.

Insofar as possible, all 3 cores have been divided into I cm subsamples, and pollen has been
extracted from roughly one-half of all subsamples. Preliminary pollen analyses indicate that at
least in some levels, there is good pollen and seed preservation.

APPENDIX B

Prehistorv

James Branch Watershed

Paleo-Indian Period (10.000 B.C. to 6.500 B.C

Although archaeologists are not yet certain exctly when the

first human groups entered the Delmarva Peninsula, we can say

with certaintv that people were Iivinig in the area by , at least

12,000 years ago, during the Late Glacial climatic episode.

These earliest inhabitants lived by hunting animals, particularly

large game such as mastodons, mammoths, and other Pleistocene

megafana, and by gathtering plant foods. Because hunting was so

important to their way of life, these people were skilled in

making flaked stone projectile points,, as well,as other stone

tools for use in processing the meat, hides, and other animal

products.

Because of the lack of seasonal variation, the yearly round

of the Paleo-Indian hunters focused on the availability of stone

materials for tool making rather than on the seasonal

availability of specific food resources. for Paleo-Indian groups

In the central Delmarva area, the nearest Source. of high quality

lithics would have been cobble beds at the Confluence of the

Nanticoke river with what was then the ancestral Susquehanna

River.The stream valleys of the study area as defined here are

too narrow to have supported a significant population

megafauna. It is unlikely, therefore, that recognizable Paleo-

Indian sites will be found in most of the project area. However,

the James Branch Watershed offers a direct route from the

Nanticoke gravel beds to the resource-rich swampy areas along the

eastern edge of the study area, where it is likely that non-

quarry-related base camps., processing sites, and hunting sites

will be found.

Because of their reliance on hunting as a major food source,

and because of their utilization of high quality stone materials,

the tools used by the Paleo-Indian hunters are exceptionally

well made, in comparison with the tools of later periods. The

most distinctive tools of the period are -the projectile points,

which for most of this period were lanceolate to triangular

points with a shallow groove, called a flute, running down both

faces. These projectile points appear to have been used on

thrusting spears. Toward the end of the period, smaller

projectile points with notches at the sides Were made. Some

archaeologists have suggested that these smaller points were used

with an atlatl, or throwing stick, which Was used to give greater

distance, accuracy, and thrust to the spear. A variety of

cutting and scraping tools were also made to facilitate the

processing of meat, hides, and so forth. These tools, which

display t he same. time craftsmanship as the projectile points,
were often made by chipping only one slide of a flake of stone.

Although we are sure that they do not appear to have made special stone

as well as hunting, they do not appear to have made special stone

tools for processing such resources. Instead, they must have
used tools and containers made of perishable materials such as

wood and hide.

Archaic Period 6500 B.C to 3000 B.C

The Archaic cultural. period begins about the same time as

the Atlantic environmental episode. The expanding mesic forest

had a higher carrying capacity than the pine and spruce -forests

Tine disappearance of the
of the preceding Glacial episode.

qlaciers al1owed the development of marked seasonal Variation,

while the rising sea level allowed the development of swamps,

which increased the variety of environmental settings available

for explotation Custer 1981: 13). Paralleling this increase in

the environmental and seasonal diversity, the Archaic Period is

marked by an increase in the number and variety of tools in use.

The dominant projectile point styles for this period are the

bifurcate base types of the early part of the period and the

small stemmed types characteristic of the later part. Each of

these basic types displays considerable regionarl" diversity. Of

particular interest is the introduction of a variety of ground

stone tools, including axes, gouges, grinding stories, and other

plant processing tools, suggesting an increased dependence on

floral resources. Nontheless, a. variety of flake and biface

tools continued to be made..

The settlement pattern of the Archaic reflects a seasonal

round of activities, focusing on resources which were seasonal1y

abundant at particular locations. Sources of high quality

lithics were no longer of central significance, and a wide

variety of materials available in local cobble deposits were

used The locations of macro-band base Camps occupied by a

number of family groups appear to have been determined by the

locations of particularly rich environmental zones, Such as at

the confluences of major streams with the Delaware River or or

Chesapeake Bay. Smaller micro-band base camps. occupied by a

smal1 number of family units for shorter periods of time, were

located in sheletered locations overlooking lower order streams.

streams.

Access to sources of lithic material may also have been a factor.

Both the macro-band base camps and the micro-band base camps were

asssociated with procurement camps, which were occupied by small

numbers of individuals for short periods of time while specific

resources were hunted or gathered. A band of related families

occupying a particular territory would gather together at macro-

band base camps during certain parts of the year when the

resources there were particularly abundant. Small groups would

make forays to nearby procurement sites to obtain food or raw

materials which were not available in the immediate vicinity of

the base camp. As the resources near the macro-band base camp

became unavailable due to seasonal change, the larger group would

break Lip, and the smaller units would move to micro-band base

camps, where other resources would be abundant, but not in suffi-

cient quantities to support the, larger band. Again small group 5

of
individuals, woulld make forays to procuement sites. The

location of the micro-band base camp might be moved several

times, but the following year, the larger band would gather once

again at the macro--band base camp, (Custer 1981:7-14).

Within the study area, we can expect to see only

settlement pattern- characteristic of the Archaic Period.

band base camps would have been located to the west at the

confluence of the Nanticoke with the Chesapeake Bay or- to the

east in association with the developing Great Cypress Swamp,

Micro-band base camps are most likely to be found along the

eastern edge of the study area, and scattered procurement sites

may be found in other parts of the area.

Woodland I Period 3000 B.C. to A.D. 1000)

The beginning of the Woodland I Cultural period coincides

with the beginning of the Sub-boreal environmental episode, which

mark the beginning of a period in which environmental conditins

Were generally drier than during the preceding Atlantic episode.

The most significant environmental chance, however, is that

period of climatic oscillation was initiated (Custer 1981:20).

These oscillations introduced a higher degree of uncertainty into

the previously rather stable relationships between seasonality,

resource availability, and settlement location- New social

structures, as well as new settlement patterns were needed to

adapt to this uncertainty.

A number of, environmental factors.. including the

increasingly dry conditions and the appearance of estuarine

resources, combined during the Sub-boreal episode to produce a

significant chanqe in the settlement patterns of the inhabitants

of Delaware and much of the Middle Atlantic area. Although there

does not appear to have been a decrease in the total carrying

capacity of the region, the focus of reliable resource

availability appears to have shifted to the flood,plains of major

streams. such as the Nanticoke, and to major swamps, Such as the

Great CyPress Swamp. Macro-band base camps became larger, and

were probably Occupied for longer periods of time. The number of

micro-band base camps increased, and the variety of different

activities carried out at both macro-band and micro-band base

camps increased. isolated procurement camps continued t o be

used, but they are found in smaller numbers, and fewer activities

were carried out at these sites (Custer 1981: 3- 4).

In order to deal with the periodic uncertainty resulting

from the climatic scillations of the Sub-boreal, more structured

relationships were developed, both within groups and between

groups. These strutured relationships are. indicated by the

extensive use of raw materials by groups which did not have

direct access to them in their own territory, and by the presence

of non-utilitarian items such as ornaments and pipes. The raw
materials were distributed through exchange networks which bound

together groups of people in different territories. The non-

utilitarian items appear to have been used to symbolize

differences in status between members of the same group. During

the latter part of this period, these structured relationships

caqn also be seen in the development of an elaborate burial

ceremonialism (Custer 1981:30-3).

Both new tool types and new tool techniques were introduced

during the Woodland I Period. in particular, -there appears to

have been an increase in the kinds of specialized ground stone

tools: found on sites of this period. Furthermore, the broadspear

point technology which was developed during this period was

different than previous stone-tool-making technologies, and

appears to have been designed to produce tools with multiple

funtions that would have a long use-life. Another major

addition to the technoloqy/artifact inventory of the Woodland I

Period were stone bowls, which were later replaced by ceramic

Vessels. The introduction of stone bowls and ceramic vessels

appears to have been related to their increased cooking

efficiency and possibly to their use for storage (Custer 1981:21,

Again, we can expect to see only part of the Wood land T

settlement pattern in the study area. Both micro-band and macro-

band base camps from this period are most likely to be found to

the west along the Nanticoke River floodplain and to the

southeast, around the edges of the Great Cypress Swamp. Only

procurement sites of this period can be expected within the study

area, and they will probably be found in smaller numbers than

those of the preceding Archaic Period.

Woodland II Period (A.D. 1000 to A.D. 1600)

Although the beginning of the Woodland II Period is not

marked by a significant change in environmental conditions, there

are clearly changes which justify the designation of a new

cultural period. These changes appear to coincide with the

appearance of maize agriculture, at least in some areas, of the

Middle Atlantic. The trend toward larger base camps occupied

for longer periods of time, continues although the focus of these

settlements shifts from location suitable to the explotation of

estuarine resources to floodplain locations suitable for crops.

Despite the introduction of cultivated crops, such as corn,

beans, and squash there continues to be a siqnificant use of
wild seed and nut crops. There is an increase in the emphasis on

2 5

storage, indicated by the presence of larger storage pits in base

camps of this period, as well as at more specialized sites. The

size of ceramic vessels increases, which is also probably related

to this increased storage emphasis.

Although the larger settlement size implies a fairly complex

social organization, there is little evidence of the structured

symbolism of the Woodland I Period. Elaborate burial

ceremonialism is lacking, and the intensive trade relationships

of the earlier period appear to have broken down. high quality

cryptocrystalline stone continues to be used, but it appears to

come from local cobble sources rather than from distant quarries.

The artifact inventory of this period is also considerably less

elaborate than that for previous periods. There are fewer flake

tools, and less variation in projectile point styles. The

triangular point is the universal point style for this period in

the Middle Atlantic.

In the study area, only small procurement camps can be

expected for this period. Base camps for the Woodland II Period

would have been located in the floodplain of the Nanticoke River.

As was the case for the Woodland I Period, we can expect that

these procurement sites will be less frequent then during the

Archaic Period.

Contact Period 1600 to 1750

The Contact Period is the period of initial contact between

European colonists and Native American groups. It begins with

the first, indirect, experience of Delaware Native Americans with

European trafe goods and diseases and ends with the disappearance

from Delaware of Native Americans as recognizable tribal groups.

During this period, radical changes were made in the distribution

and composition of native groups. All over Delaware European

diseases killed large numbers of Native Americans because they

had no natural resistence to these diseases. Pressure from

increasing colonization forced many groups into the interior and

onto reservations. One of these reservations was located on the

western edge of the project area.

This reservation was established in 1711 by the Maryland

government to provide for a remnant of the Nanticoke tribe, which

had once occupied a large part of the west-central Delmarva

Peninsula. Approximately 3500 acres were purchased from the

original grantees to establish this reservation in what was then

a remote wilderness. Ely 1748, however, the majority of the

Nanticokes had left the reservation and moved north to Join the

Susquhannocks in Pennsylvania.

Very little is known about the Contact Period in Delaware.

The fur trade was dominated by the Susquehannocks to the north in

Pennsylvania, so that Delaware groups never accumulated large

amounts of readily recognizable trade goods It is likely that

sites of this period will not be easily distinguished from sites

of the Woodland 11 Period. However, because the study area is

located on the edge of a known reservation, it is more likely

that sites of this period will be found here than in other parts

of the state.

References Cited

Custer, J. F.

1981 Report or, Prehistoric Archaeological Research in
Delaware FY 1980-81. Bureau of Archaeology and
Historic preservation. MS on file.

Appendix C

GLOSSARY

battered tools: These are cobbles of a resistant material such
as. quartzite which have been used to hit hard
which have not been used for one purpose long enough either
to substantially alter the original shape of the cobble
to leave clear evidence of how the tool was used.

bifacial tools: Bifacial tools are flaked stone tools which have
been worked an both sides. These implements tend to be
of chopping scraping, and cutting purposes particularly in
M
butchering and woodworking.
corner-removed projectile points This category includes a
variety Of trianqular to lanceolate bladed points which have
been notched at the corners of the base to facilitate
hafting. They appear to date to the Woodland I Period.

Coulbourn Ware: Coulbourn Ware is tempered with crushed clay or
potsherds. Coulbourn net-impressed is more common than the
cord- marked variety, and may be net-impressed on the
interior as well as the exterior. This ceramic type dates
from about 400 B.C. to about 0. B.C.

debitage: This is a term used by archaeologists to refer to the
various kinds of debris produced during the manufacture of
stone tools, including chunks, flakes, and cores.

drills: Drills are bifacially worked tools with attenuated tips
that appear to have been used to drill holes in stone, bone,
or wood. Projectile points are sometimes used for this
purposes.

faunal resources: Faunal resources include mammals,, birds. fish,
and shell fish which can be exploited for food and for bone
and hides to be used for tools, clothing, and other items.

fire-cracked rock: Stones which have been broken by heat.
the most part, they appear to have been used in fire-
hearths, and can be recognized by a reddish
angular breaks.

first order stream: This is asmall stream which has no
tributaries.

floral resources floral include seeds, nuts, berries,
fibers, and other plant products which can be used for food

and medicines or as raw materials for baskets, cordage, and other items.

functionally diagnostic artifacts: These are artifacts which are
characteristic of particular activities.

hammerstones: These tools have been extensively battered, so
that their shape is roughly spherical. They may be made of
quartz, quartzite, or other resistant material. Such tools
were important in the early stages of the manufacture of
chipped stone tools, but may also have been used for other
purposes as well, such as cracking nuts or breaking up bone
prior to the manufacture of bone tools.

Hell Island Ware: Hell Island Ware has a fine grained paste
with crushed quartz temper. Surfaces may be cord-marked or
fabric-impressed. Paddling generally appears to have been
done when the vessel was leather hard, rather than wet, and
the cording is usually more widely spaced than on earlier
ceramic types. Net-impressing rarely, if ever, occurs. The
rims of Hell Island cord-marked vessels are frequently flat-
tened and cord-marked. This type dates from about A.D. 600
to about A.D. 1000.

Killens Pond Ware: This is a thin, very fine-grained paste
ceramic tempered with finely crushed shell and sand. Propor-
tions of these tempering materials may vary, so that some
sherds appear to have little or no sand, while others appear
to have little or no crushed shell.

lanceolate projectile points: Lanceolate points have straight to
concave bases and straight sides contracting toward the tip,
without a stem. It is probably attributable to the end
the Woodland I Period.

macro-band base camp: The macro-band base camp is a major site
occupied seasonally by a band of related family groups.
These sites are generally located in particularly rich
environmental zones, such as the confluences of major
streams, where food resources would be particularly abundant
during certain parts of the year.

micro-band base camp: Mico-band base camps are smaller
occupied by a smaller number of family groups than the
macro-band base camps. They are generally located in shel-
tered locations overlooking lower order streams or on the
floodplains of larger streams. Resources are seasonally
abundant in these locations, but not adequate to support the
larger band.

Mockley Ware: Mockley Ware has a coarse paste tempered with
large fragments of cushed shell. The surface may be either
net-impressed or cord-marked. This ceramic type dates from
about 0 B.C. to about A.D. 1000.

pitted stones: These tools are flattish cobbles of a dense
material such as quartzite which have shallow depressions on
one or both of the flat surfaces. They are usually inter-
preted as having been used in the processing of nuts. Fre-
quently, they also show evidence of battering along the
edges.

processing tools: The majority of the tools found at most
prehistoric sites were used in processing raw materials and
foodstuffs. These tools may have been shaped through use or
they may have been purposely produced. Although tools of
bone and wood were certainly used during prehistoric times,
they rarely survive.
procurement camps: These sites are small sites occupied by a
limited number of people for short periods of time in order
to exploit specific resources. Procurement camps are asso-
ciated with macro-band and macro-band base camps, from which
small groups make forays to nearly procurement sites in
order to obtain food or raw materials which are not
available in the immediate vicinity of the base camp.

procurement rools: Tools used to obtain food or raw materials.
Native Americans in Delaware probably possessed a range of
procurement tools, including traps and nets made of cordage
and other implements made of bone and wood. In most sites,
however, these items do not survive, and only chipped stone
projectile points can be identified as procurement tools.

straight stem projectile points: These points have straight to
slightly contracting stems with straight to convex bases and
ovate blades. It is probably attributable to the Woodland I
Period.

shallow side-notched projectile points: This category consists of
small to medium sized projectile points with shallow side-
notches and straight to convex bases. They appear to date
primarily from the Woodland I Period.

sherds: This is the term archaeologists use to refer to broken
fragments of pottery or ceramics.

temporarally diagnostic artifact: Temporally diagnostic artifacts
are those which are indicative of particular time periods.
They are most to be ceramics or projectile points.

Townsend Ware: This is a shell-tempered type with a fine-
grained paste and fabric-impressed surfaces. Unlike earlier
ceramic types, Townsend Ware is frequntly decorated around
the rim. This decoration is in the form of geometric pat-
terns produced by incising lines or pressing a piece of
cord or a cord-wrapped stick into the surface of the clay.
In general, the more elaborately decorated vessels appear to
be earlier than those decorated with parallel lines. This
ceramic type dates from A.D. 1000 ro perhaps as late

as the beginning of the Contact Period.

triangular projectile points: Small triangular points are attri-
butable to the Woodland II Period. In the Killens Pond
area, they are associated with Townsend ceramics.

unifacial scrapers: These are flaked stone tools which are
worked or show evidence of use only one side. Both
utilized flakes and intentionally produced scrapers were
used for a variety of cutting and scraping activities,
including butchering, hide preparation, and the harvesting
and processing of floral materials. Intentionally produced
scrapers occur in a variety of shapes, including concave,
convex, end, and straight edge. These terms are descriptive
of the shape and/or the location of the working edge, and
each category appears to have been used in somewhat
different ways.

utilized flakes: These are unifacial scrapers which have not
been intentionally produced. Instead, the sharp edge of a
flake is used for cutting or scraping purposes. In the
process, small flakes are removed from the working edge,
making it possible to distinguish these tools from flakes
which have not been used.

Wolfe Neck Ware: This ceramic type is characterized by a
coarse paste tempered with crushed quartz. The surface may
be cordmarked, net impressed, or smoothed, although
smoothing generally does not occur over an entire vessel.
Wolfe Neck Ware appears to date from about 700 B.C. to about
200 B.C.

3 6668 14109 9541