[Congressional Record (Bound Edition), Volume 148 (2002), Part 10]
[House]
[Pages 13824-13827]
[From the U.S. Government Publishing Office, www.gpo.gov]




                     FOOD CRISES IN SOUTHERN AFRICA

  The SPEAKER pro tempore. Under a previous order of the House, the 
gentlewoman from North Carolina (Mrs. Clayton) is recognized for 5 
minutes.
  Mrs. CLAYTON. Mr. Speaker, I want to share with my colleagues and put

[[Page 13825]]

into the Record a continuous issue that I have been trying to bring 
before the Congress and others, as you have heard the gentlewoman from 
California (Ms. Waters) as well speak of. The issue is Southern Africa, 
and many of those countries have reached proportion of their citizens 
suffering from hunger and malnutrition to the extent of being a famine. 
Whether it is in Malawi or Swaziland or Zambia or Zimbabwe, Lesotho, 
all of those countries now suffer for one reason or another in terms of 
having food insecurity. It is either the drought that is there or 
mismanagement of their government or conflict in the area. It is 
currently said, and I have some figures up here, that right now we know 
more than 7 million people now are starving. Hunger is over a long 
period of time, and as people call it a slow burn, if we do not see 
them dying in the streets, we do not get the impression that they are 
suffering. Right now we know they are dying from it. It is a slow 
death. We do not feel the urgency but it is an urgency. What makes this 
a travesty is that it is an urgency, an emergency that we can do 
something about. We can actually intervene and make a difference. We 
can provide food and stop the starvation and possibly stop the death, 
but if we do nothing, we allow the starvation to continue and we allow 
other issues to develop. Indeed, if we do nothing right now, rather 
than in Zimbabwe having 6,000 people who are now starving, you will 
have more than 7,000 people who are. In other words, right now we could 
intervene and make a difference. In that region, more than 7 million 
people right now. We could intervene and move that from starvation to 
maybe food insecurity, but if we do nothing, we can be assured that it 
is our cavalier attitude or our disregard that it is not our problem 
but their problem.
  I want to suggest to you that our security is in fact dependent on 
others having a sense of humanity and a state of living because it does 
threaten our security when free regions of the world are so 
destabilized that they care nothing about their lives or anyone else's 
life, that indeed threatens their security. So there is something we 
can do. We certainly can intervene and provide some food. Let me 
suggest that the United States is indeed doing some things. The World 
Food Program, which this country funds, is involved in there. Right at 
the bottom there it tells the number of families that are being fed now 
because the program that we support is providing that, but they would 
say that we need to do a lot more if we are going to make a difference 
in that program.
  So we get a sense of the region. It shows on the map, the darker 
shading of the map is an indication where more than 100,000 people are 
right now suffering. And so we see that whole region, the deepness of 
the orange and the yellow indicates the severity. The light yellow is 
less than 10,000 people are suffering. The dark brown is where you have 
more than 100,000 people. That whole region is again for many reasons 
but mainly drought. They are not producing as much maize as they 
usually do. So the immediate response is to provide the food.
  We will be considering a supplementary budget and usually 
supplementary budgets are to respond to emergencies here in the United 
States or abroad as it is related to our vested interest. I submit that 
supporting people who live in Africa or any part of this world that are 
suffering from malnutrition or starving from lack of food is in the 
Nation's self-interest. Why is that? One of the reasons we do that is 
because part of our foreign policy is to ensure there is a civility and 
a stable market in a region that adds to the democratization of that 
country. You cannot have a country with democratization when, indeed, 
kids are starving. I think that picture says it all, that we have an 
opportunity to make a difference. We do not want to see kids actually 
dead in the street. There should be enough of our conscience to know 
that people are hungry.
  Mr. Speaker, I submit into the Record the overview from the FAO which 
describes in detail the situations in all six of the countries in 
Southern Africa which speaks to the severity.

                               Highlights

       In southern Africa, a food crisis looms over several 
     countries following sharp falls in maize production in 2001 
     and unfavourable harvest prospects this year. Acute food 
     shortages have emerged in Malawi, Zimbabwe and Zambia, where 
     food reserves have been depleted and food prices have soared, 
     undermining access to food for large sections of their 
     populations. In Malawi, maize production declined by over 33 
     percent last year mainly due to excessive rains and floods, 
     coupled with reduced and late delivery of agricultural 
     inputs. The strategic grain reserve has been depleted and 
     importation of maize is seriously constrained by transport 
     bottlenecks. As a result, maize prices have risen by over 300 
     percent since July last year. The Government has declared a 
     state of emergency and appealed to the international 
     community for food assistance. In Zimbabwe, maize production 
     in 2001 dropped by 28 percent compared to the previous year 
     and was well below average, due to a combination of reduced 
     plantings, dry spells and excessive rains. Maize stocks have 
     been depleted and imports are severely constrained by a 
     shortage of foreign exchange. The Government has appealed for 
     international assistance. In Zambia, maize production in 2001 
     declined by a quarter from the previous year mainly due to 
     excessive rains and flooding, coupled with drought in 
     southern parts. As in Malawi, importation of maize is 
     seriously constrained by transport bottlenecks. The 
     Government has also appealed for assistance. The food 
     situation is also serious in the southern provinces of 
     Mozambique, and for vulnerable rural populations in Lesotho, 
     Swaziland and Namibia affected by poor harvests last year. 
     The situation is set to worsen in several countries in 2002/
     03 due to anticipated further falls in production this year.
       In eastern Africa, the overall food supply situation has 
     improved considerably compared to last year mainly due to 
     favourable weather conditions. Grain surpluses in many areas 
     have resulted in record low prices, severely affecting farm 
     incomes and raising concerns over possible reductions in 
     plantings next season. Nevertheless, acute food shortage 
     persist in most pastoral areas of Somalia, Kenya and Ethiopia 
     due to continuing drought conditions. In Eritrea, despite an 
     improved harvest, large numbers of internally displaced 
     people and refugees returning from Sudan depend on food 
     assistance. For the subregions as a whole, nearly 11 million 
     people affected by drought and/or conflict continue to depend 
     on food assistance.
       In the Great Lakes region, civil strife continues to 
     undermine the food security of millions of people. In the 
     Democratic Republic of Congo, the food situation of over 2 
     million internally displaced people continues to be of 
     serious concern. Access to this population remains 
     problematic, particularly in rebel-held areas where provision 
     of relief assistance is hampered by insecurity. Elsewhere in 
     the Great Lakes region, the food supply situation has 
     significantly improved in Rwanda and Burundi following two 
     successive good harvests. However, in the latter country the 
     security situation remains volatile in some provinces, with 
     frequent surges in violence displacing rural populations and 
     disrupting food production.
       In western Africa, the food outlook for 2002 is generally 
     favourable, following above-average to record harvests in the 
     Sahelian countries and satisfactory crops elsewhere. However, 
     the food supply situation is tight in Mauritania where the 
     harvest was below average. The situation was worsened by 
     unseasonable heavy rains and floods last January that left 
     hundreds of people homeless and killed an estimated 120,000 
     livestock. In Liberia, a resurgence of civil strife has led 
     to fresh population displacements, with thousands of people 
     fleeing their homes to seek elsewhere in the country or in 
     neighboring countries. In Sierra Leone, despite an 
     improvement in the security situation, full recovery in food 
     production is unlikely in the immediate term. These two 
     countries will continue to rely on international food 
     assistance for some time to come.
       Sub-Saharan Africa's cereal import requirements are set to 
     remain high in 2002, reflecting mainly the anticipated sharp 
     drop in cereal production in southern Africa. For 2001/02, 
     cereal import requirements of sub-Saharan Africa have been 
     estimated at 15.9 million tonnes, including 1.7 million 
     tonnes of food aid.

                            Part I: Overview

       The food outlook for sub-Saharan Africa in 2002 is 
     generally mixed. In eastern and western Africa better cereal 
     harvests have improved the overall food outlook, while in 
     southern Africa the outlook is bleak due to a sharp drop in 
     the 2001 maize harvests coupled with anticipated falls in 
     this year's cereal production in nearly all the countries of 
     the sub-region.


            severe food shortages emerge in southern africa

       The tight food supply situation in most countries of 
     southern Africa, following sharp falls in cereal production 
     in 2001 due to prolonged dry spells, floods and disruption of 
     farming activities, is set to deteriorate with

[[Page 13826]]

     the anticipated fall in cereal production for the second year 
     running. In February 2002, FAO's Global Information and Early 
     Warning System issued a Special Alert warning of impending 
     serious food shortages threatening the lives of some 4 
     million people in the sub-region.
       In Zimbabwe, the food supply situation is extremely tight 
     as a result of the poor cereal harvest last year, delays in 
     importing maize and the general economic and financial crisis 
     prevailing in the country. Against Government plans since 
     November 2001 to import 200,000 tonnes of maize, only 80,000 
     tonnes had arrived in the country by late March, mainly due 
     to the country's severe shortage of foreign exchange. The 
     Government has appealed for international food assistance. 
     WFP has pledged close to US$60 million to provide 94,000 
     tonnes of cereals to some 558,000 rural and urban people 
     facing acute food shortages until November 2002. However, by 
     late March pledges covered 30 percent of the requirement and 
     only 5,000 tonnes had arrived to the country.
       The outlook for the country's food security is bleak. The 
     2002 maize harvest is expected to be poor as last year due to 
     reduced plantings and severe dry weather. The depletion of 
     official maize reserves and the continuing deterioration of 
     the economic situation point to a looming food security 
     crisis in 2002/03. An FAO/WFP Crop and Food Supply Assessment 
     Mission is scheduled to visit the country from 23 April to 11 
     May 2002 to assess the food situation and estimate food 
     import requirements, including food aid needs, for 2002/03 
     marketing year (April/March).
       In Malawi, the Government has declared a state of emergency 
     in the country and has appealed to the international 
     community for food assistance to avert famine. This is the 
     result of a poor harvest in 2001, the depletion of the 
     strategic grain reserve and late planting of maize imports. 
     Deaths by starvation and acute nutritional problems have been 
     reported. Against planned maize imports by the Government of 
     150,000 tonnes only 83,000 tonnes had arrived in the country 
     by the end of March, mainly due to transport constraints. 
     Prices of maize have increased several fold, curtailing 
     access to food for large sections of the population. WFP is 
     distributing relief food to the most affected households.
       Prospects for this year's cereal harvest have deteriorated 
     following a prolonged dry spell, with maize production likely 
     to be reduced for the second consecutive year. Widespread 
     consumption of maize in green form due to severe hunger will 
     also reduce domestic maize supply in 2002/03 marketing year 
     (April/March). An FAO/WFP Crop and Food Supply Assessment 
     Mission will visit the country from 22 April to 10 May 2002 
     for the same purpose as for Zimbabwe.
       In Zambia, the food supply situation is also extremely 
     tight as a result of a poor cereal crop last season and 
     delays in importing maize. Out of planned imports of 150,000 
     tons of maize, only about 60 percent is expected to have 
     arrived in the country by the end of April, the close of the 
     current marketing year. Prices of maize meal are at extremely 
     high levels, seriously restricting access to food for large 
     sections of the population. The Government has appealed for 
     international food assistance for 2 million people in 
     districts declared to be in a state of emergency. WFP started 
     relief food distribution in late January, and pledges until 
     the end of March covered 60 percent of the requirement. 
     However, only some 20,000 tonnes are expected to be 
     distributed before the next harvest.
       Prospects for this year's cereal harvest are poor. A 
     prolonged dry spell in the southern parts since late January 
     is reckoned to have seriously reduced yields over large 
     growing areas. An FAO/WFP Crop and Food Supply Assessment 
     Mission is scheduled to visit the country from 6 to 24 May 
     2002.
       In Mozambique, the food situation continues to be serious 
     in the southern provinces of Maputo, Gaza and Inhambane, 
     where the 2001 cereal harvest was significantly reduced. 
     Emergency food assistance is being provided to 172,000 
     vulnerable people in these provinces. Recent estimates 
     indicate that as a result of a severe dry spell, 40,000 
     households have lost over 60 percent of the expected 
     production. This will be the third consecutive reduced 
     harvest for these provinces.
       An FAO/WFP Crop and Food Supply Assessment Mission is 
     scheduled to visit the country from 22 April to 10 May 2002.
       In Lesotho, the food supply situation is also tight due to 
     reduced cereal production in 2001 and commercial imports 
     falling short of requirements. Food reserves are at a minimum 
     and food shortages are being experienced by vulnerable 
     households affected by last year's poor harvest. Relief 
     agencies are distributing food to 36,000 most affected 
     people. The situation is likely to worsen with the 
     deterioration of prospects for the 2002 cereal harvest, 
     following persistent heavy rains in recent months. Production 
     is forecast to be below average for the third consecutive 
     year. An FAO/WFP Crop and Food Supply Assessment Mission is 
     scheduled to visit the country from 25 April to 4 May 2002.
       In Swaziland, prospects for this year's cereal harvest have 
     deteriorated as a result of a severe mid-season dry spell 
     that adversely affected yields. This would be the third 
     consecutive year of a below-average harvest. The food supply 
     situation is very tight, reflecting last year's poor harvest 
     and imports falling short of requirements. The Government is 
     providing some food relief to vulnerable households most 
     affected by successive poor harvests. An FAO/WFP Crop and 
     Food Supply Assessment Mission is scheduled to visit the 
     country from 15 to 24 April 2002.
       Elsewhere in the sub-region, the food situation remains 
     precarious in Angola, due to the long-running civil conflict, 
     and in Namibia due to a reduced harvest last year. In 
     Madagascar, marketing of food and non-food commodities is 
     being adversely affected by the current political crisis. By 
     contrast, prospects for the 2002 maize crop in South Africa, 
     the largest producer and exporter in the sub-region, are 
     favourable and production is anticipated from last year's 
     below average level.


   IMPROVED FOOD SUPPLY SITUATION IN EASTERN AFRICA BUT DIFFICULTIES 
                            PERSIST IN PARTS

       Despite improved cereal harvests in 2001/02 in most parts 
     in eastern Africa, the effects of recent devastating droughts 
     and past or ongoing conflicts continue to undermine the food 
     security of an estimated 11 million people.
       In Eritrea, despite a strong recovery in grain production 
     during the 2001 main cropping season, the food situation of 
     large numbers of people affected by the recent war with 
     neighbouring Ethiopia and drought remains precarious. 
     Overall, nearly 1.3 million people continue to depend on 
     emergency food assistance. Continuing drought conditions in 
     parts of Anseba, Debub, Northern Red Sea, and Southern Red 
     Sea zones, are also cause for concern.
       In Ethiopia, a bumper main season grain harvest late last 
     year preceded by a favourable short rains (``belg'') crop 
     have significantly improved the food supply outlook for 2002. 
     An FAO/WFP Crop and Food Supply Assessment Mission in 
     December 2001 forecast a main season (``meher'') cereal and 
     pulse harvest of 12.3 million tonnes, about 9 percent above 
     the average for the previous five years. Consequently, cereal 
     market prices have fallen sharply in main producing areas, 
     resulting in severe financial difficulties for farmers. 
     However, despite the satisfactory harvest, an estimated 5.2 
     million people face severe food shortages and need food 
     assistance. Unseasonable migration of people and livestock is 
     reported in the pastoral areas in the south-eastern parts due 
     to persistent drought.
       In Kenya, overall food supply has improved considerably 
     following favourable rains in major cereal producing areas. 
     However, a sharp decline in maize prices is negatively 
     impacting on farmers' incomes. In northern and eastern areas, 
     hopes of recovery for pastoralists from the effects of the 
     recent devastating drought have once again been dashed by 
     insufficient rains during the current season.
       In Somalia, despite the recently harvested better than 
     expected secondary (``Deyr'') season cereal crop, up to 
     500,000 people are threatened by severe food shortages. Poor 
     2001 main (``Gu'') season crops coupled with slow recovery 
     from a succession of droughts in recent years and long-term 
     effects of years of insecurity have undermined households' 
     ability to withstand shocks. The continuing ban on livestock 
     imports from eastern Africa by countries along the Arabian 
     Peninsula has sharply reduced foreign exchange earnings and 
     severely curtailed the country's import capacity.
       In Sudan, food supply is generally adequate following a 
     good 2001 main season cereal crop in both southern and 
     northern parts of the country. Bumper harvests in central and 
     north-eastern parts have led to a sharp decline in prices, 
     adversely affecting farmers. By contrast, several zones in 
     southern Sudan, particularly in Western and Eastern Eqatoria 
     and Bahr el Ghazal, face severe food shortages mainly due to 
     population displacement and insecurity. In addition, parts of 
     Greater Darfur and Kordofan in western Sudan have suffered 
     crop failures due to erratic rainfall. Large numbers of 
     people in these areas are expected to depend on emergency 
     food assistance until the next harvest.
       In Tanzania, the food supply situation is generally stable. 
     However, prices of maize continue to rise in the south due to 
     increased, largely informal, exports to neighbouring 
     countries (Malawi, Zambia, Democratic Republic of Congo) 
     which are facing serious food shortages. Price increases are 
     also observed in the east coast and northern parts due to 
     reduced ``vuli'' season harvests.
       In Uganda, the overall food supply situation is favourable 
     following recent good harvests and improved pastures. 
     However, food difficulties persist in parts of Katakwi and 
     Moroto Districts, due to localised drought conditions and/or 
     insecurity.


    food situation in drc remains precarious while outlook improves 
                  elsewhere in the great lakes region

       In the Democratic Republic of Congo, economic and 
     agricultural activities continue to be disrupted by the 
     persistent civil war and consequent population displacements. 
     The food and nutritional situation of over 2 million 
     internally displaced people, particularly in north-eastern 
     parts, and of over 330,000 refugees from neighbouring 
     countries, is cause for serious concern. It has been 
     estimated that about 64 percent of the people in

[[Page 13827]]

     the eastern provinces are undernourished. Overall, poverty is 
     reported to have reached very high levels, with 16 million 
     people or one-third of the country's population estimated to 
     be seriously food insecure. While access to government-
     controlled regions has improved as a result of simplification 
     of procedures, for international agencies, distribution of 
     humanitarian assistance in rebel-held areas remains 
     constrained by insecurity and violence.
       In Burundi, the overall food situation has improved 
     following a satisfactory 2002 first season harvest, 
     particularly of non-cereal crops. This reflects a relatively 
     better security situation in most of the country and 
     generally favourable weather during the growing season. 
     Prices of staples in the main provincial markets have 
     declined significantly compared to their levels a year ago. 
     However, production was constrained by insecurity in eastern 
     provinces and parts of Bujumbura Rural.
       Despite the peace agreement reached in mid-2000, the 
     security situation remains volatile in these provinces. Heavy 
     fighting between government forces and rebel groups in March 
     resulted in the displacement of large numbers of people, and 
     it is estimated that as many as 80,000 civilians have been 
     displaced since January 2002.
       In Rwanda, the overall food supply situation has improved 
     significantly as a result of a one-third increase in the 2002 
     first season harvests. Markets are well supplied with food 
     staples.
       Food prices, which were at their lowest levels since 1994, 
     declined further with the arrival of the new harvest into the 
     markets last January and have since then stabilized. 
     Nevertheless, despite the satisfactory food supply situation, 
     many households remain food insecure, particularly in the 
     provinces of Gikongoro, Butare and Gisenyi.


   overall food supply situation satisfactory in western africa but 
                     difficulties persist in parts

       In the nine Sahellan countries, the 2001 aggregate cereal 
     production has been estimated at a record 11.7 million 
     tonnes, some 26 percent higher than in 2000 and about 20 
     percent above the average of the previous five years. Records 
     crops were harvested in Burkina Faso, Gambia and Niger, while 
     Chad, Mali and Senagal harvested above average crops. 
     Production in Cape Verdi was lower than in the previous year 
     but above average. However, in early January, unseasonably 
     heavy rains and cold weather affected parts of the subregion, 
     causing some loss of life and leaving thousands of people 
     homeless, especially in Senegal and Mauritania.
       Following the good harvests, the food outlook for 2002 is 
     generally favourable. Households are expected to replenish 
     their stocks, which had been depleted in some countries. 
     However, access to food for some sections of the population 
     may be difficult as above-normal grain in prices have been 
     reported in some countries due to flooding or drought. In 
     Mauritania, a joint FAO/CILSS Crop Assessment Mission in 
     October 2001 estimated aggregate cereal production in 2001 at 
     some 160,000 tonnes, lower than the previous year and below 
     average. This decrease was mostly due to inadequate 
     availability of irrigation water. The resulting tight food 
     supply situation has been worsened by the unseasonably heavy 
     rains and cold weather in January which affected the regions 
     of Brakna, Trarza and Corgol, causing casualties and leaving 
     thousands of people homeless and more than 120,000 head of 
     livestock dead. Prices of cereals, which were already higher 
     than a year ago, have risen considerably in most local 
     markets.
       In Liberia, the 2001 paddy crop is estimated slightly above 
     the 144,000 tonnes produced in the previous year, reflecting 
     generally favourable weather. However, the general security 
     situation has deteriorated in recent months compelling the 
     Government to declare a state of emergency on 8 February 
     2002. About 60,000 IDPs have been reported around Monrovia 
     and in Bong County nearby, while at least 12,000 Liberian 
     refugees have been registered at the Sierra Leone border town 
     of Jendema. With frequent eruptions of violence and resulting 
     displacement of the farming population, Liberia will continue 
     to depend on international food assistance for the 
     foreseeable future. WFP is currently assisting 75,000 IDPs 
     throughout the country.
       In Sierra Leone, cereal production in 2001 has been 
     estimated at 348,000 tonnes, higher than the previous year, 
     reflecting increased plantings by returning refugees and 
     farmers previously displaced, as well as improved conditions 
     for the distribution of agricultural inputs. The security 
     situation is reported to be relatively clam. Over 47,000 ex-
     combatants, including hundreds of child soldiers, have handed 
     in their weapons, and on 18 January the President declared 
     the end of the disarmament process. However, Sierra Leone 
     will continue to depend on international food assistance for 
     some time until full recovery in food production can be 
     realized.
       In Guinea, the overall food supply situation is favourable 
     following satisfactory harvests in 2000 and 2001. Aggregate 
     2001 cereal production is officially estimated at 1,026,000 
     tonnes, slightly lower than in the previous year but above 
     average. Markets are well supplied, except in the south-east 
     where recurrent rebel incursions from Sierra Leone continue 
     to disrupt agricultural activities. The presence of a large 
     refugee population and the persistent instability in 
     neighbouring countries have exacted a heavy toll on the 
     country. Armed clashes in and around the country have 
     resulted in increasing numbers of internally displaced 
     people. A UN Consolidated Inter-Agency Appeal was launched on 
     26 November 2001 to assist the country cope with the serious 
     humanitarian situation.
       Elsewhere in western Africa, the food supply situation is 
     satisfactory, notwithstanding localized food deficits, such 
     as in northern Ghana.


               update on food aid pledges and deliveries

       With improved cereal harvests in parts, cereal import 
     requirements in Sub-Saharan Africa in 2001/02 are expected to 
     be lower than last year but still remain high. This reflects 
     mainly the anticipated poor crop in southern Africa in 2002 
     coupled with last year's significantly reduced crop. GIEWS 
     latest estimates of 2001 cereal production and 2001/02 import 
     and food aid reuirqements are summarized in Table 1. Total 
     food aid requirement is estimated at 1.7 million tonnes, 
     about some 36 percent less than in 2000/01. Cereal food aid 
     pledges for 2001/02, including those carried over from 2000/
     01, amount to 0.9 million tonnes of which 0.8 million tonnes 
     have so fare been delivered.


                        areas of priority action

       The serious food supply situation in several countries of 
     southern Africa gives cause for serious concern. Food 
     production is anticipated to decline for the second 
     consecutive year, mainly due to adverse weather. In eastern 
     Africa, despite improved food supply prospects, the effects 
     of recent severe droughts, coupled with conflicts in parts, 
     are still being felt, with nearly 11 million people in need 
     of food assistant. Furthermore, civil strife continues to 
     disrupt food production in Angola, Burundi, Democratic 
     Republic of Congo, Guinea, Liberia, Sierra Leone, Somolia and 
     Sudan, necessitating good assistance for the affected 
     populations.
       Against this background, the attention of the international 
     community is drawn to the following priority areas requiring 
     action:
       First, high priority should be given to food assistance for 
     southern African countries facing a looming food crisis, 
     particularly Malawi, Zambia and Zimbabwe, but also 
     Mozambique, Lesotho and Swaziland.
       Second, continued food assistance is needed for populations 
     in several countries of Sub-Saharan Africa affected by 
     conflict and adverse weather, including Angola, Burundi, DR 
     Congo, Eritea, Ethiopia, Kenya, Guinea, Liberia, and Sierra 
     Leone, Somalia and Sudan.
       Third, donors are urged to give priority to local purchases 
     and triangular transactions wherever possible for their food 
     aid programmes in Sub-Saharan Africa in order to support 
     domestic food production.

                          ____________________