[Congressional Record Volume 151, Number 131 (Monday, October 17, 2005)]
[Extensions of Remarks]
[Pages E2094-E2096]
From the Congressional Record Online through the Government Publishing Office [www.gpo.gov]




                          VIDEO GAME VIOLENCE

                                 ______
                                 

                           HON. FRANK R. WOLF

                              of virginia

                    in the house of representatives

                        Monday, October 17, 2005

  Mr. WOLF. Mr. Speaker, particularly in light of the availability of 
video games like ``Grand Theft Auto: San Andreas,'' I would like to 
highlight a recent publication from the American Psychological 
Association regarding violent video game content and the resultant 
influences of these games on the behavior of children and adolescents. 
Violence in Video Games: A Review of the Empirical Literature discusses 
the strong correlation between video games and increases in aggressive 
behavior.
  I am surprised that lawsuits haven't been brought holding game 
manufacturers responsible for the havoc they are wreaking on society.

     Violence in Video Games: A Review of the Empirical Literature

              (By Jessica M. Nicoll and Kevin M. Kieffer)

       One area of research that has received increasing attention 
     involves the violent content of video games and the resultant 
     influences of these games on the behavior of children and 
     adolescents. No clear consensus has arisen as to whether 
     violent video game content is harmful to players or 
     predictive of future aggressive behavior, but there are some 
     common themes in the empirical research literature. These 
     common themes include: (a) demonstration of short term 
     effects on player behavior following a violent video game 
     participation; (b) gender differences as regards the player's 
     aggressive reaction to the game; and (c) variations in the 
     types of players who are at greater risk of being adversely 
     affected by the violent content. The purpose of the present 
     paper was to explore the general themes that have emerged in 
     the research literature on violent video games and posit 
     recommendations for future research on the relationship 
     between violent video games and player behavior.
       Violent content in video games is a particularly virulent 
     topic among consumers and lawmakers alike. This issue has 
     been contentiously debated from U.S. Superior Courts to the 
     ``Dr. Phil'' show. Regardless of the positive and negative 
     press generated by these violent video games, it seems that 
     newly released games with extremely violent content are in no 
     short supply and, in some cases, actually contain more 
     graphic displays of violence than previous games. Mounting 
     concern about the effects that violent video games have on 
     young children and minors in general has led to the 
     initiation of legislation that seeks to ban the sale or 
     rental of video games deemed violent or sexually explicit. 
     Concerned parents and lobbyists alike have insisted that 
     industry regulations be made and, more importantly, enforced 
     as regards the sale of violent video games to minors. 
     Recently, Michigan legislators attempted to change the 
     current law which allowed children to buy and rent video 
     games that depict graphic violence, sexually explicit 
     content, and the glorification of illegal activity. Illinois 
     officials have called for similar legislation and currently 
     require the labeling of violent and sexually explicit video 
     games by manufacturers. Supporters of legislation limiting 
     the dissemination of these video games believe that the video 
     game industry has not been regulating itself stringently 
     enough and that legislation of this type is both beneficial 
     for American youth as well as society as a whole. Conversely, 
     dissidents of this legislation maintain that these bans 
     violate the first amendment rights of children and should not 
     be allowed or enforced.
       Recent court cases have placed violent video game content 
     in the public eye. One such example, American Amusement 
     Machine Association v. Kendrick (2001), alleged the legality 
     of banning the sale of violent video games to persons under 
     the age of 18.

[[Page E2095]]

     One of the issues discussed in the proceedings was that the 
     ordinance was based on the belief, not compelling evidence, 
     that violent video games cause an increase in aggression that 
     may lead to actual violence. According to Judge Posner of the 
     United States Court of Appeals for the Seventh Circuit who 
     ruled on the case, studies on video game violence have not 
     indicated evidence that violent video games evoke violent 
     actions or cause an increase in the average level of violence 
     among players. Thus, the ordinance banning the sale of 
     violent video games was struck down.
       Despite contentions from the legal community that 
     convincing evidence demonstrating the harmful effects of 
     video games on youth does not exist or is inconclusive, 
     research has consistently demonstrated correlations between 
     aggressive video game play and aggressive behavior. Thus, 
     violent media has been shown to have effects on those who 
     view violent programs with some past research suggesting that 
     viewing violent content affects viewers in both explicit and 
     implicit ways (Anderson & Dill, 2000; Huesman, Titus, 
     Poldaski, and Eron 2003). Other researchers have reported 
     that short term exposure to violent video games can have an 
     impact on players self concept, even on an automatic level 
     (Wood, Wong, & Chachere, 1991).


         Themes in the Video Game Violence Research Literature

       Indeed, violence is a reoccurring theme in most television 
     programming, movies, television commercials, and video games, 
     and it has been proposed that media violence is currently at 
     an all time high with no appreciable decreases in violent 
     content in the foreseeable future. Given the volume of 
     violent material to which viewers are exposed, research that 
     clearly documents the enduring behavioral changes on viewers 
     is sorely needed to quell any misconceptions or misbeliefs 
     that aggressive behavior can result from viewing violent 
     content or playing violent video games. Previous disparity in 
     the research literature as to the effects of violent content 
     on viewers has spurred an impressive debate among scholars as 
     to whether violent media broadcasting and game play actually 
     incites aggressive behavior in those who view it (Wood, Wong, 
     & Chachere, 1991).
       Our review of the literature has resulted in the 
     identification of three general themes: (a) demonstration of 
     short term effects on player behavior following a violent 
     video game participation; (b) gender differences as regards 
     the player's aggressive reaction to the game; and (c) 
     variations in the types of players who are at greater risk of 
     being adversely affected by the violent content.


                 Short Term Effects on Player Behavior

       One of the most documented findings in the research 
     literature is the short term effects of playing violent video 
     games on resultant player behavior. Bartholow and Anderson 
     (2001) found that participants who played a violent video 
     game for a short time experienced an increase in aggressive 
     behavior following the video game. Uhlmann and Swanson (2004) 
     found that participants who played a violent game for as few 
     as 10 minutes associated themselves with aggressive traits 
     and aggressive actions on a self rating scale. These results 
     led the researchers to contend that even short-term exposure 
     to violent video games can have an effect on the player's 
     self-concept, primarily at some unconscious, ``automatic'' 
     level. Uhlmann and Swanson extrapolated these findings to 
     suggest that repeated priming of the self as being more 
     aggressive through violent video game play may lead to the 
     actual self being more aggressive in daily life.
       Other research by Graybill, Kirsch, and Esselman (1985) 
     found that short-term exposure to violent video games had 
     effects on children's aggression fantasies. These researchers 
     reported that children who played the violent games were less 
     defensive and more assertive or aggressive in their fantasies 
     than children who played a similar non-violent game. 
     Similarly, Anderson and Ford, (1987) measured both the short-
     term effects of violent video games on players and the degree 
     of violence viewed and the resulting effects on players. They 
     found that aggressive video games did indeed have an effect 
     on the player's emotional state with players of the highly 
     aggressive game exhibiting an increase in hostility and 
     anxiety when compared to the non-game control group. Players 
     of a mildly aggressive game, however, only exhibited an 
     increase in hostility without an increase in anxiety.
       Gentile, Lynch, and Walsh (2004) conducted a study of over 
     six hundred 8th and 9th grade school children and found that 
     children who reported playing greater amounts of violent 
     video games were rated more hostile than the other children 
     in the study. In addition these children also reported a 
     greater number of arguments with authority figures such as 
     teachers and also were more likely to be involved in 
     physical altercations with other students. The children 
     who reported greater exposure to violent video games were 
     also more likely to perform more poorly on academic tasks.
       Barthlow and Anderson (2002) designed a study that examined 
     the duration and intensity of aggressive behavior following 
     participation in aggressive game play. Immediately after 
     playing either a violent or non-violent game, the 
     participants participated in a mock retaliation time task 
     which used blasts of noise as punishment to the opponent. 
     Players were informed that they had complete liberty to 
     select both the intensity and duration of the punishment on 
     their opponent. Researchers found that the participants who 
     had played the violent game displayed more aggression against 
     their opponents in the retaliation portion of the study than 
     those participants who played the nonviolent game. Further, 
     the participants who played the violent video game 
     administered a greater number of high intensity sound blasts 
     than those participants who played the nonviolent games.
       Empirical research has also suggested that violent video 
     game players tend to imitate the moves that they have just 
     ``acted-out'' in the game. Irwin and Gross (1995) found that 
     participants who played an aggressive video game displayed 
     moves similar in free play to those in the violent game they 
     had played. Players of the violent video game also exhibited 
     more verbal and physical aggression toward a confederate 
     during a competitive situation than those who played the 
     nonviolent game. Schutte, Maloff, Post-Gordon, and Rodasta 
     (1988) concluded that children who played a violent karate 
     game displayed that type of behavior in free play with other 
     children after playing the game. Children in the same study 
     who played video games imitated the moves of the video game 
     character in the video game they had just played.
       In an effort to clarify the cognitive, behavioral, and 
     affective experiences of children during exposure to 
     aggressive stimuli, Anderson and Ford (1986) found a somewhat 
     divergent relationship between short-term exposure to violent 
     video games and subsequent behavior. These researchers did 
     not find a relationship between aggressive behavior and 
     exposure to violent video game play in all groups, as short 
     term increases in aggression were only demonstrated in those 
     who played the most violent games. Anderson and Ford also 
     reported that participants who played violent video games 
     were more anxious than those who had played either a mildly 
     violent or non-violent game. Further, those who played the 
     violent or mildly violent game were more hostile than the 
     nonviolent controls.
       Violent video game play has also demonstrated decrements in 
     children's willingness to engage in short-term pro-social 
     behavior. Chambers and Ascione (1985) found that children who 
     played violent games displayed engaged in less helpful peer 
     behavior than those who played a pro-social game. A similar 
     study by Lin and Lepper (1987) reported a noteworthy 
     correlation between teacher rated student competence and 
     prosocial video game play.


            Gender Differences to Violent Video Game Content

       A second general theme in the research literature is that 
     gender differences play a role in how the player reacts to 
     the violent content in a game. Cooper and Mackie (1986) found 
     that girls who played a violent video game had an increase in 
     the likelihood of playing with an aggressive toy. It was 
     reported that girls who played the violent game also changed 
     activities more and exhibited more aggressive play than those 
     playing a passive videogame. In contrast, girls who reported 
     less outside violent game play were more aroused when 
     presented with the violent game than boys. Cooper and Mackie 
     suggested that arousal was the precursor to aggressive 
     behavior and subsequently caused the girls in the study to 
     play more aggressively than the boys.
       Fling, Smith, Rodriguez, Thornton, Atkins, and Nixon (1992) 
     suggested that the aggressive effects demonstrated in 
     psychological studies following exposure to violent video 
     game content could be a function of the quantity of video 
     games typically played by participants in the study. 
     They reported that because young men typically play more 
     video games, and especially more violent video games, than 
     their female counterparts that there is a natural 
     proclivity for male participants to demonstrate more 
     aggressive play in psychological studies. This notion has 
     been supported by other research by Funk and Buchman 
     (1996) which found that boys tend to play video games for 
     longer periods of time than girls. One hypothesis offered 
     for the temporal disparity in game play is that it is more 
     socially acceptable for boys to engage in this play than 
     for girls. Yet another explication for gender differences 
     in the quantity of game play is that video games often 
     portray women in subordinate roles resulting in less 
     incentive for young women to play. Regardless of the 
     factors, research has indicated that young men tended to 
     be more aggressive overall than young women (Bartholow & 
     Anderson, 2001) thus predisposing them to engage in 
     violent video game play more frequently.


    characteristics of players influenced by violent video game play

       A third general theme in the research literature involves 
     the identification of characteristics of players who are 
     likely to be influenced by violent video games. Slater, 
     Henry, Swim, and Anderson (2003) proposed a ``downward spiral 
     model'' that implied that the media perpetually reinforces 
     the antisocial tendencies and behaviors of aggressive youths 
     thus predisposing them to act in somewhat aggressive manners. 
     Individuals who are attracted to violent content in media or 
     games are likely to be more vulnerable to the effects of that 
     exposure. In addition, those at risk often face mutual 
     reinforcement of negative or aggressive behavior.
       Funk and Bushman (1996) identified at ``risk players'' as 
     those who spend the greatest amount of time playing these 
     games and

[[Page E2096]]

     concomitantly have low self-concept. Researchers have been 
     quick to point out that there is no evidence that suggests 
     playing these videogames will lead to adjustment problems. 
     The fact remains, however, that those individuals most at 
     risk may share common characteristics, thus suggesting the 
     need to monitor the playing habits of these types of games 
     among children.


                        summary and conclusions

       Research on the effects of violent video games on 
     subsequent aggressive behavior has served as an important 
     catalyst for change, in that rules and regulations have been 
     developed to make it increasingly difficult for young 
     children to obtain video games laden with violent or sexually 
     explicit content. However, disparity in the present research 
     literature and the absence of clear and compelling scientific 
     evidence from the psychological community demonstrating the 
     harmful and lasting effects of violent games on behavior has 
     signaled the need for novel studies in this area. Future 
     research may need to focus on the issue of free choice and 
     the reasons why some children and adolescents would rather 
     play video games than engage in some other type of 
     stimulating activity. One avenue might involve the greater 
     examination of personality variables in an effort to 
     determine what factors may precipitate the purchase and 
     subsequent use of violent video games. Because of the noted 
     gender differences in past research, future research should 
     continue to examine the role of player gender in the 
     proclivity to exhibit aggressive behavior following video 
     game playing. Lastly, due to the need to determine if 
     exposure to violent content has any lasting detrimental 
     effects on children, longitudinal studies are needed to 
     ascertain what effects, if any, children are likely to 
     experience.
       In sum, past empirical studies have found that even short 
     term exposure to violent video games influences subsequent 
     player behavior and can result in an increase in outward 
     aggressiveness both verbally and physically, a more negative 
     self-concept, a decrease in helping behavior, an increase in 
     arousal, and an increase in anxiety. Although no one study 
     has conclusively demonstrated a cause and effect relationship 
     between exposure and behavior, based on the results presented 
     here, it is difficult to argue that there is no relationship 
     between violent game play and subsequent aggressive behavior. 
     And given the amount of violent content in the media and 
     in current video games, it appears that this is an issue 
     psychologists will be dealing with for quite some time.

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