[Congressional Record Volume 151, Number 20 (Monday, February 28, 2005)]
[Senate]
[Pages S1789-S1791]
From the Congressional Record Online through the Government Publishing Office [www.gpo.gov]
AFRICAN-AMERICAN HISTORY MONTH
Mr. SARBANES. Mr. President, it is especially appropriate that this
year the theme of African-American History Month should be the Niagara
Movement, for 100 years ago, in July 1905, the Niagara Movement
convened for the first time. It brought together a distinguished group
of twenty-nine thinkers, writers, educators, attorneys, ministers and
businessmen in the African-American community; among them was the
Reverend George Freeman Bragg, for many years the pastor of St. James'
Episcopal Church in Baltimore and the author of Men of Maryland, a
history of African Americans in Maryland from the earliest days of the
colony. Although the participants were scheduled to meet in Buffalo
they were unable to find hotel accommodations in that city, and as a
consequence they moved to Fort Erie, on the Canadian side of the Falls.
The Niagara Movement symbolized a ``mighty current'' of protest
against all the disabilities and indignities of second-class
citizenship to which African-Americans were subjected. It rejected the
pernicious ``separate but equal'' doctrine set out 9 years earlier by
the Supreme Court in Plessy v. Ferguson, and all the political, social
and economic consequences of that decision. The prospect that African-
American citizens of this Nation would at last be guaranteed all the
rights and protections of the Constitution had already begun to fade
with the end of Reconstruction, in 1876, and Plessy seemed to affirm
that although African-Americans might no longer be enslaved, they
should never aspire to be full citizens of the Republic. Within the
African-American community voices arose urging accommodation and
acquiescence; the most prominent, Booker T. Washington's, counseled
against seeking political and social rights.
John Hope, an academic who subsequently became one of the founders of
the Niagara Movement, offered a ringing rebuttal to this advice:
In this republic, we shall be less than freemen if we have
a whit less than that which thrift, education and honor
afford other freemen. If equality, political, economic and
social is the boon of other men in this great country of
ours, then equality, political, economic and social is what
we demand.
When the Niagara Movement met for the first time, it adopted a
manifesto that formally rejected accommodation and courageously
asserted:
We claim for ourselves every single right that belongs to a
freeborn American, political, civil and social; and until we
get these rights we will never cease to protest and assail
the ears of America. The battle we wage is not for ourselves
alone but for all true Americans.
The movement faced truly daunting challenges. It was met by the
public at large with alarm, skepticism and outright hostility--and on
the part of the press, by a wall of silence. The annual meeting shifted
from one place to another--from Buffalo to Harper's Ferry, to Boston
and then to Oberlin, and in its last year to Sea Girt, NJ. Membership
never numbered more than a few hundred; and plans to establish chapters
in all thirty States were never fully realized. The movement's
financial resources were painfully inadequate to the challenge it
faced, and its efforts to organize were met by hostility and, worst of
all, silence on the part of the press.
Although the movement sank into obscurity, a small number of scholars
and commentators have recognized its importance. Among them is John
Bambacus, whose 1972 master's thesis, ``W.E.B. DuBois and the Niagara
Movement,'' remains a valuable introduction to the subject. Today John
Bambacus serves both as the mayor of Frostburg, in Maryland's Allegany
County, and also as a member of the faculty of Frostburg State
University, where he is an Associate Professor and Director of
Frostburg's Public Affairs Institute and Internship Program.
It is clear today that the Niagara Movement was indeed the beginning
one hundred years ago of the ``mighty current'' that became the great
civil rights movement of the 20th century and transformed this Nation.
And when after a few years the movement faltered, the NAACP emerged in
its place.
For Marylanders, the NAACP has very special significance. It is not
only that the NAACP, with a membership of some 500,000, nearly 2,000
branch chapters and hundreds of college and youth chapters, has its
headquarters in Baltimore. It is not only that the NAACP has worked
ceaselessly since its founding 95 years ago to ensure that African-
Americans will have access to all the rights and opportunities our
country offers, and that by doing so it has made our country a better
place for all our people. It is not just the brilliant programs the
NAACP has designed and implemented over the years--among them, the
historic voter registration projects and the Voter Empowerment Program
that grew out of them, the critically important economic empowerment
program, and the Academic, Cultural, Technological and Scientific
Olympics program that sets a high standard of achievement for young
people and challenges them to meet it.
It is also the legacy of Thurgood Marshall, who was born and raised
in Baltimore, who received his high-school diploma from Frederick
Douglass High School in Baltimore, and who returned to Baltimore after
law school at Howard University. It was at Howard, where he was class
valedictorian, that Thurgood Marshall became a member of the brilliant
team that Dean Charles Hamilton Houston assembled for the express
purpose of sweeping away ``separate but equal'' and establishing the
right of African-Americans to full participation in every aspect of
American life. Within a year of returning to Baltimore Thurgood
Marshall joined the staff of the Baltimore branch of the NAACP. He went
on to become the NAACP's chief legal officer and also director of the
NAACP Legal Defense and Educational Fund.
In that capacity he led the team that successfully argued the
landmark case of Brown v. Board of Education in the Supreme Court,
thereby laying the indestructible foundation for transforming the
principles set out by the Niagara Movement into the reality of American
life.
Marshall did not rest with his triumph in the Brown case. President
Kennedy appointed him to the 2nd Circuit Court of Appeals, where of
Judge Marshall's 112 rulings that were appealed, every one was later
upheld by the Supreme Court. Subsequently President Johnson appointed
him to be Solicitor General, and then to sit on the Supreme Court as
the Nation's first African-American Justice. Justice Marshall's
colleague on the Supreme Court, Justice Brennan, called him--
the voice of authority . . . the voice of reason . . . [a]nd
a voice with an unwavering message: that the Constitution's
protections must not be denied to anyone . . .
Thurgood Marshall was a leader among the brilliant and courageous
members of the African-American community who dedicated their efforts--
and in many cases their lives--to the fundamental principles of
equality and respect that were set out in Buffalo 100 years ago by the
Niagara Movement. We have come far, but yet we have far to go.
No one has put this more eloquently than Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr.
As we approach the end of African-American History Month 2005 we should
remember what he told us nearly 50 years ago, in ``Facing the Challenge
of a New Age'':
. . . our world is geographically one. Now we are faced with
the challenge of making it spiritually one. Through our
scientific genius we have made of the world a neighborhood;
now through our moral and spiritual genius we must make of it
a brotherhood. We are all involved in the single process.
Whatever affects one directly affects all indirectly. We are
all links in the great chain of humanity.
Mr. PRYOR. Mr. President, today marks the end of Black History Month.
Each year, we take this opportunity to
[[Page S1790]]
honor the heritage and extraordinary contributions that African
Americans have made in building our Nation.
We have many fallen martyrs in the civil rights movement to honor:
Harriet Tubman, the pioneer of the Underground Railroad; Dr. Martin
Luther King, Jr., a drum major for justice; Rosa Parks, mother of the
civil rights movement; and recently deceased Shirley Chisholm, champion
of political firsts; to name only a few.
Arkansas has its own heroes who turned their determination into
opportunity for others and helped shape history as a result.
It is perhaps the Little Rock Nine who taught America that
``separate'' was not ``equal.'' Nine black students--Ernest Green,
Elizabeth Eckford, Gloria Ray Karlmark, Carlotta Walls LaNier,
Minnijean Borwn Trickey, Terrence Roberts, Jefferson Thomas, Thelma
Mothershed Wair and Melba Pattillo Beals--defied hatred and prejudice
to attend the all-white Central High School and exercise their right to
a better education.
Last year, I worked closely with members of the Little Rock Nine, as
well as the former Congressional Black Caucus Chairman, Elijah
Cummings, to secure funding to build a Visitor's Center at the Little
Rock Central High School in time to commemorate the 50th Anniversary of
the school's desegregation crisis. I am thrilled Congress authorized
the design funding for this project. We celebrate Black History Month
every February, but the Visitor's Center is open to teach stories of
the civil rights movement all-year long.
Part of this Visitor's Center will tell the story of civil rights
leader Daisy Gatson Bates, who paid a personal and financial price to
help the Little Rock Nine succeed. Bates also made significant strides
in the courtroom and increasing public awareness through her newspaper,
the Arkansas State Press, about the inequality that existed in
Arkansas.
Just as Arkansans broke barriers in our schools, they also played a
large role in integrating our Nation's military operations, making it
the most skilled military in the world. The actions of the Tuskegee
Airmen are legendary. Arkansas' own Tuskegee Airmen include: Herbert
Clark of Pine Bluff, Richard Caesar of Lake Village, William Mattison
of Conway, Woodrow Crockett of Little Rock, James Ewing of Helena,
Marsille Reed of Tillar, Jerry Hodges of Heth, and Grandville Coggs of
Little Rock.
Before 1940, African Americans were barred from flying for the U.S.
military. Civil rights organizations and the black press exerted
pressure that resulted in the formation of an African-American flying
squadron based in Tuskegee, AL., in 1941. The Tuskegee Airmen
established an incredible and unprecedented flying record, most notably
completing 200 bomber escort missions over most of central and southern
Europe without the loss of a single bomber to enemy aircraft. By the
end of World War II, almost 1,000 African Americans had won their wings
at Tuskegee Army Air Field. Each airman had his own victories and
valor, but in the end, the Tuskegee Airmen knew that never again would
anybody deny a man or woman the opportunity to serve our country in any
capacity because of the color of his or her skin.
In 1948, President Harry Truman enacted an Executive order which
directed equality of treatment and opportunity in all of the U.S. Armed
Forces. This order, in time, led to the end of racial segregation in
the military forces.
African Americans continue to make remarkable contributions in the
fields of mathematics, science, arts, politics and the Armed Forces.
Arkansas is blessed to be the home to many of these trailblazers,
including Pulitzer Prize winner Maya Angelou, former U.S. Secretary of
Transportation Rodney Slater, and many individuals who may not be
household names but who make an extraordinary difference in our
communities nonetheless.
As we look back at the African Americans who brought us here today,
we must also consider those who are history in the making.
The Little Rock Nine and Daisy Gatson Bates knew that education is
the great equalizer. Keeping students in school and preparing them for
college will pay off in dividends for communities. For students who
pursue higher education, the pay margin is significant. In 2002, the
average earnings for nongraduates were $18,826; for high school
graduates, $27,280; for bachelor's degree holders, $51,194; and for
those with advanced degrees, $72,824.
Last week, I traveled towns in the Delta, where some rural areas
suffer from unemployment rates two to three times higher than the
national average, the poverty rate is more than double the national
average, and access to health care is abysmal. I spoke with middle
school and high school students, sharing with them a message of
commitment and responsibility.
Every child should know that if they take the initiative to work hard
and make good grades, this body will stand by them and match that
commitment. Standing by our youth means fulfilling the promises we made
to them to fully fund the No Child Left Behind Act.
Most students know that the No Child Left Behind Act requires them to
take more tests, but they don't understand the overall goal is to
improve our schools--in poor neighborhoods and in wealthy school
districts--so that they will all be able to compete in the global and
technically advanced workplace.
In fulfilling Congress' commitment to our youth, it is imperative
that we support programs like the Federal TRIO programs, which help
low-income, first-generation college students progress through the
academic pipeline from middle school to post-baccalaureate programs.
I recently learned about Jessica, a high school senior who
participates in the Upward Bound Program. Through the Federal TRIO
program, she received tutoring and technical assistance that she needed
to attend college. Jessica took the initiative to make good grades in
school, score well on her ACTs, and balance a part-time job at
McDonalds. She was accepted at the University of Central Arkansas, her
first choice college, and she now awaits scholarship information so she
knows for sure whether UCA is in her future.
Oprah Winfrey once said ``luck is a matter of preparation meeting
opportunity.'' Preparation is the most important part of the equation.
For students to be prepared and compete in the workforce, Congress must
support programs like title I, IDEA, TRIO, as well as programs that
provide vocational preparation and technology in rural schools. When we
underfund or slash funding for them, as the President proposes in his
budget proposal, we take opportunity away from them.
African-American students are reaping the benefits of equal
opportunity laws passed on to them through the sacrifice of their
ancestors. However, too many African-American seniors struggle
financially today because they simply did not have the same opportunity
in their schools or in the workplace. As a result, 40 percent of
African-American seniors rely on Social Security as their only source
of income, and the program provides about three-quarters of all
retirement income for African-American seniors. Statistics show, in
fact, without Social Security, poverty rates for African-American
seniors would more than double to 58 percent.
The Social Security safety net is at risk with the President's
privatization plan. I hope African-American families in Arkansas and
throughout the country will listen closely to the debate on Social
Security's future. The President recently stated private accounts are
in the best interest of African-Americans because the accounts benefit
individuals with a shorter life expectancy. To me that statement means
we need to reduce the health care disparity in this country, which is
something I hope the Senate will take action on this year. Weakening
Social Security is not the answer.
Black History Month presents an occasion to reflect on the great
contributions African-Americans have made to our country, and to
celebrate the steps we have taken toward equality. But too much is left
to be done to simply leave it at that. We must also remind ourselves of
the work ahead and meet the commitment of those who seek opportunity.
Mrs. DOLE. Mr. President, this month we mark the 79th celebration of
African American Black History Month. What was launched by civil rights
pioneer Dr. Carter G. Woodson in 1926 as Black History Week and
observed in Black schools and churches
[[Page S1791]]
today is a month-long national tribute to the tremendous historical
contributions of African Americans from all walks of life and
professions.
I am so very proud of the rich and vibrant African-American heritage
in my home State of North Carolina. Our history is full of
trailblazers, including Franklin McCain, Joseph McNeil, Ezell Blair,
Jr., and David Richmond, known as the Greensboro Four because of their
February 1960 sit-ins at a Woolworth Store counter in Greensboro, NC.
Their sit-ins were the first significant event of this type, quickly
gaining momentum and attention. In less than a week, the four North
Carolina A&T freshmen had been joined by 1,000 other students from
local high schools and universities. As the Greensboro News & Record
stated earlier this month, the Greensboro sit-in ``gave new life to the
nation's civil rights movement and helped pave the way for its triumphs
later in the decade.'' These individuals truly laid the foundation for
the America we strive to be, where all people are given opportunity and
treated fairly, regardless of their skin color.
North Carolina, with its long and proud military history, also
produced 21 of the famed Tuskegee Airmen. Trained in Tuskegee, AL,
these brave men made up the first African-American military flying unit
in World War II. I am proud to cosponsor recently introduced
legislation that authorizes the President to award a gold medal on
behalf of Congress to the Tuskegee Airmen. These brave soldiers truly
left their mark on history not just in battle--their great success
helped pave the way for the integration of our Armed Forces in 1948.
North Carolina also has made great strides in higher education. We
have 11 historically Black colleges and universities, including Shaw
University in Raleigh, founded in 1865 and the oldest HBCU in the
South. I was honored to give the commencement address and receive an
honorary degree several years ago from Livingstone College, another
outstanding historically Black college in my hometown of Salisbury. I
also am so very proud that my husband Bob is serving as chairman of a
$50 million fundraising campaign at Bennett College in Greensboro, one
of only two historically Black women's colleges in America. Bennett
College President Dr. Johnnetta Cole is a pioneer in her own right,
having received 50 honorary degrees during an impressive career in
academia that includes being the first African-American woman to serve
as president of Spelman College. And in May 2004, Dr. Cole became the
first African-American to serve as chair of the Board of United Way of
America.
A short time ago Congress debated legislation to make the birthday of
Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr., a national holiday. The floor leader for
that legislation was a fellow named Bob Dole. During the final debate,
I had the privilege of sitting in the gallery with Coretta Scott King,
as we heard Bob deliver these words: ``A nation defines itself in many
ways; in the promises it makes and the programs it enacts, the dreams
it enshrines, or the doors it slams shut. Thanks to Dr. King, America
wrote new laws to strike down old barriers. She built bridges instead
of walls . . . there is nothing partisan about justice. It is
conservative as the Constitution, as liberal as Lincoln, as radical as
Jefferson's sweeping assertion that all of God's creation is equal in
His eyes.'' I could not agree more.
Mr. SMITH. Mr. President, I rise again, as I have earlier this month,
to honor February as Black History Month. Each February since 1926, we
have recognized the contributions of Black Americans to the Nation.
This is no accident; February is a significant month in Black
American history. Abolitionist Frederick Douglass, President Abraham
Lincoln, and scholar and civil rights leader W.E.B. DuBois were born in
the month of February. The 15th amendment to the Constitution was
ratified 132 years ago this month, preventing race discrimination in
the right to vote. The National Association for the Advancement of
Colored People was founded in February in New York City. February 1 was
the 45th anniversary of the Greensboro Four's historic sit-in. And on
February 25, 1870, this body welcomed its first Black senator, Hiram R.
Revels of Mississippi.
In this important month, I have wanted to celebrate some of the
contributions made by Black Americans in my home State of Oregon. Since
Marcus Lopez, who sailed with Captain Robert Gray in 1788, became the
first person of African descent known to set foot in Oregon, a great
many Black Americans have helped shape the history of my State.
Throughout this month, I have come to the floor to highlight some of
their stories. Today, on the last day of Black History Month, I have
come to honor one more.
Louis A. Southworth was a blacksmith, fiddler, and farmer. Though a
combination of his contagious personality, appealing fiddle playing,
and an unwavering devotion to civic duty, he became one of Oregon's
most respected and well-liked citizens of his time.
Born into slavery in Tennessee in 1830, he later moved with his
family to Oregon in 1851. Although slavery was officially banned in
Oregon, it was still practiced with some frequency. While working in
the gold mines, Southworth soon found that people greatly enjoyed his
musical talents. He was able to parlay his talents on a fiddle into an
extra source of income, and at age 28, bought his freedom for $1,000.
The phrase ``fiddling for freedom'' soon caught on, and Louis
Southworth become some what of a local hero.
In 1879, he moved with his wife and adopted son to the south bank of
the Alsea River. Southworth, with his family and his fiddle, soon won
over this small community. He worked as a farmer, and ferried cargo and
passengers across the bay to town.
As more people began to move into the community, he donated some of
his land to build a local school house and later served as chair of the
school board. Along with his new life came a renewed sense of civic
duty. Southworth became a dedicated political activist. During the
elections of 1890, a strong storm ravaged his small town. Unafraid of
the weather, Louis Southworth rigged two oil drums to his boat for
buoyancy and rowed across the bay to the polling place. As it turns
out, he was the only person to cast a vote in Waldport that day.
Despite the chaotic times in which he lived, Louis Southworth was
embraced by his community. Before he died in 1917, his neighbors raised
the $300 needed to pay off his mortgage in Corvallis, OR.
Louis Southworth provides one example of a man triumphing over
seemingly insurmountable odds. As a Black man living in troubled times,
his personality, compassion, work ethic, talents, generosity, and
devotion to the community service allowed him to become a respected
leader. He was accepted by many of his peers, of all races, religions,
and ethnic backgrounds, long before this was common or expected. His
legacy of service and kindness is one that lives on today, and one that
should be remembered for years to come. On this last day of Black
History Month, I believe it is only right to celebrate an Oregonian
like Louis Southworth, whose contributions to race relations in Oregon,
while great, have not yet received the attention they deserve.
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